Nice Work If You Can Get It (musical)

# Nice Work If You Can Get It (musical)

## Abstract

Nice Work If You Can Get It is a musical featuring songs by George and Ira Gershwin, with a book written by Joe DiPietro, and based on material by Guy Bolton and P. G. Wodehouse. Nice Work premiered on Broadway in April 2012.

## Background

The musical was initially produced in 2001 at the Goodspeed Opera House titled They All Laughed!, with the book by Joe DiPietro and direction by Christopher Ashley. The musical received "mixed notices" according to Frank Rizzo, writing in the Hartford Courant. New collaborators and producers then became involved.

A workshop was held in November 2007, featuring Harry Connick, Jr. and Erin Dilly. At that time, the show was titled Heaven on Earth. The musical was first scheduled to debut at the Colonial Theatre in Boston, running from December 2008 through January 2009. The production was expected to open on Broadway in Spring 2009, with Harry Connick, Jr. However, in 2008 it was announced that the musical was "officially postponed", due to a change in the producing team; Connick ultimately left the project.

## Productions

Preview performances began on Broadway at the Imperial Theatre on March 29, 2012 with the opening on April 24, 2012. Directed and choreographed by Kathleen Marshall, the cast starred Matthew Broderick (Jimmy Winter) and Kelli O'Hara (Billie Bendix). The production closed on June 15, 2013, after 27 previews and 478 regular performances.

A US national tour started on September 2, 2014 at the Music Hall at Fair Park in Dallas, Texas, and ran, with an extended break for the winter holidays, until March 22, 2015. It finished at the Segerstrom Center for the Arts in Costa Mesa, California.

The Australian production, a non-replica production directed by Roger Hodgman for The Production Company, played at the State Theatre, Arts Centre Melbourne from August 15 to 23, 2015. It featured Rohan Browne, Esther Hannaford, Christie Whelan-Browne, John Wood, Gina Riley, George Kapiniaris, and Nicki Wendt.

The UK premiere ran at Upstairs at The Gatehouse in London from December 12, 2018 to January 27, 2019. It was directed by John Plews, with choreography by Grant Murphy, musical supervision by Charlie Ingles, musical direction by Chris Poon, design by Pollyanna Elston, sound design by Nico Menghini (assisted by Alistair Warr & Rachel Darwood), lighting design by Sam Waddington (assisted by Bethany Gupwell), costume supervision by Nadine Froehlich, wigs by Jessica Plews, and produced by Katie Plews for Ovation Productions.

The Japanese production of the musical by all-female theater troupe Takarazuka Revue ran from January 8 to February 9, 2021. Due to COVID-19 original schedule was heavily changed. It was directed by Ryou Harada with musical arrangement by Shouichi Tama.

## Cast and characters

### Notable Broadway Replacements

- Jimmy Winter: Will Chase (August 2012)

- Billie Bendix: Erin Dilly (July 2012), Jessie Mueller (April 2013)

- Cookie McGee: Brad Oscar (January 2013-March 2013)

- Millicent Winter: Blythe Danner (December 2012-April 2013)

- Chief Berry: John Treacy Egan (March 2013-April 2013)

- Rosie: Emily Tyra (January 2013-April 2013)

## Plot

Act I It's 1927, in the midst of a riotous bachelor party for the oft-married Jimmy Winter (" Sweet and Lowdown "). Outside, a trio of bootleggers – Cookie, Billie and Duke – are trying to figure out where to hide the 400 cases of gin they have stashed on their boat. As a stranger approaches, Duke and Cookie rush off. A drunken Jimmy staggers and comes across the pants-wearing Billie and is immediately smitten. He explains his plight – he must marry someone respectable or his mother will disinherit him, so he's marrying someone he doesn't truly love. Billie isn't all that interested in his tale of woe, until he reveals that he has a huge Long Island beach house that he never uses, so she swipes his wallet to discover the address. Jimmy assumes Billie is falling for him, but Billie insists that love is for suckers. Jimmy vehemently disagrees (" Nice Work If You Can Get It "). Jimmy passes out, and Billie focuses on this interesting man unconscious on the ground before her ("Nice Work If You Can Get It - Reprise"). Cookie and Duke rush back on, and Billie tells them that she found a place to store their bootleg – a Long Island beach house. A police whistle pierces the air, and the bootleggers scatter. Senator Max Evergreen and Chief Berry enter, along with Duchess Estonia Dulworth, who has brought along her Vice Squad and vows to rid society of its greatest evil ("Demon Rum").

The next morning, Billie, Cookie and Duke have stored their 400 cases of gin in the cellar of Jimmy's ritzy beach house. Eileen Evergreen, the finest interpreter of modern dance in the world, enters with Jimmy. They were married that morning, and they are on their honeymoon, though Eileen has yet to allow Jimmy to touch her. Cookie, disguised as a butler, enters and they naturally assume he's their servant. They send him off, and Eileen tells Jimmy that she's ready for the honeymoon shenanigans to begin – as soon as she takes a bath. She exits into the house as Billie enters, stunned to see Jimmy. Jimmy has no memory of meeting her last night, and as Jimmy flirts with her, Billie confesses that she's never been kissed. Strictly for educational purposes, Jimmy kisses Billie, and she realizes what she's been missing (" Someone to Watch Over Me ").

Four and a half hours later, Eileen is still bathing ("Delishious"). In the ritzy living room, Cookie and Billie devise a plan for Billie to distract Jimmy from the 400 cases of gin in his cellar. Billie runs off as Jimmy enters, followed by a gaggle of chorus girls who invite him for a group swim, which Jimmy almost accepts ("I've Got to be There"). Eileen enters with a flourish, and just as she is about to let Jimmy touch her, he receives a telegram revealing that his last wife has refused to sign the annulment, and an irate Eileen storms off to get her father. That night in Jimmy's ritzy bedroom, Billie breaks in and tries to seduce him, badly (" Treat Me Rough "). Chief Berry, who has been pursuing Billie, barges in to arrest her. But Jimmy convinces him that Billie is actually his newest wife (" Let's Call the Whole Thing Off ") and Billie and Jimmy are forced to spend the whole night together in his bedroom.

The next morning, Jeannie, a happy-go-lucky chorus girl, comes upon Duke, a lug from New Jersey, and mistakes him for an actual English Duke. Duke, who is perpetually nervous around women, tries to escape, but Jeannie does everything in her power to get him to notice her ("Do it Again").

In the ritzy living room, Jimmy and Billie realize that they are hopelessly in love (" 'S Wonderful ") But Eileen returns with her father – the ultra-conservative Senator Evergreen – and her aunt – the Duchess Estonia Dulworth – to demand that Jimmy and Eileen have a legal wedding. Jimmy has no choice but to marry Eileen, and Billie pretends to be a cockney maid so she can stick around and guard the bootleg. As Eileen beelines towards the cellar to get the wedding china, Jimmy and Cookie frantically distract the wedding party away from the basement (" Fascinating Rhythm ") as the curtain falls.

Act II On the ritzy terrace, the Vice Squad and Chorus Girls revel (" Lady Be Good "). Billie enters and realizes she'll never be as happy as the dancing revelers around her (" But Not For Me "). Cookie and Duke enter and, since they're all now disguised as servants, they plot how they can get the impending wedding luncheon over and done with as quickly as possible. The Duchess barrels on to instruct Cookie in the finer points of luncheon preparation. She insists on hiring a string quartet for entertainment, but Cookie has other ideas ("By Strauss" / "Sweet and Lowdown - Reprise").

As Billie sets the ritzy luncheon table, Jimmy makes one last attempt to appease her ("Do, Do, Do"). But Billie will have none of it. As the luncheon begins, Cookie and Duke frantically serve the luncheon guests, and the Duchess continues to annoy Cookie, who spikes her lemonade with Gin. Billie entertains them all with a cockney song ("Hangin' Around With You") which mainly serves as an excuse to keep pouring hot soup on Jimmy's lap. But Billie accidentally pours some steaming soup onto Eileen, who immediately fires her. The Duchess, now happily drunk, defends Billie and reveals a deep secret as she grabs onto Cookie, climbs on the luncheon table and swings from a chandelier ("Looking for a Boy"). After he drags off the Duchess, an angry Jimmy calls Billie a common criminal, and they realize that they can never be together. Jimmy goes to prepare for his wedding, as Jeannie enters looking for Duke, who Billie accidentally reveals isn't a real duke. Jeannie is furious, so Duke tries to win her over with a poem ("Blah Blah Blah"), but Jeannie rushes away.

