1828 in Germany

# 1828 in Germany

## Abstract

Events from the year 1828 in Germany

## Incumbents

### Kingdoms

- Kingdom of Prussia Monarch – Frederick William III of Prussia (16 November 1797 – 7 June 1840)

- Monarch – Frederick William III of Prussia (16 November 1797 – 7 June 1840)

- Kingdom of Bavaria Monarch - Ludwig I (1825–1848)

- Monarch - Ludwig I (1825–1848)

- Kingdom of Saxony Anthony (5 May 1827 – 6 June 1836)

- Anthony (5 May 1827 – 6 June 1836)

- Kingdom of Hanover George IV (29 January 1820 – 26 June 1830)

- George IV (29 January 1820 – 26 June 1830)

- Kingdom of Württemberg William (30 October 1816 – 25 June 1864)

- William (30 October 1816 – 25 June 1864)

### Grand Duchies

- Grand Duke of Baden Louis I (8 December 1818 – 30 March 1830)

- Louis I (8 December 1818 – 30 March 1830)

- Grand Duke of Hesse Louis I (14 August 1806 – 6 April 1830)

- Louis I (14 August 1806 – 6 April 1830)

- Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin Frederick Francis I – (24 April 1785 – 1 February 1837)

- Frederick Francis I – (24 April 1785 – 1 February 1837)

- Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz George (6 November 1816 – 6 September 1860)

- George (6 November 1816 – 6 September 1860)

- Grand Duke of Oldenburg Peter I (2 July 1823 - 21 May 1829)

- Peter I (2 July 1823 - 21 May 1829)

- Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach Charles Frederick (14 June 1828 - 8 July 1853)

- Charles Frederick (14 June 1828 - 8 July 1853)

### Principalities

- Schaumburg-Lippe George William (13 February 1787 - 1860)

- George William (13 February 1787 - 1860)

- Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt Friedrich Günther (28 April 1807 - 28 June 1867)

- Friedrich Günther (28 April 1807 - 28 June 1867)

- Schwarzburg-Sondershausen Günther Friedrich Karl I (14 October 1794 - 19 August 1835)

- Günther Friedrich Karl I (14 October 1794 - 19 August 1835)

- Principality of Lippe Leopold II (5 November 1802 - 1 January 1851)

- Leopold II (5 November 1802 - 1 January 1851)

- Principality of Reuss-Greiz Heinrich XIX (29 January 1817 - 31 October 1836)

- Heinrich XIX (29 January 1817 - 31 October 1836)

- Waldeck and Pyrmont George II (9 September 1813 - 15 May 1845)

- George II (9 September 1813 - 15 May 1845)

### Duchies

- Duke of Anhalt-Dessau Leopold IV (9 August 1817 - 22 May 1871)

- Leopold IV (9 August 1817 - 22 May 1871)

- Duke of Brunswick Charles II (16 June 1815 – 9 September 1830)

- Charles II (16 June 1815 – 9 September 1830)

- Duke of Saxe-Altenburg Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen (1780–1826) and Duke of Saxe-Altenburg (1826–1834) - Frederick

- Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen (1780–1826) and Duke of Saxe-Altenburg (1826–1834) - Frederick

- Duke of Saxe-Meiningen Bernhard II (24 December 1803–20 September 1866)

- Bernhard II (24 December 1803–20 September 1866)

## Events

- 26 May – Supposed feral child Kaspar Hauser is discovered in Nuremberg, Germany.

## Births

- 17 April – Johanna Mestorf, German prehistoric archaeologist (d. 1909)

- 24 November – Henry Lomb, German-American optician, co-founder of Bausch & Lomb (d. 1908)

## Deaths

- 9 July- Cathinka Buchwieser, German operatic singer and actress (b. 1789)

- 26 October – Albrecht Thaer, German agronomist (b. 1752)

- 5 November – Maria Feodorovna (Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg), Empress of Paul I of Russia (b. 1759)

- 15 November – Amalie of Zweibrücken-Birkenfeld, First Queen of Saxony/Duchess of Warsaw (b. 1752)


Anastasia Gozhva

# Anastasia Gozhva

## Abstract

Anastasia Gozhva or Hozhva (Ukrainian: Анастасія Володимирівна Гожва, born 5 December 2001) is a Ukrainian figure skater. She is the 2019 Jégvirág Cup champion and a three-time Ukrainian national champion (2016, 2023-24).

## Personal life

Gozhva was born on 5 December 2001 in Kyiv. Her sister, Daria (one year older), is also a competitive figure skater.

After the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Gozhva and her family fled to Tallinn, Estonia and moved into a shared apartment.

