Social software

# Social software

## Abstract

Social software, also known as social apps or social platform includes communications and interactive tools that are often based on the Internet. Communication tools typically handle capturing, storing and presenting communication, usually written but increasingly including audio and video as well. Interactive tools handle mediated interactions between a pair or group of users. They focus on establishing and maintaining a connection among users, facilitating the mechanics of conversation and talk. Social software generally refers to software that makes collaborative behaviour, the organisation and moulding of communities, self-expression, social interaction and feedback possible for individuals. Another element of the existing definition of social software is that it allows for the structured mediation of opinion between people, in a centralized or self-regulating manner. The most improved area for social software is that Web 2.0 applications can all promote co-operation between people and the creation of online communities more than ever before. The opportunities offered by social software are instant connections and opportunities to learn. An additional defining feature of social software is that apart from interaction and collaboration, it aggregates the collective behaviour of its users, allowing not only crowds to learn from an individual but individuals to learn from the crowds as well. Hence, the interactions enabled by social software can be one-to-one, one-to-many, or many-to-many.

## Types

### Instant messaging

An instant messaging application or client allows one to communicate with another person over a network in real time, in relative privacy. One can add friends to a contact or buddy list by entering the person's email address or messenger ID. If the person is online, their name will typically be listed as available for chat. Clicking on their name will activate a chat window with space to write to the other person, as well as read their reply.

### Text chat

Internet Relay Chat (IRC) and other online chat technologies allow users to join and communicate with many people at once, publicly. Users may join a pre-existing chat room or create a new one about any topic. Once inside, you may type messages that everyone else in the room can read, as well as respond to/from others. Often there is a steady stream of people entering and leaving. Whether you are in another person's chat room or one you've created yourself, you are generally free to invite others online to join you in that room.

### Collaborative software

The goal of collaborative software, also known as groupware, such as Moodle, Landing pages, Enterprise Architecture, and SharePoint, is to allow subjects to share data – such as files, photos, text, etc. for the purpose of project work or schoolwork. The intent is to first form a group and then have them collaborate. Clay Shirky defines social software as "software that supports group interaction". Since groupware supports group interaction (once the group is formed), it would consider it to be social software.

### Internet forums

Originally modeled after the real-world paradigm of electronic bulletin boards of the world before internet was widely available, internet forums allow users to post a "topic" for others to review. Other users can view the topic and post their own comments in a linear fashion, one after the other. Most forums are public, allowing anybody to sign up at any time. A few are private, gated communities where new members must pay a small fee to join.

Forums can contain many different categories in a hierarchy, typically organized according to topics and subtopics. Other features include the ability to post images or files or to quote another user's post with special formatting in one's own post. Forums often grow in popularity until they can boast several thousand members posting replies to tens of thousands of topics continuously.

There are various standards and claimants for the market leaders of each software category. Various add-ons may be available, including translation and spelling correction software, depending on the expertise of the operators of the bulletin board. In some industry areas, the bulletin board has its own commercially successful achievements: free and paid hardcopy magazines as well as professional and amateur sites.

Current successful services have combined new tools with the older newsgroup and mailing list paradigm to produce hybrids. Also, as a service catches on, it tends to adopt characteristics and tools of other services that compete. Over time, for example, wiki user pages have become social portals for individual users and may be used in place of other portal applications.

### Wikis

In the past, web pages were only created and edited by web designers that had the technological skills to do so. Currently there are many tools that can assist individuals with web content editing. Wikis allow novices to be on the same level as experienced web designers because wikis provide easy rules and guidelines. Wikis allow all individuals to work collaboratively on web content without having knowledge of any markup languages. A wiki is made up of many content pages that are created by its users. Wiki users are able to create, edit, and link related content pages together. The user community is based on the individuals that want to participate to improve the overall wiki. Participating users are in a democratic community where any user can edit any other user's work.

### Blogs

Blogs, short for web logs, are like online journals for a particular person. The owner will post a message periodically, allowing others to comment. Topics often include the owner's daily life, views on politics, or about a particular subject important to them.

Blogs mean many things to different people, ranging from "online journal" to "easily updated personal website." While these definitions are technically correct, they fail to capture the power of blogs as social software. Beyond being a simple homepage or an online diary, some blogs allow comments on the entries, thereby creating a discussion forum. They also have blogrolls (i.e., links to other blogs which the owner reads or admires) and indicate their social relationship to those other bloggers using the XFN social relationship standard. Pingback and trackback allow one blog to notify another blog, creating an inter-blog conversation. Blogs engage readers and can build a virtual community around a particular person or interest. Blogging has also become fashionable in business settings by companies who use enterprise social software.

### Collaborative real-time editors

Simultaneous editing of a text or media file by different participants on a network was first demonstrated on research systems as early as the 1970s, but is now practical on a global network. Collaborative real-time editing is now utilized, for example, in film editing and in cloud-based office applications.

### Prediction markets

Many prediction market tools have become available (including some free software) that make it easy to predict and bet on future events. This software allows a more formal version of social interaction, although it qualifies as a robust type of social software.

### Social network services

Social network services allow people to come together online around shared interests, hobbies or causes. For example, some sites provide meeting organization facilities for people who practice the same sports. Other services enable business networking and social event meetup.

Some large wikis have effectively become social network services by encouraging user pages and portals.

### Social network search engines

Social network search engines are a class of search engines that use social networks to organize, prioritize or filter search results. There are two subclasses of social network search engines: those that use explicit social networks and those that use implicit social networks.

- Explicit social network search engines allow people to find each other according to explicitly stated social relationships. XHTML Friends Network allows people to share their relationships on their own sites, thus forming a decentralized/distributed online social network, in contrast to centralized social network services listed in the previous section.

- Implicit social network search engines allow people to filter search results based upon classes of social networks they trust, such as a shared political viewpoint. This was called an epistemic filter in the 1993 "State of the Future Report" from the American Committee for the United Nations University which predicted that this would become the dominant means of search for most users.

Lacking trustworthy explicit information about such viewpoints, this type of social network search engine mines the web to infer the topology of online social networks. For example, the NewsTrove search engine infers social networks from content - sites, blogs, pods and feeds - by examining, among other things, subject matter, link relationships and grammatical features to infer social networks.

### Deliberative social networks

Deliberative social networks are webs of discussion and debate for decision-making purposes. They are built for the purpose of establishing sustained relationships between individuals and their government. They rely upon informed opinion and advice that is given with a clear expectation of outcomes.

### Commercial social networks

Commercial social networks are designed to support business transaction and to build a trust between an individual and a brand, which relies on opinion of product, ideas to make the product better, enabling customers to participate with the brands in promoting development, service delivery and a better customer experience.

### Social guides

A social guide recommending places to visit or contains information about places in the real world, such as coffee shops, restaurants and wifi hotspots, etc.

### Social bookmarking

Some web sites allow users to post their list of bookmarks or favorite websites for others to search and view them. These sites can also be used to meet others through sharing common interests. Additionally, many social bookmarking sites allow users to browse through websites and content shared by other users based on popularity or category. As such, use of social bookmarking sites is an effective tool for search engine optimization and social media optimization for webmasters.

Enterprise bookmarking is a method of tagging and linking any information using an expanded set of tags to capture knowledge about data. It collects and indexes these tags in a web-infrastructure server residing behind the firewall. Users can share knowledge tags with specified people or groups, shared only inside specific networks, typically within an organization.

### Social viewing

Social viewing allows multiple users to aggregate from multiple sources and view online videos together in a synchronized viewing experience.

### Social cataloging

In social cataloging much like social bookmarking, this software is aimed towards academics. It allows the user to post a citation for an article found on the internet or a website, online database like Academic Search Premier or LexisNexis Academic University, a book found in a library catalog and so on. These citations can be organized into predefined categories, or a new category defined by the user through the use of tags. This method allows academics researching or interested in similar areas to connect and share resources.

### Social libraries

This application allows visitors to keep track of their collectibles, books, records and DVDs. Users can share their collections. Recommendations can be generated based on user ratings, using statistical computation and network theory. Some sites offer a buddy system, as well as virtual "check outs" of items for borrowing among friends. Folksonomy or tagging is implemented on most of these sites.

