Liverpool and Manchester Railway

# Liverpool and Manchester Railway

## Abstract

The Liverpool and Manchester Railway (L&MR) was the first inter-city railway in the world. It opened on 15 September 1830 between the Lancashire towns of Liverpool and Manchester in England. It was also the first railway to rely exclusively on locomotives driven by steam power, with no horse-drawn traffic permitted at any time; the first to be entirely double track throughout its length; the first to have a true signalling system; the first to be fully timetabled; and the first to carry mail.

Trains were hauled by company steam locomotives between the two towns, though private wagons and carriages were allowed. Cable haulage of freight trains was down the steeply-graded 1.26-mile (2.03 km) Wapping Tunnel to Liverpool Docks from Edge Hill junction. The railway was primarily built to provide faster transport of raw materials, finished goods, and passengers between the Port of Liverpool and the cotton mills and factories of Manchester and surrounding towns.

Designed and built by George Stephenson, the line was financially successful, and influenced the development of railways across Britain in the 1830s. In 1845 the railway was absorbed by its principal business partner, the Grand Junction Railway (GJR), which in turn amalgamated the following year with the London and Birmingham Railway and the Manchester and Birmingham Railway to form the London and North Western Railway.

## History

### Background

During the Industrial Revolution, huge tonnages of raw material were imported through Liverpool and carried to the textile mills near the Pennines where water, and later steam power, enabled the production of the finished cloth, much of which was then transported back to Liverpool for export. The existing means of water transport, the Mersey and Irwell Navigation, the Bridgewater Canal and the Leeds and Liverpool Canal, dated from the 18th century, and were felt to be making excessive profits from the cotton trade and throttling the growth of Manchester and other towns. Goods were transported between Liverpool and the factories around Manchester either by the canals or by poor-quality roads; the turnpike between Liverpool and Manchester was described as "crooked and rough" with an "infamous" surface. Road accidents were frequent, including waggons and coaches overturning, which made goods traffic problematic.

The proposed railway was intended to achieve cheap transport of raw materials, finished goods and passengers between the Port of Liverpool and east Lancashire, in the port's hinterland. There was support for the railway from both Liverpool and London but Manchester was largely indifferent and opposition came from the canal operators and the two local landowners, the Earl of Derby and the Earl of Sefton, over whose land the railway would cross.

The proposed Liverpool and Manchester Railway was to be one of the earliest land-based public transport systems not using animal traction power. Before then, public railways had been horse-drawn, including the Lake Lock Rail Road (1796), Surrey Iron Railway (1801) and the Oystermouth Railway near Swansea (1807).

### Formation

The original promoters are usually acknowledged to be Joseph Sandars, a rich Liverpool corn merchant, and John Kennedy, owner of the largest spinning mill in Manchester. They were influenced by William James. James was a land surveyor who had made a fortune in property speculation. He advocated a national network of railways, based on what he had seen of the development of colliery lines and locomotive technology in the north of England.

The Liverpool and Manchester Railway Company was founded on 20 May 1824. It was established by Henry Booth, who became its secretary and treasurer, along with merchants from Liverpool and Manchester. Charles Lawrence was the Chairman, Lister Ellis, Robert Gladstone, John Moss and Joseph Sandars were the Deputy Chairmen.

A bill was drafted in 1825 to Parliament, which included a 1-inch to the mile map of the railway's route. The first bill was rejected but the second passed as the Liverpool and Manchester Railway Act 1826 (7 Geo. 4. c. xlix) in May the following year. In Liverpool 172 people bought 1,979 shares, in London 96 took 844, Manchester 15 with 124, 24 others with 286. The Marquess of Stafford held 1,000, making 308 shareholders with 4,233 shares.

### Survey and authorisation

The first survey for the line was carried out by James in 1822. The route was roughly the same as what was built, but the committee were unaware of exactly what land had been surveyed. James subsequently declared bankruptcy and was imprisoned that November. The committee lost confidence in his ability to plan and build the line and, in June 1824, George Stephenson was appointed principal engineer. As well as objections to the proposed route by Lords Sefton and Derby, Robert Haldane Bradshaw, a trustee of the Duke of Bridgewater 's estate at Worsley, refused any access to land owned by the Bridgewater Trustees and Stephenson had difficulty producing a satisfactory survey of the proposed route and accepted James' original plans with spot checks.

The survey was presented to Parliament on 8 February 1825, but was shown to be inaccurate. Francis Giles suggested that putting the railway through Chat Moss was a serious error and the total cost of the line would be around £200,000 instead of the £40,000 quoted by Stephenson. Stephenson was cross examined by the opposing counsel led by Edward Hall Alderson and his lack of suitable figures and understanding of the work came to light. When asked, he was unable to specify the levels of the track and how he calculated the cost of major structures such as the Irwell Viaduct. The bill was thrown out on 31 May.

In place of George Stephenson, the railway promoters appointed George and John Rennie as engineers, who chose Charles Blacker Vignoles as their surveyor. They set out to placate the canal interests and had the good fortune to approach the marquess directly through their counsel, W. G. Adam, who was a relative of one of the trustees, and the support of William Huskisson who knew the marquess personally. Implacable opposition to the line changed to financial support.

The second bill received royal assent as the Liverpool and Manchester Railway Act 1826 (7 Geo. 4. c. xlix) on 5 May 1826. The railway route ran on a significantly different alignment, south of Stephenson's, avoiding properties owned by opponents of the previous bill. From Huyton the route ran directly east through Parr Moss, Newton, Chat Moss and Eccles. In Liverpool, the route included a 1.25-mile (2.01 km) tunnel from Edge Hill to the docks, avoiding crossing any streets at ground level. It was intended to place the Manchester terminus on the Salford side of the River Irwell, but the Mersey and Irwell Navigation withdrew their opposition to a crossing of the river at the last moment in return for access for their carts over the intended railway bridge. The Manchester station was therefore fixed at Liverpool Road in Castlefield.

### Construction

The first contracts for draining Chat Moss were let in June 1826. The Rennies insisted that the company should appoint a resident engineer, recommending either Josias Jessop or Thomas Telford, but would not consider George Stephenson except in an advisory capacity for locomotive design. The board rejected their terms and re-appointed Stephenson as engineer with his assistant Joseph Locke. Stephenson clashed with Vignoles, leading to the latter resigning as resident Surveyor.

The line was 31-mile (50 km) long. Management was split into three sections. The western end was run by Locke, the middle section by William Allcard and the eastern section including Chat Moss, by John Dixon. The track began at the 2,250-yard (2.06 km) Wapping Tunnel beneath Liverpool from the south end of Liverpool Docks to Edge Hill. It was the world's first tunnel to be bored under a metropolis. Following this was a 2-mile (3 km) long cutting up to 70 feet (21 m) deep through rock at Olive Mount, and a 712-foot (217 m) nine-arch viaduct, each arch of 50 feet (15 m) span and around 60 feet (18 m) high) over the Sankey Brook valley.

The railway included the 4 + 3 ⁄ 4 -mile (7.6 km) crossing of Chat Moss. It was found impossible to drain the bog and so the engineers used a design from Robert Stannard, steward for William Roscoe, that used wrought iron rails supported by timber in a herring bone layout. About 70,000 cubic feet (2,000 m) of spoil was dropped into the bog; at Blackpool Hole, a contractor tipped soil into the bog for three months without finding the bottom. The line was supported by empty tar barrels sealed with clay and laid end to end across the drainage ditches either side of the railway. The railway over Chat Moss was completed by the end of 1829. On 28 December, the Rocket travelled over the line carrying 40 passengers and crossed the Moss in 17 minutes, averaging 17 miles per hour (27 km/h). In April the following year, a test train carrying a 45-ton load crossed the moss at 15 miles per hour (24 km/h) without incident. The line now supports locomotives 25 times the weight of the Rocket.

The railway needed 64 bridges and viaducts, all built of brick or masonry, with one exception: the Water Street bridge at the Manchester terminus. A cast iron beam girder bridge was built to save headway in the street below. It was designed by William Fairbairn and Eaton Hodgkinson, and cast locally at their factory in Ancoats. It is important because cast iron girders became an important structural material for the growing rail network. Although Fairbairn tested the girders before installation, not all were so well designed, and there were many examples of catastrophic failure in the years to come, resulting in the Dee bridge disaster of 1847 and culminating in the Tay Bridge disaster of 1879.

The line was laid using 15-foot (4.6 m) fish-belly rails at 35 lb/yd (17 kg/m), laid either on stone blocks or, at Chat Moss, wooden sleepers.

The physical work was carried out by a large team of men, known as "navvies", using hand tools. The most productive teams could move up to 20,000 tonnes of earth in a day and were well paid. Nevertheless, the work was dangerous and several deaths were recorded.

#### Cable or locomotive haulage

In 1829 adhesion-worked locomotives were not reliable. The experience on the Stockton and Darlington Railway was well-publicised, and a section of the Hetton colliery railway had been converted to cable haulage. The success of the cable haulage was indisputable but the steam locomotive was still untried. The L&MR had sought to de-emphasise the use of steam locomotives during the passage of the bill, the public were alarmed at the idea of monstrous machines which, if they did not explode, would fill the countryside with noxious fumes.

Attention was turning towards steam road carriages, such as those of Goldsworthy Gurney's and there was a division in the L&MR board between those who supported Stephenson's "loco-motive" and those who favoured cable haulage, the latter supported by the opinion of the engineer, John Rastrick. Stephenson was not averse to cable haulage—he continued to build such lines where he felt it appropriate—but knew its main disadvantage, that any breakdown anywhere would paralyse the whole line.

The line's gradient was designed to concentrate the steep grades in three places, at either side of Rainhill at 1 in 96 and down to the docks at Liverpool at 1 in 50) and make the rest of the line very gently graded, no further than 1 in 880. When the line opened, the passenger section from Edge Hill to Crown Street railway station was cable hauled, as was the section through the Wapping Tunnel, as the act of Parliament forbade the use of locomotives on this part of the line.

To determine whether and which locomotives would be suitable, in October 1829 the directors organised a public competition, known as the Rainhill trials, which involved a run along a 1 mile (1.6 km) stretch of track. Ten locomotives were entered for the trials, but on the day of the competition only five were available to compete: Rocket, designed by George Stephenson and his son, Robert, was the only one to successfully complete the journey and, consequently, Robert Stephenson and Company were awarded the locomotive contract.