In the ritzy bedroom, Cookie is dressing Jimmy for his wedding as Billie enters to return his wallet. Jimmy and Billie both realize that this is the last time they'll ever see each other ("Will You Remember Me?").

The Chorus Girls and Vice Squad set up the wedding ("I've Got To Be There - Reprise"). As Senator Evergreen presides, Eileen makes her very grand entrance (" I've Got a Crush on You "). But just before vows are exchanged, Cookie and Duke rush in, pretending to be Prohibition Agents, though Chief Berry quickly enters and reveals their true identities. As they're arrested, Jeannie rushes in and proclaims her love for Duke, then the now sober Duchess proclaims her love for Cookie. Still, Senator Evergreen insists the bootleggers must be arrested, but Jimmy's mother, Millicent, makes an appearance, revealing the true nature of her son's heritage – Senator Evergreen is Jimmy's father. The senator proclaims the day a joyous one and all are free to pursue their new and surprising loves. Jimmy realizes that Billie has rushed to the boathouse to sail away forever, and he rushes to swear his devotion to her. Millicent follows and reveals that she happens to be the biggest rum-runner on Long Island, and she'd like Billie to marry her son and take over her business. Billie happily accepts ("Someone to Watch Over Me - Reprise"). And on the ritzy terrace under a starry night, love has blossomed, the bootleg is opened and the company celebrates their newfound joy ("They All Laughed!").

## Musical numbers

## Reception

Reviews of the Broadway production were mixed. Ben Brantley, in his New York Times review, wrote: "Every now and then, a bubble of pure, tickling charm rises from the artificial froth of “Nice Work if You Can Get It,” the pastiche of a 1920s musical featuring songs by George and Ira Gershwin. Most of this show, which opened on Tuesday night at the Imperial Theater, registers as a shiny, dutiful trickle of jokes and dance numbers performed by talented people who don't entirely connect with the whimsy of a bygone genre. But then, all at once, there's a moment of delicate ridiculousness, of utterly credible improbability, that signals what Kathleen Marshall, the production's director and choreographer, must have been aiming for."

The USA Today reviewer wrote: " director/choreographer Kathleen Marshall and a stellar cast ensure that the show is as charming in execution as it is disheartening in theory. For every sharp line, there are a couple that will make you wince — or would, if they weren't delivered with such disarming spirit and skill. Broderick fares predictably well in the kind of role he does best: a sweetly deadpan social doofus. O'Hara proves once again that there's pretty much nothing she can't do on stage. he excellent Judy Kaye, playing a smug Prohibition advocate, sips spiked lemonade and gets flamboyantly frisky."

The Newsday reviewer wrote: "Kathleen Marshall has put together a rowdy, dopey-smart, dance-driven screwball comedy that never shies from the extravagant edge of clunky silliness. Kelli O'Hara and Matthew Broderick may not seem a likely romantic couple. But their different styles -- her crisp and sublime professionalism, his sleepy-faced cunning naiveté and low-watt skills -- spark unexpected chemistry. At least they are very sweet together. Joe DiPietro has used some outlines of "Oh, Kay," a genuine Prohibition fluff ball from 1926, for his new story. He switches the power of the illegal-hooch gang from the guys to a plucky woman in guy's clothes—O'Hara."

## Original cast recording

An original Broadway cast recording was recorded in May 2012 for the Shout! Factory label and distributed by Sony Records. The album was released in September 2012.

## Awards and nominations


Filip Arsenijević

# Filip Arsenijević

## Abstract

Filip Arsenijević (Serbian Cyrillic: Филип Арсенијевић; born 2 September 1983) is a Serbian footballer. He is older brother of Nemanja Arsenijević.

## Club career

Born in Titovo Užice, SR Serbia, SFR Yugoslavia, between 2001 and 2009 he played in Serbian clubs FK Sloboda Užice, OFK Beograd, FK Mačva Šabac, FK Sevojno and FK Javor Ivanjica. Between 2009 and 2011 he has been in Greece playing with Panthrakikos in the Greek Super League.

On 30 August 2011 he returned to Serbia and signed a one-year deal with top league club FK Jagodina. Later, he spent the 2012 season playing with the Kazakhstan Premier League team FC Shakhter Karagandy and winning the national title, before returning to Jagodina by early 2013 in time to help the team with the Serbian Cup.

## Honours

- Serbian First League: 2007–08

- Kazakhstan Premier League: 2012

- Serbian Cup: 2013


Princess Josephine of Baden

# Princess Josephine of Baden

## Abstract

Princess Josephine Friederike Luise of Baden (21 October 1813 – 19 June 1900) was Princess of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen from 27 August 1848 to 7 December 1849 during the brief reign of her husband, Prince Karl Anton. Josephine was the second daughter of Charles, Grand Duke of Baden, and Stéphanie de Beauharnais. She was the mother of the first king of Romania, Carol I. Through her younger daughter Marie, she is the ancestress of the Belgian royal family, the grand ducal family of Luxembourg as well as the last Queen of Italy and her descendants. Through her son, Leopold, she is also ancestress of the Romanian royal family.

## Life

On 21 October 1834 at Karlsruhe, she married Karl Anton Joachim Zephyrinus Friedrich Meinrad, Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, son of Charles, Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1785–1853) and his wife Princess Marie Antoinette Murat (1793–1847).

They had six children:

- Leopold, Prince of Hohenzollern (22 September 1835 – 8 June 1905) he married Infanta Antónia of Portugal on 12 September 1861. They had three sons, including Ferdinand I of Romania.

- Princess Stephanie of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (15 July 1837 – 17 July 1859) she married King Pedro V of Portugal on 18 May 1858, without issue.

- Carol I of Romania (27 April 1839 – 10 October 1914) he married Princess Elisabeth of Wied on 15 November 1869. They had one daughter.

- Prince Anton of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (7 October 1841 – 6 August 1866) killed in the Austro-Prussian War at the age of twenty-four.

- Prince Frederick of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (25 June 1843 – 2 December 1904) he married Princess Louise of Thurn and Taxis on 21 June 1879, without issue.

- Princess Marie of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (17 November 1845 – 26 November 1912) she married Prince Philippe, Count of Flanders on 25 April 1867. They had five children, including Albert I of Belgium.

She died at Sigmaringen on 19 June 1900. The Austrian court ordered a 12-day mourning for her death, during which members of the Habsburg dynasty were barred from participating in any festivities. This ensured that most members of the Habsburg imperial family were prevented from attending the wedding of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria to Countess Sophie Chotek on 1 July.

## Legacy

Marie of Romania, wife of her grandson Ferdinand I, described Princess Josephine in her memoirs: "Quite the most fascinating member of the family, besides Fürst Leopold, was his charming old mother, born a Princess of Baden. Small and frail, she had exquisite features framed in veils and laces which heightened their delicacy. Her gowns and cloaks were just as they should be... she always wore gloves much too long on the fingers, which she had not the strength to pull on properly. Being stone-deaf she had expressive little gestures indicating when she had understood your pantomimic conversation; she liked a good joke and had a sweet way of lifting her hand and covering her mouth when amused or pleasantly shocked. Dear old Grandmamma Josephine had the most lovely nose I have ever seen; it was one of God's perfections."

## Honours

- Dame of the Order of Louise.

## Ancestry


Princess Olga Dolgorouky

# Princess Olga Dolgorouky

## Abstract

Princess Olga Sergeivna Morgan, Viscountess Tredegar (1915-1998) neé Dolgoruky (Russian: Ольга Сергеевна Морган (княжна Долгорукова), romanized: Olga Sergeyevna Morgan, princess Dolgorukova) was a socialite and member of Russian and British nobility, through her marriage to Evan Morgan, 2nd Viscount Tredegar while retaining her adherence to the Russian Orthodox Church. She was among those saved in 1919 when King George V sent the battleship HMS Marlborough to Crimea to rescue what was left of the family of the Tsar after the Russian Revolution.