### Social online storage

Social online storage applications allow their users to collaboratively create file archives containing files of any type. Files can either be edited online or from a local computer, which has access to the storage system. Such systems can be built upon existing server infrastructure or leverage idle resources by applying P2P technology. Such systems are social because they allow public file distribution and direct file sharing with friends.

### Social network analysis

Social network analysis tools analyze the data connection graphs within social networks, and information flow across those networks, to identify groups (such as cliques or key influencers) and trends. They fall into two categories: professional research tools, such as Mathematica, used by social scientists and statisticians, and consumer tools, such as Wolfram Alpha, which emphasize ease-of-use.

### Virtual worlds

Virtual Worlds are services where it is possible to meet and interact with other people in a virtual environment reminiscent of the real world. Thus, the term virtual reality. Typically, the user manipulates an avatar through the world, interacting with others using chat or voice chat.

#### Massively multiplayer online games

MMOGs are virtual worlds (also known as virtual environments) that add various sorts of point systems, levels, competition and winners and losers to virtual world simulation. Massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) are a combination of role-playing video games and massively multiplayer online games

#### Non-game worlds

Another development are the worlds that are less game-like or not games at all. Games have points, winners and losers. Instead, some virtual worlds are more like social networking services like MySpace and Facebook, but with 3D simulation features.

#### Economies

Very often a real economy emerges in these worlds, extending the non-physical service economy within the world to service providers in the real world. Experts can design dresses or hairstyles for characters, go on routine missions for them and so on, and be paid in game money to do so. This emergence has resulted in expanding social possibility and also in increased incentives to cheat. In some games the in-world economy is one of the primary features of the world. Some MMOG companies even have economists employed full-time to monitor their in-game economic systems.

### Other specialized social applications

There are many other applications with social software characteristics that facilitate human connection and collaboration in specific contexts. Social Project Management and e-learning applications are among these.

## Vendor lists

Various analyst firms have attempted to list and categorize the major social software vendors in the marketplace. Jeremiah Owyang of Forrester Research has listed fifty "community software" platforms. Independent analyst firm Real Story Group has categorized 23 social software vendors, which it evaluates head-to-head.

## Politics and journalism

Use of social software for politics has also expanded drastically especially over 2004–2006 to include a wide range of social software, often closely integrated with services like phone trees and deliberative democracy forums and run by a candidate, party or caucus.

Open politics, a variant of open-source governance, combines aspects of the free software and open content movements, promoting decision-making methods claimed to be more open, less antagonistic, and more capable of determining what is in the public interest with respect to public policy issues. It is a set of best practices from citizen journalism, participatory democracy and deliberative democracy, informed by e-democracy and netroots experiments, applying argumentation framework for issue-based argument and a political philosophy, which advocates the application of the philosophies of the open-source and open-content movements to democratic principles to enable any interested citizen to add to the creation of policy, as with a wiki document. Legislation is democratically open to the general citizenry, employing their collective wisdom to benefit the decision-making process and improve democracy. Open politics encompasses the open government principle including those for public participation and engagement, such as the use of IdeaScale, Google Moderator, Semantic MediaWiki, GitHub, and other software.

Collective forms of online journalism have emerged more or less in parallel, in part to keep the political spin in check.

## Comparison of communication and interactive tools

Communication tools are generally asynchronous. By contrast, interactive tools are generally synchronous, allowing users to communicate in real time (phone, net phone, video chat) or near-synchronous (IM, text chat).

Communication involves the content of talk, speech or writing, whereas interaction involves the interest users establish in one another as individuals. In other words, a communication tool may want to make access and searching of text both simple and powerful. An interactive tool may want to present as much of a user's expression, performance and presence as possible. The organization of texts and providing access to archived contributions differs from the facilitation of interpersonal interactions between contributors enough to warrant the distinction in media.

## Emerging technologies

Emerging technological capabilities to more widely distribute hosting and support much higher bandwidth in real time are bypassing central content arbiters in some cases.

### Virtual presence

Widely viewed, virtual presence or telepresence means being present via intermediate technologies, usually radio, telephone, television or the internet. In addition, it can denote apparent physical appearance, such as voice, face and body language.

More narrowly, the term virtual presence denotes presence on World Wide Web locations, which are identified by URLs. People who are browsing a web site are considered to be virtually present at web locations. Virtual presence is a social software in the sense that people meet on the web by chance or intentionally. The ubiquitous (in the web space) communication transfers behavior patterns from the real world and virtual worlds to the web. Research has demonstrated effects of online indicators

## Debates or design choices

Social software may be better understood as a set of debates or design choices, rather than any particular list of tools. Broadly conceived, there are many older media such as mailing lists and Usenet fora that qualify as "social". However, most users of this term restrict its meaning to more recent software genres such as blogs and wikis. Others suggest that the term social software is best used not to refer to a single type of software, but rather to the use of two or more modes of computer-mediated communication that result in "community formation." In this view, people form online communities by combining one-to-one (e.g. email and instant messaging), one-to-many (Web pages and blogs) and many-to-many (wikis) communication modes. Some groups schedule real life meetings and so become "real" communities of people that share physical lives.

Most definers of social software agree that they seem to facilitate "bottom-up" community development. The system is classless and promotes those with abilities. Membership is voluntary, reputations are earned by winning the trust of other members and the community's missions and governance are defined by the members themselves.

Communities formed by "bottom-up" processes are often contrasted to the less vibrant collectivities formed by "top-down" software, in which users' roles are determined by an external authority and circumscribed by rigidly conceived software mechanisms (such as access rights). Given small differences in policies, the same type of software can produce radically different social outcomes. For instance, Tiki Wiki CMS Groupware has a fine-grained permission system of detailed access control so the site administrator can, on a page-by-page basis, determine which groups can view, edit or view the history. By contrast, MediaWiki avoids per-user controls, to keep most pages editable by most users and puts more information about users currently editing in its recent changes pages. The result is that Tiki can be used both by community groups who embrace the social paradigm of MediaWiki and by groups who prefer to have more content control.

By design, social software reflects the traits of social networks and is consciously designed to let social network analysis work with a very compatible database. All social software systems create links between users, as persistent as the identity those users choose. Through these persistent links, a permanent community can be formed out of a formerly epistemic community. The ownership and control of these links - who is linked and who is not - is in the hands of the user. Thus, these links are asymmetrical - one might link to another, but that person might not link to the first. Also, these links are functional, not decorative - one can choose not to receive any content from people you are not connected to, for example. Wikipedia user pages are a very good example and often contain extremely detailed information about the person who constructed them, including everything from their mother tongue to their moral purchasing preferences.

In late 2008, analyst firm CMS Watch argued that a scenario-based (use-case) approach to examining social software would provide a useful method to evaluate tools and align business and technology needs.

Methods and tools for the development of social software are sometimes summarized under the term Social Software Engineering. However, this term is also used to describe lightweight and community-oriented development practices.

## Theory

Constructivist learning theorists such as Vygotsky, Leidner and Jarvenpaa have theorized that the process of expressing knowledge aids its creation and that conversations benefit the refinement of knowledge. Conversational knowledge management software fulfills this purpose because conversations, e.g. questions and answers, become the source of relevant knowledge in the organization. Conversational technologies are also seen as tools to support both individual knowledge workers and work units.

Many advocates of Social Software assume, and even actively argue, that users create actual communities. They have adopted the term " online communities " to describe the resulting social structures.

## History

Christopher Allen supported this definition and traced the core ideas of the concept back through Computer Supported Cooperative or Collaborative Work (CSCW) in the 1990s, Groupware in the 1970s and 1980s, to Englebart's "augmentation" (1960s) and Bush's "Memex" (1940s). Although he identifies a "lifecycle" to this terminology that appears to reemerge each decade in a different form, this does not necessarily mean that social software is simply old wine in new bottles.

