The House of the Dead (novel)

# The House of the Dead (novel)

## Abstract

The House of the Dead (Russian: Записки из Мёртвого дома, Zapiski iz Myortvogo doma) is a semi-autobiographical novel published in 1860–2 in the journal Vremya by Russian author Fyodor Dostoevsky. It has also been published in English under the titles Notes from the House of the Dead, Memoirs from the House of the Dead and Notes from a Dead House, which are more literal translations of the Russian title.

The novel portrays the life of convicts in a Siberian prison camp. It is generally considered to be a fictionalised memoir; a loosely-knit collection of descriptions, events and philosophical discussion, organised around theme and character rather than plot, based on Dostoevsky's own experiences as a prisoner in such a setting. Dostoevsky spent four years in a forced-labour prison camp in Siberia following his conviction for involvement in the Petrashevsky Circle. This experience allowed him to describe with great authenticity the conditions of prison life and the characters of the convicts.

## Background

After his mock execution on 22 December 1849, Dostoevsky was sentenced to four years imprisonment in a katorga labor camp at Omsk in western Siberia. Though he often was met with hostility from the other prisoners due to his noble status of dvoryanin, his views on life changed. After his time in the camps and a further six years of exile Dostoevsky returned to Petersburg and wrote The House of the Dead. The novel incorporates several of the horrifying experiences he witnessed while in prison. He recalls the guards' brutality and relish performing unspeakably cruel acts, the crimes that the convicted criminals committed, and the fact that among these hardened criminals there were good and decent individuals. However, he is also astonished at the convicts' abilities to commit murders without the slightest change in conscience. It was a stark contrast to his own heightened sensitivity. During this time in prison he began experiencing the epileptic seizures that would plague him for the rest of his life.

## Plot

The narrator, Aleksandr Petrovich Goryanchikov, has been sentenced to deportation to Siberia and ten years of hard labour for murdering his wife. Life in prison is particularly hard for Aleksandr Petrovich, since he is a "gentleman" and suffers the malice of the other prisoners, nearly all of whom belong to the peasantry. Gradually Goryanchikov overcomes his revulsion at his situation and his fellow convicts, undergoing a spiritual awakening that culminates with his release from the camp. Dostoevsky portrays the inmates of the prison with sympathy for their plight, and also expresses admiration for their courage, energy, ingenuity and talent. He concludes that the existence of the prison, with its absurd practices and savage corporal punishments, is a tragic fact, both for the prisoners and for Russia.

Though the novel has no readily identifiable plot in the conventional sense, events and descriptions are carefully organized around the narrator's gradual insight into the true nature of the prison-camp and the other prisoners. It is primarily in this sense that the novel is autobiographical: Dostoevsky wrote later, in A Writer's Diary and elsewhere, about the transformation he underwent during his imprisonment, as he slowly overcame his preconceptions and his repulsion, attaining a new understanding of the intense humanity and moral qualities of those around him.

## Narration

The first chapter, entitled "Ten years a convict", is an introduction written by an unnamed acquaintance of Goryanchikov. This narrator discusses Goryanchikov's background as a convict, his crime and his sentence, and the nature of his life as a Siberian colonist after his release. He describes Goryanchikov's intense personality and reclusive behaviour from the superficial and detached perspective of a new acquaintance who has developed a curiosity about him. He records that, upon hearing of Goryanchikov's death, he had managed to acquire some papers from the landlady, among which were the memoirs of prison life. He describes them as "incoherent and fragmentary... interrupted, here and there, either by anecdotes, or by strange, terrible recollections thrown in convulsively as if torn from the writer." These memoirs, with Goryanchikov himself narrating, constitute the rest of the novel.

## Characters

Many of the characters in the novel were based on real-life people that Dostoevsky met while in prison. However, there was a degree of alteration or embellishment in some characters and events for the sake of imparting greater depth to his themes.

The Major, the violent-tempered, tyrannical governor of the prison. He is described by Alexander Petrovich as "a spiteful, ill-regulated man, terrible above all things, because he possessed almost absolute power over two hundred human beings." Referred to by the prisoners as "the man with the eight eyes" due to his apparent omniscience, he is universally despised and feared.

Akim Akimitch, one of the few other noblemen in the prison, befriends Alexander Petrovich and teaches him about the ways of prison life. He is a former officer who was sentenced for unilaterally ordering an illegal execution. Alexander Petrovich considers Akim Akimitch to be incapable of independent intelligence and wholly bound to notions of duty and obedience. He is conscientious, precise, excitable and argumentative, and assumes the role of a moral remonstrator with the other convicts, who, while afraid of him, also laugh at him and consider him a bit mad.

A parricide. The second convict Alexander Petrovich mentions is not referred to by name, but his character and crime (killing his father to obtain his inheritance) are discussed in some detail. He is described as always "in the liveliest, merriest spirits", and unwavering in his denial of his guilt, a denial that Goryanchikov is inclined to believe. The real life person upon whom this character was based (D. I. Ilyinsky) was later freed after another man confessed to the crime. The main elements of his story became the central theme of The Brothers Karamazov and the initial inspiration for the character of Dimitri Karamazov.

Aristov an exceptionally corrupt and perverted nobleman who acts as a spy and informer. Repelled by his depravity, Alexander Petrovich refuses to enter in to relations with him. He is a man utterly submitted to corporeality and the basest impulses, with a conscience guided only by cold calculation. Alexander Petrovich says of him that "if he wanted a drink of brandy, and could only have got it by killing some one, he would not have hesitated one moment if it was pretty certain the crime would not come out."

Gazin, an immensely strong, violent criminal, in prison for, among other things, torturing and murdering small children. He creates a shocking and repulsive impression on everyone else. According to Alexander Petrovich: "It was less by his great height and his herculean construction, than by his enormous and deformed head, that he inspired terror."

Orloff, a notorious criminal and escapee, whom Alexander Petrovich describes as "a brilliant example of the victory of spirit over matter", unlike some other prisoners whose fearfulness proceeded more from their complete submission to matter. He undergoes extreme corporal punishment but is unbowed and quickly recovers his strength and spirit.

Luka has murdered six people, occasionally brags of it, and wishes to be feared for it, but in fact no one in the prison is the least bit afraid of him. For Alexander Petrovich he represents a particular type:

When once he has passed the fatal line, he is himself astonished to find that nothing sacred exists for him. He breaks through all laws, defies all powers, and gives himself boundless license... From time to time, the murderer will amuse himself by recalling his audacity, his lawlessness when he was in a state of despair. He likes at these moments to have some silly fellow before whom he can brag... "That is the sort of man I am," he says.

Petrov, an externally quiet and polite man who befriends Alexander Petrovich and often seeks his company, apparently for edification on matters of knowledge. Alexander Petrovich finds it hard to reconcile Petrov's sincere friendship and unfailing courtesy with the ever-present potential (attributed to him by all the other prisoners, including Alexander Petrovich) for the most extreme violence. In this sense, Petrov is thought to be the most dangerous and determined man in the prison.

Ali a beautiful-souled young Tatar, imprisoned with his two older brothers. He has a gentle and innocent yet strong and stoical nature, and is much beloved by Alexander Petrovich and many of the others. "How this young man preserved his tender heart, his native honesty, his frank cordiality without getting perverted and corrupted during his period of hard labour, is quite inexplicable."

Isaiah Fomitch a Jew who becomes a great friend of Alexander Petrovich. He is small, feeble and cunning, capable of both abject cowardice and great courage, laughed at constantly by the other prisoners, but at the same time "inexhaustibly good humoured". He has scars on his forehead and cheeks from burns received while in the pillory. In the bath-room scene, where all the convicts are crowded together for a steam bath, Alexander Petrovich describes the hellish chaos of bodies, heat and steam:

From this cloud stood out torn backs, shaved heads; and, to complete the picture, Isaiah Fomitch howling with joy on the highest of the benches. He was saturating himself with steam. Any other man would have fainted away, but no temperature is too high for him; he engages the services of a rubber for a kopeck, but after a few moments the latter is unable to continue, throws away his bunch of twigs, and runs to inundate himself with cold water. Isaiah Fomitch does not lose courage, he runs to hire a second rubber, then a third; on these occasions he thinks nothing of expense, and changes his rubber four or five times. "He stews well, the gallant Isaiah Fomitch," cry the convicts from below. The Jew feels that he goes beyond all the others, he has beaten them; he triumphs with his hoarse falsetto voice, and sings out his favourite air which rises above the general hubbub.

## Reception

The House of the Dead was the only work by Dostoevsky that Leo Tolstoy revered. He saw it as exalted religious art, inspired by deep faith and love of humanity. Turgenev, who was also not enamored of Dostoevsky's larger scale fiction (particularly Demons and Crime and Punishment), described the bath-house scene from House of the Dead as "simply Dantesque". Herzen echoed the comparison to Dante and further compared the description of Siberian prison life to "a fresco in the spirit of Michelangelo". Frank suggests that the memoir-novel's popularity with those who might ordinarily be antipathetic to Dostoevsky's prose style, is due to the composed and neutral tone of its narration and the vividness of the descriptive writing: "The intense dramatism of the fiction is here replaced by a calm objectivity of presentation; there is little close analysis of interior states of mind, and there are marvelous descriptive passages that reveal Dostoevsky's ability as an observer of the external world."

Ludwig Wittgenstein considered the book Dostoevsky's greatest work.

## Editions

### English translations

## Adaptations

In 1927–1928, Leoš Janáček wrote an operatic version of the novel, with the title From the House of the Dead. It was his last opera.

In 1932 The House of the Dead was made into a film, directed by Vasili Fyodorov and starring Nikolay Khmelyov. The script was devised by the Russian writer and critic Viktor Shklovsky who also had a role as an actor.


List of American Solheim Cup golfers

# List of American Solheim Cup golfers

## Abstract

This is a list of all the golfers who represented the United States in the Solheim Cup from the first staging in 1990 through to 2024.

## Players

+ Selected or qualified for the team but withdrew and was replaced. * Heather Bowie later became Heather Bowie Young. Dottie Pepper was called Dottie Mochrie from 1990 to 1994. Ally Ewing played as Ally McDonald in 2019.

## Playing record

Source:

O = Overall, S = Singles matches, Fs = Foursome matches, Fb = Fourball matches W = Matches won, L = Matches lost, H = Matches halved

## Record American point winners

## Family relationships

Jessica Korda and Nelly Korda are sisters. They played together in the 2019 and 2021 Solheim Cups.


Al-Naft SC

# Al-Naft SC

## Abstract

Al Naft Sports Club (Arabic: نادي النفط الرياضي, lit. ' Oil Sports Club ') is an Iraqi professional sports club based in the Adhamiyah District, East Districts of the Tigris River, Baghdad. Their football team plays in the highest division in Iraq which is the Iraq Stars League, which they have never been relegated from.

