Genetic engineering

# Genetic engineering

## Abstract

Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the modification and manipulation of an organism's genes using technology. It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel organisms.

New DNA is obtained by either isolating and copying the genetic material of interest using recombinant DNA methods or by artificially synthesising the DNA. A construct is usually created and used to insert this DNA into the host organism. The first recombinant DNA molecule was made by Paul Berg in 1972 by combining DNA from the monkey virus SV40 with the lambda virus.

As well as inserting genes, the process can be used to remove, or " knock out ", genes. The new DNA can be inserted randomly, or targeted to a specific part of the genome.

An organism that is generated through genetic engineering is considered to be genetically modified (GM) and the resulting entity is a genetically modified organism (GMO). The first GMO was a bacterium generated by Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen in 1973. Rudolf Jaenisch created the first GM animal when he inserted foreign DNA into a mouse in 1974. The first company to focus on genetic engineering, Genentech, was founded in 1976 and started the production of human proteins. Genetically engineered human insulin was produced in 1978 and insulin-producing bacteria were commercialised in 1982. Genetically modified food has been sold since 1994, with the release of the Flavr Savr tomato. The Flavr Savr was engineered to have a longer shelf life, but most current GM crops are modified to increase resistance to insects and herbicides. GloFish, the first GMO designed as a pet, was sold in the United States in December 2003. In 2016 salmon modified with a growth hormone were sold.

Genetic engineering has been applied in numerous fields including research, medicine, industrial biotechnology and agriculture. In research, GMOs are used to study gene function and expression through loss of function, gain of function, tracking and expression experiments. By knocking out genes responsible for certain conditions it is possible to create animal model organisms of human diseases. As well as producing hormones, vaccines and other drugs, genetic engineering has the potential to cure genetic diseases through gene therapy. Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells are used in industrial genetic engineering. Additionally mRNA vaccines are made through genetic engineering to treat viruses such as COVID-19. The same techniques that are used to produce drugs can also have industrial applications such as producing enzymes for laundry detergent, cheeses and other products.

The rise of commercialised genetically modified crops has provided economic benefit to farmers in many different countries, but has also been the source of most of the controversy surrounding the technology. This has been present since its early use; the first field trials were destroyed by anti-GM activists. Although there is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, critics consider GM food safety a leading concern. Gene flow, impact on non-target organisms, control of the food supply and intellectual property rights have also been raised as potential issues. These concerns have led to the development of a regulatory framework, which started in 1975. It has led to an international treaty, the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, that was adopted in 2000. Individual countries have developed their own regulatory systems regarding GMOs, with the most marked differences occurring between the United States and Europe.

Genetic engineering: Process of inserting new genetic information into existing cells in order to modify a specific organism for the purpose of changing its characteristics.

Note: Adapted from ref.

## Overview

Genetic engineering is a process that alters the genetic structure of an organism by either removing or introducing DNA, or modifying existing genetic material in situ. Unlike traditional animal and plant breeding, which involves doing multiple crosses and then selecting for the organism with the desired phenotype, genetic engineering takes the gene directly from one organism and delivers it to the other. This is much faster, can be used to insert any genes from any organism (even ones from different domains) and prevents other undesirable genes from also being added.

Genetic engineering could potentially fix severe genetic disorders in humans by replacing the defective gene with a functioning one. It is an important tool in research that allows the function of specific genes to be studied. Drugs, vaccines and other products have been harvested from organisms engineered to produce them. Crops have been developed that aid food security by increasing yield, nutritional value and tolerance to environmental stresses.

The DNA can be introduced directly into the host organism or into a cell that is then fused or hybridised with the host. This relies on recombinant nucleic acid techniques to form new combinations of heritable genetic material followed by the incorporation of that material either indirectly through a vector system or directly through micro-injection, macro-injection or micro-encapsulation.