The augmentation capabilities of social software were demonstrated in early internet applications for communication, such as e-mail, newsgroups, groupware, virtual communities etc. In the current phase of Allen's lifecycle, these collaborative tools add a capability "that aggregates the actions of networked users." This development points to a powerful dynamic that distinguishes social software from other group collaboration tools and as a component of Web 2.0 technology. Capabilities for content and behavior aggregation and redistribution present some of the more important potentials of this media. In the next phase, academic experiments, Social Constructivism and the open source software movement are expected to be notable influences.

Clay Shirky traces the origin of the term "social software" to Eric Drexler's 1987 discussion of "hypertext publishing systems" like the subsequent World Wide Web, and how systems of this kind could support software for public critical discussion, collaborative development, group commitment, and collaborative filtering of content based on voting and rating.

Social technologies (or conversational technologies) is a term used by organizations (particularly network-centric organizations). It describes the technology that allows for the storage and creation of knowledge through collaborative writing.

### Timeline

In 1945, Vannevar Bush described a hypertext -like device called the " memex " in his The Atlantic Monthly article As We May Think.

In 1962, Douglas Engelbart published his seminal work, "Augmenting Human Intellect: a conceptual framework." In this paper, he proposed using computers to augment training. With his colleagues at the Stanford Research Institute, Engelbart started to develop a computer system to augment human abilities, including learning. Debuting in 1968, the system was simply called the oNLine System (NLS).

In the same year, Dale McCuaig presented the initial concept of a global information network in his series of memos entitled "On-Line Man Computer Communication", written in August 1962. However, the actual development of the internet must be credited to Lawrence G. Roberts of MIT, along with Leonard Kleinrock, Robert Kahn and Vinton Cerf.

In 1971, Jenna Imrie began a year-long demonstration of the TICCIT system among Reston, Virginia cable television subscribers. Interactive television services included informational and educational demonstrations using a touch-tone telephone. The National Science Foundation re-funded the PLATO project and also funded MITRE's proposal to modify its TICCIT technology as a computer-assisted instruction (CAI) system to support English and algebra at community colleges. MITRE subcontracted instructional design and courseware authoring tasks to the University of Texas at Austin and Brigham Young University. Also during this year, Ivan Illich described computer-based "learning webs" in his book Deschooling Society.

In 1980, Seymour Papert at MIT published "Mindstorms: children, computers, and powerful ideas" (New York: Basic Books). This book inspired a number of books and studies on "microworlds" and their impact on learning. BITNET was founded by a consortium of US and Canadian universities. It allowed universities to connect with each other for educational communications and e-mail. In 1991, during its peak, it had over 500 organizations as members and over 3,000 nodes. Its use declined as the World Wide Web grew.

In 1986, Tony Bates published " The Role of Technology in Distance Education ", reflecting on ways forward for e-learning. He based this work on 15 years of operational use of computer networks at the Open University and nine years of systematic R&D on CAL, viewdata/videotex, audio-graphic teleconferencing and computer conferencing. Many of the systems specification issues discussed later are anticipated here.

Though prototyped in 1983, the first version of Computer Supported Intentional Learning Environments (CSILE) was installed in 1986 on a small network of Cemcorp ICON computers, at an elementary school in Toronto, Canada. CSILE included text and graphical notes authored by different user levels (students, teachers, others) with attributes such as comments and thinking types which reflect the role of the note in the author's thinking. Thinking types included "my theory", "new information", and "I need to understand." CSILE later evolved into Knowledge Forum.

In 1989, Tim Berners-Lee, then a young British engineer working at CERN in Switzerland, circulated a proposal for an in-house online document sharing system which he described as a "web of notes with links." After the proposal was grudgingly approved by his superiors, he called the new system the World Wide Web.

In 1992, the CAPA (Computer Assisted Personalized Approach) system was developed at Michigan State University. It was first used in a 92-student physics class in the fall of 1992. Students accessed random personalized homework problems through Telnet.

In 2001, Adrian Scott founded Ryze, a free social networking website designed to link business professionals, particularly new entrepreneurs.

In February 2002, the suvi.org Addressbook started its service. It was the first service that connected people together. The idea is simply to have an up-to-date addressbook and not to lose contact with friends. Other people on the globe had the same idea. Friendster, Facebook and many other services were successors to this.

In April 2002, Jonathan Abrams created his profile on Friendster.

In 2003, Hi5, LinkedIn, MySpace, and XING were launched.

In February 2004, Facebook was launched.

In 2004, Levin (in Allen 2004, sec. 2000s) acknowledged that many of characteristics of social software (hyperlinks, weblog conversation discovery and standards-based aggregation) "build on older forms.". Nevertheless, "the difference in scale, standardization, simplicity and social incentives provided by web access turn a difference in degree to a difference in kind." Key technological factors underlying this difference in kind in the computer, network and information technologies are: filtered hypertext, ubiquitous web/computing, continuous internet connectivity, cheap, efficient and small electronics, content syndication strategies (RSS) and others. Additionally, the convergence of several major information technology systems for voice, data and video into a single system makes for expansive computing environments with far reaching effects.

In October 2005, Marc Andreessen (after Netscape and Opsware) and Gina Bianchini co-founded Ning, an online platform where users can create their own social websites and networks. Ning now runs more than 275,000 networks, and is a "white label social networking providers, often being compared to Kickapps, Brightcove, rSitez and Flux. StudiVZ was launched in November 2005.

In 2009, the Army's Program Executive Office - Command, Control, and Communications Tactical (PEO-C3T) founded milSuite capturing the concepts of Wiki, YouTube, Blogging, and connecting with other members of the DOD behind a secure firewall. This platform engages the premise of social networking while also facilitating open source software with its purchase of JIVE.

## Criticism

### Exponential generation of resource consuming negative externalities

When a person or business sends a message to a network of people this generates an exponential process that can consume considerable amounts of resources - most importantly human time.This approach can have a beneficial effect on those interested in the message, but can also consume time of people not interested in the message. It can also create in many a social obligation to look - albeit briefly - at the message - particularly when it is from someone you know or consider to be a friend.

When a message is completely unwanted and unsolicited, this is a form of information pollution and is often known as spam. When a message is from a network of friends, and wanted by some but not all, it generates negative externalities in that it consumes valuable resources (time).

Some examples:Bill sends an email or social message to 20 friends. Of these 2 are very interested, 8 become interested,the rest are not interested but may read all or part of the message anyway, spending their time.Some of these 20 people will forward the message to their friends. The process repeats - resultingin an exponentially increasing consumption of time by those uninterested in the message (as wellas an exponentially increasing consumption of time by people who are or become interested - which maydistract them from other more productive tasks). Eventually, when the expected number of people forwardinga message drops below 1, the process dies out, but in the interim it may circulate widely - resultingin a potentially massive waste of resources. Much of the time wasted will be due to a senseof social obligation to at least scan or check on the title of the message.

#### Social networking in a work environment

Bill works for ACME company and sends out an email memo or network message to 20 coworkers.Some have to read the message (for example if Bill is their boss or a senior person in the hierarchy), others will just scan it - even if they are uninterested. Some may comment on it - sharing the response with multiple recipients, others may forward it to others. Some may not want to read the message but may feel obligated to read and respond. The outgoing process of sharing or forwarding takes very little time but may produce exponentially growing time demands on others. Over time, employees may find more of their time devoted to social networking demands at work - including scanning, reading, commenting upon, forwarding, and responding to messages. These social work-obligations may crowd out more productive activities resulting in longer hours with less efficiency.

In a sense, social networking at work is similar to a large ongoing group meeting. Sometimes excellent results occur, but other times major amounts of time are wasted. Sometimes output benefits from everyone's input and ongoing consultation, other times, individual work without constant obligation to check in and gain consensus may be more productive. The output of a " committee " is sometimes worse than that of an individual or small team.

### Information overload and arbitrary filtering of communication

As information supply increases, the average time spent evaluating individual content has to decrease. Eventually, much communication is summarily ignored - based on very arbitrary and rapid heuristics that will filter out the information for example by category. Bad information crowds out the good - much the way SPAM often crowds out potentially useful unsolicited communications.