## Early life

She was born the daughter of Major General Prince Sergey Aleksandrovich Dolgoruky (Russian: Сергей Александрович Долгорукий, 1872-1933) and Irina Vassilievna Naryshkina (Ирина Васильевна Нарышкина, 1879-1917). Following the death of her mother in 1917, Olga and her father moved to Frogmore, and Paris, where they lived alongside other Russian exiles.

After the death of her father in 1933, 'she was often seen in London in the company of White Russians, and frequented the various Russian tea rooms as well as the wider social scene. Olga was photographed by Hay Wrightson in Tatler and was a lover of fun, high society parties and dancing'.

In those days we did not have television and the art of conversation, wit, and interesting and intelligent friends where in much demand.

During World War II, she practiced nursing in the Royal Gwent Hospital, visited the local medical departments of St John's Ambulance, where she had trained, and was among those who donated gifts for the children of the Royal Gwent at Christmastime.

In 1940, she was appointed President of the Pontypool Women's Conservative and Unionist Association, and President of the Newport and Monmouthshire Art and Craft Society.

## Marriages

She married firstly in 1934, to George Trotsky-Seniutovich, the son of a noted businessman. The marriage was unsuccessful, and they later divorced in Paris.

On 13 March 1939, the then Princess Olga, married Evan Morgan, 2nd Viscount Tredegar, and from then on was styled Viscountess Tredegar. The marriage was conducted at a registry office in Singapore, with the couple having a honeymoon in Java, Indonesia. At the time of the marriage they told the Daily News that they 'intended to make their home in the East Indies island of Bali, where Lord Tredegar had a native-style home'.

Olga and Evan made Tredegar House their main residence. Although they both enjoyed similar things, the marriage was one of convenience and was never consummated. It simply gave Olga a higher social standing as a Russian exile, and provided a much-needed cover for Evan's affairs and known homosexuality. As time went on and the marriage broke-down, the couples' bedrooms in Tredegar became further and further apart until they were living on different sides of the house. Finally, marriage was annulled in 1943 due to Evan's "incapacity".

In 1949, Evan became ill in Rome. After returning to Middlesex Hospital, he was sent home to Honeywood House to pass. Olga was among his final visitors, and nursed him in his final days. After their annulment, Evan continued to pay Olga a yearly allowance. On his death, Olga claimed that the remaining life balance she was owed amounted to £20,000. However, Evan's executors argued that £6,000 would be more than sufficient. Olga quickly agreed when the executors offered to discharge the £534 she owed to Evan, which it was estimated she could not afford.

## Later life

Following her annulment, Olga Morgan lived in London and Guernsey where she joined a small group of upper-class, British expatriates.

As of 1950, she was appointed Director of Keystone Tourist Association, which arranged shopping and business appointments abroad. She was the only female on the board.

She frequently visited Tredegar House when it was St. Josephs Catholic School, having been sold by Evan's cousin, John Morgan, in 1951. When St. Josephs had a fete in 1968, Olga was found walking around the lake by headmistress, Sister Pauline, who insisted on Lady Tredegar opening the fete. Olga Morgan helped Curators, David Beevers and David Freeman, in the restoration of Tredegar House to its former glory, after it was sold to Newport Council in 1973, by answering questions regarding the layout of rooms at Tredegar, and providing information about her infamous husband.

In corespondence regarding Evan, Olga stated, ‘my husband, who was an eccentric, used to have great flights of fancy at times and I never knew what was fact or fiction'.

Olga Morgan died of heart failure on 22 January 1998 at her home in Guernsey, aged 82. She was paid tribute in the South Wales Echo, which published an article stating that even after moving away from Tredegar, "she remained in contact by writing to staff. Everyone at the house is saddened by her death". Her funeral took place on 27 January 1998 at Folum Chapel and Crematorium.

Although the last Lord Tredegar died in 1962, Olga Morgan continued to be styled Viscountess Tredegar until her death, making her the last person to hold a Tredegar title.


Bojan Šaranov

# Bojan Šaranov

## Abstract

Bojan Šaranov (Serbian Cyrillic: Бојан Шаранов; born 22 October 1987) is a Serbian professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Serbian League Belgrade club Brodarac.

## Club career

### OFK Beograd

Born in Vršac, Šaranov started out at OFK Beograd, making his senior debuts in the 2004–05 season, aged 17. He subsequently went on loan to Mačva Šabac, Bežanija, and Rudar Pljevlja in order to gain first team experience. After consecutive loan spells, Šaranov returned to OFK Beograd and became the first-choice goalkeeper following Radiša Ilić 's departure in the 2009 winter transfer window.

Šaranov missed just two games in the 2009–10 Serbian SuperLiga, helping the side earn a 3rd-place finish and secure a spot in the 2010–11 UEFA Europa League. In the following 2010–11 campaign, Šaranov was named in the league's Team of the Season due to his performances in the process.

### Maccabi Haifa

In June 2011, Šaranov moved abroad and signed with Israeli champions Maccabi Haifa. He made his official debut for the club on 27 July 2011, being substituted by Nir Davidovich at half-time in an eventual 2–1 home win over Slovenian side Maribor. On 20 August 2011, Šaranov made his first league appearance for Maccabi Haifa in a 4–1 away success at Maccabi Netanya. He also collected five appearances in the 2011–12 UEFA Europa League group stage.

On 24 October 2013, Šaranov saved two penalties taken by Miroslav Stoch, but failed to prevent his team's 2–3 loss away at PAOK in Group L of the Europa League. He again missed just one game in the group stage, as the team finished in third place. In his third season at Maccabi Haifa, Šaranov made a career-high 38 appearances in all competitions.

### Ergotelis

On 30 December 2014, Šaranov signed with Greek side Ergotelis. He saved a penalty from Alejandro Domínguez in a 0–3 away league loss against Olympiacos on 14 February 2015. Until the end of the 2014–15 Superleague Greece, Šaranov recorded 13 appearances, before leaving the club following their relegation from the top flight.

### Partizan

In the 2016 winter transfer window, Šaranov returned to Serbia and joined Partizan. He helped the side win the Serbian Cup in May 2016. On 31 August 2016, Šaranov terminated his contract with Partizan by mutual consent.

### Qarabağ

Shortly after leaving Partizan, Šaranov joined Azerbaijani club Qarabağ. He mostly served as the team's third-choice goalkeeper behind Ibrahim Šehić and Şahruddin Məhəmmədəliyev in the 2016–17 season, as Qarabağ won the double.

### Later career

In September 2017, Šaranov joined Serbian SuperLiga newcomers Zemun on a free transfer. He immediately established himself as a first team regular, collecting 12 league appearances in the first half of the 2017–18 season under manager Milan Milanović. In January of the following year, Šaranov switched to fellow SuperLiga club Radnički Niš. On 13 July 2018, he signed a year contract with Super League club Lamia for an undisclosed fee. On 28 February 2019, Šaranov saved the resulting spot-kick from Kostas Fortounis which was destined for his left corner, five minutes before the final whistle, sealing a shocking 1-0 away Greek Cup win against giants Olympiakos and advanced to the semi-finals of the Greek Cup 4-3 on aggregate.

## International career

In March 2008, Šaranov was included in the preliminary squad for the 2008 Summer Olympics, but failed to make the final cut for the tournament. He was subsequently selected to represent Serbia at the 2009 UEFA Under-21 Championship. Serving as a backup for Željko Brkić, Šaranov was unable to make any appearance in the tournament.

In March 2011, Šaranov received his first call-up to the Serbia national team by manager Vladimir Petrović ahead of a UEFA Euro 2012 qualifier versus Northern Ireland. He eventually made his full international debut for Serbia on 3 June 2011, playing the full 90 minutes in a 1–2 friendly loss away against South Korea.

## Career statistics

## Honours

### Club

- Serbia and Montenegro Cup: Runner-up 2005–06

- Serbian Cup: 2015–16

- Azerbaijan Premier League: 2016–17

- Azerbaijan Cup: 2016–17

### Individual

- Serbian SuperLiga Team of the Season: 2010–11


Machiavellianism (psychology)

# Machiavellianism (psychology)

## Abstract

In the field of personality psychology, Machiavellianism (sometimes abbreviated as MACH) is the name of a personality trait construct characterized by interpersonal manipulation, indifference to morality, lack of empathy, and a calculated focus on self-interest. Psychologists Richard Christie and Florence L. Geis named the construct after Niccolò Machiavelli, as they used truncated and edited statements similar to his writing style to study variations in human behaviors. Their Mach IV test, a 20-question, Likert-scale personality survey, became the standard self-assessment tool and scale of the Machiavellianism construct. Those who score high on the scale (High Machs) are more likely to have a high level of manipulativeness, deceitfulness and a cynical, unemotional temperament. Though the construct is named "Machiavellianism", it does not refer to the eponymous political doctrine.