She is currently a student at the National University of Ukraine on Physical Education and Sport.

She has a pet Beagle named Ronya.

## Career

### Early career

Gozhva began learning to skate in 2004. In the 2015–16 season, she won both the junior and senior Ukrainian national titles. Too young to compete in senior internationals, she was sent to the 2016 World Junior Championships in Debrecen, Hungary. She qualified for the free skate by placing 13th in the short program and finished 17th overall.

In February 2017, Gozhva won the silver medal at the 2017 European Youth Olympic Winter Festival in Erzurum, Turkey. She made her senior international debut in September at the 2017 CS Ondrej Nepela Trophy.

### 2018–2019 season

Gozhva placed fourth at the 2019 Ukrainian Championships. Because none of the medalists met the minimum age or TES requirements, she was named in Ukraine's team to the 2019 European Championships in Minsk, Belarus. Ranked 36th in the short program, she did not advance to the free skate. In February, she outscored Nicole Schott by 1.16 points to win gold at the Jégvirág Cup in Hungary.

### 2019–20 season

Gozhva began her season at the 2019 CS Nebelhorn Trophy, where she finished sixteenth.

She went on to compete at the 2020 European Championships in Graz, Austria, where she placed thirty-fourth in the short program, failing to advance to the free skate segment of the competition.

### 2020–21 season

Gozhva sat out the 2020–21 figure skating season.

### 2021–22 season

Gozhva began the season with finishing fifteenth at the 2021 Budapest Trophy. She went on to win silver at the 2021 Autumn Talents Club and finish nineteenth at the 2021 CS Warsaw Cup.

She finished the season with a silver medal at the 2022 Ukrainian Championships.

In late February, Vladimir Putin ordered an invasion of Ukraine, as a result of which the International Skating Union banned all Russian and Belarusian skaters from competing. Gozvha was at home in Kyiv during the first attacks. As a result, Gozhva relocated to Tallinn, Estonia, where she began training under Irina Kononova, in addition to continuing to work with her longtime coach, Marina Amirkhanova.

### 2022–23 season

Gozhva began the season with thirteenth-place finish at the 2022 CS Nebelhorn Trophy. She went on to compete at the 2022 Volvo Open Cup and the 2022 Tallinn Trophy, placing fifth and sixth, respectively.

At the 2022 CS Golden Spin of Zagreb, Gozhva placed tenth, scoring a personal best free program and combined total score in the process.

Selected to compete at the 2023 Winter University Games, Gozhva scored a personal best in the short program placed eighth overall.

Competing at her third European Championships in Espoo, Finland, Gozhva placed twenty-second in the short program and seventeenth in the free skate, placing twentieth overall.

Gozhva closed her season by winning her second national title at the 2023 Ukrainian Championships.

### 2023–24 season

Gozhva began the season with a thirteenth-place at the 2023 CS Nepela Memorial.

## Competitive highlights

CS: Challenger Series; JGP: Junior Grand Prix

## Detailed results

ISU Personal best highlighted in bold.


CTDNEP1

# CTDNEP1

## Abstract

In cell biology, CTDNEP1 (CTD nuclear envelope phosphatase 1) is a protein coding gene involved in neural development. It is a member of DXDX(T/V) phosphatase family and is a potential regulator of neural tube development in Xenopus. The gene promotes neural development by inhibiting bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs). The encoded protein is relatively small and only contains 244 amino acids.

## Description

CTDnep1, which stands for CTD nuclear envelope phosphatase 1. It is a protein coding gene, which include phosphatase activity and protein serine/threonine phosphatase activity. CTDnep1 encodes a protein serine/threonine phosphatase and dephosphorylates LPIN1 and LPIN2. LPIN1 and LPIN2 catalyze the reaction of the conversion of phosphatidic acid to diacylglycerol. The reaction can affect and change the lipid concentration of the endoplasmic reticulum and the nucleus.

## Dullard and BNP signaling

Neural development happens in the dorsal ectoderm. In the genus Xenopus, over expression of CTDNEP1 undergoes apoptosis in early development. CTDNEP1 helps promote Ubiquitin by proteosomal degradation. CTDNEP1 mRNA is derived from maternal genes and is localized within the animal neural hemisphere. Functioning negatively for the regulation of Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs), CTDNEP1 conserves the C-terminal region of NLI-IF, in which is fairly dominant in cellular functions. CTDNEP1 is essential for inhibiting BMP receptor activation during Xenopus neuralization.