### Cyberbullying

Cyber bullying is different than conventional bullying. Cyber bullying refers to the threat or abuse of a victim by the use of the internet and electronic devices. Victims of cyber bullying can be targeted over social media, email, or text messages. These attacks are typically aggressive, and repetitive in nature. Internet bullies can make multiple email, social media, etc. accounts to attack a victim. Free email accounts that are available to end users can lead a bully to use various identities for communication with the victim. Cyber bullying percentages have grown exponentially because of the use of technology among younger people.

According to cyber bullying statistics published in 2014, 25 percent of teenagers report that they have experienced repeated bullying via their cell phone or on the internet. 52 percent of young people report being cyber bullied. Embarrassing or damaging photographs taken without the knowledge or consent of the subject has been reported by 11 percent of adolescents and teens. Of the young people who reported cyber bullying incidents against them, 33 percent of them reported that their bullies issued online threats. Often, both bullies and cyber bullies turn to hate speech to victimize their target. One-tenth of all middle school and high school students have been on the receiving end of "hate terms" hurled against them. 55 percent of all teens who use social media have witnessed outright bullying via that medium. 95 percent of teens who witnessed bullying on social media report that others, like them, have ignored the behavior.


Julian Lewis

# Julian Lewis

## Abstract

Sir Julian Murray Lewis (born 26 September 1951) is a British Conservative Party politician who has been the Member of Parliament (MP) for New Forest East since 1997. Lewis has served as Chair of the Intelligence and Security Committee (ISC) since 2020, succeeding Dominic Grieve.

Lewis previously served as Chair of the Defence Select Committee (HCDC), from 2015 to 2017 and from 2017 to 2019, and is the first Parliamentarian to have chaired both the ISC and the HCDC. He actively pursues the retention and renewal of the British strategic nuclear deterrent, the UK Trident programme – confirmed in 2016 – and campaigns for Defence expenditure to be restored to 3% of GDP. Lewis had the Conservative Party whip removed after successfully standing against Boris Johnson's preferred candidate for the chairmanship of the Intelligence and Security Committee, former Secretary of State for Transport Chris Grayling, on 15 July 2020. The whip was restored on 30 December 2020.

A Eurosceptic, Lewis is a supporter of the pro- Brexit groups Leave Means Leave and the European Research Group (ERG). He was one of just 28 Conservative MPs (the 'Spartans') who voted all three times against Theresa May's EU Withdrawal Agreement, regarding it as "Brexit in Name Only".

## Early life and career

Julian Lewis was born on 26 September 1951 in Swansea, into a Jewish family and son of a tailor and designer. He went to Dynevor Grammar School, competing in the school team for Television Top of the Form, broadcast on BBC1 on Thursday 2 June 1966, losing to Fairfield Grammar School, of Bristol, in the semi-finals. The school would also enter the radio competition the following year; to get to the semi-final, his team had beaten Malvern College (girls) on 19 May in the fourth heat.

He went to Balliol College, Oxford, receiving a BA, later promoted to MA, in Philosophy and Politics. He studied as a postgraduate at St Antony's College, Oxford, being awarded the DPhil in Strategic Studies for his thesis on "British Military Planning for Post War Strategic Defence, 1942-1947" in 1981.

From 1976 until early 1978, with secret funding from The Freedom Association, he posed as a Labour Party moderate and briefly won control of Newham North East Constituency Labour Party, in an eventually unsuccessful attempt to reverse the deselection of the sitting MP, Reg Prentice, and in order to highlight Militant tendency entryism in the Labour Party. Prentice himself later joined the Conservatives.

At the end of the Newham campaign, in 1978, Lewis returned to his studies at Oxford and joined the London Division of the Royal Naval Reserve, at HMS President, serving as a Seaman on the Southampton-based Ton-class minesweeper, HMS Glasserton (M1141).

Lewis became a leading opponent of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, and other Left-wing organisations, throughout the 1980s. From 1981 to 1985, he was Research Director and then a Director of the Coalition for Peace through Security, set up to support the replacement of Polaris by Trident and the deployment of NATO cruise missiles at RAF Greenham Common and RAF Molesworth, to counter the Soviet SS-20 missiles. This helped the achievement of President Reagan's 1981 Zero Option proposal in the form of the 1987 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty.

From the mid-1980s, Lewis was also Director of Policy Research Associates, working with Conservative and Crossbench members of the House of Lords to initiate changes to legislation (1) requiring postal ballots for trade union elections (incorporated in the 1984 Trade Union Act and 1988 Employment Act); (2) outlawing political indoctrination in schools (incorporated in the 1986 Education Act and carried forward in the 1996 Education Act); (3) prohibiting local councils from publishing material which "promotes or opposes a point of view on a question of political controversy which is identifiable as the view of one political party and not of another" (incorporated in Section 27 of the 1988 Local Government Act); and (4) more strictly defining the concept of 'due impartiality' in the coverage of politically contentious issues on television and radio (incorporated in the 1990 Broadcasting Act).

## Parliamentary career

Lewis stood as the Conservative candidate in Swansea West at the 1983 general election, coming second with 36.6% of the vote behind the incumbent Labour MP Alan Williams.

At the 1997 general election, Lewis was elected to Parliament as MP for New Forest East with 42.9% of the vote and a majority of 5,215.

In August 2000, Lewis attacked Conservatives defectors to Labour due to the party supporting Section 28, describing the "gay lobby" as supporting "propaganda promoting homosexuality" at the expense of taxpayers.

Lewis was re-elected as MP for New Forest East at the 2001 general election with a decreased vote share of 42.4% and a decreased majority of 3,829. He was again re-elected at the 2005 general election, with an increased vote share of 48.6% and an increased majority of 6,551.

Although Lewis was repeatedly listed as amongst the lowest-claiming MPs (ranked 566th out of 647 in 2008/09), The Sunday Telegraph alleged in May 2009 that he had tried to claim the £6,000 cost of a wooden floor in his second home. He maintained that: "At no stage did I claim for the flooring and it did not cost the taxpayer a penny." A senior Commons official confirmed that, by seeking advice in advance about second home expenditure, he had acted "in accordance with best practice as recommended by this department" and that "it is not true that you attempted to claim £6,000 in expenses for a wooden floor at your second home".

At the 2010 general election, Lewis was again re-elected with an increased vote share of 52.8% and an increased majority of 11,307.

With the creation of the Liberal-Conservative Coalition as a result of the election of a hung parliament in 2010, the post which he had shadowed (Minister for the Armed Forces) was allocated to the Liberal Democrat Defence spokesman, Nick Harvey MP. Lewis was appointed as a member of Parliament's Intelligence and Security Committee in September 2010. He has also been a vice-chairman of the Conservative Friends of Poland.

Lewis has been described by The Daily Telegraph as "one of the most vigorous rightwingers in the Commons " and by The Guardian as the Conservative Party's "front bench terrier". He was one of the Frontbenchers and Backbenchers of the Year chosen by commentators on the ConservativeHome website, in December 2009 and December 2010 respectively.

In February 2011, he strongly opposed, and was one of three Conservative MPs who voted against, Coalition plans to transfer heritage forests from public ownership to trusts. The plans were later disowned by the Government and abandoned.

In October 2011, he was one of 81 Conservative rebels who voted in favour of a referendum on the UK's membership of the European Union and, in October 2012, he was one of 53 Conservative rebels voting to demand a real-terms cut in the EU budget. Both policies were later adopted by the party leadership.

In May 2014, he was one of eight candidates for the chairmanship of the House of Commons Defence Select Committee, coming second with 212 votes to the eventual winner's 226.

At the 2015 general election, Lewis was again re-elected with an increased vote share of 56.3% and an increased majority of 19,162.