It is one of the dark triad traits, along with the subclinical versions of narcissism and psychopathy.

## Origin of the construct

### Adapting Machiavelli for psychometric use

In 1955, psychologist Richard Christie set out to study the thought processes and actions of those who manipulated others, such as political ideologues and religious extremists. He found that there was much literature on those who followed organizations and movements, but very little on those who led them. As Christie was developing a psychometric model for interpersonal manipulation, he was reminded of his encounter with Machiavelli's writings as an undergraduate, and wanted to use them in his research. In the 1960s, Christie and his colleagues would then develop a test using a selection of statements, including truncated and edited sentences that were similar to certain phrases found in Machiavelli's works such as The Prince and The Discourses on Livy as test items, naming the construct "Machiavellianism" after him. They wanted to assess whether or not those who were in agreement with the statements would behave differently than others who disagreed, specifically in regards to manipulative actions. Christie and his research partner Florence L. Geis published their results in their book, titled " Studies in Machiavellianism ", in 1970.

Christie made light of the difficulty in adapting Machiavelli's writings into a non political test, joking that his advice was "better suited for Renaissance princes" than for college undergraduates. Christie used more colloquial, everyday wording when creating the scale items, as most taking the test would have difficulties understanding the questions in their original prose. Thus Christie used test items that were "theoretically congruent with" or loosely based on Machiavelli's tone, instead of literal, direct statements from his works.

### On the name of the scale

While the construct is named "Machiavellianism", it does not refer to the political theory espoused in Machiavelli's books. Because the two concepts share the same name, they can be confused for one another, even though his political ideas are not relevant to psychology. Out of all 20 items on the MACH IV, only one item (Item 20) has a more direct relation with Machiavelli's writings, yet it is also removed from its original political context. In fact, some questions on the MACH-IV are not from Machiavelli at all. For example, two of them reference P.T. Barnum (born 1810) and voluntary euthanasia, both of which are unrelated to Machiavelli's ideas. The MACH-IV (and other Machiavellianism tests) also feature questions partially based on statements by other thinkers such as Chinese political authors, not just Machiavelli. In light of this, scholars often claim that the scale has no relation to Machiavelli outside of bearing his name. Researchers have commented that despite the name, the personality construct has nothing to do with Machiavelli's politics. Christie himself makes clear that he used sentences inspired by Machiavelli's works only as a sort of litmus test to study deceptive and manipulative behavior, and that his concern was not with Machiavelli's historical or political influence, stating specifically that:

Historians disagree as to whether Machiavelli was a cynic who wrote political satire, a patriot, or the first modern political scientist. The present concern is not with Machiavelli as an historic figure, but as the source of ideas about those who manipulate others.

Researcher and Psychology Today author Dale Hartley made this point more clear in his book, Machiavellians: Gulling The Rubes:

When psychologists refer to the terms, Machiavellian or Machiavellianism, they do not mean Machiavelli's political advice. They refer instead to the underlying personality traits of cynicism, duplicity and scheming by which master manipulators conceive and execute their agendas.

Christie stated that he chose the name "Machiavellianism" out of convienence seeing as other names such as "M scale" (M for manipulation) and "Ma scale" (which was used by the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory for hypomania) were taken. Names also considered were the "manipulator" or "operator" scale, but these terms had issues regarding behavioral validity. He also admits that by using the name "Machiavellianism", the scale would "create problems of public misunderstanding" due to the existing political meaning of the term. In a later essay, Christie even states that some have viewed the name problematic and that "the use of the word Machiavellianism to describe the content of the scales has been questioned". Indeed, recent scholars have stated that the majority of items on the scale were wrongly attributed to Machiavelli.

### Mach IV

Christie and Geis's Mach IV test, a 20-question, Likert-scale personality survey, became the standard self-report tool to measure one's level of Machiavellianism. Those who score highly on the scale are classified as high Machs, while those who score low are classified as low Machs. Using their scale, Christie and Geis conducted multiple experimental tests that showed that the interpersonal strategies and behavior of "high Machs" and "low Machs" differ. People scoring high on the scale tend to endorse manipulative statements, and behave accordingly, contrary to those who score lowly. People scoring high on the scale tend to endorse statements such as, "Never tell anyone the real reason you did something unless it is useful to do so," (No. 1) but not ones like, "Most people are basically good and kind" (No. 4), "There is no excuse for lying to someone else" (No. 7) or "Most people who get ahead in the world lead clean, moral lives" (No. 11) Their basic results have been widely replicated. Measured on the Mach IV scale, males score, on average, slightly higher on Machiavellianism than females.

The Mach IV test influenced the creation of an assessment called the Dirty Dozen, which contains 12 items, and the Short Dark Triad, composed of 27 items.

High vs Low Machiavellianism

Like all personality traits, Machiavellianism is a characteristic that exists on a spectrum or continuum. Christie and others noted that High Machs were more likely to cheat in experimental games, manipulate others around them, and were generally detached in their interactions. This was opposed to the behavior of Low Machs, who found such behaviors immoral, and refrained from them.

The higher a person is on the Machiavellianism scale, the more likely they are to deceive and exploit at the expense of someone else, engage in unprincipled behavior, and have a lack of empathetic feelings.

## Core features

In developing the construct studying manipulators, Christie theorized that they would possess the following characteristics:

1. A relative lack of affect in interpersonal relationships: Manipulators do not empathize with their victims. The more empathy one has, Christie says, the less likely one will manipulate a person to do their bidding.

2. A lack of concern for conventional morality: Christie asserts that the manipulator is not concerned with the morality of behaviors such as lying and cheating.

3. A lack of gross psychopathology: Christie states that manipulators usually have an instrumentalist view of the world, which shows a lack of psychosis or other mental impairments.

4. Low ideological commitment: Manipulators prefer to focus on getting things done pragmatically rather than focus on ideological allegiances. Christie states that while manipulators are to be found in organizations of differing ideals, they are more likely to be interested in tactics that achieve individual ends than inflexible idealistic ones.

### Five-Factor Model

Under the recently devised Five-Factor Model of Machiavellianism, three characteristics underlie the construct:

- Antagonism: manipulativeness, cynicism, selfishness, callousness, and arrogance.

- Planfulness: deliberation and orderliness.

- Agency: achievement-striving, assertiveness, self-confidence, emotional invulnerability, activity and competence.

## Causes

### Genetic and environmental

Several behavioral genetics studies on the dark triad have shown that Machiavellianism has both significantly genetic and environmental influences. Researchers have noted that while Machiavellianism is heritable to a substantial degree, it can also be influenced by the shared-environment (i.e. sibling groups) slightly more than narcissism and psychopathy. Other traits associated with machiavellianism are influenced by genetics as well, as one study notes that "The co-occurrence of alexithymia and Machiavellianism was most heavily influenced by genetic factors, and to a lesser but significant extent by non-shared environmental factors." Machiavellianism is also heavily correlated with primary psychopathy which is itself strongly heritable. A study on the "core" of dark triad traits also emphasized that the residual traits of Machiavellianism had "significant genetic components". One particular study found a gene responsible for dopamine reception was positively associated with individuals who scored high on the MACH IV, but it is unclear what specific mechanisms cause this effect. A study noted that the emotionality of Machiavellianism may also be genetically determined, with the authors stating that "it can be expected that in the case of Machiavellianism, the genetic influence may manifest itself by affecting the emotional sphere. That affective insensitivity – as McIlwain (2003) designates it--makes Machiavellians similar to psychopaths. In the study by Vernon et al (2008), genetic factors for Machiavellianism and psychopathy were correlated, which suggests that the variability of both qualities is greatly affected by the same genes. The genetically determined “cool syndrome” makes it easier for the child to use effective manipulation, leading to the development of a permanent behaviour strategy, at the same time protecting the child from internal punishments such as shame or guilt."

Studies have found a link between Machiavellianism and a blunted cortisol awaking response (CAR). A person's cortisol awaking response has been associated with a lack of affective empathy, and is highly heritable.