## Human Dullard

Human CTDNEP1 has shown that the protein has two membrane spanning regions. One end is the N-terminal end, which helps localize the protein to the nuclear envelope. CTDNEP1 dephosphorylates the mammalian phosphatidic acid phosphatase, lipin. CTDNEP1 participates in a unique phosphatase cascade regulating nuclear membrane biogenesis, and that this cascade is conserved from yeast to mammals. There is belief that CTDNEP1 may have other targets that is not only associated with the nuclear envelope. In recent studies, CTDNEP1 interacts with BMP type 1 to inhibit dependent phosphorylation. This can conclude that it is a potential source for regulating the level of BMP signaling and can affect germ cell specification.

CTD nuclear envelope phosphatase 1 is a protein in humans that is encoded by the CTDNEP1 gene.


Archibald Cary Coolidge

# Archibald Cary Coolidge

## Abstract

Archibald Cary Coolidge (March 6, 1866 – January 14, 1928) was an American educator and diplomat. He was a professor of history at Harvard College from 1908 and the first director of the Harvard University Library from 1910 until his death. Coolidge was also a scholar in international affairs, a planner of the Widener Library, a member of the United States Foreign Service, and editor-in-chief of the policy journal Foreign Affairs.

## Early life

Archibald Coolidge was born in Boston, Massachusetts, as the third of five boys. His parents were Harvard University Law School graduate Joseph Randolph Coolidge and Julia (née Gardner) Coolidge, both from prominent and wealthy Boston Brahmin families. His siblings included U.S. Minister to Nicaragua John Gardner Coolidge, noted lawyer Harold Jefferson Coolidge Sr. (the father of zoologist Harold Jefferson Coolidge Jr.), architect J. Randolph Coolidge Jr. and mathematician and fellow Harvard professor Julian Lowell Coolidge.

His paternal uncle was Thomas Jefferson Coolidge, the Boston businessman and U.S. Minister to France. His father, Joseph Randolph Coolidge, was a great-grandson of the 3rd United States President Thomas Jefferson, through his maternal great-grandparents, Thomas Mann Randolph Jr. and Martha Jefferson Randolph. Archibald's great-uncles were Thomas Jefferson Randolph, George Wythe Randolph, and his grandfather, Joseph Coolidge, was a distant relative of President Calvin Coolidge.

Through his mother, Archibald was the nephew of John Lowell Gardner II. His mother and uncle John were the grandchildren of merchant Joseph Peabody, one of the wealthiest men in the United States at the time of his death in 1844.

Coolidge attended seven different elementary and preparatory schools, the Adams Academy in Quincy, and Harvard College, where he became associated with the Owl Club and graduated summa cum laude in history in 1887. He also attended the University of Berlin and the École des Sciences Politiques in Paris. He earned a Ph.D. from the University of Freiburg in Germany 1892.

## Career

From 1893 on, he taught various history courses at Harvard, first as an instructor, from 1899 on as assistant professor, and in 1908, he was made a full professor of history.

Coolidge today is recognized as having turned the Harvard College Library into a major research institution. Coolidge helped make the Harvard Library "one of the best organized libraries for scholars and students as well as one of the great libraries of the world." He is further credited with bringing the study of history of Latin America, the Far East, and the Slavic countries to the history department of Harvard. In 1908, he was appointed to the Harvard Library Council and was chairman of this council in 1909. In 1910, he became the first director of the Harvard University Library. Coolidge's tenure saw the building of the Widener Library. To detail his efforts in making the Harvard Library a centerpiece for students at the university, "The first to hold this office, Professor Coolidge gave a creative interpretation to its functions and made it an essential part of University organization. He kept before the University and its friends a broad and comprehensive idea of the Library and its possibilities, and had the satisfaction of seeing the Harvard Library under his administration reach an assured position among the great libraries of the world. This result was due in large to his own wisdom, vision, patient skill, and interest in every side of the Library's welfare. He encouraged equally the acquisition of unique special collections, the prompt and steady purchase of books asked for, and improved facilities for work by members of the University and by visiting scholars." His own department described his personal characteristics: "He gave himself to history; and it was characteristic of him that his gifts to the Department in his lifetime should take permanent form in his bequests... One prejudice he did not rise above- a prejudice for intellectual distinction; but to him this was a thing of many kinds... His attachments were of the heart. He was a man of strong feeling, quick to anger at injustice, profoundly stirred by sympathy. He hated the waste of useless friction and mis-directed strength... His mind was essentially political: he knew that he lived in a world of men, not of ideas." Coolidge's time at Harvard shows his true dedication to Academia, with his emphasized focus on history and the improvement of the Harvard Library. He was an essential member of the Harvard Faculty and made improvements to the college that would prove to be long-lasting.