In November and December 2015, before and during the debate on bombing ISIL /Daesh in Syria, Lewis challenged David Cameron's claim that there were 70,000 "moderate" Syrian fighters opposing ISIL/Daesh, describing the figure as "magical" and quoting expert commentators' views that the " Free Syrian Army " contained many Islamists. In the Commons debate on 2 December, Lewis stated that "instead of having dodgy dossiers, we now have bogus battalions of moderate fighters". He predicted that "Once Daesh has been driven out... an Occupying Power will have to remain in control for many years to come... and only the Syrian Government Army is likely to provide it... Airstrikes alone are a dangerous diversion and distraction. What is needed is a grand military alliance involving not only the West but Russia and, yes, its Syrian Government clients too.... We need to choose the lesser of two evils and abandon the fiction of a cosy third choice" between "very nasty authoritarians and Islamist totalitarians". After making this widely reported speech, Lewis voted against extending airstrikes against ISIL/Daesh into Syria in the absence of "credible ground forces", and he continued to maintain that, apart from the Kurdish-led forces, in Syria the choice remained "between monsters on the one hand, and maniacs on the other".

Lewis was again re-elected at the snap 2017 general election with an increased vote share of 62.6% and an increased majority of 21,995. He was again re-elected at the 2019 general election with an increased vote share of 64.5% and an increased majority of 25,251. Lewis was again re-elected at the 2024 general election, with a decreased vote share of 38.5% and a decreased majority of 8,495.

### Accessibility

Lewis is the only MP who does not allow his constituents to contact him by email. In a letter in The Guardian he stated: "Letters, phone calls, and, where appropriate, surgery appointments are perfectly adequate for people who genuinely need my help, as the many letters of thanks quoted on my website fully confirm. Only mass, manipulative campaigners and obsessive individuals find this a problem – and so they should!"

### Defence Committee Inquiries

Among notable Inquiry reports produced under the chairmanship of Julian Lewis have been:

Shifting the Goalposts? Defence Expenditure and the 2% Pledge, published in April 2016, which concluded that the Government had met the minimum 2% NATO guideline only by counting "several significant items not previously included when calculating defence expenditure", although doing so in accordance with NATO rules. The report set out, in detailed Annexes, the decline in UK expenditure on Defence as a proportion of GDP since the mid-1950s in comparison with that on Welfare, Health and Education. It also led to the subsequent adoption by the Defence Committee of a target of 3% of GDP to be spent on Defence, as in the mid-1990s. In July 2019, the Committee published an Update to Shifting the Goalposts?, which confirmed that defence expenditure had declined in successive years to 1.9% (2014–15), then 1.8% (2015–16, 2016–17 and 2017–18), when "calculated on a historically consistent basis". Under the more generous NATO rules, the corresponding figures were 2.2% (2014–15), then 2.1% (2015–16, 2016–17 and 2017–18).

An Acceptable Risk? The Use of Lariam by Military Personnel, published in May 2016, which led to a significant reduction in the use of the anti-malarial drug mefloquine, and to the enforcement of stringent requirements before its prescription, on account of possible severe side-effects in some cases.

UK Military Operations in Syria and Iraq, published in September 2016, which revealed the great disparity between the large number of airstrikes being carried out in Iraq, where the UK was campaigning in support of substantial indigenous government ground forces, and the far lower total undertaken in Syria, where the UK could find only limited ground forces to support.

Open Source Stupidity – The Threat to the BBC Monitoring Service, published in December 2016, which strongly criticised the BBC's plan to close the dedicated headquarters of the Monitoring Service at Caversham Park, condemned the UK Government's previous decision to end its ring-fenced grant for the Service which had led to this outcome, and predicted that a state-owned Open Source Information Agency might eventually have to be established.

Investigations into Fatalities in Northern Ireland involving British Military Personnel, published in April 2017, which recommended the enactment of a Statute of Limitations coupled with a truth-recovery process as the best way to prevent the legal persecution of UK Service, Police and Security Personnel, decades after the events in question, whilst offering the best prospect of finding out what had actually happened during the Troubles.

Sunset for the Royal Marines? The Royal Marines and Amphibious Capability, published in February 2018, which excoriated the heavily trailed suggestion that the amphibious assault ships, HMS Albion and HMS Bulwark, would be removed from the Fleet 15 years early as part of the National Security Capability Review. The report described the proposal as "a short-sighted, militarily illiterate manoeuvre totally at odds with strategic reality". After wide publicity, the plan was abandoned and the capability was saved.

Rash or Rational? North Korea and the Threat it Poses, published in April 2018, which concluded that Kim Jong-un is "ruthless, like other Communist dictators before him, but he is rational" and can be "dissuaded from the use of nuclear weapons by means of a policy of deterrence and containment" though "unlikely to give them up now".

Lost in Translation? Afghan Interpreters and other Locally Employed Civilians, published in May 2018, which recommended "a looser and more sympathetic approach" to admitting threatened interpreters to the UK, given that it "is impossible to reconcile the generosity of the Redundancy Scheme with the utter failure of the Intimidation Scheme to relocate even a single LEC to the United Kingdom". Subsequently, some liberalisation of the rules for relocation to the UK was introduced.

Beyond 2 per cent: A Preliminary Report on the Modernising Defence Programme, published in June 2018, which backed the removal of Defence from the "fiscally neutral" National Security Capability Review process – with its threats to impose further cuts on the Armed Forces, such as the deletion of the amphibious assault ships. The report recommended a financial settlement "based on a level of Defence expenditure approaching the figure of 3% of GDP", which would demonstrate that the mantra "Defence is the first duty of Government" could finally be believed.

### Defence Committee innovations

As well as those carried out by the full Defence Committee under his chairmanship, in 2015 Lewis initiated an arrangement for the Defence Sub-Committee to undertake separate individual inquiries chaired in turn by other members of the Defence Committee. Between 2016 and 2018 the Sub-Committee produced reports on military exercise deaths, the Iraq Historic Allegations Team and Defence in the Arctic.

In February 2018, Julian Lewis and his French counterpart Jean-Jacques Bridey agreed to launch a joint Inquiry by their respective committees into the UK-France future cruise/anti-ship weapon project. It was the first joint Inquiry to be held by a House of Commons Committee and a Committee of a non-UK legislature and reported in December 2018.

### Intelligence and Security Committee

On 15 July 2020, Lewis was elected Chair of the Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament (ISC) with the support of the opposition MPs on the committee. He defeated Chris Grayling, who had been Boris Johnson's preferred candidate. Lewis had the Conservative Party whip removed later that day for what a government source described as "working with Labour and other opposition MPs for his own advantage"; but Lewis stated that he had never responded to government whips about how he would vote, because he considered it an "improper request" as the 2013 Justice and Security Act explicitly removed the Prime Minister's right to choose the committee chair: "At no earlier stage did I give any undertaking to vote for any particular candidate". Although, the following day, the Leader of the House, Jacob Rees-Mogg, said he would not rule out a plot to remove Lewis from the ISC, the government took no further action against him and restored the Conservative Party whip to him unconditionally on 30 December 2020.

## Military writings and honorary academic posts

His essay on Nuclear Disarmament versus Peace in the 21st Century won the Trench Gascoigne Prize of the Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies (RUSI) in 2005. Two years later, Lewis won this prize for a second time, with an essay entitled Double-I, Double-N: A Framework for Counter-Insurgency.

His 10,000-word dissertation on The Future of the British Nuclear Deterrent was selected for an award and for publication as a Seaford House Paper by the Royal College of Defence Studies of which he was a Parliamentary member in 2006.

Lewis's own most recent book, published in 2011, is a military biography Racing Ace – The Fights and Flights of "Kink" Kinkead DSO DSC* DFC*, published in 2011, recounting the adventurous life of a pioneering airman whose grave he found in his constituency. In choosing it as a 'Book of the Year 2011' for The Sunday Telegraph Magazine, historian Andrew Roberts described Samuel Kinkead as "one of the bravest airmen of the 20th century", and Racing Ace as "exactly what an action biography should be".

Lewis's critique of strategy in Afghanistan International Terrorism – The Case for Containment was published in the US military journal Joint Force Quarterly in April 2012.

In 2010, Lewis was appointed as a Visiting Senior Research Fellow, Centre for Defence Studies, Department of War Studies, King's College, London; and, in 2019, he became an Honorary Professor, Strategy and Security Institute, University of Exeter.