#### Double track

The line was built to 4 ft 8 + 1 ⁄ 2 in (1,435 mm) (standard gauge) and double track. A decision had to be made about how far apart the two tracks should be. It was decided to make the space between the separate tracks the same as the track gauge itself, so that it would be possible to operate trains with unusually wide loads up the middle during quiet times. Stephenson was criticised for this decision; it was later decided that the tracks were too close together, restricting the width of the trains, so the gap between tracks (track centres) was widened. The narrowness of the gap contributed to the first fatality, that of William Huskisson, and also made it dangerous to perform maintenance on one track while trains were operating on the other. Even in the 21st century, adjacent tracks on British railways tend to be laid closer together than elsewhere.

### Opening

The line opened on 15 September 1830 with termini at Manchester, Liverpool Road (now part of the Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester) and Liverpool Crown Street. The festivities of the opening day were marred when William Huskisson, the Member of Parliament for Liverpool, was killed. The southern line was reserved for the special opening train, drawn by the locomotive Northumbrian conveying the Duke of Wellington, the Prime Minister, in an ornamental carriage, together with distinguished guests in other carriages. When the train stopped for water at Parkside, near Newton-le-Willows, it was intended that the other trains should pass in review on the northern line. It was easy for passengers to get down and stretch their legs, despite being instructed not to, particularly as there was an interval between the delayed passing trains. Huskisson decided to alight and stroll alongside the train, and on spotting the Duke decided to start a conversation. The Rocket was spotted heading in the opposite direction as people shouted at Huskisson to get back on the train.

The Austrian ambassador was pulled back into the carriage, but Huskisson panicked. He tried to climb into the carriage, but grabbed the open door, which swung back, causing him to lose his grip. He fell between the tracks and the Rocket ran over his leg, shattering it. He is reported to have said, "I have met my death—God forgive me!"

The Northumbrian was detached from the Duke's train and rushed him to Eccles, where he died in the vicarage. Thus he became the world's first widely reported railway passenger fatality. The somewhat subdued party proceeded to Manchester, where, the Duke being deeply unpopular with the weavers and mill workers, they were given a lively reception, and returned to Liverpool without alighting. A grand reception and banquet had been prepared for their arrival.

### Operation

The L&MR was successful and popular, and reduced journey times between Liverpool and Manchester to two hours. Most stage coach companies operating between the two towns closed shortly after the railway opened as it was impossible to compete. Within a few weeks of the line opening, it ran its first excursion trains and carried the world's first railway mail carriages; by the summer of 1831, it was carrying special trains to the races. The railway was a financial success, paying investors an average annual dividend of 9.5% over the 15 years of its independent existence: a level of profitability that would never again be attained by a British railway company.

The railway was purposefully designed for the benefit of the public, carrying passengers as well as freight. Shares in the company were limited to ten per person and profits from these were limited. Although the intention had been to carry goods, the canal companies reduced their prices, leading to a price war between them and the railway. The line did not start carrying goods until December, when the first of some more powerful engines, Planet, was delivered.

The line's success in carrying passengers was universally acclaimed. The experience at Rainhill had shown that unprecedented speed could be achieved and travelling by rail was cheaper and more comfortable than travel by road. The company concentrated on passenger travel, a decision that had repercussions across the country and triggered the " railway mania of the 1840s". John B. Jervis of the Delaware and Hudson Railway some years later wrote: "It must be regarded... as opening the epoch of railways which has revolutionised the social and commercial intercourse of the civilized world".

At first trains travelled at 16 miles per hour (26 km/h) carrying passengers and 8 miles per hour (13 km/h) carrying goods because of the limitations of the track. Drivers could, and did, travel more quickly, but were reprimanded: it was found that excessive speeds forced apart the light rails, which were set onto individual stone blocks without cross-ties. In 1837 the original fish-belly parallel rail of 50 pounds per yard (24.8 kg/m), on sleepers started to be replaced.

The railway directors realised that Crown Street was too far away from the centre of Liverpool to be practical, and decided in 1831 to construct a new terminus at Lime Street. The tunnel from Edge Hill to Lime Street was completed in January 1835 and opened the following year. The station opened on 15 August 1836 before it had been completed.

On 30 July 1842, work started to extend the line from Ordsall Lane to a new station at Hunts Bank in Manchester that also served the Manchester and Leeds Railway. The line opened on 4 May 1844 and Liverpool Road station was then used for goods traffic.

On 8 August 1845, the L&MR was absorbed by its principal business partner, the Grand Junction Railway (GJR), which had opened the first trunk railway from Birmingham to Warrington in 1837. The following year the GJR formed part of the London and North Western Railway.

## Signalling

The Liverpool and Manchester Railway was the first railway to have a system of signalling. This was undertaken by policemen, who were stationed along the line at distances of a mile or less. Initially these policemen signalled that the line was clear by standing straight with their arms outstretched. If the policeman was not present, or was standing at ease, this indicated that there was an obstruction on the line ahead. Gradually a system of hand-held flags was developed, with a red flag being used to stop a train, green indicating that a train should proceed at caution, blue indicating to drivers of baggage trains that there were new wagons for them to take on and a black flag being used by platelayers to indicate works on the track. Any flag waved violently, or at night a lamp waved up and down, indicated that a train should stop. Until 1844 handbells were used as emergency signals in foggy weather, though in that year small explosive boxes placed on the line began to be used instead.

Trains were controlled on a time interval basis: policemen signalled for a train to stop if less than ten minutes had elapsed since a previous train had passed; the signal to proceed at caution was given if more than ten minutes but less than seventeen minutes had passed; otherwise the all clear signal was given. If a train broke down on the line, the policeman had to run a mile down the track to stop oncoming traffic.

After the opening of the Warrington and Newton Railway four policemen were placed constantly on duty at Newton Junction, at the potentially dangerous points where the two lines met. Initially a gilt arrow was used to point towards Warrington to indicate that the points were set in that direction, with a green lamp visible from the L&MR line being used to indicate this at night. Later a fixed signal was used, with red and white chequered boards on 12-foot high posts being turned to face trains from one direction if another train was ahead.

In 1837 the London and Birmingham Railway conducted trials using a Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph to direct signalling and in 1841 held a conference to propose a uniform national system of coloured signals to control trains, but despite these advances elsewhere the Liverpool and Manchester Railway continued to be controlled by policemen and flags until its merger with the Grand Junction Railway in 1845.

## Significance

On opening the L&MR represented a significant advance in railway operation, introducing regular commercial passenger and freight services by steam locomotives with significant speed and reliability improvements from their predecessors and horse carriages. The L&MR operation was studied by other upcoming railway companies as a model to aspire to. More recently some have claimed the operation was the first Inter-city railway, though that branding was not introduced until many years later and neither Manchester or Liverpool achieved city status until 1853 and 1880 respectively, nor would the distance between them qualify as long-haul.

The subsequently widely adopted gauge of 4 ft 8 + 1 ⁄ 2 in (1,435 mm) was derived from a George Stephenson recommendation that was accepted at an L&MR board meeting in July 1826: "Resolved that the width of the Wagon Way between the rails to be the same as the Darlington Road, namely 4 feet 8 inches clear, inside the rails". This enabled the Stephensons to test their locomotives on the lines around Newcastle on Tyne before shipment to Lancashire.

The L&MR used left hand running on double track, following practice on British roads. The form of couplings using buffers, hooks and chains, and their dimensions, set the pattern for European practice and practice in many other places.

Even before the L&MR opened, connecting and other lines were planned, authorised or under construction, such as the Bolton and Leigh Railway.

## Incidents

The best-known accident associated with the L&MR was the death of William Huskisson, hit by the locomotive Rocket on the opening day. Thereafter the pioneering and evolving nature of the early days of the L&MR meant accidents were not uncommon. All were investigated by the L&MR board or Management Committee. Fatal accidents to travelling passengers were rare, the first two years seeing one for over a million passengers carried, though injuries were more commonplace. These were often caused by passengers failing to heed company regulations and advice. Staff accidents were more commonplace, with some staff preparing to take what later would be considered to be inadvisable risks and disregarding regulations. Locomotives, wagons and infrastructure were involved in a variety of collisions and derailments.

On 23 December 1832, a passenger train ran into the rear of another passenger train at Rainhill. A passenger was killed and several were injured. On 17 April 1836, a passenger train was derailed whilst travelling at 30 miles per hour (48 km/h) when an axle of a carriage broke. There were no fatalities.

## Modern line

The original Liverpool and Manchester line still operates as a secondary line between the two cities—the southern route, the former Cheshire Lines Committee route via Warrington Central is for the moment the busier route. This however has already started to change (from the May 2014 timetable) with new First TransPennine Express services between Newcastle/Manchester Victoria and Liverpool and between Manchester (Airport) and Scotland (via Chat Moss, Lowton and Wigan). From December 2014, with completion of electrification (see below) the two routes between Manchester and Liverpool will have much the same frequency of service.

On the original route, a new (May 2014) hourly First TransPennine Express non-stop service runs between Manchester Victoria and Liverpool (from/to) Newcastle), an hourly fast service is operated by Northern Rail, from Liverpool to Manchester, usually calling at Wavertree Technology Park, St Helens Junction, Newton-le-Willows and Manchester Oxford Road, and continuing via Manchester Piccadilly to Manchester Airport. Northern also operates an hourly service calling at all stations from Liverpool Lime Street to Manchester Victoria. This is supplemented by an additional all-stations service between Liverpool and Earlestown, which continues to Warrington Bank Quay.

Between Warrington Bank Quay, Earlestown and Manchester Piccadilly, there are additional services (at least one per hour) operated by Transport for Wales, which originate from Chester and the North Wales Coast Line.

### Electrification

In 2009, electrification at 25 kV AC was announced. The section between Manchester and Newton, including the Chat Moss section, was completed in 2013; the line onwards to Liverpool opened on 5 March 2015.