### Diplomatic career

Between college terms and parallel to his post at Harvard, Coolidge also pursued a career in diplomacy, which fit his travel interests and his desire and aptitude for learning languages well. He held posts as secretary to the American legation in Saint Petersburg, Russia (1890–1891), as private secretary to the American minister in France (1892), and as secretary to the American legation in Vienna (1893).

At the end of World War I, more important assignments followed. Coolidge joined the Inquiry study group established by Woodrow Wilson. The U.S. State Department sent him in 1918 to Russia to report on the situation there. In 1919, he was made the head of the so-called Coolidge Mission, which was "appointed by the American Delegation on 27 December and set up headquarters in Vienna.". Secretary of State Robert Lansing informed Coolidge in a telegram dated December 26, 1918, that "You are hereby assigned to the American Commission to observe political conditions in Austria-Hungary and neighboring countries.". Coolidge and his group in Vienna analyzed the state of affairs on Central Europe and the Balkans and made recommendations for the benefit of the U.S. participants at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919.

In 1921, Coolidge worked as a negotiator for the American Relief Administration and helped organize the humanitarian aid to Russia after the famine of 1921. Coolidge also was one of the founders of the Council on Foreign Relations, which grew out of the Inquiry study group, and served as the first editor of its publication Foreign Affairs from 1922 until his death in 1928.

Coolidge was also a member of the Monticello Association, which was created in 1913 to care for and preserve President Jefferson 's home, Monticello, serving as its president from 1919 to 1925.

## Death

Coolidge died at his home in Boston, Massachusetts on January 14, 1928.

## Publications

- The United States as a World Power (1908)

- The Origins of the Triple Alliance (1917)

- Ten Years of War and Peace (1927)

- Editor-in-Chief, Foreign Affairs, a journal of the Council on Foreign Relations.


Pushtimarga Sampradaya

# Pushtimarga Sampradaya

## Abstract

The Puṣṭimārga, also known as Pushtimarg (Path of Nourishing, Flourishing) or Vallabha Sampradāya, is a sect within the Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism. It was established in the early 16th century by Vallabha (1479–1531) and further developed by his descendants, particularly Vitthalanatha. Followers of Pushtimarg worship Krishna and engage in devotional practices centered around the youthful Krishna as depicted in the Bhagavata Purana, and the pastimes of Govardhana Hill.

The Pushtimarg sect follows the Shuddhadvaita philosophy of Vallabha. According to this philosophy, Krishna is considered the supreme deity and the source of everything. The human soul is believed to be imbued with Krishna's divine light, and spiritual liberation is thought to result from Krishna's grace. The sect worships Krishna through sevā, a practice in which his idols are served and entertained with food, drink, music, and art, recreating his daily routine as a youth in Braj.

The followers of this tradition are known as Pushtimargis or Pushtimargiya Vaishnavas. This sect is prominent in the Indian states of Rajasthan and Gujarat, as well as in its regional diaspora around the world. The followers in Gujarat usually belong to the Bhatia, Lohana, Bania, Marwari, and Kanabi Paṭela castes. The Shrinathji Temple in Nathdwara is the main shrine of Pushtimarg, with its origins dating back to 1669.

## History

### Vallabha

Vallabha was born into a Telugu Brahmin family in South India. He received a traditional education in Sanskrit scriptures and was precocious student. In 1494, he had a vision in which he acquired the Brahmasambandha mantra from Kr̥ṣṇa which was to be used to clean the faults of a human soul. He first bestowed the mantra on Dāmodardās Harsānī who would become the first member of the Puṣṭimārga. When he went to Govardhan Hill he declared that the stone being worshipped as Devadamana was the svarūpa of Śrī Nāthajī and instituted the formal sevā of the deity. He adopted the houshoulder form of life and had two sons, Gopīnātha and Viṭṭhalanātha. In Vijayanagara he won a religious debate and was awarded the title ācārya of the Viṣṇusvāmi sampradāya. Throughout his life he made three pilgrimage tours of India where he won converts mainly from the Gangetic plain and Gujarat, with converts mainly belonging to mercantile or agricultural castes to whom the ideals of purity were appealing. He died in 1530, designating his elder son Gopīnātha as his successor.