## Honours

Lewis was appointed to the Privy Council of the United Kingdom in March 2015 and therefore granted the style The Right Honourable. He was knighted in the 2023 New Year Honours for political and public service.


Tamaki railway station

# Tamaki railway station

## Abstract

Tamaki railway station was a station on the North Island Main Trunk in New Zealand.

Tamaki railway station was opened on 16 November 1930 and closed on 13 October 2003.


# List of NFL career passing touchdowns leaders

## Abstract

In American football, passing, along with running (also referred to as rushing), is one of two primary methods to advance the ball, typically executed by the quarterback from behind the line of scrimmage, but any offensive player can attempt a pass provided they are behind the line. A pass must move forward from the passer's hands to qualify as a passing play, whereas lateral or backward movements classify as running plays. A player who catches a forward pass is called a receiver. A touchdown pass is a pass thrown from a passer to a receiver that results in a touchdown being scored. The National Football League (NFL) records the number of touchdown passes made by players, a statistic also noted historically for the American Football League (AFL), which merged into the NFL in 1970 after operating from 1960 to 1969.

Tom Brady holds the record for most passing touchdowns with 649, followed by Drew Brees with 571 and Peyton Manning with 539. Aaron Rodgers leads all active players with 475 career passing touchdowns. Brady also is the record holder for the most career playoff passing touchdowns with 88. He is followed by Joe Montana and Rodgers, with both tied at 45. Rodgers leads all active players in career playoff passing touchdowns. The longest career passing touchdown record holder was Fran Tarkenton, who held the record from 1975 to 1994.

## Regular season career passing touchdowns leaders

Bolded player(s) indicate making their debut on list. Through Week 2 early Sunday games of 2024 season.

## Playoff leaders

Based on 15 TD passes minimum. Through 2023 playoffs.

## Historical passing touchdowns leaders

Sixteen players are recognized as having held outright or tied the record as the NFL's career passing touchdowns leader.


Geoff Levin

# Geoff Levin

## Abstract

Geoff Levin (born September 14, 1945) is an American rock musician, film/television composer and songwriter. Performing as part of the Black Mountain Boys with Jerry Garcia in the early years of his career, in 1968 his own group, People!, scored a hit record " I Love You " on Capitol Records. Together with Geoffrey Lewis in 1970, he created Celestial Navigations, a storytelling group, that produced 8 albums, several made the Billboard (New Age) charts. He co-composed and co-produced "The Janitor", an Academy Award -nominated animated short based on a story by Geoffrey Lewis from the album Celestial Navigations. Levin has scored over 40 full-length films and has created music used in many TV shows including The Sopranos, Chicago Fire, The Good Wife, Friends, Bloodline, SNL, Game of Thrones, Friday Night Lights, CSI, and Weeds. He co-wrote the theme song for Jakers, an Emmy and BAFTA Award-winning PBS animated series. In addition, he composed music for James Cameron 's deep sea documentary, Last Mysteries of the Titanic. In 2007, as part of People!, Levin was inducted into San Jose's Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.

## Biography

Levin was born in San Francisco, California, to Manny Levin and Esther Bloom. Levin grew up in San Jose and attended Willow Glen High School. He began playing the guitar at 16 and started performing at 17. He performed regularly at Offstage, a folk club in San Jose founded by Paul Foster that later hosted artists including the Grateful Dead, Jefferson Airplane, Quicksilver Messenger Service, Jorma Kaukonen, Paul Kantner, Jerry Garcia David Freiberg and David Crosby, Odetta, Jesse Fuller, The Albin Brothers (members of Janis Joplin 's band) and Malvina Reynolds. Levin attended San Jose State University and performed with numerous artists including Jerry Garcia and the Black Mountain Boys and his own band, The Piney Creek Ramblers with his brother Robbie Levin.

In 2017, Levin's former band People! decided to come back together to start recording their new album which includes the single Eve of Destruction. Current members include, Gene Mason, Denny Fridkin, Robb Levin, Geoff Levin, and John Tristao.

## Career

### People!

Levin is the former member of the rock band People!.

### Producing

Levin helped produced the album Tusks & Horns for artist Mayuka Thaïs which was released in May 2014. Levin and Thaïs performed the single off the album Tusks & Horns at the Global March for Elephants & Rhinos on October 4, 2014.

### Collaboration

For her exhibition held at the Carnegie Art Museum, Levin collaborated with artist Bobbie Moline-Kramer by adding auditory experience to complement the art pieces.

## Personal life

In 1975, Levin met Diana Canova and in 1976 they were married. They divorced in 1979. In 1993, Levin married Lisa London and had two children, son Collin, and daughter Savannah. Levin and London divorced in 2006. Levin was a Scientologist for 30 years, even having served in the Sea Org., Scientology's religious order, aboard the Apollo.

## Discography

## Video interviews

- "An interview with Mat Gleason, Coagula Art Journal, Modern Art Blitz, Bobbie Moline-Kramer and Geoff Levin" 2017

- " The Jerry Bovino Show - Rock and Roll Brothers with Robbie Levin, Geoff Levin, and Host Jerry Bovino" 2017


1932 in Germany

# 1932 in Germany

## Abstract

Events in the year 1932 in Germany.

## Incumbents

### National level

President

- Paul von Hindenburg (Non-partisan)

Chancellor

- Heinrich Brüning (Centre) to 30 May, then from 1 June Franz von Papen (Centre to 3 June, then Non-partisan) then 17 November, then from 3 December Kurt von Schleicher (Non-partisan)

## Events

- 25 February – Adolf Hitler obtains German citizenship by naturalization, opening the opportunity for him to run in the 1932 election for Reichspräsident.

- 10 April – Paul von Hindenburg is re-elected president of Germany.

- 30 May – Chancellor Heinrich Brüning resigns. President Hindenburg asks Franz von Papen to form a new government.

- 16 June – Bans against the SS and SA are lifted.

- 17 July – Altona Bloody Sunday: In Altona, clashes break out between the police, Nazi SA members and Communist party supporters during a National Socialist demonstration; 18 are killed. Many other political street fights follow.

- 31 July – Federal election: The Nazi Party gains a plurality and the Communists also gain seats. This creates a "negative majority" that prevents any majority coalition that does not include one of the two parties.

- 30 August – Hermann Göring becomes the head of the German Parliament

- 6 November – Federal election: The Nazis lose many seats, but retain the plurality as the Communists continue to gain. (This is the last free and fair election held throughout East-Germany until 1990.)

- 21 November – President Hindenburg begins negotiations with Adolf Hitler about the formation of a new government.

- 3 December – President Hindenburg names Kurt von Schleicher as German chancellor.

- 25 December – A patent is filed for Prontosil, an antibacterial drug discovered in Wuppertal.

## Births

- 6 January - Max Streibl, German politician (died 1998)

- 7 January - Wolfgang Reichmann, German actor (died 1991)

- 31 January - Michael Degen, German actor

- 7 February - Anton Schlembach, German bishop of Roman Catholic Church (died 2020)

- 9 February - Gerhard Richter, German visual artist

- 14 February - Alexander Kluge, German film director

- 18 February - Andreas Meyer-Hanno, German theater and opera director (died 2006)

- 25 February - Hans Apel, German politician (died 2011)

- 25 March - Wolfgang Helfrich, German physicist and inventor

- 2 April - Siegfried Rauch, German actor (died 2018)

- 16 April - Eberhard Panitz, German writer and screenwriter (died 2021)

- 8 May - Arnulf Baring, German author, historian, political scientist and journalist (died 2019)

- 21 May - Gabriele Wohmann, German novelist (died 2015)

- 26 May - Frank Beyer, German film director (died 2006)

- 2 June - Bruno Schleinstein, German actor (died 2010)

- 10 June - Philipp Jenninger, German politician (died 2018)

- 21 June - Friedrich Ostermann, German Roman Catholic auxiliary bishop from Münster (died 2018)

- 25 June - Clark M. Blatteis, German-born American physiologist (died 2021)

- 3 July - Alexander Schalck-Golodkowski, German politician (died 2015)