Environmental causes

The environmental causes (such as shared, and non-shared environment) that contribute to the development of machiavellianism were childhood maltreatment and neglect, social reinforcement of manipulative behaviors from an early age, and poor family functioning. One study even stated that "the etiology of Machiavellianism, similarly to the development of a dismissing-avoidant pattern, partly originates from childhood experiences obtained in relationships with unexpressive, less understanding, highly punitive or restrictive caregivers". In many studies, Machiavellianism has been heavily correlated with negative home atmospheres, loneliness, and adverse parental experiences. One study noted that punishment specifically led to the "emergence of deceitful and exploitative interpersonal tactics." The authors of the study concluded that these results "might give further support for the idea that Machiavellian personality traits are possible strategic responses to childhood adversities". Another study found the traits of Machiavellianism to be a response to early maladaptive schemas (EMS), essentially coping mechanisms for emotional deprivation, mistrust, abuse, and caregiver rejection. Irregular parent care, such as a mother being neglectful and a father being overprotective, has also been correlated with Machiavellianism. The hereditary influence on Machiavellianism may make it challenging to disentangle the genetic underpinnings from the effects of parental upbringing and environmental factors.

In general, Jones (2020) asserts that "there may be a myriad of reasons, including some environmental reasons, as to why someone would become cynical, habitually ignore morality, or use manipulative persuasion. There may be others who are born cynical, manipulative, and amoral. Thus, there may be differences in etiology that lead to differences in how fixed the trait is, and how it is expressed".

### Machiavellianism in children

Ever since the creation of the construct in the 1960s, there has been extensive research on Machiavellianism in young children and adolescents, via a measure dubbed the "Kiddie Mach" test. The first study was done in 1966 as a part of Dorothea Braginsky's doctoral dissertation, with the subjects being as young as 10 years old. Studies have shown that traits of Machiavellianism and other dark triad traits were already present in preschool children, and more pronounced in adolescents aged 11–17. There have been studies to measure Machiavellianism in 6 year olds using adult informants to analyze the child's behavior. Deceptive behaviors by children even as young as 3 were also investigated heavily. Peer reports suggest that children higher in Machiavellianism exhibit behaviors such as using both prosocial and coercive strategies based on how much is to be gained in a situation, and they tend to manipulate indirectly. Children who score highly on the Machiavellianism scale tend to be more successful in manipulation, do it more frequently, and are judged as better at manipulation than those who score lower. Parental levels of Machiavellianism seem to have a slight effect on the child's own level. Machiavellianism levels in fathers was positively correlated with the Machiavellianism levels of their children, but the mother's level had no significant effect. One study concluded that "parental Machiavellianism is a predictor and perhaps a cause of children's Machiavellian beliefs and their manipulative success". Machiavellianism is also correlated with childhood aggression, especially concerning the control of social hierarchies. One study found a trend upwards with respect to Machiavellianism from late childhood to adolescence, when levels of Machiavellianism are thought to peak. From adolescence throughout adulthood there is a significant and steady downward trend with regard to levels of Machiavellianism, until the age of 65 where an overall lifetime minimum is reached.

Peer ratings of children high on Machiavellianism are inconsistent, with some researchers reporting that juvenile High Machs are rated as popular, and some reporting that they are less well liked by peers. A study involving Greek children ages 8–12 noted that the children highest in Machiavellianism showed aggressive tendencies and were more likely to bully others, though the tactics varied by gender.

## Dark triad

In 1998, John McHoskey, William Worzel, and Christopher Szyarto proposed that narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy are more or less interchangeable in normal samples. Delroy L. Paulhus and McHoskey debated these perspectives at an American Psychological Association conference, inspiring a body of research that continues to grow in the published literature. Delroy Paulhus and Kevin Williams found enough differences between the traits to suggest that they were distinct despite their similarities, thus the concept of a "triad" of offensive personality traits was conceptualized. There has been research on Machiavellianism using various dark triad measures, including the Short Dark Triad (SD3), and the Dark Triad Dirty Dozen test.

### Psychopathy

Many psychologists consider Machiavellianism to be essentially indistinguishable from psychopathy, as they both share manipulative tendencies, disregard for morality, and cold callousness as their primary attributes. There is an immense and ongoing debate amongst researchers as to whether or not Machiavellianism and psychopathy should be treated as the same construct, or at least view Machiavellianism as a trait of psychopathy. When tested, High Machs scored consistently high on measures of psychopathy, more than Low Machs. Primary psychopaths also scored higher on the Machiavellianism scale than secondary psychopaths. According to John McHoskey, the MACH-IV test is merely "a global measure of psychopathy in noninstitutionalized populations", and that this is a result of the disconnect between clinical and personality psychology. Many have stated that the Machiavellianism scale measures nothing more than "successful" psychopathy, or psychopathy without the extreme clinical characteristics. Even compared to other "dark" traits, research has shown that Psychopathy correlates with Machiavellianism far more than it correlates with narcissism. Some authors have stated that Machiavellianism and psychopathy represent the issue of a jangle fallacy, as both constructs are named differently yet describe the same concept. A recent paper published in 2022 stated that Machiavellianism "is theoretically distinct from psychopathy, but empirically they are nearly indistinguishable". Beverly Fehr even suggested that psychopaths may be simply "High Machs who have had run up against the law". Robert Hare, author of the Psychopathy Checklist, stated that Machiavellianism is more closely related to PCL Factor 1, affective detachment, than to Factor 2, an antisocial lifestyle. According to Christopher Patrick, high Psychopathy Checklist scores correlated with much higher Machiavellianism scores, as well as higher scores on boldness and aggressiveness.

Researchers note that Machiavellianism is well represented in every measure of psychopathy, such as the Factor 1 characteristics on the Psychopathy Checklist, more specifically traits such as "conning/manipulative", "pathological lying,” "callous/lack of empathy", and “glibness/superficial charm”. Donald Lynam and others noted that Machiavellianism is also represented in the "Interpersonal Manipulation" factor in Hare’s Self-Report Psychopathy Scale-III and in the "Manipulation" scale in the Elemental Psychopathy Assessment. The researchers state that "ultimately, measures of psychopathy and MACH appear to be measuring the same construct, and MACH assessments fail to capture the construct as articulated in theoretical descriptions". Michael Levenson, author of the Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale disagreed with the notion of distinguishing machiavellianism from psychopathy, stating that it "does not accord" with empirical research which shows Machiavellianism being heavily related to primary psychopathy. Machiavellianism has a strong relationship with both primary and secondary psychopathy on Levenson's self report test. In experiments High Machs also scored highly on the Psychopathic Deviate subscale on the MMPI. On the Psychopathic Personality Inventory, created by Scott Lilienfeld and Brian Andrews, there is even a subscale similarly named "Machiavellian Egocentricity". The subscale is said to assess a "ruthless and self centered willingness to exploit others". Machiavellianism and psychopathy have both been negatively correlated with the recognition of facial emotions, with one study stating that "if the ability to recognise facial expressions is exclusively an affective empathy task, it indeed accounts for the facial recognition deficits found in primary psychopathy and Machiavellianism." High scores on the Triarchic Psychopathy Measure questionnaire strongly correlated with Machiavellianism.

Machiavellianism and psychopathy overlap so heavily that researchers have proposed merging the two traits into each other, preferably Machiavellianism as a facet of psychopathy. There have been attempts to combine Machiavellianism and psychopathy into one construct, such as the creation of a "Dark Dyad" as opposed to a "Dark Triad", with the exclusion of narcissism.

A recent study done on criminal psychopaths noted that Machiavellianism showed the strongest association with the affective aspect of psychopathy.

#### Difference between constructs:Impulse control

Many other psychologists state that while Machiavellianism and psychopathy overlap heavily, there is much evidence to suggest that they are distinct personality constructs. Psychologists who stress the differences between Machiavellianism and psychopathy state that, in total contrast to high Machs, psychopaths are impulsive, tend to be reckless, and lack long term planning skills. Delroy Paulhus and others have stated that this difference between the two traits is often underappreciated. Scholars also note that those high on Machiavellianism can delay gratification, and have more sensitivity to punishment and awareness of consequences than psychopaths. Though both traits have a heritable basis, Machiavellianism is more influenced by the environment than psychopathy. High Machs have been described as "master manipulators" and far better at manipulation than psychopaths and narcissists.