### Viṭṭhalanātha

In 1540, the Gauḍiya priests of Śrī Nāthajī, who Vallabha hired, were expelled from Govardhan Hill giving the Puṣṭimārga sole control over the deity's worship. In 1542 Gopīnātha died with his son soon following him, thus leaving Viṭṭhalanātha as the leader of the Puṣṭimārga. From 1543 to 1581 Viṭṭhalanātha went on fundraising tours to Gujarat where he converted many merchants, agriculturalists, and artisans. He also successfully obtained royal Hindu and Mughal patronage for the sect. He heavily transformed the simple sevā of his father's time into a deeply aesthetic experience that sought to recreate the daily life of Kr̥ṣṇa in which he was offered expensive clothing, jewelry, perfumes, and sumptuous meals. The art of paintings and poetry was also added to rituals to enhance their appeal. Among his seven sons he distributed major svarūpas of Kr̥ṣṇa. Upon Viṭṭhalanātha's death the spiritual leadership of the sect was divided among his seven sons among whom he distributed major svarūpas of Kr̥ṣṇa and granted the sole right to bestow the brahmasambandha mantra, that is, initiate new members. Thus, the Puṣṭimārga was divided into Seven Houses (Sāt Ghar) or Seven Seats (Sāt Gaddī), with all patrilineal male descendants of Vallabhācārya having these rights. These descendants have the titles "mahārājā" (Great King) or "gosvāmi" (Lord of Cows), and the chief mahārāja of the first house has the title of tilkāyat and is primus inter pares.

### Later history in Braj

Viṭṭhalanātha's sons continued successfully obtaining patronage of the sect from Mughal emperors. Viṭṭhalanātha's son Gokulanātha authored many texts in Sanskrit and particularly in Braj Bhasha, which reemphasized the themes of Vallabha's works in a more accessible language. Gokulanātha is considered the most prominent Puṣṭimārga figure of the era, and according to sectarian sources defended the sect's right to wear their sectarian tilaks and tulsi malas from a Shaiva-Tantric ascetic named Jadrup who exerted significant influence over the emperor Jahangir.

In the early 1600s, the houses were disputing over the rights to perform worship to Śrī Nāthajī, and the emperor Shāh Jahān sided with the tilkāyat Viṭṭhalarāy that the First House held precedence over the others. The Third and Sixth Houses also disputed over the century over the worship of the deity Bālakr̥ṣṇa, resulting the exodus of both Houses out of Braj to Surat, Gujarat. The Third House eventually moved to the region of Mewar in Rajasthan due to the invasion of the Marāṭhās where they were welcomed by the kings and granted refuge. In Braj, the Jāṭ rebellion under the reign of emperor Aurangzeb cause many religious communities including the remaining houses of the Puṣṭimārga to flee to Rajasthan where they received protection. The First House who were the custodians of Śrī Nāthajī settled in a village in Mewar that would become Nāthadvārā.

### 19th century

According to Pocock, the Pushtimarg was at its height in the late 19th century.

The Maharaj Libel Case, in which a mahārājā from Surat named Jadunath Brizratanji sued the journalist Karsandas Mulji on the charges of libel in the Supreme Court of Bombay, was widely publicized. In the paper Satya Prakāśa Mulji had called the Vallabha Sampradāya a degenerate sect with false doctrines, and accused its mahārājās (naming Jadunath Brizratanji) of forcing female devotees to have sexual relations with them. The British judges sided with Mulji, and the Puṣṭimārga's reputation was tainted, and the sect viewed negatively by Western scholars until the late 20th century.

The tenure of tilakāyat Govardhanalāl (tilkāyat from 1876 to 1934) is often described as the "golden age" of both Nathdwara and the Puṣṭimārga.

### 20th and 21st centuries

In the 20th century, the Pushtimarg prospered thanks to the acquired affluence of some of its members, primarily Gujarati merchants. The Gujarati diaspora led to the foundation of important Pushtimarg centers in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand.

In the early 21st century, the sect is not very well known in India. Since the latter half of the 20th century, the mahārājās no longer have the same level of religious and secular authority over their followers, and are much more restrained in terms of their public presence. While devotee families include those of great wealth, they as well do not draw attention to themselves. The Puṣṭimārga does not actively seek converts in modern times.

## Key Tenets

### Śuddhādvaita

According to Vallabha, the society of his time was ridden with ills such as bloodshed, barbarians, foreigners, the departing of gods from temples, an impure Ganges river, the presence of heterodox communities, ineffective religious rites, disappearance of the caste system, and the prevalence of greed, hypocrisy, and impurity. In response, Vallabha formulated the philosophy of Śuddhādvaita, in opposition to the Ādvaita Vedānta of Śaṅkara, which he called Maryādā Mārga or Path of Limitations. Vallabha rejected the concept of Māyā, stating that the world was a manifestation of the Supreme Absolute and could not be tainted, nor could it change. According to Vallabha, Brahman consists of existence (sat), consciousness (cit), and bliss (ā nanda), and manifests completely as Kr̥ṣṇa himself. In this philosophy Kr̥ṣṇa as Brahman is considered the supreme and sole being, and that Brahma, Śiva, and Viṣṇu are his limited avatāras.