## History

Al-Naft Sports Club was established in 1979 by the Ministry of Oil, and was officially registered in the Ministry of Youth and Sports in 1982. In the 1985 season the team played in the Iraqi Premier League for the first time, and finished in the penultimate position that season, and have remained in the Premier League since then. The club's football team were runners-up of the Al-Nasr wal-Salam Cup in 1996, the Durand Cup in 1996, the Umm al-Ma'arik Championship in 1998, and the Iraqi Premier League in 2017, and qualified to play in the Arab Club Champions Cup. In the 2018–19 Arab Club Champions Cup, Al-Naft managed to overcome the Tunisian club: CS Sfaxien and expelled it from the championship and qualify for the round 16, but then lost to the Saudi club: Al-Hilal, and left the tournament.

## Honours

### Domestic

- Iraq Stars League Runners-up (1): 2016–17

- Runners-up (1): 2016–17

- Umm al-Ma'arik Championship Runners-up (1): 1998–99

- Runners-up (1): 1998–99

### Continental

- Arab Club Champions Cup: 1 appearance Second Round: 2018–19

- Second Round: 2018–19

### Invitational

- Durand Cup (India) Runners-up (1): 1996

- Runners-up (1): 1996

## Current squad

### First-team squad

Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.

### Out on loan

Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.

## Personnel

### Current technical staff

Updated to match played 23 September 2021 Source: kooora.com

### Board members

Updated to match played 5 April 2012 Source: Ninanews.com

## Managerial history

Since the club's promotion to the Iraqi Premier League in the 1985–86 season so far, twenty six coaches have led the team:

- Fakhri Mohammed Salman (1979–1983)

- Dhargham Mahdi Al-Haidari (1983–1984)

- Khalaf Hassan (1984–1985)

- Kadhim Al-Rubaie (1985–1986)

- Wathiq Naji (1986–1989)

- Anwar Jassam (1988–1989)

- Jamal Salih (1989–1990)

- Anwar Jassam (1991–1992)

- Mejbel Fartous (1992–1994)

- Amer Jameel (1994–1995)

- Abdelilah Abdul-Hameed (1995–1997)

- Nadhim Shaker (1997)

- Amer Jameel (1997–1998)

- Razzak Khazal (1998)

- Mohammed Ali Al-Sheikhli (1998–1999)

- Maad Ibrahim (1999–2001)

- Hamed Salman (2001–2002)

- Mohammed Tabra (2002)

- Ali Hussein Yassin (2002)

- Abdelilah Abdul-Hameed (2002–2003)

- Wathiq Aswad (2003)

- Jabar Hamed (2003–2004)

- Mohammed Ali Al-Sheikhli (2004)

- Hamed Salman (2004–2005)

- Salam Hashim (2005)

- Hamed Salman (2005–2007)

- Mohammed Ali Al-Sheikhli (2007)

- Mohammed Jassim (2007)

- Younis Abid Ali (2007–2008)

- Sabah Abdul-Jalil (2008–2009)

- Hamed Salman (2009–2010)

- Sabah Abdul-Jalil (2010–2011)

- Ali Wahab (2011)

- Sabah Abdul-Jalil (2011–2012)

- Nadhim Shaker (2012)

- Shaker Mahmoud (2012–2013

- Jamal Ali (2013)

- Basim Qasim (2013–2014)

- Sabah Abdul-Jalil (2014

- Thair Jassam (2014–2015)

- Hassan Ahmed (2015–2019)

- Basim Qasim (2019–2019)

- Yahya Alwan (2019–2021)

- Basim Qasim (2021–present)


New River tree frog

# New River tree frog

## Abstract

The New River tree frog (Trachycephalus hadroceps) is a species of frog in the family Hylidae found in French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, and possibly Brazil. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.


Ohrid

# Ohrid

## Abstract

41°07′01″N 20°48′06″E / 41.11694°N 20.80167°E

Ohrid (Macedonian: Охрид) is a city in North Macedonia and is the seat of the Ohrid Municipality. It is the largest city on Lake Ohrid and the eighth-largest city in the country, with the municipality recording a population of over 42,000 inhabitants as of 2002. Ohrid is known for once having 365 churches, one for each day of the year, and has been referred to as the "Jerusalem of the Balkans". The city is rich in picturesque houses and monuments, and tourism is predominant. It is located southwest of Skopje, west of Resen and Bitola. In 1979 and in 1980, respectively, Ohrid and Lake Ohrid were accepted as Cultural and Natural World Heritage Sites by UNESCO. Ohrid is one of only 28 sites that are part of UNESCO's World Heritage that are Cultural as well as Natural sites.

## Name

In antiquity the city was known under the ancient Greek name of Λυχνίς (Lychnis) and Λυχνιδός (Lychnidos) and the Latin Lychnidus, probably meaning "city of light", literally "a precious stone that emits light", from λύχνος (lychnos), "lamp, portable light". Polybius, writing in the second century BC, refers to the town as Λυχνίδιον - Lichnidion.

The evolution of the ancient toponym Lychnidus into Oh(ë)r(id) required a long-standing period of Tosk Albanian – Eastern South Slavic bilingualism, or at least contact, resulting from the Tosk Albanian rhotacism -n- into -r- and Eastern South Slavic l-vocalization ly- into o-.

It became capital of the First Bulgarian Empire in the early medieval period, and was often referred to by Byzantine writers as Achrida (Ἄχριδα, Ὄχριδα, or Ἄχρις). By 879 AD, the town was no longer called Lychnidos but was referred to as Ohrid.

In Macedonian and the other South Slavic languages, the name of the city is Ohrid (Охрид). In Albanian, the city is known as Ohër or Ohri and in modern Greek Ochrida (Οχρίδα, Ωχρίδα) and Achrida (Αχρίδα). The name of the city in Aromanian is Ohãrda.

## History

Illyrians (Enchele, Dassaretii) –3rd century BC Kingdom of Macedonia 210 BC-208 BC Kingdom of Dardania 208 BC-170 BC Kingdom of Macedonia 170 BC-148 BC Roman Republic 148 BC - 27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – 395 Byzantine Empire 395–842 First Bulgarian Empire 842–1018 Byzantine Empire 1018–1083 Bohemond I 1083–1085 Byzantine Empire 1085–1203 Second Bulgarian Empire 1203–1208 Strez 1208–1214 Epirus and Thessalonica 1214–1230 Second Bulgarian Empire 1230–1263 Byzantine Empire ~1250–1334 Serbian Empire 1334 - ~1336 Gropa family ~1336 – ??? Lordship of Prilep ??? – ~1373 Gropa family ~1373–1395 Ottoman Empire 1395–1464 League of Lezhë 1464-1466 Ottoman Empire 1466–1912 Kingdom of Serbia 1912–1915 Kingdom of Bulgaria 1915–1918 Kingdom of Yugoslavia 1918–1941 Kingdom of Bulgaria 1941–1944 SFR Yugoslavia 1944–1991 Macedonia / North Macedonia 1991–present

### Antiquity

The earliest inhabitants of the widest Lake Ohrid region were the Illyrian tribes of Enchele and Dassaretii. According to a tradition the town was founded by Cadmus, the Phoenician king of Thebes, who fled to Enchele after being banished from Boeotia. In addition to Ohrid, called Lychnidos (Ancient Greek: Λυχνιδός) in classical antiquity, he is said to have founded Budva in Montenegro. Lychnidos was the capital city of the Illyrian Dassaretii.

According to recent excavations, this was a town as early as of the era of king Philip II of Macedon. They conclude that Samuil's Fortress was built on the site of an earlier fortification, dated to the 4th century BC. In 210 BCE, Philip V of Macedon raided a number of southern Illyrian communities. He maintained a garrison at Lychnidos but lost control of the settlement in 208 BCE, when its commander joined local leader Aeropus and invited the Dardani in the region.

During the Roman conquests, towards the end of 3rd and the beginning of 2nd century BC, Lychnidus is mentioned as a town near or within Dassaretia. In Roman times, it was located along the Via Egnatia, which connected the Adriatic port Dyrrachion (present-day Durrës) with Byzantium. Archaeological excavations (e.g., the Polyconch Basilica from the 5th century) prove an early adoption of Christianity in the area. Bishops from Lychnidos participated in multiple ecumenical councils.

### Middle Ages

The South Slavs began to arrive in the area during the 6th century AD. By the early 7th century, it was colonized by a Slavic tribe known as the Berziti. Bulgaria conquered the city around 840.

The name Ohrid first appeared in 879. The Ohrid Literary School, established in 886 by Clement of Ohrid, became one of the two major cultural centres of the First Bulgarian Empire. Between 990 and 1015, Ohrid was the empire's capital and stronghold.

From 990 to 1018, Ohrid was also the seat of the Bulgarian Patriarchate. After the Byzantine reconquest of the city in 1018 by Basil II, the Bulgarian Patriarchate was downgraded to an Archbishopric of Ohrid, and placed under the authority of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople.

The higher clergy after 1018 was almost invariably Greek, including during the period of Ottoman domination, until the abolition of the archbishopric in 1767. At the beginning of the 16th century, the archbishopric reached its peak, subordinating the Sofia, Vidin, Vlach and Moldavian eparchies, part of the former medieval Serbian Patriarchate of Peć, (including Patriarchal Monastery of Peć itself), and even the Orthodox districts of Italy (Apulia, Calabria and Sicily), Venice and Dalmatia.

As an episcopal city, Ohrid was a cultural center of great importance for the Balkans. Almost all surviving churches were built by the Byzantines and by the Bulgarians, with the rest dating back to the short time of Serbian rule during the late Middle Ages.

Bohemond, leading a Norman army from southern Italy, took the city in 1083. The Byzantines regained it in 1085. In the 13th and 14th century, the city changed hands between the Despotate of Epirus, the Bulgarian, Byzantine and Serbian Empires, and Albanian rulers. In the mid-13th century, Ohrid was one of the cities ruled by Pal Gropa, a member of the Albanian noble Gropa family. In a text by Emperor John VI Kantakouzenos, there is mention of nomadic Albanians present in the vicinity of Ohrid at around 1328. The presence of the Turkish community dates from their settlement in Ohrid during 1451–81.

In 1334, the city was captured by Stefan Uroš IV Dušan and incorporated in the Serbian Empire. After Dusan's death, the city came under the control of Andrea Gropa. After his death, Prince Marko incorporated it in the Kingdom of Prilep.

In the early 1370s, Marko lost Ohrid to Pal II Gropa, another member of the Gropa family, and unsuccessfully tried to recapture it in 1375 with Ottoman assistance.

In 1395, the Ottomans under Bayezid I captured the city, which became the seat of the newly established Sanjak of Ohrid. Some time after Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg had liberated Krujë to begin his rebellion, his troops—in coordination with Gjergj Arianiti and Zahari Gropa (of the local Albanian Gropa noble family)—liberated Ohrid and the castle of Svetigrad.

From 14–15 September 1464, 12,000 Albanian troops of the League of Lezhë and 1,000 of the Republic of Venice defeated a 14,000-man Ottoman force near the city in the Battle of Ohrid. When Mehmed II returned from Albania after his actions against Skanderbeg in 1466, he dethroned Dorotheos, the Archbishop of Ohrid, and expatriated him—together with his clerks and boyars and considerable number of citizens of Ohrid—to Istanbul, probably because of their anti-Ottoman activities during Skanderbeg's rebellion amid which many citizens of Ohrid, including Dorotheos and his clergy, supported Skanderbeg and his fight.