Daniel Jones notes that even though both psychopaths and High Machs share a manipulative and callous nature, the difference between Machiavellianism and psychopathy lies in the type of manipulation employed by the two constructs. Machiavellianism is marked by calculated planning, and manipulating only when something is to be gained, while psychopathy is marked by rashness, and manipulating regardless of situation. O'Boyle and others found however that the notion that Machiavellianism is marked by cautiousness does not match empirical research which shows that it can be correlated with reckless behavior in certain situations.

### Narcissism

Individuals high in Machiavellianism and narcissism both manipulate to improve their reputations, and how they appear to others. Individuals high in the two traits do this as a form of self aggrandizement to help their chances of success in a given situation. Machiavellianism scores were positively associated with aspects of narcissism such as entitlement and exploitativeness, and inversely associated with adaptive narcissistic tendencies, like self-sufficiency. Studies have also shown that those higher on Machiavellianism are more realistic about their character, while narcissists are less realistic about theirs. Compared to High Machs, narcissists are less malevolent and show a more socially positive personality. They also have higher levels of self-rated happiness.

Machiavellianism and narcissism both share a lack of empathy and a focus on self-interest, though the two traits differ in how they manifest in people, and what their motivations are. High Machs have tendencies to be driven by personal gain, whereas narcissists are driven by a need for validation and admiration. Opposed to those high on narcissism, High Machs tend to be more strategic and calculating in their interpersonal interactions, while narcissists may be more impulsive and attention-seeking.

In terms of social relationships, High Machs are more likely to be more exploitative towards others, while narcissists may be more likely to seek out relationships that serve to bolster their self-esteem and provide them with the admiration they desire.

Compared to subclinical narcissists, High Machs exhibit a greater lack of empathy, because of the emotional deficiencies inherent within Machiavellianism.

### White collar crime

Research has shown that individuals high in Machiavellianism may be more willing to engage in white collar crimes. Psychologist Daniel Jones has stated that "individuals higher on Machiavellianism are well suited for crimes in the financial world, especially crimes that skirt the legal system". Delroy Paulhus has stated that Machiavellianism is the main trait for white collar criminals and con artists, and not psychopathy, stating that:

Although direct research on this topic is difficult, it seems clear that malevolent stockbrokers such as Bernie Madoff do not qualify as psychopaths: They are corporate Machiavellians who use deliberate, strategic procedures for exploiting others. A genuine psychopath, even at the subclinical level, lacks the self-control to orchestrate the schemes of a shrewd stockbroker.

In a research paper, Daniel Jones and others stated that a person high on Machiavellianism would also be possibly drawn to cybercrime, noting that "although we did not directly assess crimes, we did find patterns of system infiltration that were different among the three traits, with Machiavellianism being associated with the stealthiest approach among the three traits." They also stated that Machiavellianism would only be associated with crime if the "benefits outweighed the risks". They went on to clarify that this is opposed to individuals high in psychopathy, whom are prone to crime regardless of the situation.

### Other "dark" groupings

Machiavellianism has been featured in many other groupings of dark traits, such as the dark tetrad, which adds sadism to the dark triad traits.

The paper titled "The Dark Core of Personality" introduced a theoretical framework to understand various "dark traits" in personality as manifestations of a single underlying factor called the Dark Factor of Personality. This factor represents a general dispositional tendency where individuals prioritize their own utility (self-interest) at the expense of others, often justifying their actions through certain beliefs. The concept of D encapsulates all of the main "dark traits", with the addition of Spitefulness, Egoism, Moral Disengagement, Entitlement, and Self-interest. The authors of the study argued that while Machiavellianism, along with other dark traits like Narcissism and Psychopathy, has its unique features, it also shares a common core with these traits, which is encapsulated in the D factor. This means that people who score high in Machiavellianism tend to exhibit behaviors that prioritize their own benefit over others' which correlate with characteristis that align with the D factor. It is said that manipulativeness and callousness is responsible for the covariances among the dark personalities in general.

The light triad is a personality model that contrasts the dark triad, which comprises Kantianism, faith in humanity, and humanism. Kantianism was compared to Machiavellianism as it's opposite. Both Kantianism and Machiavellianism are traits which are tongue in cheek references to philosophers. The "Light Triad" and its characteristics were most strongly negatively correlated with Machiavellianism.

## DSM: Trait, not disorder

Machiavellianism has never been considered a disorder, nor has it been referenced in any version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. It has been treated as strictly a personality construct. It is primarily studied by personality psychologists, as it is a non-clinical personality style.

## Relations with other personality traits

There is immense literature concerning the relationships between Machiavellianism and other personality dimensions, such as the traits in the Big Five trait model. Machiavellianism has also been related to interpersonal aggression and hostile behavior.

### Big Five

Mach-IV scores are negatively correlated with agreeableness (r = −0.47) and conscientiousness (r = −0.34), two dimensions of the Big Five personality model (NEO-PI-R). The FFMI corrects for this by including aspects of high conscientiousness in the scale (e.g. order, deliberation). Additionally, Machiavellianism correlates more highly with the honesty-humility dimension of the six-factor HEXACO model than with any of the big five dimensions. Machiavellianism has also been located within the interpersonal circumplex, which consists of the two independent dimensions of agency and communion. Agency refers to the motivation to succeed and to individuate the self, whereas communion refers to the motivation to merge with others and to support group interests. Machiavellianism lies in the quadrant of the circumplex defined by high agency and low communion. Machiavellianism has been found to lie diagonally opposite from a circumplex construct called self-construal, a tendency to prefer communion over agency. This suggests that people high in Machiavellianism do not simply wish to achieve, they wish to do so at the expense of (or at least without regard to) others.

### Hot and cold empathy

There are two distinct types of empathy which people use to relate to each other which are referred to as hot and cold empathy. Cold empathy (or cognitive empathy) refers to the understanding of how others might react to one's actions or a certain event. Hot empathy (or emotional/affective empathy) refers to the emotional reaction others might have to the emotions of another person. Machiavellianism was consistently negatively correlated with affective empathy in nearly every study. Machiavellianism was also negatively correlated with affective resonance (feeling good when others feel good) and positively associated with affective dissonance (e.g. feeling happy when others are sad). People high in Machiavellianism tend to have a better understanding of cold empathy and do not feel hot empathy which explains why they seem cold and uncaring. Research results have also suggested that High Machs are deficient only at the level of affective empathy (sharing of emotions), whereas their cognitive empathy is intact, even high. Another study suggested that high Machs are deficient at both kinds of empathy. Studies also assert that high Machs do not feel guilt or remorse over the consequences of their manipulations. High Machs are less likely to be altruistic, and they are less likely to be concerned with the problems of others. High Machs are also less emotionally expressive and have a hard time recognizing and understanding the emotional states of others. One study proposed that High Machs have more automatic (that is, un-conscious) recognition of other's negative emotions more than low Machs, and though they don't internalize these feelings, the understanding of those emotions may in fact aid in the manipulation of others. Children who scored higher on Machiavellianism showed a lack of empathy and more delinquent behaviors compared to those who scored lower, such as a lack of guilt, lying, cheating, and truancy.

Some authors have stated that since Machiavellianism is so diametrically opposed to empathy, it should be included in empathy scales as the polar opposite. Total scores on Machiavellianism and empathy were "significantly negatively correlated".

### Unemotionality

One of the primary traits of machiavellianism is a detached, unemotional attitude and lack of affect in regards to others. Christie and Geis noted that the primary difference between high machs and low machs was the degree of emotion invested in interpersonal relations, with those scoring high having the lowest. Research has been done on the extent of the low emotionality of those who score high on the Machiavellianism scale. Doris Mcllwain noted that "Machiavellians do not inhabit the realm of emotion in the same way as others, yet they use it to manipulate others. They do not experience feelings, empathy, or morality in normative ways. yet they are consummate manipulators and deceivers precisely by playing upon these sentiments and convictions in others. Thus they induce in others the guilt they hardly feel themselves." A study done by Farah Ali and others noted that Machiavellianism seems to have emotional reactions to stimuli similar to primary psychopathy, differing only in higher levels of anxiety, which those who score highly on machiavellianism may be prone to. Machiavellianism has an unclear relation with anxiety levels, some researchers have found positive correlations, while some have found no relation at all. High Machs demonstrate reduced skills in expressing their emotions.