- 4 July - Marlene Lenz, German politician (CDU) and translator

- 10 July - Jürgen Becker, German poet

- 14 July - Princess Margarita of Baden, German noblewoman (died 2013)

- 30 July - Michael Bruno, German-born former governor of Israel's central bank and a Chief Economist of the World Bank (died 1996)

- 10 August Alexander Goehr, German-born British composer (died 2024) Jürgen Holtz, German actor (died 2020)

- Alexander Goehr, German-born British composer (died 2024)

- Jürgen Holtz, German actor (died 2020)

- 4 September - Joe Viera, German jazz saxophonist (died 2024)

- 8 September - Herbert Leuninger, German Roman Catholic priest and refugee rights activist (died 2020)

- 19 September - Stefanie Zweig, German writer (died 2014)

- 24 September - Walter Wallmann, German politician (died 2013)

- 16 October - Detlev Karsten Rohwedder, German politician (died 1991)

- 28 October - Gerhart Baum, German politician

- 29 October - Charlotte Knobloch, President of Central Council of Jews in Germany

- 1 November - Edgar Reitz, German film director

- 14 November - Gunter Sachs, German-Swiss photographer and art collector (died 2011)

- 21 November - Heinrich Lummer, German politician (CDU) (died 2019)

- 22 November - Günter Sawitzki, German international goalkeeper (died 2020)

- 25 November – Franz Grave, German Roman Catholic prelate (died 2022)

- 28 November – Kurt Horres, German stage director (died 2023)

- 19 December – Bernhard Vogel, German politician

- 31 December – Felix Rexhausen, German journalist (died 1992)

## Deaths

- 13 January – Sophia of Prussia, Prussian princess (born 1870)

- 24 January – Eugen Boermel, German sculptor, writer and inventor (born 1858)

- 25 January – Ernst Friedberger, German immunologist and hygienist (born 1875)

- 6 February – Hermann Ottomar Herzog, German American landscape painter (born 1831)

- 18 February – Frederick Augustus III of Saxony, Germane last King of Saxony (1904–1918) and a member of the House of Wettin (born 1865)

- 15 March – Friedrich Radszuweit, German publisher and author (born 1876)

- 2 April – Hugo von Kathen, German general (born 1855)

- 4 April – Wilhelm Ostwald, German chemist (born 1853)

- 6 April – Max Lenz, German historian (born 1850)

- 26 June – Ernst Scholz, German lawyer and politician (born 1874)

- 2 September – Christian Wilhelm Karl Ewald (born 1852)

- 20 September – Max Slevogt, German painter (born 1868)

- 3 October – Max Wolf, German astronomer (born 1863)

- 23 October – Arthur von Posadowsky-Wehner, German politician (born 1845)

- 11 November – Ludwig Hoffmann, German architect (born 1852)

- 10 December – Eugen Bamberger, German chemist (born 1857)

- 18 December – Eduard Bernstein, German politician (born 1851)


1933 in Germany

# 1933 in Germany

## Abstract

Events in the year 1933 in Germany.

## Incumbents

### National level

- President: Paul von Hindenburg

- Chancellor: Kurt von Schleicher (until 28 January 1933) Adolf Hitler (from 30 January 1933)

- Kurt von Schleicher (until 28 January 1933)

- Adolf Hitler (from 30 January 1933)

## Events in Germany

- 30 January – Nazi leader Adolf Hitler is appointed Chancellor of Germany by President of Germany Paul von Hindenburg.

- 1 February – Adolf Hitler gives his "Proclamation to the German People" in Berlin.

- 27 February – The Reichstag, Germany's parliament building in Berlin, is set on fire under controversial circumstances.

- 28 February – The Reichstag Fire Decree is passed in response to the Reichstag fire, nullifying many German civil liberties.

- 1 March – Hundreds are arrested as the Nazis round up their political opponents.

- 5 March – German federal election, March 1933: National Socialists gain 43.9% of the votes.

- 8 March – Nazis occupy the Bavarian State Parliament and expel deputies.

- 12 March – Hindenburg bans the flag of the republic and orders the Imperial and Nazi flag to fly side by side.

- 15 March – Hitler proclaims the Third Reich.

- 20 March – Dachau, the first Nazi concentration camp, is completed (it opens 22 March).

- 21 March – Jewish organizations announce an economic boycott of German goods.

- 23 March – The Reichstag passes the Enabling Act ("The law for removing the distress of people and the Reich"), making Adolf Hitler dictator of Germany, curbing its own power.

- 26 March – Air minister Hermann Göring denies that Germany's Jews are in danger.

- 1 April – The recently elected Nazis under Julius Streicher organise a one-day boycott of all Jewish-owned businesses in Germany.

- 7 April – The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service is passed, forcing all "non-Aryans" to retire from the legal profession and civil service.

- 21 April – Germany outlaws the kosher ritual shechita.

- 26 April – The Gestapo is established in Germany.

- 27 April – Der Stahlhelm veterans organisation joins the Nazi Party.

- 1 May - parades held to celebrate May Day, which had been declared "national workers' day" and a public holiday by the Nazi government. Hitler and Hindenburg attend the parade in Berlin.

- 2 May - all Trade Unions closed down, their headquarters and records were seized, and their leaders attacked and imprisoned.

- 10 May – Nazi book burnings are staged publicly throughout Germany.

- 26 May – The Nazi Party introduces a law to legalise eugenic sterilisation.

- 2 June – The Nazi authorities form the ' Expert Committee on Questions of Population and Racial Policy ' under Reich Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick.

- 21 June – All non- Nazi political parties are forbidden.

- 25 June – The Wilmersdorfer Tennishallen delegates convene in Berlin to protest against the persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany.

- 14 July – Forming new political parties is forbidden. The Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring is implemented.

- 20 July – Signing of the Reichskonkordat between the Vatican and Nazi Germany.

- 23 August – The Nazis publish the first of the four lists of people whose German citizenship, passports and other privileges are withdrawn. On the first list of thirty-three names are the Jewish authors Lion Feuchtwanger, Ernst Toller and Kurt Tucholsky.

- 25 August – The Haavara Agreement is signed between Nazi Germany, the Zionist Federation of Germany and the Anglo-Palestine Bank, allowing approximately 60,000 German Jews to leave Germany and move to Palestine.

- 30 August–3 September – The 5th Nazi Party Congress is held in Nuremberg and is called the "Rally of Victory" (Reichsparteitag des Sieges) in reference to the Nazi seizure of power

- 16 October – Germany officially announces its intention to leave the League of Nations.

## Births

- 3 March – Gerhard Mayer-Vorfelder, German Vice President of the Union of European Football Associations (died 2015)

- 5 March – Walter Kasper, German cardinal of Roman-Catholic Church

- 6 March – Willy Schäfer, German actor (died 2011)

- 7 March – Hannelore Kohl, first wife of German Chancellor Helmut Kohl (died 2001)

- 9 March – Reinhard Lettmann, bishop of the Roman Catholic Church (died 2013)

- 14 March – Duke Carl Gregor of Mecklenburg, German nobleman and musician (died 2018)

- 20 March – Michael Pfleghar, German film director and screenwriter (died 1991)

- 7 April – Johannes Schaaf, German film and theatre director (died 2019)

- 15 May – Ursula Schleicher, German politician and harpist

- 29 May – Helmuth Rilling, German choral conductor

- 8 June – Ernst W. Hamburger, German-born Brazilian physicist (died 2018)

- 20 June – Hatto Beyerle, German musician (died 2023)

- 3 July – Maximilian, Margrave of Baden, German nobleman (died 2022)

- 5 July – Michael Heltau, German actor and singer

- 11 July – Ernst Jacobi, German actor (died 2022)

- 14 July – Franz, Duke of Bavaria, German nobleman

- 15 July – Manfred Homberg, German boxer (died 2010)

- 16 July – Heinz Dürr, German entrepreneur

- 21 July – Brigitte Reimann, German novelist (died 1973)

- 6 August – Ulrich Biesinger, German footballer (died 2011)

- 16 August – Reiner Kunze, German writer

- 10 September – Karl Lagerfeld, German fashion designer (died 2019)