### Ottoman period

During the 16th century, Ohrid was located in the Sanjak of Ohrid. In the years 1529-1536, Sanjak of Ohrid had 33,271 households (32,648 Christians and 623 Muslims), with 1331 widows and 3392 unmarried singles. There were 859 settlements and 10 cities, with an average of 28.7 houses per settlement. Ohrid itself had 337 Christian families, 44 unmarried singles, 12 widows and 93 Muslim families. In 1583, the Sanjak of Ohrid was made up of several Kazas, including the Kaza of Ohrid, which were in turn made of Nahiyes; the Ottoman Defter recorded, within the Nahiya of Ohrid, 2,920 Christian homes, 627 unmarried singles and 465 Muslim families within a total of 107 settlements. In 1889, according to a French research, the city had 2.500-3.000 houses and approximately 12.000 individuals, of which 2/3 were Bulgarians and Vlachs and the rest 1/3 were Albanophone Muslims with 20-25 Slavophone Greek families. The Christian population declined during the first centuries of Ottoman rule. In 1664, there were only 142 Christian households. The situation changed in the 18th century when Ohrid emerged as an important trade center on a major trade route. At the end of this century it had around five thousand inhabitants.

Towards the end of the 18th century and in the early part of the 19th century, Ohrid region, like other parts of European Turkey, was a hotbed of unrest. In the 19th century the region of Ohrid became part of the Pashalik of Scutari, ruled by the Bushati family.

After the Christian population of the bishopric of Ohrid voted on a plebiscite in 1874 overwhelmingly in favour of joining the Bulgarian Exarchate (97%), the Exarchate became in control of the area. In 1889, Gustav Weigand discovered in Ohrid the important Codex Dimonie, a collection of Aromanian-language religious texts. In statistics gathered by Vasil Kanchov in 1900, the city of Ohrid was inhabited by 8000 Bulgarians, 5000 Turks, 500 Muslim Albanians, 300 Christian Albanians, 460 Vlachs and 600 Romani. The Bulgarian researcher Vasil Kanchov wrote in 1900 that many Albanians declared themselves as Turks. Ohrid, the population that declared itself Turkish "was of Albanian blood", but it "had been Turkified after the Ottoman invasion, including Skanderbeg", referring to Islamization.

The majority of the Christian inhabitants of the city were under the supremacy of the Bulgarian Exarchate. According to " La Macédoine et sa Population Chrétienne ", statistics of the secretary of the exarchate Dimitar Mishev on the Christian population in Macedonia, in 1905 the Christian population of Ohrid consisted of 7,768 Exarchist Bulgarians, 168 Greek Patriarchal Bulgarians, 56 Serboman Patriarchal Bulgarians, 660 Vlachs and 6 Albanians. In the city there is 1 secondary and 5 primary Bulgarian schools and 1 primary Greek, Serbian and Wallachian school each.

Modern Albanian study claims that in 1903 the Cartographic Society of Sofia registered incorrectly 8,893 households of Albanian or Vlach ethnicity in the Kaza of Ohrid. There were supposedly 2,610 households registered in Ohrid, but after further analysis of the documents by Dervishi et al., it was discovered that the city actually had 3,700 households; there were 2,100 Albanian Muslim households, 150 Albanian Christian households, 900 Bulgarian households, 300 Vlach households, 210 Serb households and 39 Greek households. The Cartographic Society of Sofia also incorrectly registered many villages - that were in fact inhabited entirely or mostly by Albanians (both Christians and Muslims) - as Bulgarian. 14 villages were registered as Albanian with 991 households, but further investigation by Dervishi et al. revealed that the number was actually 2,400. Therefore, with those corrections, the Kaza of Ohrid had 5,336 Albanian households, 4,347 Slavic households, 1,549 mixed household and 125 Vlach households that were mainly spread across two villages. By the end of Ottoman rule, the Kaza of Ohrid itself numbered to 38,000 Albanian inhabitants and 36,500 non-Albanian (Bulgarian, Serbs, Vlachs and Orthodox Albanians who recognised the exarch and were therefore classed as Bulgarians) inhabitants as indicated by statistics gathered from the Ottoman authorities.

### Modern

Before 1912, Ohrid was a township center bounded to Monastir sanjak in Manastir Vilayet (present-day Bitola). The city remained under Ottoman rule until 29 November 1912, when the Serbian army took control of the city during the Balkan Wars and later made it the capital of Ohrid district. In Ohrid, Serbian forces killed 150 Bulgarians and 500 people consisting of Albanians and Turks. In September 1913 local Albanian and pro-Bulgarian Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization leaders rebelled against the Kingdom of Serbia. It was occupied by Kingdom of Bulgaria between 1915 and 1918 during World War I.

Bulgarian ethnographer Yordan Ivanov, professor at the University of Sofia, wrote in 1915 that Albanians, since they did not have their own alphabet, lacked a consolidated national consciousness and were being influenced by foreign propaganda, declared themselves as Turks, Greeks and Bulgarians, depending on which religion they belonged to. Albanians in Ohrid were losing their mother tongue.

During Kingdom of Yugoslavia Ohrid continued to be as an independent district (Охридски округ) (1918-1922), then it became a part of Bitola Oblast (1920-1929), and then from 1929 to 1941, Ohrid was part of the Vardar Banovina. It was occupied again by Bulgaria between 1941 and 1944 during World War II. Since the days of SFR Yugoslavia Ohrid has been the municipal seat of Municipality of Ohrid (Општина Охрид). Since 1991 the town was part of the Republic of Macedonia (now North Macedonia).

On 20 November 1993, Avioimpex Flight 110 crashed near Ohrid, killing all 116 people on board. It is the deadliest aviation disaster to occur in North Macedonia.

## Geography and climate

Ohrid is located in the south-western part of North Macedonia, on the shore of Lake Ohrid, at an elevation of 695 meters above sea level.

Ohrid has a warm-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csb), bordering on an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb) moderated by its elevation, as the mean temperature of the warmest month is just above 22 °C (71.6 °F) and every summer month receives less than 40 millimetres (1.6 in) of rainfall. The coldest month is January with the average temperature 2.5 °C (36.5 °F) or in a range between 6.2 °C (43.2 °F) and −1.5 °C (29.3 °F). The warmest month is August with average range of 27.7 °C (82 °F) - 14.2 °C (57.6 °F). The rainiest month is November, which sees on average 90.5 mm (3.6 in) of rain. The summer months of June, July and August receive the least amount of rain, around 30 mm (1.2 in). The absolute minimum temperature is −17.8 °C (0.0 °F) and the maximum 38.5 °C (101.3 °F).

## Demographics

At the 2021 census, Ohrid had 38,818 residents with the following ethnic makeup:

- Macedonians, 28,920 (74.5%)

- Persons for whom data are taken from administrative sources, 3,421 (8.8%)

- others, 2,728 (7.0%)

- Albanians, 1,924 (5.0%)

- Turks, 1,825 (4.7%)

As of the 2002 census, the city of Ohrid has 42,033 inhabitants and the ethnic composition was the following:

- Macedonians, 33,791 (80.4%)

- Albanians, 2,959 (7.0%)

- Turks, 2,256 (5.4%)

- others, 3,027 (7.2%)

The mother tongues of the city's residents include the following:

- Macedonian, 34,910 (83.1%)

- Albanian, 3,957 (9.4%)

- Turkish, 2,226 (5.3%)

- others, 1,017 (2.4%)

The religious composition of the city was the following:

- Orthodox Christians, 33,987 (80.9%)

- Muslims, 7,599 (18.1%)

- others, 447 (1.1%)

The oldest inhabitants of Ohrid are a few families that reside in the Varoš neighbourhood. Other Macedonians have settled in Ohrid and originate from the villages of the Kosel, Struga, Drimkol, Debarca, Malesija and Kičevo regions and other areas from southern Macedonia. Albanians in Ohrid originate from Albanian villages located on the western and southern areas of Lake Ohrid. There is a sizeable amount of Turkified Albanians in Ohrid who originate from the cities of Elbasan, Durrës and Ulcinj. The local Romani population in Ohrid originates from Podgradec and speaks the southern Tosk Albanian dialect.

The earliest presence of the Aromanian population in Ohrid dates to 1778 arriving from Moscopole, others from Kavajë (late 18th century), from the Myzeqe region, Elbasan, Llëngë and Mokër region (mid. 19th century) and also from Gorna Belica and Malovišta (late 19th century). A large part of Ohrid's Aromanian population has emigrated to Trieste, Odessa and Bucharest. Orthodox Albanians are also present and settled in Ohrid during the second half of the 19th century and originate from Pogradec, Lin, Çërravë and Peshkëpi.

All Turks from the village of Peštani after selling properties and land moved to Ohrid by 1920 and today those few families are known as Peştanlı. In 1949, additional families from Aegean Macedonia settled in Ohrid.

In Yugoslav censuses, Albanophone Ohrid Romani mainly declared as Albanians. As tensions between Albanians and the state increased over numbers regarding community size and sociopolitical rights, Romani identity became politicized and contested from the 1990s onward. Ohrid Albanophone Romani refused identification as Albanians seeing it as a result of Albanisation (or to be called Gypsies) and with encouragement from Macedonian circles now refers to itself as Egyptians whose ancestors migrated from Egypt many centuries ago. The Albanian language is considered by Ohrid Albanophone Romani as only an idiom of the home and not a mother tongue. Turkish speaking Romani reside in Ohrid that during the Yugoslav period self declared themselves mainly as Turks, while within independent Macedonia they identify as Egyptians. In the latter decades of the 20th century, some Albanian speaking Muslim Romani from the villages of Krani and Nakolec have migrated to Ohrid.

## Cultural Heritage sites

Ohrid Municipality is home to over 100 sites declared as Cultural Heritage by the Ministry of Culture, of which most lie within the city of Ohrid.

- Ancient Theatre of Ohrid from Hellenistic and Roman time

- Vidobišta Roman-era tombs

- Kozluk, Roman-era settlement

- Mančevci site with early Christian basilica

- Hermeleja, Roman-era settlement

- Saint Erasmus

- Karagjulevci tombs from Ancient Macedonian era

- Samuel's Fortress and remaining portions of the city walls

- Plaošnik

- Studenčišta basilica

- Saint 40 Holy Martyrs early Christian basilica

There is a legend supported by observations by the 17th century Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi that there were 365 chapels within the town boundaries, one for every day of the year. Today this number is significantly smaller.

- Grave of Grigor Prličev

- Church of Saints Clement and Panteleimon

- Church of the Holy Mother of God Čelnica

- Little Church of Saint Vrači (Saints Kuzman and Damjan)

- Church of Saint Demetrius

- Church of the Holy Mother of God - Bolnička

- Church of Saint Nicholas - Bolnički

- Church of the Holy Mother of God - Perivleptos

- Little Church of Saint Clement

- Church of Saint John the Baptist - Kaneo

- Church of Saint Sophia

- Church of Saints Constantine and Elena

- Church of the Holy Mother of God Kamensko

- Church of Saint Nicholas - Gerakomija

- Church of Saint Nicholas - Arbanaški

- Church of Saint Nicholas the Wonderworker

- Church of Saint Vrači (Saints Kuzman and Damjan), with frescos from the 14th century. A 14th-century icon from the church is depicted on the obverse of the 1000 denars banknote, issued in 1996 and 2003.