### Ordsall Chord

The historic passenger railway station of Manchester Liverpool Road is a Grade I Listed building, and was threatened by the Northern Hub plan. This included the construction of the Ordsall Chord to provide direct access between Victoria and Piccadilly, in turn cutting off access from Liverpool Road. The Science & Industry Museum, that is based at the former station premises, had initially objected to the scheme and an inquiry was set up in 2014 to investigate the potential damage to the historic structure. The chord opened in November 2017 without any damage to the original Liverpool Road station structures.

## Stations

All stations opened on 15 September 1830, unless noted. Stations still operational in bold.

- Liverpool Lime Street (work started on Edge Hill – Lime Street tunnel 23 May 1832; opened 15 August 1836).

- Crown Street (original Liverpool terminus, replaced by Lime Street).

- Edge Hill (The first Edge Hill station was opened in 1830. It was in the deep Cavendish Cutting at the heads of the Crown Street tunnel and the freight only Wapping Tunnel. After the Lime Street tunnel was bored in 1836, the original Edge Hill station was abandoned and relocated north, still inside the Edge Hill junction, to its present location at the head of the original Lime Street tunnel. Edge Hill junction was the site of the locomotive works.)

- Wavertree Lane (closed 15 August 1836)

- Wavertree Technology Park (opened 13 August 2000)

- Broad Green

- Roby

- Huyton

- Huyton Quarry (closed 15 September 1958)

- Whiston (Opened 10 September 1990)

- Rainhill

- Lea Green (closed 7 March 1955 and re-opened with a completely new station on 17 September 2000)

- St Helens Junction (opened between 1833 and 1837; junction with the St Helens and Runcorn Gap Railway)

- Collins Green (closed 2 April 1951)

- Earlestown (built in 1831 by the Warrington and Newton Railway company; originally named Newton Junction; renamed after 1837)

- Newton-le-Willows (originally named Newton Bridge; renamed after Newton Junction was renamed Earlestown)

- Parkside 1st (closed 1839)

- Parkside 2nd (the line from Parkside to Wigan was opened on 3 September 1832) (closed 1 May 1878)

- Kenyon Junction (at the junction with the Kenyon and Leigh Junction Railway and from that, the Bolton and Leigh Railway; closed 2 January 1961 and the Tyldesley Loopline; closed 5 May 1969)

- Glazebury and Bury Lane (closed 7 July 1958)

- Flow Moss (closed October 1842)

- Astley (closed 2 May 1956)

- Lamb's Cottage (closed October 1842)

- Barton Moss 1st (closed 1 May 1862)

- Barton Moss 2nd (closed 23 September 1929)

- Patricroft

- Eccles

- Weaste (closed 19 October 1942; site destroyed when M602 road built)

- Seedley (closed 2 January 1956; site destroyed when M602 road built)

- Cross Lane (closed 15 August 1949; site destroyed when M602 road built)

- Ordsall Lane (work on extension of line to Manchester Victoria started 30 July 1842 and the extension opened on 4 May 1844; station closed 4 February 1957)

- Liverpool Road (original Manchester terminus, closed 4 May 1844)

- Manchester Exchange (opened 30 June 1884, closed 5 May 1969)

- Manchester Victoria (opened 1 January 1844)


Dekemvriana

# Dekemvriana

## Abstract

The Dekemvriana (Greek: Δεκεμβριανά, "December events") refers to a series of clashes fought during World War II in Athens from 3 December 1944 to 11 January 1945. The conflict was the culmination of months of tension between the left-wing EAM, some parts of its military arm, the ELAS, stationed in Athens, the KKE and the OPLA from one side and from the other side, the Greek Government, some parts of the Hellenic Royal Army, the Hellenic Gendarmerie, the Cities Police, the Organization X, among others and also the British Army.

Regardless of the tensions between the left and the right, in May 1944 it had been roughly agreed in the Lebanon Conference that all non-collaborationist factions would participate in a Government of National Unity; eventually 6 out of 24 ministers were appointed by EAM. Additionally, a few weeks before the withdrawal of the German troops in October 1944, it had been reaffirmed in the Caserta Agreement that all collaborationist forces would be tried and punished accordingly; and that all resistance forces would participate in the formation of the new Greek Army, under the command of the British. Yet, on 1 December, the British commander Ronald Scobie ordered the unilateral disarmament of EAM-ELAS. The EAM ministers resigned on the 2nd of December and EAM called for a rally in central Athens on the 3rd, requesting the immediate punishment of the collaborationist Security Battalions and the withdrawal of the "Scobie Order". The rally of some 200,000 people was shot at by the Greek Police and Gendarmerie, leaving 28 protesters dead and 148 wounded. These killings ushered a full-blown armed confrontation between EAM and the Government forces at first (which included the Security Battalions), and during the second half of December, between EAM and the British military forces.

The clashes were limited to Athens, while elsewhere in Greece the situation remained tense but peaceful, with the exception of Epirus where Aris Velouchiotis attacked the forces of Napoleon Zervas.

The Dekemvriana ended with the defeat of EAM-ELAS, leading to its disarmament in the Varkiza Agreement which marked the end of ELAS. This first defeat broke the power of EAM. This together with the EAM-instigated "Red Terror", was followed by a period of " White Terror " against the Greek Left, which contributed to the outbreak of the Greek Civil War in 1946. The clashes of Dekemvriana were among the bloodiest battles in modern Greek history, with a high rate of civilian deaths.

## Background

By 1944, the two major resistance movements in occupied Greece, EDES and EAM-ELAS, each saw the other as the main adversary. They both recognized the fact that it was only a matter of time before the Germans evacuated the country. For the communists, the British represented their major opponent.

By the summer of 1944, the Soviet forces advancing into Romania and towards Yugoslavia meant that the Germans still in the Balkans were at risk of being cut off. In September, Marshal Fyodor Tolbukhin 's armies advanced into Bulgaria, forcing the resignation of the country's pro-Nazi government and the establishment of a pro-Communist regime, and the withdrawal of Bulgarian troops from Greek Macedonia. The Axis withdrawal, before the exiled government could return to the country, created a power vacuum. The government-in-exile, now led by the prominent liberal George Papandreou, moved to Italy, in preparation for its return to Greece. Under the Caserta Agreement of September 1944, all resistance forces in Greece were to be placed under the command of a British officer, Lieutenant General Ronald Scobie.

According to historian Donny Gluckstein, Scobie sought to delay the German withdrawal in order to prevent ELAS from establishing control of the country. He cites German plenipotentiary Hermann Neubacher for this claim.

The British arrived in Greece in October (Operation Manna) with the exiled Greek government and some units of the Greek army, led by then-Lieutenant General Thrasyvoulos Tsakalotos. By then, the Germans were in full retreat, and most of Greece's territory had already been liberated by Greek partisans.

On 13 October, British troops entered Athens and Papandreou and his ministers followed six days later. King George II stayed in Cairo because Papandreou had promised that the future of the monarchy would be decided by referendum.

There was little to prevent ELAS from taking full control of the country. With the German withdrawal, ELAS units had taken control of the countryside and most of the cities. However, they did not take full control because the KKE leadership was instructed by the Soviet Union not to precipitate a crisis that could jeopardize Allied unity and put Stalin's larger postwar objectives at risk. Unlike their leaders, ELAS's fighters and rank-and-file were not aware of these instructions, and it became a source of conflict within both EAM and ELAS.

Following Stalin's instructions, the KKE leadership tried to avoid a confrontation with the Papandreou government. Most ELAS members saw the British as liberators despite some KKE leaders, such as Andreas Tzimas and Aris Velouchiotis. Tzimas was in touch with Yugoslav Communist leader Josip Broz Tito, and he disagreed with ELAS's cooperation with the British forces.

The issue of disarming the resistance organizations was a cause of friction between the Papandreou government and its EAM members. Advised by British ambassador Reginald Leeper, Papandreou demanded the disarmament of all armed forces apart from the Sacred Band and the III Mountain Brigade, which were formed following the suppression of the April 1944 Egypt mutiny, and two equal numbered corps of ELAS and EDES that would take part in operations against the Germans (still occupying Crete), such as the constitution of a National Guard under government control.

EAM, believing that it would leave the guerrillas of ELAS defenseless against anticommunist militias, submitted an alternative plan of total and simultaneous disarmament. Papandreou rejected this plan, causing EAM's ministers to resign from the government on 2 December.

On 1 December, Scobie had issued a proclamation calling for the dissolution of ELAS. Command of ELAS was the KKE's greatest source of strength, and the KKE leader Siantos decided that the demand for ELAS's dissolution must be resisted.

Tito's influence may have played some role in ELAS's resistance to disarmament. Tito was outwardly loyal to Stalin but had come to power through his own means and believed that the communists in Greece should do the same. His influence, however, had not prevented the EAM leadership from putting its forces under Scobie's command a couple of months earlier, in accordance with the Caserta Agreement. Meanwhile, following Georgios Grivas 's instructions, Organization X members had set up outposts in central Athens and resisted EAM for several days until British troops arrived, as their leader had been promised.

## The events

According to the Caserta Agreement, all Greek forces were under the Allied command of Scobie. On 1 December 1944, the Greek government of "National Unity" under Georgios Papandreou and Lt. General Scobie (British head of the Allied forces in Greece at that time) announced an ultimatum for the general disarmament of all guerrilla forces by 10 December, excluding those allied to the government (the 3rd Greek Mountain Brigade and the Sacred Band) and also a part of EDES and ELAS that would be used in Allied operations in Crete and the Dodecanese (still under German occupation), if it was necessary. As a result, on 2 December, six ministers of the EAM, most of whom were KKE members, resigned from their positions in the "National Unity" government. The EAM called for a general strike and a demonstration in front of the Greek parliament for the next day, 3 December.

The demonstration involved at least 200,000 people marching on Panepistimiou Street towards the Syntagma Square. British tanks along with Greek police units had been scattered around the area, blocking the way of the demonstrators.