Genetic engineering does not normally include traditional breeding, in vitro fertilisation, induction of polyploidy, mutagenesis and cell fusion techniques that do not use recombinant nucleic acids or a genetically modified organism in the process. However, some broad definitions of genetic engineering include selective breeding. Cloning and stem cell research, although not considered genetic engineering, are closely related and genetic engineering can be used within them. Synthetic biology is an emerging discipline that takes genetic engineering a step further by introducing artificially synthesised material into an organism.

Plants, animals or microorganisms that have been changed through genetic engineering are termed genetically modified organisms or GMOs. If genetic material from another species is added to the host, the resulting organism is called transgenic. If genetic material from the same species or a species that can naturally breed with the host is used the resulting organism is called cisgenic. If genetic engineering is used to remove genetic material from the target organism the resulting organism is termed a knockout organism. In Europe genetic modification is synonymous with genetic engineering while within the United States of America and Canada genetic modification can also be used to refer to more conventional breeding methods.

## History

Humans have altered the genomes of species for thousands of years through selective breeding, or artificial selection as contrasted with natural selection. More recently, mutation breeding has used exposure to chemicals or radiation to produce a high frequency of random mutations, for selective breeding purposes. Genetic engineering as the direct manipulation of DNA by humans outside breeding and mutations has only existed since the 1970s. The term "genetic engineering" was coined by the Russian-born geneticist Nikolay Timofeev-Ressovsky in his 1934 paper "The Experimental Production of Mutations", published in the British journal Biological Reviews. Jack Williamson used the term in his science fiction novel Dragon's Island, published in 1951 – one year before DNA's role in heredity was confirmed by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase, and two years before James Watson and Francis Crick showed that the DNA molecule has a double-helix structure – though the general concept of direct genetic manipulation was explored in rudimentary form in Stanley G. Weinbaum 's 1936 science fiction story Proteus Island.

In 1972, Paul Berg created the first recombinant DNA molecules by combining DNA from the monkey virus SV40 with that of the lambda virus. In 1973 Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen created the first transgenic organism by inserting antibiotic resistance genes into the plasmid of an Escherichia coli bacterium. A year later Rudolf Jaenisch created a transgenic mouse by introducing foreign DNA into its embryo, making it the world's first transgenic animal These achievements led to concerns in the scientific community about potential risks from genetic engineering, which were first discussed in depth at the Asilomar Conference in 1975. One of the main recommendations from this meeting was that government oversight of recombinant DNA research should be established until the technology was deemed safe.

In 1976 Genentech, the first genetic engineering company, was founded by Herbert Boyer and Robert Swanson and a year later the company produced a human protein (somatostatin) in E. coli. Genentech announced the production of genetically engineered human insulin in 1978. In 1980, the U.S. Supreme Court in the Diamond v. Chakrabarty case ruled that genetically altered life could be patented. The insulin produced by bacteria was approved for release by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1982.

In 1983, a biotech company, Advanced Genetic Sciences (AGS) applied for U.S. government authorisation to perform field tests with the ice-minus strain of Pseudomonas syringae to protect crops from frost, but environmental groups and protestors delayed the field tests for four years with legal challenges. In 1987, the ice-minus strain of P. syringae became the first genetically modified organism (GMO) to be released into the environment when a strawberry field and a potato field in California were sprayed with it. Both test fields were attacked by activist groups the night before the tests occurred: "The world's first trial site attracted the world's first field trasher".

The first field trials of genetically engineered plants occurred in France and the US in 1986, tobacco plants were engineered to be resistant to herbicides. The People's Republic of China was the first country to commercialise transgenic plants, introducing a virus-resistant tobacco in 1992. In 1994 Calgene attained approval to commercially release the first genetically modified food, the Flavr Savr, a tomato engineered to have a longer shelf life. In 1994, the European Union approved tobacco engineered to be resistant to the herbicide bromoxynil, making it the first genetically engineered crop commercialised in Europe. In 1995, Bt potato was approved safe by the Environmental Protection Agency, after having been approved by the FDA, making it the first pesticide producing crop to be approved in the US. In 2009 11 transgenic crops were grown commercially in 25 countries, the largest of which by area grown were the US, Brazil, Argentina, India, Canada, China, Paraguay and South Africa.