- Church of Saint George

- Church of Saint Nicholas

Besides being a holy center of the region, it is also the source of knowledge and pan-Slavic literacy. The restored Monastery at Plaošnik was actually one of the oldest Universities in the western world, dating before the 10th century. Several of Ohrid's best-known churches and monasteries, such as the Monastery of Saint Naum lie in its surrounding villages.

- Voska Hamam

- Eski Hamam

- Zejnel Abedin Pasha Tekke

- Sinan Çelebi Türbe

- Ali Pasha Mosque

- Hajdar Pasha Mosque

- Hadži Durgut Mosque

- Hadži Hamza Mosque

- Memorial mound on Slavej Planina

- Common grave of fallen National Liberation War soldiers

- Memorial plaque of fallen professors and students of the Ohrid Gymnasium in the National Liberation War

Dozens of individual homes and commercial buildings in Ohrid are listed as Cultural Heritage sites. Some of these, such as the Robevi family house and the Prličev family home, the Uzunov family home, function as museums today. Also included are the Saint Clement of Ohrid Gymnasium, the Ohrid Clock Tower, and the Icon Gallery.

## Transportation

There is a nearby international airport, Ohrid Airport (now known as "St. Paul the Apostle Airport").

Until 1966, Ohrid was linked to Skopje by the Ohrid line, a 167 kilometres (104 mi) long 600 mm narrow-gauge railway.

## Sports

GFK Ohrid Lihnidos is a football team playing at the SRC Biljanini Izvori stadium in the city. As of the 2021–22 season they play in the second tier of the Macedonian Football League system.

FK Voska Sport is also a football team in Ohrid that competes in the Macedonian First League as of the 2023-24 season.

RK Ohrid is a handball team playing at Biljanini Izvori Sports Hall arena, with a capacity of 3,500. As of the 2016–17 season they play in the Macedonian Handball Super League, which is the top tier.

The Ohrid Swimming Marathon is an international open water swimming competition, always taking place in the waters of Lake Ohrid. The swimmers are supposed to swim 30 km (19 mi) from the monastery of Saint Naum to the Ohrid harbor.

## Recurring events

- Ohrid Summer Festival, annual theater and music festival from July to August

- Ohrid Choir Festival, annual international choir festival at the end of August

- Balkan Folklore Festival, annual folklore music and dance festival at the beginning of July

- Balkan music square festival, music festival in August in which ethnic musicians from the whole Balkan peninsular participate

- Ohrid Fest (Охридски Трубадури), music festival in August in which musicians from the whole Balkan peninsular participate. This festival is held for four days which are divided into Debutant Night, Folk Night, Pop Night and International Night.

- Debutant Night,

- Folk Night,

- Pop Night and

- International Night.

- World Prized of Humanism in the Ohrid Academy of Humanism, created by Jordan Plevnes

- Ohrid art and scientific meetings (Охридска научна и уметничка визита), held in House of Uranija-MANU, Ohrid by Macedonian academy of science and arts

## Twin towns – sister cities

Ohrid is twinned with:

- Budva, Montenegro

- Caen, France

- Givatayim, Israel

- Inđija, Serbia

- Kragujevac, Serbia

- Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina

- Pogradec, Albania

- Piran, Slovenia

- Safranbolu, Turkey

- Stari Grad (Sarajevo), Bosnia and Herzegovina

- Vidovec, Croatia

- Vinkovci, Croatia

- Windsor, Canada

- Wollongong, Australia

- Yalova, Turkey

## Sources


Plagiotropis (planthopper)

# Plagiotropis (planthopper)

## Abstract

Plagiotropis is a genus of planthoppers belonging to the family Delphacidae.

Species:

- Plagiotropis misandros Emeljanov, 1993


Mac OS X Tiger

# Mac OS X Tiger

## Abstract

Mac OS X Tiger (version 10.4) is the 5th major release of macOS, Apple's desktop and server operating system for Mac computers. Tiger was released to the public on April 29, 2005 for US$ 129.95 as the successor to Mac OS X 10.3 Panther. Included features were a fast searching system called Spotlight, a new version of the Safari web browser, Dashboard, a new 'Unified' theme, and improved support for 64-bit addressing on Power Mac G5s. Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger also had a number of additional features that Microsoft had spent several years struggling to add to Windows with acceptable performance, such as fast file search and improved graphics processing.

Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger was included with all new Macs, and was also available as an upgrade for existing Mac OS X users, or users of supported pre-Mac OS X systems. The server edition, Mac OS X Server 10.4, was also available for some Macintosh product lines. Six weeks after the official release, Apple had delivered 2 million copies of Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger, representing 16% of all Mac OS X users. Apple claimed that Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger was the most successful Apple OS release in the company's history. On June 11, 2007, at WWDC 2007, Apple's CEO, Steve Jobs, announced that more than 67% of the 22 million Mac OS X users were using Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger.

Apple announced a transition to Intel x86 processors during Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger's lifetime, making it the first Apple operating system to work on Apple–Intel architecture machines. The original Apple TV, released in March of 2007, shipped with a customized version of Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger branded "Apple TV OS" that replaced the usual GUI with an updated version of Front Row.

Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger was succeeded by Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard on October 26, 2007, after 30 months, making Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger the longest-running version of Mac OS X. The last security update released for Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger users was the 2009-005 update. The latest supported version of QuickTime is 7.6.4. The latest version of iTunes that can run on Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger is 9.2.1. Safari 4.1.3 is the final version for Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger.

Despite not having received security updates since 2009, Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger remains popular with Power Mac users and retrocomputing enthusiasts due to its wide software and hardware compatibility, as it is the last Mac OS X version to support the Classic Environment – a Mac OS 9 compatibility layer – and PowerPC G3 processors.

## System requirements

Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger was initially available in a PowerPC edition, with an Intel edition released beginning at Mac OS X 10.4.4 Tiger. There is no universal version of the client operating system, although Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger Server was made available on a universal DVD from version Mac OS X 10.4.7 Tiger. While Apple shipped the PowerPC edition bundled with PowerPC-based Macs and also sold it as a separate retail box, the only way to obtain the Intel version was to buy an Intel-based Mac bundled with it. However, it was possible to buy the 'restore' DVDs containing the Intel version through unofficial channels such as eBay, and officially through Apple if one could provide proof of purchase of the appropriate Intel Mac. These grey-colored 'restore' DVDs supplied with new Macs, are designed to only restore on the model of Mac that they are intended for. However, they can be modified to work on any Intel Mac. The retail PowerPC-only DVD can be used on any PowerPC-based Mac supported by Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger.

The system requirements of the PowerPC edition are:

- Macintosh computer with a PowerPC G3, G4 or G5 family processor

- Built-in FireWire

- DVD drive for installation

- 256MB of RAM

- 3GB of available hard disk space (4GB if the user installs the developer tools)

Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger removed support for older New World ROM Macs such as the original iMacs and iBooks that were supported in Mac OS X 10.3 Panther; however it is possible to install Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger on these Macs using third-party software (such as XPostFacto) that overrides the checks made at the beginning of the installation process. Likewise, machines such as beige Power Mac G3s and 'Wall Street' PowerBook G3s that were dropped by Mac OS X Panther can also be made to run both Mac OS X Panther and Mac OS X Tiger in this way. Also, Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger can be installed on unsupported New World ROM Macs by installing it on a supported Mac, then swapping hard drives. Old World ROM Macs require the use of XPostFacto to install Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger.

Mac OS X Tiger was the last version of Mac OS X to support the PowerPC G3 family of processors.

## History

The name "Mac OS X Tiger" was reported by Mac Magazine on March 30, 2004; According to Mac Magazine, this information came from a safe source. Furthermore, Mac Magazine reported that the internal codename for Mac OS X Tiger had been "Merlot".

Apple mentioned Mac OS X Tiger by name in a press release published on May 4, 2004 for its upcoming WWDC 2004 event.

Apple CEO Steve Jobs first presented Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger in his keynote presentation at the WWDC on June 28, 2004. In October and December of 2004, several non-commercial developers' releases of Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger leaked onto the internet via BitTorrent file sharers. Apple sued these file sharers. On April 12, 2005, Apple announced Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger's official, worldwide release would be April 29. All Apple Stores around the world held Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger seminars, presentations and demos.

On June 6, 2005 at the WWDC in San Francisco, Jobs reported that nearly two million copies had been sold in Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger's first six weeks of release, making Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger the most successful operating system release in Apple's history. Jobs then disclosed that Mac OS X had been engineered from its inception to work with Intel's x86 line of processors in addition to the PowerPC, the CPU for which the operating system had always been publicly marketed. Apple concurrently announced its intent to release the first x86-based computers in June 2006, and to move the rest of its computers to x86 microprocessors by June 2007. On January 10, 2006, Apple presented its new iMac and MacBook Pro computers running on Intel Core Duo processors, and announced that the entire Apple product line would run on Intel processors by the end of 2006. Apple then released the Mac Pro and announced the new Xserve on August 8, completing the Intel transition in 210 days, roughly ten months ahead of the original schedule.

Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger is the first version of Mac OS X to be supplied on a DVD rather than a CD, although the DVD could originally be exchanged for CDs for $9.95.

## Reception

John Siracusa, writing for Ars Technica, wrote that some features in Tiger were half-baked, such as filesystem metadata, Spotlight, and Dashboard. According to Siracusa, Spotlight in Tiger is confusing because it has two disparate interfaces which are kept separate, yet can accomplish the same task. Siracusa also wrote that some of Dashboard's UI choices were strange.

## New and changed features

### End-user features

Apple advertised that Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger had over 150 new and improved features, including:

- Spotlight — Spotlight is a full-text and metadata search engine that can search everything on one's Mac, including Microsoft Word documents, iCal calendars and Address Book contact cards. The feature is also used to build the concept of ' smart folders ' into the Finder. Spotlight will index files as they are saved, so they can be quickly and easily found through a search-as-you-type box in the menu bar. As a side-effect, it adds hidden folders and indexing files to removable media like USB flash drives.

- iChat AV — The new iChat AV 3.0 in Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger supports up to four participants in a video conference and ten participants in an audio conference. It also now supports communication using the XMPP protocol. An XMPP server called iChat Server is included on Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger Server.

- Safari RSS — The new Safari 2.0 web browser in Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger featured a built-in reader for RSS and Atom web syndication that can be accessed easily from an RSS button in the address bar of the web browser window. An updated version of Safari, included as part of the free Mac OS X 10.4.3 Tiger update, can also pass the Acid2 web standards test.

- Mail 2 — The new version of Mail.app email client included in Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger featured an updated interface, "Smart Mailboxes", which utilizes the Spotlight search system, parental controls, as well as several other features.