If someone forgot this truth about Kr̥ṣṇa and his nature, it was due to ignorance derived from material attachments. However, for certain select individuals this ignorance could be removed through divine grace (puṣṭi) that would move one to a path of devotion where one would rely on Kr̥ṣṇa's grace alone. Such people who were admitted into the Path of Grace or Puṣṭi Mārga.

The purpose of this tradition is to perform sevā (selfless service) out of love for Kr̥ṣṇa. According to Saha, Vallabhācārya states through single minded religiosity, a devotee would achieve awareness that there is nothing in the word that is not Kr̥ṣṇa. According to Barz, in Śuddhādvaita the concept of uddhāra or lifting a jīva out of ignorance is granted solely through the grace of Kr̥ṣṇa who may have seemingly unknowlable reasoning. He states in Śuddhādvaita philosophy uddhāra may be granted to any jīva regardless of sectarian membership in the Puṣṭimārga or conduction of sevā, as it is granted rather solely through Kr̥ṣṇa's independent will.

Vallabha stated that religious disciplines that focused on Vedic sacrifices, temple rituals, puja, meditation, and yoga had limited value. The school rejects ascetic lifestyle and cherishes householder lifestyle, wherein the followers see themselves as participants and companions of Krishna, and their daily life as an ongoing raslila.

### Texts

Vallabha accepts four prior works as the major bases for his doctrines: the Vedas, the Bhagavad Gītā, the Brahma Sūtra, and the Bhāgavata Purāṇa. However, in practice the Vedas are not studied, whereas the Bhagavad Gītā and Bhāgavata Purāṇa are. Vallabha composed many philosophical and devotional books during his lifetime which includes:

- Subhodinī, a partial commentary on the Bhāgavata Purāṇa

- Aṇubhāṣya, a partial commentary on the Brahmasūtra of Bādarāyaṇa

- Tattvārthadīpanibandha, a text interpreting existing Hindu scriptures through Vallabha's philosophy of Śuddhādvaita

- Tattvārthadīpanibandhaprakāśa, a commentary on the Tattvārthadīpanibandha

- Ṣoḍaśagrantha, sixteen treatises on important facets of Śuddhādvaita and theology of the Puṣṭimārga

Later figures authored prose texts in Braj Bhasha in the vārtā genre. The progenitor of the vārtā tradition is Vallabha's grandson Gokulnāth (1552–1641) and Gokulnāth's grandnephew Harirāy (1590–1715). The prose vārtā s served as hagiographies about Vallabha, Viṭṭhalanātha, and their disciples that could educate everyday devotees in Puṣṭimārga doctrine.

In terms of volume, Harirāy has the greatest literary output of the sect. There are hundreds of Sanskrit and Braj Bhasha prose works attributed to him, and over a thousand Braj Bhasha poems under various pen names. Pauwels and Bachrach compare Harirāy to Vyāsa of the Puranic tradition, to whom texts are by default attributed.

The Caurāsī Vaiṣṇavan kī Vārtā (the most notable vārtā text) details accounts of 84 Vaiṣṇava devotees of the Puṣṭimārga who were the disciples of Vallabhācārya. Complementing the text is the Do Sau Bāvan Vaiṣṇavan kī Vārtā by the same authors detailing the lives of 252 disciples of Viṭṭhalanātha. Gokulnāth is attributed to be the original collector of these accounts but they were likely not written down but rather collections of his discourses. His grandnephew Harirāy is attributed to be the final editor of the two texts. The Caurāsī Vaiṣṇavan kī Vārtā exists in two recensions, one without commentary and one with commentary written by Harirāy. The recension with commentary is called the Tīn Janma kī Līlā version and generally contains more episodes but is more concise than the recension without commentary. The Do Sau Bāvan Vaiṣṇavan kī Vārtā was more likely composed by Harirāy's disciples and was completed at the end of the 17th century.

Harirāy is also the attributed author of the Braj Bhasha text Śrī Nāthajī Prākaṭya kī Vārtā which recounts the history of Śrīnāthajī from the svarūpa's appearance on Govardhan hill until the removal to Nathadwara in 1672. Harirāy's authorship of this text is doubted, and the current text may only date to the 19th century. The Nijavārta and Śrī Ācāryajī ke Prākaṭya Vārta describe the life of Vallabha, while the Baiṭhaka Caritra (post early 18th century) describes Vallabha's travels around India. The Bhāvasindhu recounts information about the followers of Vallabha and Viṭṭhalanātha, and Viṭṭhalanātha has his own Nijavārta and Baiṭhaka Caritra.