The shootings began when the marchers had arrived at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, in front of the Royal palace, above Syntagma Square. They originated from the streets, from the building of the General Police Headquarters, from the Parliament (Vouli), from the Hotel Grande Bretagne (where international observers had settled), from other governmental buildings and from policemen on the street. Among many testimonies, N. Farmakis, then a fifteen-year-old member of the anti-EAM Organization X participating in the shootings, described that he saw the head of the police Angelos Evert giving the order to open fire on the crowd, by means of a handkerchief waved from the window. The sharpshooters had been given a standing order, according to Farmakis, "Don't fire as they are marching, at least up to the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. When they march to the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, open fire!" Although there are no accounts hinting that the crowd indeed possessed guns, the British commander Woodhouse insisted that it was uncertain whether the first shots were fired by the police or the demonstrators. LIFE photographer Dmitri Kessel, who witnessed the shooting, reported that the "police fired without provocation". More than 28 demonstrators were killed, and 148 were injured. This signalled the beginning of the Dekemvriana (Greek: Δεκεμβριανά, "December event s "), a 37-day period of full-scale fighting in Athens between EAM fighters and smaller parts of ELAS, and the forces of the British army and the government.

At the beginning the government had only a few policemen and gendarmes, some militia units, the 3rd Greek Mountain Brigade —distinguished at the Gothic Line offensive in Italy, which, however, lacked heavy weapons — and the royalist group Organization X, also known as " Chítes ", which was accused by EAM of collaborating with the Nazis. Consequently, the British intervened in support of the Greek government, deploying artillery and aircraft to reinforce their position as the battle approached its last stages.

In the early morning hours of 4 December, ELAS reservists began operations in the Athens–Piraeus area, attacking Grivas' Organization X forces and many police stations with success. In the evening, a peaceful demonstration and funeral procession took place by EAM members. Government forces took no action but the procession was attacked by Chites led by Colonel Grivas, with over 100 dead. Also on 4 December, Papandreou gave his resignation to the British commander, Lt. General Scobie, who rejected it.

By 12 December, ΕΑΜ was in control of most of Athens, Piraeus and the suburbs. The government and British forces were confined only in the centre of Athens, in an area that was ironically called Scobia (Scobie's country) by the guerrillas.

The British, alarmed by the initial successes of EAM-ELAS and outnumbered, flew in the 4th Indian Infantry Division from Italy as emergency reinforcements. They also transferred John Hawkesworth from Italy to Athens, as assistant to Scobie, who soon took the general command.

Although the British were openly fighting against EAM in Athens, there were no such battles in the rest of the big cities. In certain cases, such as Volos, some RAF units even surrendered equipment to ELAS fighters. It seems that ELAS preferred to avoid an armed confrontation with the British forces initially and later tried to reduce the conflict as much as possible, although poor communication between its many independent units around the country might also have played a role. This might explain the simultaneous skirmishes with the British, the large-scale ELAS operations against Trotskyists, anarchists and other political dissidents in Athens, and the many contradictory decisions of EAM leaders. Videlicet, the KKE leadership, was supporting a doctrine of "national unity" while eminent members, such as Leonidas Stringos, Theodoros Makridis, and even Georgios Siantos, were creating revolutionary plans. Even more curiously, Tito was both the KKE's key sponsor and a key British ally, owing his physical and political survival in 1944 to British assistance.

## Churchill in Athens

This outbreak of fighting between Allied forces and an anti-German European resistance movement while the war in Europe was still being fought was a serious political problem for Churchill's coalition government in Britain and caused much protest in the British press and the House of Commons. To prove his peacemaking intentions to the public, Churchill went to Athens with Field Marshal Harold Alexander, Anthony Eden and Harold Macmillan on Christmas Day (25 December), to preside over a conference to bring about a settlement, in which Soviet representatives (Popov) also participated.

The conference was to take place in the Hotel Grande Bretagne. Later, it became known that there was a plan by the EAM to blow up the building, aiming to kill the participants, which was finally cancelled. Instead the conference took place in Phaliro, on the cruiser Ajax. From the Greek side Siantos, Partsalidis, Mantakas and Sofianopoulos took part for EAM and Regent Damaskinos, Papandreou, Panagiotis Kanellopoulos, Sofoulis, Kafantaris, Dimitris Maximos, Stefanos Stefanopoulos, Gonatas, Tsaldaris and as a special personality Nikolaos Plastiras for the government. It failed because the EAM-ELAS demands were considered excessive.

Meanwhile, the Soviet Union remained passive about developments in Greece. True to the informal Percentages agreement struck between Stalin and Churchill that placed Greece in the British sphere of influence, the Soviet delegation in Greece did not encourage or discourage the EAM's ambitions. The delegation's chief gained the nickname "sphinx" among local Communist officers for not giving any clues about Soviet intentions. Pravda did not mention the clashes at all.

By early January, EAM forces had lost the battle. Despite Churchill's intervention, Papandreou resigned and was replaced by Lieutenant General Nikolaos Plastiras. On 15 January 1945, Scobie agreed to a ceasefire in exchange for the ELAS's withdrawal from its positions at Patras and Thessaloniki and its demobilization in the Peloponnese.

## Aftermath

The communist guerrillas, led by Siantos, evacuated the capital taking thousands of hostages. During their retreat to central Greece, many of them died from the cold or hardships. ELAS took hostages in order to dissuade the RAF from attacking it during its retreat. About 13,000 members of EAM-ELAS were also arrested by the British and handed over to the Greek authorities.

The new government of Plastiras and the Communist Party signed in February 1945 the Treaty of Varkiza in an effort of accord.

On 25 January 1945, a mass grave of about 200 people was found in Athens. Examiners estimated the bodies to be a month to six weeks old, which aligns with the period of the ELAS occupation of the area. None of the 200 were executed via gunshot, instead having been executed with hatchets, blunt instruments, or by stoning.

## People

Participants with the EAM-ELAS side included among others Kostas Axelos, Iannis Xenakis, Manolis Glezos, Apostolos Santas, Mikis Theodorakis, Memos Makris Aimilios Veakis, Dimitris Partsalidis, Helene Ahrweiler and Nikos Koundouros.

Participants with the government/British side included Anastasios Peponis, Stylianos Pattakos, Konstantinos Ventiris and Panagiotis Spiliotopoulos.


1882 in Germany

# 1882 in Germany

## Abstract

Events in the year 1882 in Germany.

## Incumbents

### National level

- Kaiser – William I

- Chancellor – Otto von Bismarck

### State level

#### Kingdoms

- King of Bavaria – Ludwig II

- King of Prussia – William I

- King of Saxony – Albert

- King of Württemberg – Charles

#### Grand Duchies

- Grand Duke of Baden – Frederick I

- Grand Duke of Hesse – Louis IV

- Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin – Frederick Francis II

- Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz – Frederick William

- Grand Duke of Oldenburg – Peter II

- Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach – Charles Alexander

#### Principalities

- Schaumburg-Lippe – Adolf I, Prince of Schaumburg-Lippe

- Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt – George Albert, Prince of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt

- Schwarzburg-Sondershausen – Charles Gonthier, Prince of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen

- Principality of Lippe – Woldemar, Prince of Lippe

- Reuss Elder Line – Heinrich XXII, Prince Reuss of Greiz

- Reuss Younger Line – Heinrich XIV, Prince Reuss Younger Line

- Waldeck and Pyrmont – George Victor, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont

#### Duchies

- Duke of Anhalt – Frederick I, Duke of Anhalt

- Duke of Brunswick – William, Duke of Brunswick

- Duke of Saxe-Altenburg – Ernst I, Duke of Saxe-Altenburg

- Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha – Ernst II, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha

- Duke of Saxe-Meiningen – Georg II, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen

## Events

- 24 March – the Tuberculosis bacillus causing tuberculosis, M. tuberculosis, was identified and described by Robert Koch.

- 28 March – German company Beiersdorf was founded.

- 29 April – the Electromote was the world's first vehicle run like a trolleybus, which was first presented to the public on April 29, 1882, by its inventor Ernst Werner von Siemens in Halensee, a suburb of Berlin, Germany.

- 20 May – Triple Alliance

- 23 June – Kiel Week in Kiel started.

## Births

- 24 February – Richard Beitzen, German Naval officer (died 1918)

- 10 March – Hans Steinhoff, German film director (died 1945)

- 16 March – Paul Lejeune-Jung, German economist and politician (died 1944)

- 23 March – Emmy Noether, German mathematician (died 1935)

- 23 March – Max Gülstorff, German actor (died 1947)

- 2 April – Herbert von Dirksen, German diplomat (died 1955)

- 7 April – Kurt von Schleicher, German politician and former Chancellor of Germany (died 1934)

- 9 April – Frederick Francis IV, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (died 1945)

- 6 May – Wilhelm, German Crown Prince, German crown prince (died 1951)

- 10 May – Friedrich Marby, German rune occultist and Germanic revivalist (died 1966)

- 12 May – Duke Paul Frederick of Mecklenburg, nobleman (died 1904)

- 25 May – Ernst von Weizsäcker, German diplomat and politician (died 1951)

- 4 June – Karl Valentin, German actor and comedian (died 1948)

- 27 June – Eduard Spranger, German philosopher (died 1963)

- 29 June – Franz Seldte, German co-founder of the German Stahlhelm paramilitary organization, a Nazi politician, and Minister for Labour of the German Reich from 1933 to 1945 (died 1947)

- 23 July – Georg Jacoby, German film director and screenwriter (died 1964)

- 26 August – James Franck, German physicist (died 1964)

- 2 September – Max Bockmühl, German chemist (died 1949)

- 22 September – Wilhelm Keitel, German field marshal (died 1946)

- 24 September – Karl Rapp, German founder and owner of the Rapp Motorenwerke GmbH in Munich.(died 1962)

- 26 September – Eduard von der Heydt, German banker (died 1964)

- 30 September – Hans Geiger, German physicist (died 1945)

- 12 October - Hermann Wolfgang von Waltershausen, German composer and conductor (died 1954)

- 15 October – Heinrich Graf zu Dohna-Schlobitten, German general and resistance fighter (died 1944)

- 24 October – Paul Günther, German diver (died 1959)

- 30 October – Günther von Kluge, German field marshal (died 1944)

- 11 December – Max Born, German physicist and mathematician (died 1970)

- 14 December – Wilhelm Keppler, German businessman (died 1960)

- 16 December – Ernst Lissauer, German poet (died 1937)

- 16 December – Walther Meissner, German physicist (died 1974)

## Deaths

- 11 January — Theodor Schwann, German physiologist (born 1810)

- 13 January – Wilhelm Mauser, German weapon designer and manufacturer/industrialist (born 1834)

- 6 April – Friedrich Drake, German sculptor (born 1805)

- 16 September – Theodore Eisfeld, German conductor (born 1816)

- 23 September – Friedrich Wöhler, German chemist (born 1800)

- 11 November – Wolfgang Franz von Kobell, German mineralogist and writer (born 1803)

- 13 November - Gottfried Kinkel, German poet (born 1815)

- 26 November – Otto Theodor von Manteuffel, Prussian Prime Minister (born 1805)

- 5 December – Theodor Ludwig Wilhelm von Bischoff, German biologist (born 1807)


Doom Bar

# Doom Bar

## Abstract

The Doom Bar (previously known as Dunbar sands, Dune-bar, and similar names) is a sandbar at the mouth of the estuary of the River Camel, where it meets the Atlantic Ocean on the north coast of Cornwall, England. Like two other permanent sandbanks further up the estuary, the Doom Bar is composed mainly of marine sand that is continually being carried up from the seabed. More than 60 percent of the sand is derived from marine shells, making it an important source of agricultural lime, which has been collected for hundreds of years; an estimated 10 million tons of sand or more has been removed from the estuary since the early nineteenth century, mainly by dredging.