- Automator — A scripting tool to link applications together to form complex automated workflows (written in AppleScript, Cocoa, or both). Automator came with a complete library of actions for several applications that can be used together to make a Workflow.

- VoiceOver — screen reader interface similar to Jaws for Windows and other Windows screen readers that offers the blind and visually impaired user keyboard control and spoken English descriptions of what is happening on screen. VoiceOver enables users with visual impairment to use applications via keyboard commands. VoiceOver is capable of reading aloud the contents of files including web pages, mail messages and word processing files. Complete keyboard navigation lets the user control the computer with the keyboard rather than the mouse, a menu is displayed in a window showing all the available keyboard commands that can be used.

- A complete built-in Dictionary/Thesaurus based on the New Oxford American Dictionary, Second Edition, accessible through an application, Dictionary, a Dashboard widget, and as a system-wide command (see below).

- .Mac syncing — Though this was not a new feature,.Mac syncing in Tiger is much improved over Panther. Syncing tasks in Tiger are now accomplished through the.Mac system preferences pane rather than the iSync application.

- QuickTime 7 — A new version of Apple's multimedia software has support for the new H.264/AVC codec, which offers better quality and scalability than other video codecs. This new codec is used by iChat AV for clearer video conferencing. New classes within Cocoa provide full access to QuickTime for Cocoa application developers. The new QuickTime 7 player application bundled with Tiger now includes more advanced audio and video controls as well as a more detailed Information dialog, and the new player has been rebuilt using Apple's Cocoa API to take advantage of the new technologies more easily.

- New Unix features — New versions of cp, mv, and rsync that support files with resource forks. Command-line support for features such as the above-mentioned Spotlight is also included.

- Xcode 2.0 — Xcode 2.0, Apple's Cocoa development tool now includes visual modelling, an integrated Apple Reference Library and graphical remote debugging.

### New applications in Tiger

- Dashboard — The Dashboard is a new mini-applications layer based on HTML, CSS, and JavaScript, which returns the desk accessories concept to Mac OS. These accessories are known as widgets. It comes with several widgets such as Weather, World Clock, Unit Converter, Dictionary/ Thesaurus, and others (full list). More are available to download for free online. Its similarity to the Konfabulator application caused some criticism.

- Automator — Automator uses workflows to process repetitive tasks automatically

- Grapher — Grapher is a new application capable of creating 2D and 3D graphs similar to those of Graphing Calculator.

- Dictionary — A dictionary and thesaurus program that uses the New Oxford American Dictionary. It has a fast GUI for displaying the Dictionary, and allows the user to search the dictionary with Spotlight, to print definitions, and to copy and paste text into documents. Dictionary also provides a Dictionary service in the Application menu, and Cocoa and WebKit provide a global keyboard shortcut (ctrl-⌘-D by default) for all applications that display text with them. Its use was furthered in Mac OS X Leopard by providing definitions from Wikipedia. The Dictionary application is a more feature-filled version of the Dictionary widget.

- Quartz Composer — Quartz Composer is a development tool for processing and rendering graphical data.

- AU Lab — AU Lab is a developer application for testing and mixing Audio Units.

## Improvements

- An upgraded kernel with optimized kernel resource locking and access control lists, and with support for 64-bit userland address spaces on machines with 64-bit processors.

- An updated libSystem with both 32-bit and 64-bit versions; combined with the aforementioned kernel change, this allows individual applications to address more than 4 GB of memory when run on 64-bit processors, although an application using Apple libraries or frameworks other than libSystem would need to have two processes, one running the 64-bit code and one running the code that requires other libraries and frameworks.

- A new startup daemon called launchd that allows for faster booting.

- The printing dialog in Tiger now features a drop down menu for creating PDFs, sending PDFs to Mail, and other PDF related actions. However, the user interface was criticized for creating a hybrid UI element that looks like a plain button but acts like a pop-up menu. This is one of only three places in the entire Mac OS X interface where such an element appears.

- Dock menus now have menu items to open an application at login, or to remove the icon from the dock.

- The Window menu in the Finder now features a "Cycle Through Windows" menu item.

- The Get Info window for items in the Finder now includes a "More Info" section that includes Spotlight information tags such as Image Height & Width, when the file was last opened, and where the file originated.

- Early development of resolution independence. Apple notes that this will be a user-level feature in a future version of Mac OS X. Among the changes, the maximum size of icons was increased to 256x256. However, the Finder does not yet support this size.

### Technologies

- Core Image: A graphics processing API that allows programmers to leverage programmable GPUs for fast image processing for special effects and image correction tools. Some of the included Image Units are Blur, Color Blending, Generator Filters, Distortion Filters, Geometry Filters, and Halftone features.

- Core Data: A data persistence API that makes it easier for developers to handle structured data in their applications. Core Data provides undo, redo, and save functions for developers without them having to write any code.

- Core Video: A video graphics API that leverages Core Image to provide real-time video processing. Apple’s Motion real-time video effects program takes advantage of Core Video in Tiger. Core Video lets developers easily integrate real-time video effects and processing into their applications.

- Core Audio: Integrates a range of audio functionality directly into the operating system.

In addition to these APIs, Tiger introduces a new window theme, often described as 'Unified'. A variation on the standard, non-brushed metal theme used since the introduction of Mac OS X, this theme integrates the title bar and the toolbar of a window. A prominent example of an application that utilizes this theme is Mail.

Tiger is also the first version of Mac OS X to include the "Zoom" screen magnifier functionality.

## Tiger trademark lawsuit

Shortly before the release of Mac OS X Tiger, the computer retailer TigerDirect.com, Inc. filed a lawsuit against Apple, alleging that Apple infringed TigerDirect.com's trademark with the Mac OS X Tiger operating system.

The following is a quotation from TigerDirect.com's court memorandum:

In 2005 TigerDirect was denied a preliminary injunction that would have prevented Apple from using the mark while the case was decided. Apple and TigerDirect reached a settlement in 2006, after which TigerDirect withdrew its opposition.

## Support for Intel processors

At Apple's 2005 Worldwide Developers Conference, CEO Steve Jobs announced that the company would begin selling Mac computers with Intel x86 processors in 2006. To allow developers to begin producing software for these Intel-based Macs, Apple made available a prototype Intel-based Mac ("Developer Transition Kit") that included a version of Mac OS X v10.4.1 compiled to run on x86 processors.

This build included Apple's Rosetta compatibility layer — a translation process that allows x86-based Macs to run software built only for PowerPC, with a moderate performance penalty. This is contrasted with the contemporary Mac OS 9 Classic mode, which used comparably larger amounts of system resources.

Soon after the Developer Transition Kits began shipping, copies of Tiger x86 were leaked onto file sharing networks. Although Apple had implemented a Trusted Computing digital rights management scheme in the transition hardware and OS in an attempt to stop people installing Tiger x86 on non-Apple PCs, the OSx86 project soon managed to remove this restriction. As Apple released each update with newer safeguards to prevent its use on non-Apple hardware, unofficially modified versions were released that circumvented Apple's safeguards. However, with the release of 10.4.5, 10.4.6, and 10.4.7 the unofficially modified versions continued to use the kernel from 10.4.4 because later kernels have hardware locks and depend heavily on EFI. By late 2006, the 10.4.8 kernel had been cracked.

At MacWorld San Francisco 2006, Jobs announced the immediate availability of Mac OS X v10.4.4, the first publicly available release of Tiger compiled for both PowerPC- and Intel x86-based machines. This version was the first version, other than the version provided with the Developer Transition Kits, to include Rosetta.

## Timeline


Sue Williamson

# Sue Williamson

## Abstract

Sue Williamson (born 1941) is an artist and writer based in Cape Town, South Africa.

## Life

Sue Williamson was born in Lichfield, England in 1941. In 1948 she immigrated with her family to South Africa. Between 1963 and 1965 she studied at the Art Students League of New York. In 1983 she earned her Advanced Diploma in Fine Art from the Michaelis School of Fine Art, Cape Town. In 2007 she received the Visual Arts Research Award from the Smithsonian Institution in Washington D.C and in 2011 the Rockefeller Foundation Bellagio Creative Arts Fellowship. In 2013 she was a guest curator of the summer academy at the Zentrum Paul Klee in Bern.

## Work

Williamson's work engages with themes related to memory and identity formation. Trained as a printmaker, Williamson has worked across a variety of media including archival photography, video, mixed media installations, and constructed objects.

In One Hundred and Nineteen Deeds of Sale (2018), the names given by slave masters, ages, sexes, and places of birth, along with the names of buyers and sellers, prices paid, and the date of purchase of people from the slave trade in India are written in black ink on cotton shirts. The shirts are imported from India, dipped into muddy waters drawn from the Cape Coast Castle, and hung around the grounds until Heritage Day, September 24, 2019. They are then taken down and returned to India, where they are washed clean and rehung as an installation at the Aspinwall House in Kochi. These people were transported by Dutch East India Company to work at the Cape Town Castle and the Company's Gardens. One Hundred and Nineteen Deeds of Sale Williamson incorporates the history and memory of the slave trade in order to transform the stigmatizing history into a history that can address and combat global inequalities. Upon opening the exhibition, Williamson read extracts of historical accounts while a woman picked up each shirt, read out the information on it, and then took it inside to be dipped in mud and hung on a washing line. Art brings history of slave trade to life The installation tells a story of loss and symbolizes the essence of a person that is floating in the wind, but all that remains is their memory.

Williamson’s 2016 work, The Lost District, is an homage to South Africa’s District Six. Like much of her other work, The Lost District addresses the effects of apartheid on South Africans. District Six was culturally and ethnically diverse until over 60,000 of its non-white residents were forced to relocate by the South African government during apartheid. This installation consists of plexiglass engravings of street-view images of what district six used to look like based on archival images. Steel bars cover the engravings, representing the actions of the South African government. During the exhibition, Williamson engraved a window in the gallery that overlooks the remains of District Six with a reconstruction of what District Six may have looked like in the 1960s. With this engraving, Williamson aimed to “record the old buildings which still stood, mainly churches and mosques and schools, along with those hundreds of cottages and terrace houses which had been destroyed.”

Williamson has produced many forms of resistance art that examines the history of South Africa. and in 2009 set her artistic view to exploring globalization with her ongoing piece, Other Voices, Other Cities, which was included in Push the Limits. exhibition, of February 2021, in Italy. She is the founding editor of “Artthrob.co.za”.

## Public collections

Williamson's work is in the collection of a variety of museums, including the Museum of Modern Art in New York, the National Museum of African Art - Smithsonian Institution in Washington D.C., the South African National Gallery in Cape Town, and the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. Williamson has also participated in group exhibitions including The Short Century (2001), Liberated Voices (1999), the Johannesburg Art Biennale (in 1997 and 1995), the Havana Biennale (1994), and the Venice Biennale (1993).