A recent analysis discovered that, in addition to acting for mostly self interest and profit, High Machs used significantly less words when referring to emotional involvement. They concluded that "this study confirmed previous findings that High Machs have a cool and rational character and a pro-self orientation and showed that their lack of group orientation may account for their low cooperation in social dilemmas."

Alexithymia is also considered a key trait that is correlated heavily with Machiavellianism. It is the lack of awareness of one's own emotions as well as the emotions of others. When tested, healthy alexithymic individuals have been found to obtain high Machiavellianism scores. This was not surprising to researchers, seeing as the unemotionality of Machiavellianism shows similarities to what alexithymics experience. One study examined the relationship between alexithymia and endorsement of beliefs associated with Machiavellianism amongst university students. Results showed a positive correlation between alexithymia and exploitative beliefs, suggesting those with higher levels of alexithymia were more likely to endorse the view that manipulating others is an effective strategy.

### Neuroticism/Depression

Researchers have often debated the potential links between Machiavellianism and a neurotic, anxious disposition. In a study done by psychologists Hans Eysenck, his wife Sybil, and John Allsopp, they note that they found "virtually no relationship" between Machiavellianism and neuroticism, unlike the relationships they found with Machiavellianism and Extraversion - Psychoticism respectively. However John McHoskey found links between Machiavellianism and neuroticism, along with the other personality traits popularized by Eysenck. Studies using measures of the Big Five personality traits have variously found positive or no correlation between Machiavellianism and Neuroticism.

Machiavellianism has very scant correlations with depression, and the higher one's Machiavellianism score was, the lower their depression level was. One study even noted that depressed males "were significantly less Machiavellian than were nondepressed males". They then estimate that "depression in males, then, may be of a more self-aggressive, self-destructive nature". High Machs who have higher levels of emotional intelligence scores show less depressive symptoms.

### Motivation

A 1992 review described the motivation of those high on the Machiavellianism scale as related to cold selfishness and pure instrumentality, and those high on the trait were assumed to pursue their motives (e.g. sex, achievement, sociality) in duplicitous ways. More recent research on the motivations of high Machs compared to low Machs found that they gave high priority to money, power, and competition and relatively low priority to community building, self-love, and family commitment. High Machs admitted to focusing on unmitigated achievement and winning at any cost.

The research on behaviors which high Machs engage in suggest that they are willing to achieve their goals by bending and breaking rules, cheating, and stealing. People high in Machiavellianism are able to easily switch between working with others to taking advantage of others to achieve their goals, and they are more willing to do things others see as terrible or immoral.

### Intelligence and other cognitive skills

Due to their skill at interpersonal manipulation, there has often been an assumption that high Machs possess superior intelligence, or ability to understand other people in social situations. Recent research provides some support for this assumption. However, other research has established that Machiavellianism is unrelated to IQ. Paulhus and Williams found "significant associations of psychopathy and Machiavellianism with a relatively higher nonverbal to verbal IQ score".

Studies on emotional intelligence have usually found that high Machiavellianism is associated with low emotional intelligence as assessed by both performance and questionnaire measures.

Research has examined the relationship between trait emotional intelligence (EI), Machiavellianism, and the personality trait of agreeableness. The findings of one paper revealed that while trait EI and the ability to manage others' emotions were negatively correlated with Machiavellianism, this relationship was mediated by agreeableness. Specifically, those high in trait EI tended to be low in Machiavellianism primarily because they were high in agreeableness, reflecting a cooperative and prosocial nature. One study found that Machiavellianism was negatively associated with most facets of socio-emotional intelligence (SEI), including social expressivity, social sensitivity, emotional expressivity, and emotional sensitivity. However, Machiavellianism showed no significant relationship with emotional control, which involves regulating one's own emotional displays. Machiavellianism was positively associated with emotional manipulation, the tendency to strategically influence others' emotions. Despite this association, Machiavellianism did not moderate the relationship between any facet of SEI and emotional manipulation. This suggests that while High Machs have a propensity for emotionally manipulative behavior, they may not be utilizing socio-emotional skills towards that end. The authors propose this could be due to the High Mach's externally-oriented and unemotional perspective.

Both emotional empathy and emotion recognition have been shown to have negative correlations with Machiavellianism. Additionally, research has shown that Machiavellianism is unrelated to a more advanced theory of mind, that is, the ability to anticipate what others are thinking in social situations. However, research results have suggested the contrary viewpoint that high Machiavellianism is associated with excellent theory of mind skills.

When it comes to manipulation, individuals high in Machiavellianism may, according to Bereczkei, "have certain cognitive and social skills that enable them to properly adapt to the challenges of environmental circumstances". They also are incredibly perceptive to the presence of others, and are able to feign altruism to enhance their reputation. A recent study investigated whether Machiavellianism is associated with the production of "bullshit" - inaccurate or meaningless information intended to impress, persuade or mislead. The researchers found that the manipulative aspect of Machiavellianism (Machiavellian approach) was linked to "persuasive bullshitting", aimed at gaining desired resources. The distrustful aspect (Machiavellian avoidance) was associated with "evasive bullshitting", spreading vague information to prevent disadvantages. Those high in Machiavellian avoidance were even better at distinguishing misinformation from valuable information.

### Neurological studies

There have been few studies on the neural correlates of Machiavellianism. Research has shown that Machiavellianism has been correlated with changes in gray matter in the areas of the basal ganglia, left prefrontal cortex, bilaterally in the insula, and in the right hippocampus and the left parahippocampal gyrus. Researcher Tamas Bereczkei stated that the manipulation skill in High Machs is associated with neural correlates that are responsible for decision making. He also noted that behaviors associated with Machiavellianism need to "recruit more neural resources than a honest behavior, especially when manipulators face a cooperative partner as a potential victim. Machiavellians have to inhibit the norm of reciprocity and, additionally, generate an opposite response." Machiavellianism has also been linked with lesions in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Frontal dysfunction was also linked with Machiavellianism. Daniel Jones also concluded that those who score high on Machiavellianism have the "neurological structure of a strategic manipulator". The activation of the task-positive network (TPN) and the default mode network (DMN) have also been associated with a lack of genuine empathy, and also have been observed in Machiavellianism. A recent study linked regional gray matter volume in the left superior frontal gyrus to both Machiavellianism and social aggression, which is "intentional antisocial behavior directed to damage others’ social reputations or interpersonal relationships through socially manipulative tactics".

## Social relationships

The effects that one's level of Machiavellianism has on a person's socialization and interpersonal relationships, such as friendships and romantic relationships, has been studied extensively. High Machs are highly likely to ingratiate themselves within social groups via compliments and conforming their opinions to those around them. High Machs are more than likely to choose better quality friends, as they have a better time at guessing who is a good person and thus more pliable for manipulation. Machiavellianism was also correlated with withdrawal and avoidance in romantic relationships. Individuals high in all dark triad traits find it easy to end relationships, and tend to prefer short-term relationships over long term ones. Studies done on courtship showed that women higher on machiavellianism tend to go on dates not for sexual reasons but for free food, a phenomenon known as a "foodie call". Because a lack of empathy and affect with regards to others is one of the main features of Machiavellianism, individuals high on the trait tend to act in a utilitarian, self interested manner, prefer emotionally detached relationships, and are not concerned with the other person's needs. High machs report lower relationship satisfaction than those lower on the scale. Though there has been research on the potential "attractiveness" of the dark triad traits, out of all of the traits in the dark triad, Machiavellianism was the least attractive to the opposite sex. One of the studies concluded that "The third DT trait, Machiavellianism, was significantly negatively associated with being chosen and mate appeal for STR in women." Another study claimed that this was because high Machs tend to be way less extroverted than narcissists and psychopaths, and that "it is possible that individuals do not like cynical, manipulative, aggressive, remorseless, and duplicitous people such as Machiavellians and psychopaths".

Like the other dark triad traits, those high on Machiavellianism have been reportedly more willing to troll or flame others on the internet, however a 2021 study found no particularly strong connection between trolling and dark personality traits. Machiavellianism has also been correlated with a higher than average belief in conspiracy theories. Because of their emphasis on hierarchy, high scorers in Machiavellianism were also found with higher levels of prejudice, and higher social dominance orientation scores.