In 2010, scientists at the J. Craig Venter Institute created the first synthetic genome and inserted it into an empty bacterial cell. The resulting bacterium, named Mycoplasma laboratorium, could replicate and produce proteins. Four years later this was taken a step further when a bacterium was developed that replicated a plasmid containing a unique base pair, creating the first organism engineered to use an expanded genetic alphabet. In 2012, Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier collaborated to develop the CRISPR/Cas9 system, a technique which can be used to easily and specifically alter the genome of almost any organism.

## Process

Creating a GMO is a multi-step process. Genetic engineers must first choose what gene they wish to insert into the organism. This is driven by what the aim is for the resultant organism and is built on earlier research. Genetic screens can be carried out to determine potential genes and further tests then used to identify the best candidates. The development of microarrays, transcriptomics and genome sequencing has made it much easier to find suitable genes. Luck also plays its part; the Roundup Ready gene was discovered after scientists noticed a bacterium thriving in the presence of the herbicide.

### Gene isolation and cloning

The next step is to isolate the candidate gene. The cell containing the gene is opened and the DNA is purified. The gene is separated by using restriction enzymes to cut the DNA into fragments or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify up the gene segment. These segments can then be extracted through gel electrophoresis. If the chosen gene or the donor organism's genome has been well studied it may already be accessible from a genetic library. If the DNA sequence is known, but no copies of the gene are available, it can also be artificially synthesised. Once isolated the gene is ligated into a plasmid that is then inserted into a bacterium. The plasmid is replicated when the bacteria divide, ensuring unlimited copies of the gene are available. The RK2 plasmid is notable for its ability to replicate in a wide variety of single-celled organisms, which makes it suitable as a genetic engineering tool.

Before the gene is inserted into the target organism it must be combined with other genetic elements. These include a promoter and terminator region, which initiate and end transcription. A selectable marker gene is added, which in most cases confers antibiotic resistance, so researchers can easily determine which cells have been successfully transformed. The gene can also be modified at this stage for better expression or effectiveness. These manipulations are carried out using recombinant DNA techniques, such as restriction digests, ligations and molecular cloning.

### Inserting DNA into the host genome

There are a number of techniques used to insert genetic material into the host genome. Some bacteria can naturally take up foreign DNA. This ability can be induced in other bacteria via stress (e.g. thermal or electric shock), which increases the cell membrane's permeability to DNA; up-taken DNA can either integrate with the genome or exist as extrachromosomal DNA. DNA is generally inserted into animal cells using microinjection, where it can be injected through the cell's nuclear envelope directly into the nucleus, or through the use of viral vectors.

Plant genomes can be engineered by physical methods or by use of Agrobacterium for the delivery of sequences hosted in T-DNA binary vectors. In plants the DNA is often inserted using Agrobacterium -mediated transformation, taking advantage of the Agrobacterium s T-DNA sequence that allows natural insertion of genetic material into plant cells. Other methods include biolistics, where particles of gold or tungsten are coated with DNA and then shot into young plant cells, and electroporation, which involves using an electric shock to make the cell membrane permeable to plasmid DNA.

As only a single cell is transformed with genetic material, the organism must be regenerated from that single cell. In plants this is accomplished through the use of tissue culture. In animals it is necessary to ensure that the inserted DNA is present in the embryonic stem cells. Bacteria consist of a single cell and reproduce clonally so regeneration is not necessary. Selectable markers are used to easily differentiate transformed from untransformed cells. These markers are usually present in the transgenic organism, although a number of strategies have been developed that can remove the selectable marker from the mature transgenic plant.

Further testing using PCR, Southern hybridization, and DNA sequencing is conducted to confirm that an organism contains the new gene. These tests can also confirm the chromosomal location and copy number of the inserted gene. The presence of the gene does not guarantee it will be expressed at appropriate levels in the target tissue so methods that look for and measure the gene products (RNA and protein) are also used. These include northern hybridisation, quantitative RT-PCR, Western blot, immunofluorescence, ELISA and phenotypic analysis.