The estuary mouth, exposed to the Atlantic Ocean, is a highly dynamic environment, and the sands have been prone to dramatic shifts during storms. According to tradition, the Doom Bar formed in the reign of Henry VIII, damaging the prosperity of the port of Padstow a mile up the estuary.

Until the twentieth century, access to Padstow's harbour was via a narrow channel between the Doom Bar and the cliffs at Stepper Point, a difficult passage for sailing ships to navigate, especially in north-westerly gales when the cliffs would cut off the wind. Many ships were wrecked on the Doom Bar, despite the installation of mooring rings and capstans on the cliffs and quarrying away part of Stepper Point to improve the wind. In the early twentieth century the main channel moved away from the cliffs, and continued dredging has made it much safer for boats, but deaths have occurred on the bar as recently as May 2020.

A Cornish legend relates that a mermaid created the bar as a dying curse on the harbour after she was shot by a local man. The Doom Bar has been used in poetry to symbolise feelings of melancholy, and has given its name to the flagship ale from the local Sharp's Brewery.

## Description

The Doom Bar is a sandbar at the mouth of the Camel estuary on the north coast of Cornwall. The bar is composed mostly of coarse sediment carried up from the seabed by bed load processes, and it has been shown that there is a net inflow of sediment into the estuary. This inflow is aided by wave and tidal processes, but the exact patterns of sediment transport within the estuary are complex and are not fully understood. There is only a very small sediment contribution from the River Camel itself: most of the river's sediment is deposited much higher up the estuary.

There are three persistent sandbars in the Camel estuary: the Doom Bar; the Town Bar at Padstow, about 1 mile (1.6 km) upstream; and the Halwyn Bank just upstream of Padstow, where the estuary changes direction. All three are of similar composition; a large proportion of their sediment is derived from marine mollusc shells, and as a consequence it includes a high level of calcium carbonate, measured in 1982 at 62 per cent. The high calcium carbonate content of the sand has meant that it has been used for hundreds of years to improve agricultural soil by liming. This use is known to date back to before 1600. High calcium carbonate levels combined with natural sea salt made the sand valuable to farmers as an alkaline fertiliser when mixed with manure.

In a report published in 1839, Henry De la Beche estimated that the sand from the Doom Bar accounted for between a fifth and a quarter of the sand used for agriculture in Devon and Cornwall. He also stated that around 80 men were permanently employed to dredge the area from several barges, removing an estimated 100,000 long tons (100,000,000 kg) of sand per year, which he said he had been "assured by competent persons" had caused a reduction in height of the bar of between 6 and 8 feet (180 and 240 cm) in the 50 years before 1836. Another report, published about twenty years earlier by Samuel Drew, stated, however, that although the sandbars had been "pillaged" for ages they remained undiminished. An estimated ten million tons of sediment was removed from the estuary between 1836 and 1989, mostly for agricultural purposes and mostly from the Doom Bar. Sand is still regularly dredged from the area; in 2009 an estimated 120,000 tons of sand were removed from the bar and the surrounding estuary.

There is a submerged forest beneath the eastern part of the Doom Bar, off Daymer Bay. It is believed to be part of the wooded plain that existed off the current Cornwall coast before it was overcome by sand dunes and beach sand during the last significant rise in sea-level, which ended around 4,000 years ago. Exposed as they are to the Atlantic Ocean, the sands of the area have always been prone to sudden shifts: several houses were said to have been buried one night during a powerful storm. According to tradition one such shift led to the formation of the Doom Bar during the reign of Henry VIII (1509–1547), causing a decline in the prosperity of Padstow. Today, the sandbank covers approximately 0.4 square miles (1.0 km), linking the beaches near Harbour Cove by sand flats, although the actual size and shape varies.

The name "Doom Bar" is a corruption of the older name Dunbar which itself derives from dune-bar. Although the bar was commonly known as "Dunbar sands" before 1900, the name "Doom Bar" was used in 1761 (as "the Doom-bar"), and it was also used in poetry, and in House of Commons papers in the nineteenth century.

## Danger to shipping

For centuries, the Doom Bar was regarded as a significant danger to ships—to be approached with caution to avoid running aground. When sails were the main source of power, ships coming round Stepper Point would lose the wind, causing loss of steerage, leaving them to drift away from the channel. Sometimes, gusts of wind known colloquially as "flaws" blew over Stepper Point and pushed vessels towards the sandbank. Dropping anchor would not help, as it could not gain a firm hold on the sand. Richard Hellyer, the Sub-Commissioner of Pilotage at Padstow, gave evidence in 1859 that the Doom Bar was regarded as so dangerous that in a storm, vessels would risk being wrecked on the coast rather than negotiate the channel to Padstow harbour.

In 1761 John Griffin published a letter in the London Chronicle recommending methods for entering the Camel estuary during rough weather, particularly while north-northwest winds were blowing and described the bolts and rings he had fixed to the cliffs to assist ships trying to enter the harbour. Mooring rings were still there in 1824, and around 1830, three capstans at the base of the cliffs and bollards along the cliffs, by which means boats could be warped safely past the bar were installed.

In 1846, the Plymouth and Padstow Railway company took an interest in trying to remove the Doom Bar, hoping to increase trade through the harbour at Padstow. The plan was to create a breakwater on the bar, which would stop the build-up of sand, and the railway would transport sand from the nearby dunes to where it was needed for agricultural purposes elsewhere in the south west.

In the event, neither the breakwater nor the railway were built, but the issue was re-examined by the 1858 British Parliamentary Select committee on Harbours for Refuge. The select committee took evidence from many witnesses about harbours all around the country. For Padstow, evidence from Captain Claxton, RN, stated that without the removal of the sand, ships in distress could use the harbour only at high tide. The committee was told by J. D. Bryant, a port commissioner and Receiver of Wreck for Padstow, that in 1848 Padstow Harbour Association had cut down a small piece of Stepper Point, which had given ships about 50 fathoms of extra "fair wind" into the harbour. Bryant recommended further removal of the point which would allow a true wind along the whole channel past the dangerous sandbar.

The select committee report concluded the bar would return through re-silting if it were dredged, and there were insufficient resources to prevent it. Several alternatives were discussed, including the construction of two guide walls to sluice water across the bar, thereby removing it. Evidence was given that the bar was made up of "hard sand" which would prove difficult to remove. During the discussions, it was indicated that whilst the sandbank could be removed by a variety of methods, it would not significantly improve access to the harbour, and that a harbour of refuge would be better on the Welsh coast.

The committee's final report determined that along the whole of the rocky coast between Land's End and Hartland Point, Padstow was the only potentially safe harbour for the coasting trade when the most dangerous north-westerly onshore gales were blowing. It noted that Padstow's safety was compromised by the Doom Bar and by the eddy-forming effect of Stepper Point. The report recommended initial expenditure of £20,000 to cut down the outer part of Stepper Point, which, in conjunction with the capstans, bollards and mooring rings, would significantly reduce the risk to shipping.

During the twentieth century the Doom Bar was regularly dredged to improve access to Padstow. By the 1930s, when Commander H. E. Turner surveyed the estuary, there were two channels around the Doom Bar, and it is thought that the main channel may have moved to the east side in 1929. By 2010 the original channel had disappeared. The estuary is regularly dredged by Padstow Harbour Commission's dredgers, Sandsnipe and Mannin.

## Shipwrecks

The Doom Bar has accounted for more than 600 beachings, capsizes and wrecks since records began early in the nineteenth century, the majority of which are wrecks.

Larger boats entering Padstow were offered assistance, generally by pilots who would wait at Stepper Point when a ship signalled it would be entering. If a boat was foundering, salvors would step in and help. There were cases where salvors attempted to overstate the danger in court, so as to extort more money from the owners. This happened to the brig The Towan in October 1843. Although it did not need assistance, salvors interfered and attempted to claim a large amount in compensation from the owner.

In 1827, the recently founded Life-boat Institution helped fund a permanent lifeboat at Padstow, a 23 feet (7.0 m) rowing boat with four oars. The lifeboat house at Hawker's Cove was erected two years later by the Padstow Harbour Association for the Preservation of Life and Property from Shipwreck. Reverend Charles Prideaux-Brune of Prideaux Place was the patron. In 1879, four of his granddaughters and their friend were rowing on the Doom Bar and saw a craft go down. They rowed out to save the drowning sailor. As it was very unusual for women to rescue men all five girls received a Royal National Lifeboat Institution Silver Medal for their bravery.

Despite the safer eastern channel and improvements in maritime technology, the Royal National Lifeboat Institution still deals with incidents at the Doom Bar. In February 1997, two fishermen who were not wearing lifejackets drowned after their boat capsized. Two anglers had been killed in a similar incident in 1994. On 25 June 2007, the Padstow lifeboat and a rescue helicopter rescued the crews of two yachts in separate incidents from the area.