## Selected exhibitions

- 2000 Messages from the Moat, Archive Building, Den Haag, the Netherlands

- 2001 Can't forget, can't remember, Iziko South African National Gallery, Cape Town, South Africa

- 2002 The Last Supper Revisited National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C., USA

- 2003 Sue Williamson: Selected Work, Centre d’Art Contemporain, Brussels, Belgium*

- 2004 Messages from the Moat, Castle of Good Hope, Cape Town

- 2009 The Truth is on the Walls, Wifredo Lam Centre, Havana, 10th Havana Biennale, Cuba*

- 2012 The Mothers: a 31 Year Chronicle, Castle of Good Hope, Cape Town

- 2014 There's something I must tell you, Iziko Slave Lodge, Cape Town

- 2015 Other Voices, Other Cities, SCAD Museum, Savannah, Georgia, USA

- 2016 Other Voices, Other Cities, SCAD Atlanta: Gallery 1600, Georgia, USA

- 2017 Can't Forget, Can't Remember, Apartheid Museum, Johannesburg, South Africa

- 2017 Being There: South Africa, a contemporary scene, Foundation Louis Vuitton, Paris, France

- 2017 "Messages from the Atlantic Passage", Installation, Basel Unlimited, Basel, Switzerland

## Publications

In 1997 Williamson established ArtThrob, an online publication that features the work of contemporary South African artists.

## General references

- Grania Ogilvy, Dictionary of South African Sculptors and Painters, Everard Read, 1989.

- Betty La Duke, Africa through the Eyes of Women Artists, Africa World Press, 1991.

- Richard J Powell, Black Art and Culture in the 20th Century, World of Art Series, Thames & Hudson, 1997.

- Philippa Hobbs & Elizabeth Rankin, Printmaking in a transforming South Africa, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town, 1997.

- Olu Oguibe & Okwui Enwezor, Reading the Contemporary: African Art from Theory to Marketplace, MIT Press, 1999.

- Sidney Littlefield, Contemporary African Art, Thames & Hudson, 1999.

- N'Gone Fall & Jean Pivin, Anthologie de l'Art Africain du Xxe Siecle, Revue Noir, 2001.

- Nicholas M. Dawes, Sue Williamson: Selected Work, Juta and Company Ltd, 2003.

- Emma Bedford and Sophie Perryer, 10 Years 100 Artists: Art In A Democratic South Africa, Struik, 2004.

- Petra Stegmann, Sue Williamson in Culturebase, 2007.


# University of Arizona College of Medicine – Phoenix

## Abstract

The University of Arizona College of Medicine – Phoenix was initially established as a branch campus of University of Arizona College of Medicine in Tucson in 2007. It became an independent medical school in 2012.

## History

The College of Medicine at the University of Arizona was founded in Tucson in 1967 with an initial class of 32 students. It has since grown to enroll approximately 120 students annually and has graduated over 4,000 physicians since its inception.

By 1983, Medical students at the University of Arizona College of Medicine were taking required clerkships in the Phoenix area in internal medicine, pediatrics, neurology, obstetrics and gynecology, and family practice, as well as clinical electives. By 1991 one-third of the University of Arizona College of Medicine students spent a portion of their third year in Phoenix. In 1992, a Phoenix program was officially established to allow the school's 3rd and 4th year medical students to complete clinical clerkships at Phoenix-area hospitals. Then, in 2004, the Arizona Board of Regents approves the expansion of the College to a four-year program, and agreement is reached to lease buildings in the new Phoenix Biomedical Campus (PBC) to the College. On May 20, 2005, Governor Janet Napolitano signs House Bill 2768 appropriating $6 million to the new College. In 2006, the historic buildings of the former Phoenix Union High School are finished being restored and are opened and dedicated.

In July 2007, the four-year branch campus is formally opened and its inaugural class of 24 students was admitted to begin their studies in August. The next year, the class size is increased to 48 per year. In 2012, the Liaison Committee on Medical Education (LCME) granted preliminary accreditation to the University of Arizona College of Medicine – Phoenix and the recruitment and admissions processes for the two colleges are now independent. Though the Phoenix campus began as collaboration between the University of Arizona, Arizona State University, and the neighboring Translational Genomics Research Institute, Arizona State University pulled out of the partnership in April 2010, citing state budget cuts. Both colleges, in Tucson and Phoenix, are now solely associated with the University of Arizona.

The Phoenix College graduated its first class of 24 on May 12, 2011. Forty students graduate in 2012, and the number admitted increases to 80 per year. That year, the College received preliminary accreditation to recruit applicants and enroll students to grant medical degrees. As of 2013, the College of Medicine – Phoenix is fully accredited separately from the College of Medicine in Tucson. In that year, 50 students graduated, 37 in 2014, 54 in 2015, 66 in 2016, and 81 in 2017.


2001 in Greece

# 2001 in Greece

## Abstract

Events in the year 2001 in Greece.

## Events

### January

- 1 January - Greece adopted the Euro Currency eventually becoming officially the 12 European country to specifically join the European Union (EU) Eurozone member area country, replacing the Greek drachma in the digital transactions.


Ovality

# Ovality

## Abstract

In telecommunications and fiber optics, ovality or noncircularity is the degree of deviation from perfect circularity of the cross section of the core or cladding of the fiber.

The cross-sections of the core and cladding are assumed to a first approximation to be elliptical, and ovality is defined to be twice the third flattening of the ellipse, 2 a − b a + b {\displaystyle 2{\frac {a-b}{a+b}}}, where a is the length of the major axis and b is the length of the minor axis. This dimensionless quantity is between 0 and 1, and may be multiplied by 100 to express ovality as a percentage. Alternatively, ovality of the core or cladding may be specified by a tolerance field consisting of two concentric circles, within which the cross section boundaries must lie.

In measurements, ovality is the amount of out-of-roundness of a hole or cylindrical part in the typical form of an oval.

## In chemistry

In computational chemistry, especially in QSAR studies, ovality refers to, a measure of how the shape of a molecule approaches a sphere (at one extreme) or a cigar shape (at the other). Ovality is described by a ratio of volume to area:

O = A 4 π (3 V 4 π) 2 3 {\displaystyle O={\frac {A}{4\pi ({\frac {3V}{4\pi }})^{\frac {2}{3}}}}}

where:

The ovality of the He atom is 1.0 and that of HC H (12 triple bonds) is ~1.7.


Lomandra brevis

# Lomandra brevis

## Abstract

Lomandra brevis is a species of plant in the Asparagaceae family, first described in 1962 by Alma Theodora Lee.

It is a perennial and is endemic to New South Wales, occurring in the Sydney region in dry sclerophyll forest on sandstone derived soils.

It grows in small dense tussocks. It flowers in both spring and autumn. The male inflorescence is from 10 to 15 cm and is unbranched or has a few short branches, while the female inflorescence is about 5 cm long and is unbranched.


Kaitoke railway station

# Kaitoke railway station

## Abstract

Kaitoke railway station was a single-platform rural railway station on the Wairarapa Line between Upper Hutt and Featherston in the Wellington region of New Zealand 's North Island. Initially it was the railhead of the Wairarapa Line, at a point where the railway met the main road between Upper Hutt and the Wairarapa. Later it was a point at which locomotives were changed, steam engines were watered, trains could cross, and passengers could make use of the refreshment room.

The station was closed along with the old route via the Rimutaka Incline on which the Fell system was used over the Rimutaka Ranges when the Rimutaka Deviation opened in 1955.

## History

The Mungaroa Contract for the construction of the Wairarapa Line between Upper Hutt and the Pakuratahi Valley included a station near the terminus of the contract, originally called Pakuratahi Station. The contractor for this section was Charles McKirdy, who was to have completed the contract between 3 June 1874 and 3 March 1876 but, as was common with contracts for the construction of the Wairarapa Line, work was not completed on time. Having run out of money with two months of work left to complete, the contract was picked up by McKirdy's guarantors, Walter Turnbull and John McKenzie. They applied for and received further funds to continue the work, which was completed on 16 December 1877.

When work was nearing completion, the Government called for tenders to erect a fourth-class station building and stationmaster's house. The contract was let to W. H. Ridler for the sum of £1,778. This contract also possibly included the erection of the goods shed on a siding 12 chains (240 metres) to the north of the station (the goods shed was demolished in 1882). A separate contract for the sum of £1,514 was let to Messrs. Fraser and Lyon for the construction of an access road to the station and the levelling of the site for the station and house.

By early December 1877, the Public Works Department had advanced platelaying as far as Pakuratahi Station, by this time renamed Kaitoki, later (probably in the 1880s) to become Kaitoke. As Kaitoke was expected to be the railhead for two years, there was some consternation over the siting of the station, with complaints particularly from the Wairarapa that the site was unsuitable for the trans-shipment of goods between road and rail. The Government stood firm and the station stayed where it was intended to be.

The line to Kaitoke Station was officially opened on 28 December 1877 by the Governor, the Marquis of Normanby. A special train was run from Wellington to Kaitoke for the occasion under the supervision of District Engineer Mr. Hales and General Manager Mr. Stone. After speeches and an inspection of the station, by which time had had a refreshments room added, the Governor and party boarded the train again to return to Wellington. Over the next few days, excursion trains were run from Wellington to Kaitoke to satiate the curiosity of those who had heard of the fearsome reputation the line had gained during its construction.On 1 January 1878 the line to Kaitoke was opened to the public, becoming the railhead for the Wairarapa for nearly ten months.

Kaitoke Station proceeded to enter the busiest phase of its existence as the railhead of the Wairarapa Line, which lasted only until the opening of the line as far as Featherston on 16 October 1878, after which it was of minor significance. Initially, two daily mixed trains were timed to connect with road coaches from the Wairarapa. There was a limited amount of flat land available, so the station retained its original configuration of the main line plus one crossing loop throughout its life. There was also a locomotive siding to the south of the station until the practice of changing locomotives ceased, at which time the siding was lifted.

The refreshment rooms were extended in 1896, and, except for the addition of the signal box in 1902, the station buildings remained the same until the refreshment rooms were closed about 1952.

In 1883 the station handled 759 outbound passengers, a level of patronage that remained steady for many years. Traffic increased steadily right from the start, with average goods tonnage at around the same time of 457 tons inward and 1,978 outward. The growth in business led to the introduction of a third mixed train a month after the station opened.

The Working Timetable of 1887 lists Kaitoke as one of the first stations on the section to receive signals. Instructions for crossing trains required down (southbound) trains to take the siding or loop and up (northbound) trains to take the main line.

Soon after the installation of the first full mechanical interlocking system at Lambton Station in Wellington, a smaller system was installed at Kaitoke. A signal box was built at the south end of the platform, and two arm bracket signals for both "home" and "starting" were provided for trains travelling in both directions. Later, up and down "distant" signals were added. Balanced arm semaphore signals replaced the earlier slotted-post design.

With the completion of the Rimutaka Deviation, Kaitoke station was closed on 30 October 1955 along with the rest of the old line over the Rimutaka Ranges, followed by the opening of the new line on 3 November.

## Today

Station Drive, the access road to the former station off State Highway 2, still exists and provides access to several private dwellings that have been constructed on the terrace that was cut into the hillside to form the station yard. The terrace can easily be seen from the old State Highway where it intersects with the new State Highway, and there is public access up to the south end of the former station yard via the old railway line, a public walking/cycling track between Kaitoke and Mangaroa.