Another important text is the Vallabhākhyān, a Gujarati poem by Gopāḷdās (a devotee of Viṭṭhalanātha) composed before 1577 that praises the family of Vallabha, and was one of the earliest to establish the divinity of Vallabha, Viṭṭhalanātha, and their descendants.

## Practices

### Brahmsambandha and Initiation

The formal initiation into the Pushtimarg is through the administration of the Brahmasambandha mantra. The absolute and exclusive rights to grant this mantra, in order to remove the doṣa s (faults) of a jīva (soul) lie only with the direct male descendants of Vallabhācārya. According to Vallabha, he received the Brahmasambandha mantra from Kr̥ṣṇa one night in Gokula. The next morning Vallabha administered the mantra to Damodaradāsa Harasānī, who would become the first member of the sampradāya.

In Vallabhācārya's time, an (adult) to-be devotee would ask Vallabha to admit him, and if Vallabha was willing to take the potential devotee, he would ask him to bathe and return. Vallabha would then administer the mantra, asking the devotee to use Kr̥ṣṇa's name and to devotee everything he had to Kr̥ṣṇa, after which Vallabha would begin the spiritual education on doctrines and texts.

In modern times the majority of members of the sect are born into Pushtimarg families, with the administering of the mantra being split in two ceremonies. The first when the children are about five years old, is when the first part of the mantra: " śrī kr̥ṣṇaḥ śaraṇam mama " and a tulasī necklace is given. When the boys turn twelve or before girl's marriage, a day-long fast occurs. The devotee to be then is asked to devote his or her mind, body, wealth, wife, household, senses, and everything else to Kr̥ṣṇa, after which he or she is considered a proper member of the sampradāya. The mantra and initiation is always and may only be performed by the direct male descendants of Vallabha.

### Houses and Svarūpas in the Puṣtimārga

Viṭṭhalanātha had seven sons among whom he distributed nine major svarūpas of Kr̥ṣṇa that were worshipped by the Puṣṭimārga. Each son founded a lineage that served as leaders of each house or seat of the sampradāya. Here are the sons of Viṭṭhalanātha, the svarūpas and where they currently reside.

- Giridhara, whose descendants hold Śrī Nāthajī (Nāthadvāra, Rajasthan), Śrī Navanītapriyajī (Nāthadvāra, Rajasthan), and Śrī Mathureśajī, (Koṭā, Rajasthan)

- Govindarāya, whose descendants hold Śrī Viṭṭhalanāthajī (Nāthadvāra, Rajasthan)

- Bālakr̥ṣṇa, who descendants hold Śrī Dvārakānāthajī (Kāṁkarolī, Rajasthan)

- Gokulanātha, whose descendants hold Śrī Gokulanāthajī (Gokula, Uttar Pradesh)

- Raghunātha, whose descendants hold Śrī Gokulacandramājī (Kāmabana, Rajasthan)

- Yadunātha, whose descendants hold Śrī Bālakr̥ṣṇajī (Sūrata, Gujarat)

- Ghanaśyāma, whose descendants hold Śrī Madanamohanajī (Kāmabana, Rajasthan)

The nine listed svarūpas in Puṣṭimārga theology are considered svayambhu (self-born), sevya-svarūpa (having been offered sevā by Vallabha and Viṭṭhalanātha), and nava-nīdhi (nine receptacles of treasure).

They eldest gosvāmi of the First House (descendants of Giridhara) holds the title of tilakāyat, and are the custodians of Śrī Nāthajī. The tilakāyat is considered the highest authority in the Puṣṭimārga.

#### Other svarūpas and the eighth house

Yadunātha's descendants also hold Śrī Kalyāṇarāijī (Baroda, Gujarat) and Śrī Mukundarāyajī (Vārāṇasī, Uttar Pradesh).

The eighth house was founded by Tulasīdāsa aka Lālajī, whose descendants hold Śrī Gopināthajī (Br̥ndābana, Uttar Pradesh, until 1947 at Ḍerāgāzīkhāṁ, Sindh). Tulasīdāsa was an adopted son of Viṭṭhalanātha, and the svarūpa in his descendants' possession is of less significance than the other svarūpas.

### Sevā

The daily sevā and darśana periods are meant to portray a day in the life of Kr̥ṣṇa Gopāla, or Kr̥ṣṇa as Cow-protector. In the Pushtimarg, sevā is the unselfish worship of a svarūpa, under the doctrine that the svarūpa is sentient and appreciates refined food, clothing, and the arts. The themes of the sevā are based on the līlā s ("pastimes" or "play") of Kr̥ṣṇa as depicted in the Bhāgavata Purāṇa. Based on the līlā, appropriate pure and high quality food and clothing are offered to the svarūpa. The svarūpa is entertained by singers and poets, with paintings called pichvaī s being placed in the background to enhance the bhāva ("emotion") of the sevā.