### Gender differences

Research has consistently shown that men score higher than women in Machiavellianism. There is evidence to suggest that Machiavellianism is represented differently in both sexes, with men being more opportunistic, self confident, and willing to take risks, while women higher in Machiavellianism are more likely to be avoidant and have anxious features. While only psychopathy was an indicator of future infidelity amongst men, both psychopathy and Machiavellianism were predictors amongst women. The findings of one research paper showed that men, but not women, high in Machiavellianism were non-impulsive and high in planning, which suggests that the apparent impulsivity of Machiavellianism may be a question of gender. Peter Jonason suggested that the reason why men score much higher than women in dark triad traits is because men require less emotional connection in order to get ahead in life.

### Cross-cultural studies

There have been many studies on how Machiavellianism is presented in people from different countries and with different cultures. Multiple studies found that in nearly all countries, men scored higher than women in Machiavellianism, and that the gender differences were notable. The populations of many other countries varied from their western counterparts in their levels of dark triad traits overall, which the authors of one study attributed to sociopolitical factors and levels of economic engagement. In another cross cultural study, Machiavellianism also showed associations with limited interactive or normative values. A study investigated the relationship between emotion recognition and dark personality traits (including Machiavellianism) across cultures. The effects were gender and culture-dependent. Among both German males and females, Machiavellianism showed strong positive associations with emotionally manipulative tactics. Some scholars noted an issue with many cross cultural studies on machiavellianism, primarily that "researchers have used measures of Machiavellianism (Mach IV) which were derived from Western concepts and which may not have similar meanings when applied to non-Western groups."

### Aggression and antisocial behavior

Machiavellianism has little association with the outright display of overt aggression. Those high in Machiavellianism tend to be more more aggressive to short term as opposed to long term partners. While Machiavellianism is associated with hostility, those high on the trait may mask it depending on the manipulation tactic used. Machiavellianism also is associated with the tuning of aggression to the benefit long term objectives, only engaging in antisocial behavior when the stakes are low and it proffers benefits, unlike psychopathy and narcissism. In a study by Delroy Paulhus and Daniel Jones, High Machs were found to refrain from cheating under risky situations, preferring to sustain their reputation for the long term than to engage in short term financial gain. The authors then state that High Machs may cheat under high risk scenarios, but only when "ego-depleted", which then makes their behavior appear similar to those of psychopaths. McHoskey found that MACH is associated with "cheating, divulging intimate sexual secrets to third parties, and both feigning love and inducing intoxication to secure sex". He also suggested that Machiavellianism is correlated with an extensive focus on financial gain, and is also correlated with antisocial behaviors such as stealing, vandalism, and cheating as opposed to prosocial actions like helping others.

## In the workplace

Machiavellianism is also studied by organizational psychologists, especially those who study manipulative behaviors in workplace settings. Workplace behaviors associated with this concept include flattery, deceit, coercion, and the abuse of others through one's position of leadership. These behaviors in the workplace are ultimately done to advance personal interests. Research has shown that one's level of Machiavellianism can be a major factor in situations where workplace manipulation is involved because this trait can have an effect on the ability for an individual to "fit" into a highly political work environment. Research has found individuals with Dark Triad traits are drawn to entrepreneurship. Certain qualities found in the Dark Triad are similar to traits needed for effective entrepreneurship, such as confidence, charisma and risk taking.

### Career choice and advancement

Individuals high in machiavellianism tend to gravitate towards particular careers, especially those that require a high degree of competitiveness needed to succeed. High Machs are ambitious enough to cut corners and use aggressive means if it is necessary to get ahead in their careers. One study found that "Machiavellianism was positively related to leadership position and career satisfaction". Individuals high in machiavellianism are especially drawn to leadership and management positions, which became an important subject in the primary literature. Sales careers also attract dark triad individuals, with one study stating that such individuals are "prevalent" in the industry. One study noted that those who possess high Machiavellianism levels "are more productive but received lower overall managerial ratings", and that "Machiavellianism may in certain circumstances, be somewhat advantageous for long-term sales performance." Machiavellianism was also associated with the use of "hard" (i.e. aggressive and hostile behavior) and "soft" (i.e. joking/kidding, offering compliments) tactics in the workforce. One's political skill in the workplace and elsewhere may even mask the behaviors and characteristics associated with machiavellianism.

It was shown that those high on Machiavellianism are more drawn to academic majors like economics, law, and politics, as opposed to the "person-oriented" majors like education, nursing, and social work that were associated with lower Machiavellianism scores.

## Scale Evaluation

### Dimensions of the MACH scale

Although there have been a myriad of proposed factor structures, two dimensions emerge most consistently within factor-analytic research which separates the views from the behaviors in Machiavellianism. Although many posit that the Mach IV scale is unable to reliably capture the two dimensions, a 10-item subset of the scale known as the "two-dimensional Mach IV" (TDM-V), reproduces the views and tactics dimensions across countries, genders, sample types, and scale category length. The "Views" dimension appears to capture the neurotic, narcissistic, pessimistic, and distrustful aspects of Machiavellianism, while the "Tactics" component captures the more unconscientious, self-serving, and deceitful behavioral aspects. More recently, in response to criticisms of the Mach-IV, researchers developed the Five-Factor Machiavellianism Inventory (FFMI), which attempts to include concepts (like being calculated and planful) that are not adequately captured by the Mach-IV.

### Construct validity and criticism

There has been debate on how valid scales of Machiavellianism are in tapping the construct. It is often stated by those critical of Machiavellianism scales that it does not actually measure the theoretical trait, but something nearly identical to psychopathy and narcissism. For example, it is often stated that Machiavellianism is marked by less impulsivity and better long term thinking as opposed to psychopathy, but some empirical research shows that even High Machs can act impulsive in certain scenarios. Lynam and others stated "we suggest that existing measures of Machiavellianism are functioning as proxy measures of psychopathy." Psychologist John Rauthmann viewed the MACH-IV as more of a measure of cynicism, and that it doesn't really capture other qualities of Machiavellianism.

Most of the research done on Machiavellianism has been done with either the Mach IV or Mach V, though the Mach V is no longer in use due to psychometric issues. Many have expressed concerns with the reliability of the Mach IV scale to capture all of the features of Machiavellianism, thus many proposals have been made in favor of other Machiavellianism scales.

John Rauthmann and others have stated that, while the MACH-IV is "a generally reliable and valid scale", it has its shortcomings. These include the response styles of the test takers, the varying factor structures, and "insufficient content and construct validity". The researchers developed their own scale instead to study Machiavellianism multidimensionally instead of unidimensionally to prevent the construct from becoming hard to study effectively. Psychologist Jason Dahling and others have created another measure of Machiavellianism, dubbed the Machiavellian Personality Scale (or MPS for short).

Daniel Jones has stated that the MACH IV, despite all of its merits, is an "outdated instrument" and "is not helping the field with precision". He ultimately states that it "should be replaced by assessments that are more precise reflections of the construct."

### Application of the scale in other research

In 2002, the Machiavellianism scale of Christie and Geis was applied by behavioral game theorists Anna Gunnthorsdottir, Kevin McCabe and Vernon L. Smith in their search for explanations for the spread of observed behavior in experimental games, in particular individual choices which do not correspond to assumptions of material self-interest captured by the standard Nash equilibrium prediction. It was found that in a trust game, those with high Mach-IV scores tended to follow Homo economicus ' equilibrium strategies while those with low Mach-IV scores tended to deviate from the equilibrium, and instead made choices that reflected widely accepted moral standards and social preferences.

A study done by David Wilson and other researchers noted that while High Machs tend to defect from their groups, they are also unlikely to succeed in the long term simply by manipulating others, and that some cooperation is necessary for further success and to avoid a situation in which they are retaliated against. Wilson also noted that since those who are high in Machiavellianism often come across as charming and attractive in brief social encounters, it is unclear whether they are being deceitful or just very skilled socially. The researchers had people who scored high and low on Machiavellianism write first-person stories. Other participants then evaluated these stories. The results showed that people with low Machiavellianism tended to be more cooperative, while those with high Machiavellianism were more exploitative. Based on these stories, high Machs were generally rejected as social partners, except when their manipulative skills could be used against members of other groups.

## Sources