The new genetic material can be inserted randomly within the host genome or targeted to a specific location. The technique of gene targeting uses homologous recombination to make desired changes to a specific endogenous gene. This tends to occur at a relatively low frequency in plants and animals and generally requires the use of selectable markers. The frequency of gene targeting can be greatly enhanced through genome editing. Genome editing uses artificially engineered nucleases that create specific double-stranded breaks at desired locations in the genome, and use the cell's endogenous mechanisms to repair the induced break by the natural processes of homologous recombination and nonhomologous end-joining. There are four families of engineered nucleases: meganucleases, zinc finger nucleases, transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), and the Cas9-guideRNA system (adapted from CRISPR). TALEN and CRISPR are the two most commonly used and each has its own advantages. TALENs have greater target specificity, while CRISPR is easier to design and more efficient. In addition to enhancing gene targeting, engineered nucleases can be used to introduce mutations at endogenous genes that generate a gene knockout.

## Applications

Genetic engineering has applications in medicine, research, industry and agriculture and can be used on a wide range of plants, animals and microorganisms. Bacteria, the first organisms to be genetically modified, can have plasmid DNA inserted containing new genes that code for medicines or enzymes that process food and other substrates. Plants have been modified for insect protection, herbicide resistance, virus resistance, enhanced nutrition, tolerance to environmental pressures and the production of edible vaccines. Most commercialised GMOs are insect resistant or herbicide tolerant crop plants. Genetically modified animals have been used for research, model animals and the production of agricultural or pharmaceutical products. The genetically modified animals include animals with genes knocked out, increased susceptibility to disease, hormones for extra growth and the ability to express proteins in their milk.

### Medicine

Genetic engineering has many applications to medicine that include the manufacturing of drugs, creation of model animals that mimic human conditions and gene therapy. One of the earliest uses of genetic engineering was to mass-produce human insulin in bacteria. This application has now been applied to human growth hormones, follicle stimulating hormones (for treating infertility), human albumin, monoclonal antibodies, antihemophilic factors, vaccines and many other drugs. Mouse hybridomas, cells fused together to create monoclonal antibodies, have been adapted through genetic engineering to create human monoclonal antibodies. Genetically engineered viruses are being developed that can still confer immunity, but lack the infectious sequences.

Genetic engineering is also used to create animal models of human diseases. Genetically modified mice are the most common genetically engineered animal model. They have been used to study and model cancer (the oncomouse), obesity, heart disease, diabetes, arthritis, substance abuse, anxiety, aging and Parkinson disease. Potential cures can be tested against these mouse models.

Gene therapy is the genetic engineering of humans, generally by replacing defective genes with effective ones. Clinical research using somatic gene therapy has been conducted with several diseases, including X-linked SCID, chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), and Parkinson's disease. In 2012, Alipogene tiparvovec became the first gene therapy treatment to be approved for clinical use. In 2015 a virus was used to insert a healthy gene into the skin cells of a boy suffering from a rare skin disease, epidermolysis bullosa, in order to grow, and then graft healthy skin onto 80 percent of the boy's body which was affected by the illness.

Germline gene therapy would result in any change being inheritable, which has raised concerns within the scientific community. In 2015, CRISPR was used to edit the DNA of non-viable human embryos, leading scientists of major world academies to call for a moratorium on inheritable human genome edits. There are also concerns that the technology could be used not just for treatment, but for enhancement, modification or alteration of a human beings' appearance, adaptability, intelligence, character or behavior. The distinction between cure and enhancement can also be difficult to establish. In November 2018, He Jiankui announced that he had edited the genomes of two human embryos, to attempt to disable the CCR5 gene, which codes for a receptor that HIV uses to enter cells. The work was widely condemned as unethical, dangerous, and premature. Currently, germline modification is banned in 40 countries. Scientists that do this type of research will often let embryos grow for a few days without allowing it to develop into a baby.