## Future

The 'Rimutaka Incline Railway', the project of the Rimutaka Incline Railway Heritage Trust, aims to re-establish a railway line on the former Wairarapa Line formation between Maymorn and Featherston. This includes new track past Kaitoke, utilising an easement created by Transit New Zealand when they built the State Highway 2 deviation through Kaitoke. The trust does not propose to acquire former railway formation now in private ownership at Kaitoke, or establish a new station at or near the original Kaitoke Station for its own operations.


St. Mary of Sorrows (Fairfax, Virginia)

# St. Mary of Sorrows (Fairfax, Virginia)

## Abstract

St. Mary of the Sorrows is a Catholic parish located in Fairfax, Virginia. It is part of the Diocese of Arlington. Although most of the parish's services are conducted at its primary worship center in Fairfax, the parish also celebrates several Masses each week at St. Mary's Historic Church in Fairfax Station, its original place of worship. Harold Brown Jr., a CIA officer killed in Camp Chapman attack, was an active parishioner and taught elementary religious education classes.


Amelia Peláez

# Amelia Peláez

## Abstract

Amelia Peláez del Casal (January 5, 1897 – April 8, 1968) was an important Cuban painter of the Avant-garde generation.

## Biography

Amelia Peláez (born-1897) Yaguajay, Cuba, in the former Cuban province of Las Villas (now Sancti Spíritus Province). She was the fifth born of eleven siblings in a family that was part of the Cuban-Creole middle class. Her father was a doctor, Manuel Pelaez y Laredo, and her mother, Maria del Carmen del Casal y Lastra, stayed at home with her children. Amelia's uncle was Julian del Casal, who was a poet and included her family in Cuba's intellectual circles.

In 1917, her family moved to Havana, to the La Víbora district, and this gave her the opportunity to enter the Escuela Nacional de Bellas Artes "San Alejandro" at the rather late age of 20 years (students at this academy usually start at 12–13 years of age). She was among Leopoldo Romañach 's favorite students. In 1924 she graduated from San Alejandro, and exhibited her paintings for the first time, along with another Cuban female painter, María Pepa Lamarque, at the Association of Painters and Sculptors in Havana. Receiving a small government grant, she travelled to New York City in the summer of 1924 and began six months of study at the Art Students' League. In 1927, after being awarded a larger grant, she began studying in France, while paying short visits to Spain, Italy, and other countries.

## Student life in Paris

Pelaez moved to Paris, accompanied by Cuban writer Lydia Cabrera, after she received a grant from the government in order to pursue art. Both took painting and art history courses at École Nationale Supérieure des Beaux-Arts. She also took drawing and art history courses at the Académie de la Grande Chaumière and the École du Louvre. In 1931 Pelaez enrolled, along with Cabrera, in Fernand Léger 's Academie Contemporaine. She then began studying with Russian painter Alexandra Exter, whose friendship and classes in color theory and design were an important influence.

Galerie Zak hosted a solo-exhibition of her paintings in 1933, where she exhibited thirty-eight works. In that same year, she participated in the eleventh Salon des Tuileries and “was also included in an exhibition of illustrated manuscripts by the calligrapher Guido at the Galerie Myrbor”, in which she illustrated Sept Poemes of Leon Paul Fargue. In her years in Paris, her work was highly praised by French critics.

## Life in Havana

In 1934, following a showing at the Salon des Independants, Pelaez returned to live in her mother’s colonial-style house in Cuba. The Cuba Pelaez returned to was in a state of economic uncertainty and political unrest. Beginning in the late 1920s, Cuba was searching for a new art that would reflect the national identity. In response, Pelaez departed from earlier vanguard strategies and turned to new approaches that involved depictions of Afro-Cuban and guajiro (peasant) subjects, while representing them in the adoption of European modernism. According to Ingrid Williams Elliot, Pelaez’s vibrant colors as well as thick lines are derived from Spanish-colonial architecture “integrating domestic objects with architectural decorations”. Peláez uses "Baroque ornamentation in her use of domestic colonial interiors to engage and merge multiple histories and assorted styles -- past and present -- to arrive at a contemporary Cuban idiom.”

In 1935, Pelaez had a solo exhibition at a women’s club in Havana called the Lyceum, which helped gain exposure of her new modernist Cuban style.

During this time, in the mid-thirties, Peláez was experimenting with "patterns, shapes and geometric relationships of tablecloths and fruit dishes, laying the groundwork for the geometric constructions and rhythmic patterns that have been associated with her architectural ornamentation in her work in the forties”, it also shows her awareness of Cubism. Her signature still life paintings were praised for the use of native fruits and flora referencing her Cuban roots.

In 1935-1936, Pelaez focused much of her paintings and drawings to the use of ink and pencil. The treatment of these drawings differs than her previous oil works, by distorting and exaggerating the figure with "sinuous line and light shading" that reference Cubism and European Modernism.

Peláez received a prize in the National Exposition of Painters and Sculptors in 1938, and collaborated on several art magazines in Cuba, such as Orígenes, Nadie Parecía, and Espuela de Plata. In 1950 she opened a workshop at San Antonio de los Baños, a small city near Havana, where she dedicated herself, until 1962, to her favourite pastime of pottery. She sent her paintings to the São Paulo Art Biennial in 1951 and 1957, and participated in 1952's Venice Biennale. In 1958 she was a guest of honour and jury member at the First Inter-American Biennial of Painting and Printmaking in Mexico City, although she pulled out of the raucous and controversial jury discussions based on what she reported to be “an openly Communist bias in the decisions.” Aside from painting and pottery, she dedicated time to murals, located mainly at different schools in Cuba. Her most important works of this type are a ceramic mural at the Tribunal de Cuentas in Havana (1953) and the facade of the Habana Hilton hotel (1957). She had a hard time selling her paintings as a living artists—she and her paintings, later named Amelias, achieved fame much later in life.

Peláez died in Havana in 1968.

## Estrada Palma 261

Amelia lived in her mother's house, which was a mix between a neoclassical design and a more traditional Cuban Creole architectural style house, for the rest of her years after her return to Havana, Cuba. Her house was a main source of inspiration after returning to a reclusive domestic lifestyle. The house was built in 1912, filled with colonial furniture of the baroque style. The house contained marble, crystal, wood, and ceramics in its interior. Amelia would also hang her paintings as decor.

## Exhibitions

- 1924 Amelia Pelaez y Maria Pepa Lamarque, Asociacion de Pintores y Escultores, Havana.

- 1933 Amelia Pelaez Del Casal, Galerie Zak, Paris.

- 1935 Amelia Pelaez Del Casal, Lyceum, Havana.

- 1941 Amelia Pelaez, Norte Gallery, New York.

- 1943 Amelia Pelaez: Retrospectiva, Institucion Hispano—Cubana de Cultura, Havana.

- 1956 Amelia Pelaez, Nuestro Tiempo, Havana.

- 1957 Amelia Pelaez, Lyceum, Havana.

- 1959 Pintura de Amelia Pelaez, Instituto Municipal de Cultura, Marianao, Havana.

- 1960 Amelia Pelaez.

- 1964 Oleos y Temperas de Amelia Pelaez, Galeria de la Habana, Havana.

- 1967 Dibujos de Amelia Pelaez, Museo de Arte Moderno Bogota. Amelia Pelaez; Goaches y Ceramicas, Lyceum, Havana.

- 1968 Amelia Pelaez: Exposicion Retrospectiva, Museo Nacional, Havana.

- 1977 Amelia Pelaez, Metropolitan Museum & Art Center, Miami.

- 1979 La Gran Pintora Cubana Amelia Pelaez, Museo de Arte Moderno, Mexico City.

- 1980 Amelia Pelaez, Museo de Arte Moderno, Bogota.

- 1987 Amelia Pelaez, Nineteenth Sao Paulo Biennial, Sao Paolo.

- 1988 Amelia Pelaez; A Retrospective, Cuban Museum of Arts & Culture, Miami.

- 2013 Amelia Peláez: The Craft of Modernity, Pérez Art Museum Miami

## Collections (selection)

The works of Peláez are held in the Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes de La Habana, the Pérez Art Museum Miami, Moderna Museet in Stockholm, and the Museum of Modern Art, New York.


List of Boston Bruins broadcasters

# List of Boston Bruins broadcasters

## Abstract

This is a list of Boston Bruins broadcasters.

## Television

## Radio

## Newspaper

- Russ Conway, The Eagle-Tribune

- Francis Rosa, The Boston Globe


Alexander (surname)

# Alexander (surname)

## Abstract

Alexander is a surname originating in Scotland, originally an Anglicised form of the Scottish Gaelic MacAlasdair. It is a somewhat common Scottish name, and the region of Scotland where it traditionally is most commonly found is in the Highlands region of Scotland.

## Notable people

### Architecture

- Cecil Alexander (1918–2013), American architect

- Charles A. Alexander (1827–1888), American architect

- Christopher Alexander (1936–2022), Austrian-American architect and design theorist

### Arts and entertainment

- AJ Alexander (born 1980), American model and Playboy Playmate

- Ann Dunlop Alexander (1896–1969), Scottish artist

- Beatrice Alexander (1895–1990), American dollmaker and businesswoman

- Dorothy Alexander, professional name of Dorothy Bohm (1924–2023), naturalised British photographer

- Francesca Alexander (1837–1917), American illustrator, author, and translator

- J. Alexander (model) (born 1958), American model, runway coach and panelist on America's Next Top Model

- Jay Alexander (born 1968), American magician, comedian and entertainer

- Lena Alexander (1899–1983), Scottish artist

- Lloyd Alexander (1924–2007), American author

- Mo Alexander (born 1970), American comedian

- Nykolai Aleksander (born 1978), German artist

- Sally Hobart Alexander (born 1943), American writer of children's literature

- Sue Alexander (1933–2008), American children's author

- Vanessa Aleksander (born 1996), Polish actress

#### Music and dance

- Birdie Alexander (1870–1960), American musician and educator

- Cecil Frances Alexander (1818–1895), British hymn-writer and poet

- Dottie Alexander (born 1972), American keyboardist

- Kita Alexander (born 1996), Australian pop singer-songwriter

- Margie Alexander (1948–2013), American singer

- Olly Alexander (born 1990), English musician; lead singer of Years & Years

- Ora Alexander (born c.1896–unknown), American classic female blues singer

- Shane Alexander (musician) (late 20th/early 21st c.), American singer-songwriter and musician

- Van Alexander (1915–2015), American bandleader, arranger and composer, born Alexander Van Vliet Feldman

#### Television and film

- Cris Alexander (1920–2012), American actor, singer, dancer, designer, and photographer

- Dari Alexander (born 1969), American news anchor

- F. Matthias Alexander (1869–1955), Australian actor/orator, founder of the Alexander Technique

- Jace Alexander (born 1964), American television director and actor

- Jane Alexander (born 1939), American actress and author

- Jean Alexander (1926–2016), British actress

- Joan Alexander (1915–2009), American actress

- Kaitlyn Alexander (born 1992), Canadian actress

- Lucy Alexander (born 1970), British television presenter

- Ross Alexander (1907–1937), American actor

- Sarah Alexander (born 1971), British actress

- Sofia Alexander, Mexican animator and voice actor

### Law and politics

- A. V. Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Hillsborough (1885–1965), British politician