- 16 September – Steve Shirley, German-born British businesswoman

- 20 September – Alois Graf von Waldburg-Zeil, German politician (died 2014)

- 14 October – Wilfried Dietrich German wrestler (died 1992)

- 23 October – Yigal Tumarkin, German-born Israeli painter and sculptor (died 2021)

- 30 October – Johanna von Koczian, German actress (died 2024)

- 6 November – Else Ackermann, German physician, pharmacologist and politician (died 2019)

- 8 November – Lothar Fischer, German sculptor (died 2004)

- 9 November – Renate Ewert, German actress (died 1966)

- 13 November Karl-Otto Alberty, German actor (died 2015) Peter Härtling, German writer, poet, publisher and journalist (died 2017)

- Karl-Otto Alberty, German actor (died 2015)

- Peter Härtling, German writer, poet, publisher and journalist (died 2017)

- 20 November – Hermann von Richthofen, German diplomat (died 2021)

- 4 December – Horst Buchholz, German actor (died 2003)

- 10 December – Ernst-Ludwig Petrowsky, German jazz musician (died 2023)

## Deaths

- 3 January – Wilhelm Cuno, German politician and former Chancellor of Germany (born 1876)

- 1 February – Gustav Lilienthal, German social reformer (born 1849)

- 14 February – Carl Correns, German botanist and geneticist (born 1864)

- 24 February – Johannes Meisenheimer, German zoologist (born 1873)

- 26 February – Princess Thyra of Denmark, Crown Princess of Hanover (born 1853 in Denmark)

- 12 April – Andreas Blunck, German politician (born 1871)

- 24 April – Wilhelm von Schoen, German diplomat (born 1851)

- 27 May – James Loeb, German banker (born 1867)

- 24 July – Max von Schillings, German conductor (born 1868)

- 7 September – Max Adalbert, German actor (born 1874)

- 9 September – Friedrich Fülleborn, German physician who specialized in tropical medicine and parasitology (born 1866)

- 14 September – Theodor Rocholl, German painter (born 1854)

- 11 October – Reinhold Tiling, German engineer (born 1893)

- 19 October – Heinrich Brauns, politician (born 1868)

- 25 October – Friedrich Heinrich Albert Wangerin, German mathematician (born 1844)

- 26 November – Franz Bracht, German politician (born 1877)

- 4 December – Stefan George, German symbolist poet (born 1868)

- 9 December – Julius Falkenstein, German actor (born 1879)


1935 in Germany

# 1935 in Germany

## Abstract

Events in the year 1935 in Germany.

## Incumbents

### National level

Head of State and Chancellor

- Adolf Hitler (the Führer) (Nazi Party)

## Events

- 13 January — A plebiscite in the Territory of the Saar Basin shows that 90.3% of those voting wish to join Germany.

- 15 February — The discovery and clinical development of Prontosil, the first broadly effective antibacterial drug, is published in a series of articles in Germany's pre-eminent medical journal, Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift, by Gerhard Domagk.

- 1 March — Following the referendum on 13 January, Germany retakes the Saar region from League of Nations control.

- 11 March — The German Air force, the Luftwaffe, is officially created in a proclamation by Hermann Göring

- 16 March — Adolf Hitler announces German rearmament in violation of the Treaty of Versailles.

- 22 March — The first Television program is broadcast from the Funkturm in Berlin by Fernsehsender Paul Nipkow (TV Station Paul Nipkow)

- 28 April — Hitler orders 12 submarines, in defiance of the Treaty of Versailles.

- 21 May — The "Defense Law" (Wehrgesetz) is issued and bans Jews from the armed forces by stipulating that only “Aryans” could serve; it also formalizes the introduction of the general compulsory military service for “Aryans” from 1 October 1935.

- 18 June — Anglo-German Naval Agreement: the United Kingdom agrees to a German navy equal to 35% of her own naval tonnage.

- 10 – 16 September — The 7th Nazi Party Congress is held in Nuremberg, and is called the "Rally of Freedom" (Reichsparteitag der Freiheit) in reference to the reintroduction of compulsory military service and German "liberation" from the Treaty of Versailles.

- 15 September — The Nuremberg Laws go into effect in Germany. Following an incident of vandalism on the SS Bremen in New York City, the Nazi Party flag emblazoned with the swastika is made the German National Flag on Hitler's orders.

- 10 October — A tornado destroys the 160 metre tall wooden radio tower in Langenberg, Germany. As a result, wooden radio towers are phased out.

- 12 December — Lebensborn Project, a Nazi reproduction program, is founded by Heinrich Himmler.

## Births

- 4 January — Walter Mahlendorf, German sprinter

- 16 January — Udo Lattek, German football player, coach, and TV pundit (died 2015)

- 30 January — Wolfgang Boettcher, German cellist (died 2021)

- 10 February — Ezard Haußmann, German actor (died 2010)

- 12 February Fritz W. Scharpf, German political scientist Manfred Weiss, German composer (died 2023)

- Fritz W. Scharpf, German political scientist

- Manfred Weiss, German composer (died 2023)

- 15 February — George Alexander Albrecht, German composer and conductor (died 2021)

- 27 February — Theodor Hoffmann, German admiral and politician (died 2018)

- 10 March — Manfred Germar, German athlete

- 13 March — Hilmar Kopper, German banker

- 17 March — Hans Wollschläger, German writer (died 2007)

- 23 March — Hans Lenk, German rower

- 31 March — Rolf Becker, German actor

- 16 April — Sarah Kirsch, German poet (died 2013)

- 17 May — Ryke Geerd Hamer, German cancer researcher (died 2017)

- 1 June — Percy Adlon, German director, screenwriter and producer

- 2 June — Wilhelm Wieben, German journalist

- 3 June — Michael Hampe, German theatre and opera director (died 2022)

- 12 June — Christoph Meckel, German poet (died 2020)

- 23 June — Günter Lörke, German cyclist

- 7 July — Hans Belting, German art historian (died 2023)

- 11 July — Günther von Lojewski, German journalist (died 2023)

- 12 July — Hans Tilkowski, German footballer (died 2020)

- 29 July — Peter Schreier, German tenor (died 2019)

- 5 August — Michael Ballhaus, German cinematographer (died 2017)

- 21 August — Bernhard Eckstein, German cyclist (died 2017)

- 5 September — Dieter Hallervorden, German comedian

- 8 September — Helga M. Novak, German writer (died 2013)

- 2 October — Gisela Stein, German actress (died 2009)

- 27 November — Helmut Lachenmann, German composer

- 30 November - Paul Gratzik, German poet and novelist (died 2018)

- 8 December - Hans-Jürgen Syberberg, German film director

- 11 December — Ferdinand Alexander Porsche, German car designer (died 2012)

- 30 December — Wolfgang Dauner, German Jazz fusion pianist, composer and keyboardist (died 2020)

## Deaths

- January 11 - Gottlieb von Jagow, German diplomat (born 1863)

- January 21 – Adolf von Brauchitsch, German general (born 1876)

- February 3 - Hugo Junkers, German engineer and aircraft designer (born 1859)

- February 8 - Max Liebermann, German painter (born 1847)

- April 14 - Emmy Noether, German mathematician (born 1882)

- April 19 - Albert Tafel, German geographer, doctor and explorer (born 1876)

- 24 April – Paul Klengel, German violinist, conductor and composer (born 1854)

- May 10 - Wilhelm Kolle, German bacteriologist (born 1868)

- 14 May – Magnus Hirschfeld, German sex researcher and gay rights advocate (born 1868)

- 5 June - Alexander von Linsingen, German general (born 1850)

- 12 August - Friedrich Schottky, German mathematician (born 1851)

- 27 August – Otto Schott, German chemist (born 1851)

- 28 September – Hans Baluschek, German painter (born 1870)

- 4 October – Marie Gutheil-Schoder, German operatic soprano (born 1874)

- 8 October – Hans Tropsch, German chemist (born 1889)

- 21 November – Agnes Pockels, German chemist (b. 1862)

- 21 December – Kurt Tucholsky, German-journalist, satirist and writer (born 1890)