### HMS Whiting

The only warship reported wrecked on the Doom Bar was HMS Whiting, a 12-gun schooner. The Whiting was originally a cargo ship named Arrow, which travelled from the United States to France; she was captured by the Royal Navy on 8 May 1812 and renamed. On 15 September 1816, she ran aground on the Doom Bar as the tide was ebbing and the wind was from an unfavourable direction offering little assistance. According to court-martial transcripts, an attempt to move her was made at the next high tide, but she was taking on water and it was impossible to save her.

Whiting was abandoned over the next few days and the crew salvaged whatever they could. The officer in charge, Lieutenant John Jackson, lost one year's seniority for negligence, and three crewmen were given "50 lashes with nine tails " for desertion. The wreck was sold to salvors and, despite correspondence requesting salvage eleven years later, the navy took no further interest. The Royal Navy attempted to survey the wreck in June 1830, by which time the sandbank had covered most of it. In May 2010 a marine research and exploration group, ProMare, and the Nautical Archaeology Society, with the help of Padstow Primary School, mounted a search for the ship. The groups searched four sites on the Doom Bar, but have so far been unsuccessful.

### Antoinette

The largest ship wrecked on the Doom Bar is believed to be the Antoinette, an 1874 barque of 1,118 tonnes. On New Year's Day 1895, she set sail from Newport in South Wales with a cargo of coal for Brazil, but foundered near Lundy Island, losing parts of her mast. She was towed by a steam tug towards Padstow but struck the Doom Bar and the tow rope either broke, or had to be released. Her crew of fourteen and several men who had attempted to salvage her were rescued by lifeboats from Port Isaac and Padstow, following which she rapidly sank.

Attempts by three tugs from Cardiff to remove the wreck were unsuccessful, but the next spring tide carried the midsection up the estuary onto Town Bar, opposite Padstow, where it was a hazard to shipping. A miner named Pope was called in to remove it: he used gelignite without success, though the explosion was reported to have broken many windows in the town. In 2010 a wreck, identified as almost certainly the Antoinette, surfaced on Town Bar. The Royal Navy Bomb Disposal Unit failed to demolish it and it was marked with a buoy; in March 2011 work started to demolish the remainder of it using saws.

## In literature

" is doubtless a myth, but it is a fact that a wailing cry is sometimes heard on the Doombar after a fearful gale and loss of life on that fateful bar, like a woman bewailing the dead."

Enys Tregarthen's notes on the Doom Bar legend

According to local folklore, the Doom Bar was created by the Mermaid of Padstow as a dying curse after being shot. In 1906, Enys Tregarthen wrote that a Padstow local, Tristram Bird, bought a new gun and wanted to shoot something worthy of it. He went hunting seals at Hawker's Cove but found a young woman sitting on a rock brushing her hair. Entranced by her beauty, he offered to marry her and when she refused he shot her in retaliation, only realising afterwards that she was a mermaid. As she died she cursed the harbour with a "bar of doom", from Hawker's Cove to Trebetherick Bay. A terrible gale blew up that night and when it finally subsided there was the sandbar, "covered with wrecks of ships and bodies of drowned men".

The ballad, The Mermaid of Padstow, tells a similar story of a local named Tom Yeo, who shot the mermaid mistaking her for a seal. John Betjeman, who was well-acquainted with the area, wrote in 1969 that the mermaid met a local man and fell in love with him. When she could no longer bear living without him, she tried to lure him beneath the waves but he escaped by shooting her. In her rage she threw a handful of sand towards Padstow, around which the sandbank grew. In other versions of the tale, the mermaid sings from the rocks and a youth shoots at her with a crossbow, or a greedy man shoots her with a longbow. Mermaids were believed to sing to their victims so that they could lure adulterers to their death.

The mermaid legend extends beyond the creation of the Doom Bar. In 1939 Samuel Williamson declared there are mermaids comparable to Sirens who lie in the shallow waters and draw in ships to be wrecked. In addition, "the distressful cry of a woman bewailing her dead" is said to be heard after a storm where lives are lost on the sandbar.

Rosamund Watson 's "Ballad of Pentyre Town" uses the sandbank for imagery to elicit feelings of melancholy when talking of giving up everything for love. A Victorian poem by Alice E. Gillington, "The Doom-Bar", relates the story of a girl who gave an engraved ring to the man she loved before he sailed away across the Doom Bar, breaking her heart. Four years later, when the tide was lower than usual, her friends persuaded her to walk out on the sand where she found the ring inside a scallop. Realising he must have tossed it aside on the night he left, she resolved not to remain heart-broken, but to sail out to sea herself.

A play, The Doom Bar, about smuggling and wrecking was written in the early 1900s by Arthur Hansen Bush. Although there was no interest in London it was well received in America, and was scheduled to tour in Chicago and New York. A series of mishaps, blamed on the legendary wrecker Cruel Coppinger, culminating in a fire at Baltimore, caused the play to be considered cursed by America's actors' unions and its members were banned from appearing in it.

## Sources


# William Fitzgerald (footballer, born 1999)

## Abstract

William Fitzgerald (born 19 May 1999) is an Irish professional footballer who plays as a winger for League of Ireland side Sligo Rovers.

## Career

### Limerick

Having come through the academy at Mervue United, Fitzgerald moved to Limerick in 2016. After progressing through the U17's and U19's sides with Super Blues, Fitzgerald was promoted to the first team in 2017. He made his professional debut on 26 August 2017, as he came on as a 61st-minute substitute for Stephen Kenny; during a 1–0 win against Finn Harps in the Second Round of the FAI Cup. Almost two months after his cup appearance, Fitzgerald made his league debut on 14 October 2017 as he came on as a 74th-minute substitute for Kenny once again; during the 1–0 win against Drogheda United. In the following campaign, Fitzgerald went onto feature 38 times across all competitions, as Limerick suffered relegation after suffering a 3–0 aggregate against Finn Harps.

### Waterford

On 5 July 2019, after featuring once for Limerick in the League of Ireland First Division after overcoming injury; Fitzgerald signed for Premier Division side Waterford. He would go onto make 20 appearances for The Blues across all competitions, before leaving the club in February 2021.

### Derry City

On 22 February 2021, Fitzgerald signed for fellow League of Ireland Premier Division side Derry City on a one-year deal, after featuring in all but one of The Candystripes' league games during the 2021 season, he left the club on 6 December 2021; following the expiration of his contract.

### Sligo Rovers

A few hours after leaving Derry, Fitzgerald signed for Sligo Rovers on a deal until the end of the season. On 9 December 2022,after making 42 appearances out of a possible 43 across all competitions over the course of the season; Fitzgerald penned a contract extension until the end of the following season. He would go onto make 28 league appearances, scoring once; as his season was curtailed after suffering a groin injury in training, which required surgery. On 10 December 2023, Fitzgerald penned another new deal until the conclusion of 2024 campaign, which sees him enter his third season at The Showgrounds.

## International career

He was called up to the Republic of Ireland U21 for the first time on 24 January 2019. Fitzgerald made his Republic of Ireland U21 debut on 6 February 2019, in a 1–0 win against Republic of Ireland Amateur in a friendly played at the Whitehall Stadium in Dublin.


List of African-American visual artists

# List of African-American visual artists

## Abstract

This list of African-American visual artists is a list that includes dates of birth and death of historically recognized African-American fine artists known for the creation of artworks that are primarily visual in nature, including traditional media such as painting, sculpture, photography, and printmaking, as well as more recent genres, including installation art, performance art, body art, conceptual art, video art, and digital art. The entries are in alphabetical order by surname.

## Artists

### A–B

- Panteha Abareshi (born 1999), multidisciplinary artist

- Nina Chanel Abney (born 1982), painter

- Blanch Ackers (1914–2003), painter

- Terry Adkins (1953–2014), artist

- Mequitta Ahuja (born 1976), painter, installation artist

- Larry D. Alexander (born 1953), painter

- Laylah Ali (born 1968), painter

- Jules T. Allen (born 1947), photographer

- Tina Allen (1949–2008), sculptor

- Steve R. Allen (born 1954), painter

- Charles Alston (1907–1977), painter

- Amalia Amaki (born 1959), artist

- Emma Amos (1938–2020), painter

- Benny Andrews (1930–2006), painter

- Edgar Arceneaux (born 1972), drawing artist

- Nellie Ashford (born c. 1943), folk artist

- James Atkins (born 1941), painter

- Roland Ayers (1932–2014), printmaker

- Radcliffe Bailey (born 1968) collage, sculpture

- Kyle Baker (born 1965), cartoonist

- Matt Baker (1921–1959), comic book artist

- James Presley Ball (1825–1904), photographer

- Alvin Baltrop (1948–2004), photographer

- Henry Bannarn (1910–1965), painter

- Edward Mitchell Bannister (1828–1901), painter

- Ernie Barnes (1938–2009), neo-Mannerist artist

- Richmond Barthé (1901–1989), sculptor

- Jean-Michel Basquiat (1960–1988), painter

- C. M. Battey (1873–1927), photographer

- Romare Bearden (1911–1988), painter

- Arthello Beck (1941–2004), painter

- Arthur P. Bedou (1882–1966), photographer

- Darrin Bell (born 1975), cartoonist

- Mary A. Bell (1873–1941)

- Dawoud Bey (born 1953), photographer

- Sharif Bey (born 1974), ceramist

- John T. Biggers (1924–2001), muralist

- Sanford Biggers (born 1970), interdisciplinary

- Gene Bilbrew (1923–1974), cartoonist and fetish artist

- Camille Billops (1933–2019), filmmaker, sculptor, painter, printmaker

- McArthur Binion (born 1946), painter

- Robert Blackburn (1920–2003), master printmaker, lithographer, and educator

- Thomas Blackshear (born 1955)

- Betty Blayton (1937–2016), painter, printmaker

- Chakaia Booker (born 1953), sculptor

- Edythe Boone (born 1938), muralist

- Charles Boyce (born 1949), cartoonist

- Tina Williams Brewer, fiber artist

- James Brantley (born 1945), painter

- Mark Bradford (born 1961)

- Elenora "Rukiya" Brown, doll creator

- Elmer Brown (1909–1971)

- Frank J. Brown (1956–2020), sculptor

- Frederick J. Brown (1945–2012), painter

- Larry Poncho Brown (born 1962)