Through sevā, members of the sampradāya are meant to experience bhāva in order to understand the rasa ("essence") of Kr̥ṣṇa's līlā s, through which a devotee experiences the unselfish love for Kr̥ṣṇa. Sevā occurs privately at the home, but also an important aspect is communal sevā in a havelī. In the Puṣṭimārga the icons of Kr̥ṣṇa are installed not in temples (mandir) but in mansions (havelī). The havelī is considered to be the private dwelling of Kr̥ṣṇa and entrance is only granted at appointed darśana times.

#### Daily Darśanas

- Maṅgalā, the awakening of the svarūpa in the morning and serving of light breakfast

- Śr̥ṅgāra, the adornment of apprioriate attire for the day

- Gvāla, the grazing of cows in pasture

- Rājabhoga, the main meal of the day, with the svarūpa being put to sleep afterwards

- Utthāpana, the awakening from the afternoon nap

- Bhoga, the light afternoon dinner

- Sandhyārati, the evening worship with lighted lamps

- Śayana, the putting to sleep of the svarūpa and closing of the havelī

#### Bhāva

There are four main types of bhāva: dāsya, sakhya, madhura, and most imortantly vātsalya. Vātsalya bhāva treats Kr̥ṣṇa as if he were a child and the devotee his caring mother or father. Specifically, devotees aim to model Yashoda, imparting tender love and concern to Krishna. This bhāva manifests in acts of sevā through providing toys and blankets, and cooling Krishna's meals before serving them. Madhura bhāva places the devotee in the role of a gopī (cowherd-girl of Braj) who take part in the love-play of Kr̥ṣṇa's līlā s in the nighttime. Sakhya bhāva places the devotee in the role of gopa (cowherd) as a friend of Kr̥ṣṇa's games and cowherding activities in the daytime. Dāsya bhāva treats the devotee as a humble servant of Kr̥ṣṇa as a king who praises his master while demeaning himself. This bhāva is of less presence in the Puṣṭimārga as Vallabha put a greater emphasis on the personal and emotional relationship on the first three bhāvas.

### Pilgrimage

Baithak, literally "seat", is the site considered sacred by the followers of the Pushtimarg for performing devotional rituals. These sites are spread across India and are chiefly concentrated in Braj region in Uttar Pradesh and in western state of Gujarat. Total 142 Baithaks are considered sacred; 84 of Vallabhacharya, 28 of his son Viththalanath Gusainji and 30 of his seven grandsons. They mark public events in their lives.

### Festivals

In the Puṣṭimārga, several festivals are celebrated including Holī, Kr̥ṣṇa Janmāṣṭamī, Nāgapañcamī, and Annakūṭa. On the festival days the sevā is designed to match with the bhāva of the holiday.

### Music

Music plays a key role in sevā in the form of kīrtans. The aṣṭachāp, or group of eight poets who composed Braj Bhasha devotional poetry and kīrtans are revered in the sect. According to sectarian sources the eight poets were Kumbhanadāsa, Sūradāsa, Nandadāsa, Paramānandadāsa, Kr̥ṣṇadāsa, Caturbhujadāsa, Govindasvāmī, and Chītasvāmī. The most famous of the eight is Sūradāsa, whose relationship with the Puṣṭimārga is most tenuous, and some of the members also have historically unclear relations to the sect.

In modern times, the musical liturgy contains nearly ten thousand padas by thirty-forty poets including the aṣṭachāp. The kīrtans are categorized into five major groups: Nitya (daily), Utsav (festival), Baddhāī (good wishes), Malhār (rainy season), and Dhamār (spring).

In Gujarat, lay devotees sing songs in the dhoḷ tradition. The dhoḷ originated as form of non-sectarian folk Gujarati song that later became identified with Vaishnavism as well as the Vallabhite sect in particular. In modern times, Mallison observed that only among the Vallabhans is the dhoḷ likely to survive. They are sung only by lay Gujarati devotees, particularly women, and are not part of the formal temple Braj liturgy. The authors of dhoḷs are generally not well known in literary circles except for Dayārām.

## Sources

- E. Allen Richardson. Seeing Krishna in America: The Hindu Bhakti Tradition of Vallabhacharya in India and Its Movement to the West. Jefferson: McFarland, 2014. 240 pp. ISBN 978-0-7864-5973-5.

- The Path of Grace: Social Organization and Temple Worship in a Vaishnava Sect. By Peter Bennett. Delhi: Hindustan Publishing Corporation, 1993. xi, 230 pp.