- Albert R. Alexander (1859–1966), American judge

- Archibald S. Alexander (1906–1979), American lawyer, civil servant, and Democratic politician

- Cecil L. Alexander (born 1935), American politician

- Danny Alexander (born 1972), British politician

- Douglas Alexander (born 1967), British politician

- Ethel Skyles Alexander (1925–2016), American politician

- Evan Shelby Alexander (1767–1809), American politician

- Lamar Alexander (born 1940), American politician

- Lawrence A. Alexander (born 1943), American law professor

- Lincoln Alexander (1922–2012), Canadian politician

- Louise Alexander (born 1960), American politician, member of the Alabama House of Representatives

- Morris Alexander (1877–1946), South African politician

### Military

- Barton S. Alexander (1819–1878), U.S. Army brigadier general and engineer during the American Civil War

- Bevin Alexander (born 1929), American military historian and author

- Boyd Alexander (1873–1910), British army officer, explorer and ornithologist

- Edward Porter Alexander (1835–1910), U.S. and Confederate States Army officer

- Milton Alexander (1796–1856), American militia officer, attorney, and politician

### Religion

- Archibald Alexander (1772–1851), American theologian, professor, and first principal of Princeton Seminary

- Caleb Alexander (1755–1828), American clergyman, writer, teacher

- Irene Alexander, Australian spiritual director, writer and lecturer

### Science and medicine

- Annie Lowrie Alexander (1864–1929), American physician and educator

- Archibald Alexander (politician) (1755–1822), American physician and politician

- Archibald Alphonso Alexander (1888–1958), American design and construction engineer

- Archie Alexander (1888–1958), American engineer and architect

- Charles Paul Alexander (1889–1981), American entomologist

- Christopher James Alexander (1887–1917), British ornithologist

- Claudia Alexander (1959–2015), American planetary scientist

- Duane Alexander (1940–2020), American doctor

- Eben Alexander (author) (born 1953), American neurosurgeon

- Franz Alexander (1891–1964), Hungarian-American psychoanalyst and physician

- Horace Alexander (1889–1989), English writer, pacifist and ornithologist

- Howard Wright Alexander (1911–1985), Canadian-American mathematician

- Mary C. Alexander (1893–1955), American aviation pioneer

- Patrick Young Alexander (1867–1943), British aviation pioneer

- Richard D. Alexander (1930–2018), American zoologist and professor

- Stephanie B. Alexander, American mathematician

- Wilfred Backhouse Alexander (1885–1965), English ornithologist and entomologist

### Sports

- Adonis Alexander (born 1996), American football player

- Ana Alexander (born 1954), Cuban long-jumper

- Blaise Alexander (1976–2001), American racing driver

- Chuffie Alexander (1902–1989), American baseball player

- CJ Alexander (born 1996), American baseball player

- Cory Alexander (born 1973), American basketball player

- Courtney Alexander (born 1977), American basketball player

- Devon Alexander (born 1987), American professional boxer

- Doc Alexander (1897–1975), American NFL football player and coach

- Frank Alexander (cricketer) (1911–2005), Australian cricketer

- Grover Cleveland Alexander (1887–1950), American baseball player

- Gus Alexander (1934–2010), Scottish footballer

- Hubbard Alexander (1939–2016), American football player

- Jaire Alexander (born 1997), American football player

- Joe Alexander (born 1986), American-Israeli basketball player in the Israel Basketball Premier League

- Kyle Alexander (born 1996), Canadian basketball player for Hapoel Tel Aviv of the Israeli Basketball Premier League

- Manny Alexander (born 1971), Dominican Republic-born American baseball player

- Neil Alexander (born 1978), Scottish footballer

- Odicci Alexander (born 1998), American softball player

- Posh Alexander (born 2001), American basketball player

- Rex Alexander (1924–1982), American college sports coach

- Scott Alexander (baseball) (born 1989), American baseball player

- Shane Alexander (volleyball) (born 1986), Australian volleyball player

- Shaun Alexander (born 1977), American football player

- Stan Alexander (1905–1961), English footballer

- Trey Alexander (basketball) (born 2003), American basketball player

- Tyler Alexander (born 1994), American baseball player

- Ty-Shon Alexander (born 1998), American basketball player

- Victor Alexander (born 1969), American basketball player

- Zy Alexander, American football player

### Other professions

- Amir Alexander (born 1963), Israeli-American historian

- Conel Hugh O'Donel Alexander (1909–1974), British cryptanalyst, chess player, and chess writer

- Grace Alexander (1872–1951), American writer, journalist, teacher

- Holmes Alexander (1906–1985), American historian, journalist, and columnist

- Jane Grace Alexander (1848–1932), American banker

- Jeffrey C. Alexander (born 1947), American sociologist

- Juliet Alexander (born 1950s), Guyanese-born British journalist and TV presenter

- Rachel Frances Alexander (1875–1964), British social campaigner

- Robin Alexander, British educationist and academic

- Robin Alexander (journalist) (born 1975), German journalist and author

- Samuel Alexander (1859–1938), Australian/British philosopher and essayist

- Shane Alexander, 2nd Earl Alexander of Tunis (born 1935), British peer

- Travis Alexander, murder victim – see Murder of Travis Alexander

### Disambiguation lists

- Donald Alexander (disambiguation), several people

- Fred Alexander (disambiguation), several people

- Gary Alexander (disambiguation), several people

- Harry Alexander (disambiguation), including Harold Alexander, several people

- James Alexander (disambiguation), several people

- Jason Alexander (disambiguation), several people

- John Alexander (disambiguation), several people

- Joseph Alexander (disambiguation), several people

- Peter Alexander (disambiguation), several people

- Robert Alexander (disambiguation), several people

- Thomas Alexander (disambiguation), several people

- William Alexander (disambiguation), several people


Italian second spring offensive (1941)

# Italian second spring offensive (1941)

## Abstract

The Italian second spring offensive or known as Battle of Ponte Perati in Italy, was a offensive by Italy against Greece from 13 to 23 April 1941, in the final phase of the Greco-Italian War. The Greek army, which had pushed the Italians back into Albania, was forced to retreat due to the rapid success of the German invasion of Greece since 6 April. The retreating Greek forces were attacked by the Italians, who pressed south and recovered southern Albania. The German and Italian pressure brought about the capitulation of the Greek army in Epirus on 22 April.

## Background

After the failed Italian spring offensive in March 1941. Mussolini ordered Cavallero, that the Italian forces in Albania must stay on defensive posture as the German invasion of Greece is getting prepared. On April 4, Hitler insisted Mussolini that the Italian defence in Albania would be the outmost importance of the Operation Marita. Since the first weeks of April. The Greek Commander-in-Chief Alexandros Papagos launched furious attacks towards Elbasan, Berat and Valona. Despite some success, the Greek forces in Albania lost the offensive capacity as the Italian defences was strong. As the German invasion of Greece was launched. Cavallero ordered Biroli, commander of the 9th Army to launch an offensive towards Western Macedonia, while Geloso's 11th Army would launch an attack aiming towards Argirocastro.

## Battle

On 13 April, the Italian forces began the second spring offensive. The Italian offensive was slowed due to the Greek rearguard troops left by the retreating Greeks in Albania. The town of Koritza was taken on 14th, Bilishti on 15th, but Erseke fell on 17th which the Greek troops offered resistance, Klisura fell on the same day. The advance was then aimed towards Leskovik to Ponte Perati, where Italian troops faced opposition from Greek forces. The XXV Army Corps entered the Greek territory on 21 April.

## Aftermath

Greece originally surrendered to Germany, which Mussolini protested that Greece must also surrender to Italy. General Wilhelm List spoke to Mussolini that another surrender agreement will be drawn with the Italians.

The surrender agreement was formally signed on 23 April. General Tsolakoglou for Greece, General Alfred Jodl for Germany, and General Alberto Ferrero for Italy.

## Sources


Waitara Road railway station

# Waitara Road railway station

## Abstract

Waitara Road railway station is a rural railway station on the modern day Waitara Branch railway serving the small locality of Brixton in New Zealand 's Taranaki district. It previously served the Waitara Taranaki Co-operative Dairy Company and plant nurseries Duncan and Davies Ltd.

It is now the main working base for the Waitara Railway Preservation Society who run heritage services on the line.

## History

The original railway station was opened in around 1883, 8 years after the opening of the New Plymouth - Waitara railway. The station was located at the crossing of Waitara Road and was opened primarily to serve the Waitara Road Dairy Factory, the first such factory in the district.

The station first appeared in timetables in 1882 as a flag station or stopping place for trains but it wasn't until 1883 that plans for a 12 wagon loop were submitted. In both 1893 and 1894, urgent requests were received for the provision of a shelter shed. But it would be November 1896 when estimates for a passenger platform and shelter shed were received, and September 1897 when the passenger platform and shelter were finally opened.

By the turn of the century, that station was described as having an accommodation shelter shed & passenger platform (southern side), a loading bank for goods and a 16-wagon loop for delivering goods. Issues remained for customers dropping off or picking up their deliveries, caused by a small loading bank and an open drain close by making cart parking tight, and also that sacks of grain, potatoes and other heavy goods were often dumped at the station building or platform on the opposite side of the track from the cart access, meaning customers had to try and back their cart over the railway line to collect their goods. This wasn't rectified until 1926 when the coal shed from Turakina was relocated as a goods shed at Waitara Road (with the addition of a verandah) - work which was costed at approximately £102.

## Decline and closure

In the post-war years, general traffic at Waitara Road station declined as motor vehicles became more affordable. The first to go was passenger services, which were replaced with Road Services buses in 1946. Next to go was the goods shed, which was removed in late 1957 as general consignment freight reduced.

While general traffic was falling, industrial traffic continued to keep the station running. Increasing traffic from the dairy factory (now called the Clifton Co-Operative Dairy Company, having taken over several smaller companies in the area) led to new loading warehouses being built on the former goods yard in the 1960s and a progressive expansion in the factory size.

In the late 1970s a new siding was laid to serve the plant nursery Duncan & Davies, which had relocated directly south of the station & shipped plants both nationally and internationally.

By the 1980s traffic began to drop. The dairy factory (which in 1980 became the Brixton complex for Moa-Nui Co-operative Dairies) closed in the early 1990s after over a century at the site, and Duncan & Davies stopped sending by rail before eventually going out of business completely.

The station remained technically open until 2 February 1999 when Tranz Rail closed the entire line.

## Today

The station still exists as the Waitara Railway Preservation Society purchased the line in 2001 and established its main base at Waitara Road.

Since then passenger facilities have been reinstated (including 2 former NZR station buildings from Tahora and Waitōtara) and new sidings have been laid (including lifting and reusing the track from the Duncan and Davies siding). Passenger services stop at the station during running days.

The neighbouring dairy factory complex still exists but is now used as a truck depot.


List of Boston Bruins broadcasters