- Manuelita Brown, sculptor

- Robert Brown (c. 1936 – 2007), cartoonist

- Beverly Buchanan (1940–2015), painter, sculptor

- Selma Burke (1900–1995), sculptor

- Calvin Burnett (1921–2007), book illustrator

- Pauline Powell Burns (1872–1912), painter

- John Bush (?–1754), powder horn carver

- Bisa Butler (born 1973), quilter

- Robert Butler (1943–2014), painter

### C–D

- Frank Calloway (1915–2014)

- E. Simms Campbell (1906–1971), cartoonist

- Allen 'Big Al' Carter (1947–2008)

- Fred Carter (1938–2023), cartoonist

- Bernie Casey (1939–2017), painter

- Elizabeth Catlett (1915–2012), sculptor and printmaker

- Nick Cave (born 1959), performance artist

- Michael Ray Charles (born 1967), painter

- Barbara Chase-Riboud (born 1936), sculptor

- Jamour Chames (born 1989), painter

- Don Hogan Charles (1938–2017), photographer

- Caitlin Cherry (born 1987), painter and sculptor

- Claude Clark (1915–2001), painter and printmaker

- Edward Clark (1926–2019), painter

- Sonya Clark (born 1967), textile and multimedia artist

- Willie Cole (born 1955), painter

- Robert Colescott (1925–2009), painter

- Eldzier Cortor (1916–2015), artist and printmaker

- Pamela Council (born 1986), multidisciplinary artist, sculptor

- Ernest Crichlow (1914–2005), social realist artist

- Allan Crite (1910–2007), painter

- Njideka Akunyili Crosby (born 1983), painter

- Emilio Cruz (1938–2004), painter

- Frank E. Cummings III (born 1938), woodworker

- Michael Cummings (born 1945), textile artist

- Ulysses Davis (1913–1990), sculptor

- Bing Davis (born 1937), potter and graphic artist

- Charles C. Dawson (1889–1981) illustrator, painter, and printmaker

- Roy DeCarava (1919–2009), photographer

- Beauford Delaney (1901–1979), painter

- Joseph Delaney (1904–1991)

- Nadine M. DeLawrence (1953–1992), American sculptor and installation artist

- Xiomara De Oliver (born 1967), Canadian-born American painter.

- Woody De Othello (born 1991), ceramicist, painter

- Rosetta DeBerardinis, painter

- Louis Delsarte (1944–2020), artist

- Cheryl Derricotte, glass artist, printmaker

- Joseph Clinton Devillis (1878–1912), painter

- Thornton Dial (1928–2016)

- Terry Dixon (born 1969), painter and multimedia artist

- Jeff Donaldson (1932–2004), painter and critic

- Aaron Douglas (1899–1979), painter

- Emory Douglas (born 1943), Black Panther artist

- John E. Dowell Jr. (born 1941), printmaker, etcher, lithographer, and painter

- David Driskell (1931–2020), artist and scholar

- Robert Seldon Duncanson (1821–1872), Hudson River School

- Edward Dwight (born 1933) sculptor, painter, author

### E–H

- Walter Edmonds (1938–2011), muralist

- William Edmondson (1874–1951), folk art sculptor

- Allan L. Edmunds (born 1949), printmaker

- Mel Edwards (born 1937), sculptor

- Janiva Ellis (born 1987), painter

- Walter Ellison (1899–1977), painter

- Minnie Evans (1892–1987), folk artist

- Lola Flash (born 1959), photographer

- Halim Flowers (born 1980), street artist

- LaToya Ruby Frazier (born 1982), photographer

- Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller (1877–1968), artist

- George Gadson, artist and sculptor

- Ellen Gallagher (born 1965)

- Reginald Gammon (1921–2005), painter, printmaker, activist

- Melvino Garretti (born 1946)

- Theaster Gates (born 1973), sculptor, ceramicist, and performance artist

- Reginald K (Kevin) Gee (born 1964), painter

- Herbert Gentry (1919–2003), painter

- Wilda Gerideau-Squires (born 1946), photographer

- Robert A. Gilbert (c. 1870 – 1942), nature photographer

- Leah Gilliam (born 1967), media artist and filmmaker

- Sam Gilliam (1933–2022), painter

- Russell T. Gordon (1936–2013), printmaker

- Rex Goreleigh (1902–1986), painter, educator

- Billy Graham (1935–1999), comic book artist

- Lonnie Graham, photographer and installation artist

- Deborah Grant (born 1968), painter

- Todd Gray (born 1954), photographer, installation and performance artist

- Leamon Green (born 1959)

- Renee Green (born 1959), installation artist

- Mario Gully, comic book artist

- Tyree Guyton (born 1955)

- Ed Hamilton (born 1947), sculptor

- Patrick Earl Hammie (born 1981), painter

- David Hammons (born 1943), artist

- Trenton Doyle Hancock (born 1974)

- Austin Hansen (1910–1996), photographer

- John Wesley Hardrick (1891–1948), painter

- Edwin Harleston (1882–1931), painter

- Elise Forrest Harleston (1891–1970), photographer

- Jerry Harris (1945–2016), sculptor

- John T. Harris (1908–1972), painter, printmaker, educator

- Kira Lynn Harris (born 1963), multidisciplinary

- Lawrence Harris (born 1937), painter

- Ilana Harris-Babou (born 1991), sculptor and installation artist

- Marren Hassenger (born 1947), sculptor, installation, performance

- Palmer Hayden (1893–1973), painter

- Donté K. Hayes (b. 1975), ceramicist

- Barkley Hendricks (1945–2017), painter

- Nestor Hernández (1961–2006), photographer

- George Herriman (1880–1944), cartoonist

- LaToya M. Hobbs (born 1988) printmaker, painter, mixed media artist

- Alvin Hollingsworth (1928–2000), illustrator, painter

- Humbert Howard (1905 or 1915–1990), painter, ceramicist

- William Howard (active 19th century), American woodworker and craftsman

- Bryce Hudson (born 1979), painter, sculptor

- Julien Hudson (1811–1844), painter, sculptor

- David Huffman (born 1963), painter

- Edward Ellis Hughes (1940–2017), painter

- Richard Hunt (1935–2023), sculptor

- Clementine Hunter (1886/7–1988), folk artist

### J–O

- Wadsworth Jarrell (born 1929), painter, sculptor

- Oliver Lee Jackson (born 1935), painter, sculptor, printmaker, educator

- Suzanne Jackson, artist, gallery owner

- Tomashi Jackson (born 1980), multimedia artist, painter, videographer, textile-maker and sculptor

- Steffani Jemison (born 1981), performance artist, video artist

- Wilmer Angier Jennings (1910–1990), printmaker, painter, jeweler

- Annette P. Jimerson (born 1966), painter

- Joshua Johnson (c. 1763 – c. 1824), portrait painter and folk artist

- LeRoy Johnson (1937–1922), multidisciplinary artist

- Malvin Gray Johnson (1896–1934), painter

- Martina Johnson-Allen (born 1947), painter, sculptor, and printmaker, educator

- Rashid Johnson (born 1977), conceptual artist

- Sargent Johnson (1888–1967), sculptor

- William H. Johnson (1902–1970)

- Calvin B. Jones (1934–2010), painter, muralist

- Ida E. Jones, painter

- Jennie C. Jones (born 1968), multidisciplinary

- Lois Mailou Jones (1905–1998), painter

- Lawrence A. Jones (1910–1996), artist, teacher

- Samuel Levi Jones (born 1978), painter, assemblage artist

- Seitu Jones (born 1951), multidisciplinary, sculptor

- Eddie Jack Jordan (1925–1999), artist, teacher

- Ronald Joseph (1910–1992), artist, teacher, and printmaker

- Titus Kaphar (born 1976), painter

- Richard Gordon Kendall (1933–2008), Texas-based outsider artist

- Autumn Knight (born 1980), interdisciplinary artist working with performance, installation, and text

- Gwendolyn Knight (1914–2005), artist

- Jacob Lawrence (1917–2000), painter

- Deana Lawson (born 1979), photographer

- Carolyn Lazard (born 1987), conceptual artist

- Hughie Lee-Smith (1915–1999), artist

- Simone Leigh (born 1967), sculpture, ceramics

- Edmonia Lewis (c. 1843 – 1879), artist

- Nate Lewis (born 1985), visual artist

- Norman Lewis (1909–1979), painter

- Joe Louis Light (1934–2005), painter and sculptor

- Glenn Ligon (born 1960), painter

- James Little (born 1952), painter, curator

- Willie Little (born 1961), multimedia artist, painter, sculptor, author

- Llanakila, artist, painter, digital illustrator, and digital artist

- Edward L. Loper, Sr. (1916–2011), painter

- Whitfield Lovell (born 1960), artist

- Alvin D. Loving (1935–2005), artist

- Eric N. Mack (born 1987), painter, multi-media installation artist, and sculptor

- Gwendolyn Ann Magee (1943–2011), artist, quilter

- Clarence Major (born 1936), painter

- Ajuan Mance, visual artist, professor

- Kerry James Marshall (born 1955), painter

- Eugene J. Martin (1938–2005), painter

- Louise Martin (1911–1995), photographer

- Percy Martin, printmaker

- Richard Mayhew (born 1934), Afro-Native American, landscape painter

- Valerie Maynard (1937–2022), sculptor, printmaker, painter

- Ealy Mays (born 1959), painter

- Lester Julian Merriweather (born 1978) collagist, painter

- William McBride (artist) (1912–2000), artist, designer and collector

- Howard McCalebb (born 1947), artist

- Hugo McCloud (born 1980), visual artist

- Corky McCoy, illustrator

- Charles McGee, (1924–2021) painter

- Charles McGill (1964–2017), artist, educator

- Julie Mehretu (born 1970), painter, printmaker

- Troy Michie (born 1985), collage artist, painter, interdisciplinary installation artist, and sculptor

- Nicole Miller (born 1982), video artist

- Joe Minter (born 1943) sculptor, creator of African Village in America

- Dean Mitchell (born 1957), painter

- Evangeline Montgomery, metal art, printmaker

- Scipio Moorhead (active 1770s), painter

- Barbara Tyson Mosley (born 1950), abstract painter

- Charles Franklin Moss (1878–1961), photographer and painter

- Archibald Motley (1891–1981), painter

- Zora J. Murff (born 1987), photographer

- Wangechi Mutu (born 1972) painter, sculptor

- Gus Nall (1919–1995), painter

- Senga Nengudi (born 1943), sculptor, performance artist

- Harold Newton (1934–1994), artist

- Lorraine O'Grady (born 1934), conceptual artist

- Turtel Onli (born 1952), cartoonist

- Jackie Ormes (1911–1985), cartoonist

- John Outterbridge (1933–2020), assemblage artist

- Joe Overstreet (1933–2019), artist

### P–S

- Jennifer Packer (born 1985), painter

- Norman Parish, painter, muralist and art dealer

- Gordon Parks (1912–2006), photographer, director

- Sandra Payne (1951–2021), collagist, sculptor, conceptual artist

- Cecelia Pedescleaux (born 1945), quilter

- Janet Taylor Pickett (born 1948), mixed media artist

- Delilah Pierce (1904–1992), artist

- Earle M. Pilgrim (1923–1976), artist

- Howardena Pindell (born 1943), painter

- Jefferson Pinder, performance

- Jerry Pinkney (1939–2021), illustrator

- Adrian Piper (born 1948), conceptual artist

- Rose Piper (1917–2005), painter and textile designer

- Horace Pippin (1888–1946), painter

- William Pleasant Jr. (1928-1997), painter

- P. H. Polk (1898–1984), photographer

- Stephanie Pogue (1944–2002), printmaker

- Carl Robert Pope (born 1961), photographer

- William Pope.L (born 1955) conceptual artist

- Charles Ethan Porter (1847/49–1923) painter

- Harriet Powers (1837–1910), folk artist

- Walter Price (artist) (born 1989), painter

- Martin Puryear (born 1941), sculptor

- Mavis Pusey (1928–2019), abstract painter

- Bob Ragland (1938–2021), painter and sculptor

- Patrick H. Reason (1816–1898)

- Earle Wilton Richardson (1912–1935), artist

- Taft Richardson Jr. (1943–2008), folk artist

- Faith Ringgold (born 1930), painter

- Haywood Rivers (1922–2001), painter

- Amber Robles-Gordon, installation artist

- Deborah Roberts, (born 1962), collage artist

- Arthur Rose Sr. (1921–1995), multidisciplinary

- Bayeté Ross Smith (born 1976), photographer

- Susan Smith-Pinelo, video, performance

- Alison Saar (born 1956), artist

- Betye Saar (born 1926), artist

- Synthia Saint James (born 1949) painter

- Charles L. Sallée Jr. (1923–2006), painter

- Reginald Sanders (1921–2001), visual artist

- Raymond Saunders (born 1934), painter

- Augusta Savage (1892–1962), sculptor

- Dread Scott (born 1965), performance, photography, installation, screen-printing and video

- John T. Scott (1940–2007), artist

- Joyce J. Scott (born 1948), sculptor

- Lorenzo Scott (born 1934), painter

- William Edouard Scott (1884–1964), painter

- Charles Searles (1937–2004), painter, sculptor

- Charles Sebree (1914–1985), painter

- Gail Shaw-Clemons, printmaker, educator

- Thomas Sills (1914–2000), painter

- Gary Simmons (born 1964), artist

- Lorna Simpson (born 1960), artist

- Merton Simpson (1928–2013), painter

- William Simpson (1818–1872), portrait painter

- Ferrari Sheppard (born 1983), painter

- Amy Sherald (born 1973), painter

- Carroll Sockwell (1943–1992), abstract painter

- Jeff Sonhouse (born 1968), painter

- Cauleen Smith (born 1967), filmmaker

- Leslie Smith III (born 1985), painter

- Vincent D. Smith (1929–2003), painter and printmaker

- William E. Smith (1913–1997), painter and printmaker

- Gilda Snowden (1954–2014)

- Mitchell Squire (born 1958), American installation artist, sculptor and performance artist

- Raymond Steth (1916–1997)

- Renee Stout (born 1958), artist

- Lou Stovall, printmaker

- Thelma Johnson Streat (1911–1959), American painter, dancer, educator

- Martine Syms (born 1988), artist

### T–Z

- Henry Ossawa Tanner (1859–1937), artist

- Ron Tarver (born 1957), photographer, artist, and educator

- Mary Lee Tate (1893–1939), painter, decorative artist

- U.S. Grant Tayes (1885–1972), painter, barber, musician, columnist, and educator

- Margaret Taylor-Burroughs (1915–2010)

- Alma Thomas (1891–1978), painter

- Hank Willis Thomas (born 1976), photographer

- Mickalene Thomas (born 1971), painter and installation artist

- Bob Thompson (1937–1966), painter

- Mildred Thompson (1935–2003), abstract painter, printmaker and sculptor

- Dox Thrash (1892–1962), printmaker, sculptor

- Bill Traylor (1856–1949)

- Henry Taylor (born 1958), painter

- Yvonne Edwards Tucker (born 1941), potter

- Adejoke Tugbiyele (born 1977), sculptor, multidisciplinary artist

- Morrie Turner (1923–2014), cartoonist

- James Van Der Zee (1886–1983), photographer

- Kara Walker (born 1969), artist

- William Walker (1927–2011), Chicago muralist

- Eugene Warburg, (1825–1859), sculptor

- Laura Wheeler Waring (1887–1948), painter

- E. M. Washington (born 1962), printmaker and counterfeiter

- Cullen Washington, Jr. (born 1972), abstract painter

- James W. Washington, Jr. (1908–2000), painter and sculptor

- Howard N. Watson (1929–2022), watercolor painter

- Richard J. Watson (born 1946), painter, printmaker

- Lewis Watts

- Carrie Mae Weems (born 1953), photographer

- Joyce Wellman (born 1949), painter, printmaker

- Pheoris West (1950–2021)

- Charles Wilbert White (1918–1979), muralist

- Fo Wilson, interdisciplinary artist and designer

- Jack Whitten (1939–2018), painter

- Kehinde Wiley (born 1977), painter

- Gerald Williams (artist) (born 1941), painter

- William T. Williams (born 1942), painter

- Deborah Willis (born 1948), photographer

- Ellis Wilson (1899–1977), painter

- Fred Wilson (born 1954), conceptual artist

- Wilmer Wilson IV, performance, photographer

- John Woodrow Wilson (1922–2015), sculptor

- Beulah Woodard (1895–1955), sculptor

- Hale Woodruff (1900–1980), painter

- Richard Wyatt, Jr. (born 1955), painter, muralist

- Richard Yarde (1939–2011), watercolorist

- Joseph Yoakum (1890–1972), self-taught landscape artist

- Kenneth Victor Young (1933–2017), painter, designer, educator

- Purvis Young (1943–2010), artist

## Artist groups

- The Highwaymen

- AfriCOBRA

- Where We At

- Spiral (arts alliance)


Fertile Crescent Plan

# Fertile Crescent Plan

## Abstract

The Fertile Crescent Plan was an Iraqi Hashemite proposal for the union of the Kingdom of Iraq with Mandatory Syria (including Mandatory Lebanon), Mandatory Palestine, and Transjordan. Nuri as-Said, prime minister of Iraq, presented the plan to British officials during World War II, when it appeared that France had become too weak to continue occupying Syria.

The second People's Party, representing northern Syrian commercial and landholding interests, favored the Fertile Crescent Plan and initiated diplomatic steps to implement it. However, the National Party and factions in the army were determined to block any plans for unity with Iraq as long as it had a military treaty with Britain. It was also opposed by Syrians who did not wish to live under a monarchy or in a pro-British state. The closest the plan came to fruition was during the regime (August-December 1949) of Colonel Sami al-Hinnawi, who had installed a People's Party government that entered negotiations to achieve unity. The opportunity was aborted by Colonel Adib Shishakli 's coup d'état. Any faint hope remaining for the Fertile Crescent Plan ended with the overthrow of the Iraqi monarchy in July 1958.

Aspirations to unite the Fertile Crescent states continue to exist.


CTDNEP1

# CTDNEP1

## Abstract

In cell biology, CTDNEP1 (CTD nuclear envelope phosphatase 1) is a protein coding gene involved in neural development. It is a member of DXDX(T/V) phosphatase family and is a potential regulator of neural tube development in Xenopus. The gene promotes neural development by inhibiting Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs). The encoded protein is relatively small and only contains 244 amino acids.

## Description

CTDnep1, which stands for CTD nuclear envelope phosphatase 1. It is a protein coding gene, which include phosphatase activity and protein serine/threonine phosphatase activity. CTDnep1 encodes a protein serine/threonine phosphatase and dephosphorylates LPIN1 and LPIN2. LPIN1 and LPIN2 catalyze the reaction of the conversion of phosphatidic acid to diacylglycerol. The reaction can affect and change the lipid concentration of the endoplasmic reticulum and the nucleus.

## Dullard and BNP signaling

Neural development happens in the dorsal ectoderm. In the genus Xenopus, over expression of CTDNEP1 undergoes apoptosis in early development. CTDNEP1 helps promote Ubiquitin by proteosomal degradation. CTDNEP1 mRNA is derived from maternal genes and is localized within the animal neural hemisphere. Functioning negatively for the regulation of Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs), CTDNEP1 conserves the C-terminal region of NLI-IF, in which is fairly dominant in cellular functions. CTDNEP1 is essential for inhibiting BMP receptor activation during Xenopus neuralization.

## Human Dullard

Human CTDNEP1 has shown that the protein has two membrane spanning regions. One end is the N-terminal end, which helps localize the protein to the nuclear envelope. CTDNEP1 dephosphorylates the mammalian phosphatidic acid phosphatase, lipin. CTDNEP1 participates in a unique phosphatase cascade regulating nuclear membrane biogenesis, and that this cascade is conserved from yeast to mammals. There is belief that CTDNEP1 may have other targets that is not only associated with the nuclear envelope. In recent studies, CTDNEP1 interacts with BMP type 1 to inhibit dependent phosphorylation. This can conclude that it is a potential source for regulating the level of BMP signaling and can affect germ cell specification.

CTD nuclear envelope phosphatase 1 is a protein in humans that is encoded by the CTDNEP1 gene.