Researchers are altering the genome of pigs to induce the growth of human organs, with the aim of increasing the success of pig to human organ transplantation. Scientists are creating "gene drives", changing the genomes of mosquitoes to make them immune to malaria, and then looking to spread the genetically altered mosquitoes throughout the mosquito population in the hopes of eliminating the disease.

### Research

Genetic engineering is an important tool for natural scientists, with the creation of transgenic organisms one of the most important tools for analysis of gene function. Genes and other genetic information from a wide range of organisms can be inserted into bacteria for storage and modification, creating genetically modified bacteria in the process. Bacteria are cheap, easy to grow, clonal, multiply quickly, relatively easy to transform and can be stored at -80 °C almost indefinitely. Once a gene is isolated it can be stored inside the bacteria providing an unlimited supply for research.

Organisms are genetically engineered to discover the functions of certain genes. This could be the effect on the phenotype of the organism, where the gene is expressed or what other genes it interacts with. These experiments generally involve loss of function, gain of function, tracking and expression.

- Loss of function experiments, such as in a gene knockout experiment, in which an organism is engineered to lack the activity of one or more genes. In a simple knockout a copy of the desired gene has been altered to make it non-functional. Embryonic stem cells incorporate the altered gene, which replaces the already present functional copy. These stem cells are injected into blastocysts, which are implanted into surrogate mothers. This allows the experimenter to analyse the defects caused by this mutation and thereby determine the role of particular genes. It is used especially frequently in developmental biology. When this is done by creating a library of genes with point mutations at every position in the area of interest, or even every position in the whole gene, this is called "scanning mutagenesis". The simplest method, and the first to be used, is "alanine scanning", where every position in turn is mutated to the unreactive amino acid alanine.

- Gain of function experiments, the logical counterpart of knockouts. These are sometimes performed in conjunction with knockout experiments to more finely establish the function of the desired gene. The process is much the same as that in knockout engineering, except that the construct is designed to increase the function of the gene, usually by providing extra copies of the gene or inducing synthesis of the protein more frequently. Gain of function is used to tell whether or not a protein is sufficient for a function, but does not always mean it is required, especially when dealing with genetic or functional redundancy.

- Tracking experiments, which seek to gain information about the localisation and interaction of the desired protein. One way to do this is to replace the wild-type gene with a 'fusion' gene, which is a juxtaposition of the wild-type gene with a reporting element such as green fluorescent protein (GFP) that will allow easy visualisation of the products of the genetic modification. While this is a useful technique, the manipulation can destroy the function of the gene, creating secondary effects and possibly calling into question the results of the experiment. More sophisticated techniques are now in development that can track protein products without mitigating their function, such as the addition of small sequences that will serve as binding motifs to monoclonal antibodies.

- Expression studies aim to discover where and when specific proteins are produced. In these experiments, the DNA sequence before the DNA that codes for a protein, known as a gene's promoter, is reintroduced into an organism with the protein coding region replaced by a reporter gene such as GFP or an enzyme that catalyses the production of a dye. Thus the time and place where a particular protein is produced can be observed. Expression studies can be taken a step further by altering the promoter to find which pieces are crucial for the proper expression of the gene and are actually bound by transcription factor proteins; this process is known as promoter bashing.

### Industrial

Organisms can have their cells transformed with a gene coding for a useful protein, such as an enzyme, so that they will overexpress the desired protein. Mass quantities of the protein can then be manufactured by growing the transformed organism in bioreactor equipment using industrial fermentation, and then purifying the protein. Some genes do not work well in bacteria, so yeast, insect cells or mammalian cells can also be used. These techniques are used to produce medicines such as insulin, human growth hormone, and vaccines, supplements such as tryptophan, aid in the production of food (chymosin in cheese making) and fuels. Other applications with genetically engineered bacteria could involve making them perform tasks outside their natural cycle, such as making biofuels, cleaning up oil spills, carbon and other toxic waste and detecting arsenic in drinking water. Certain genetically modified microbes can also be used in biomining and bioremediation, due to their ability to extract heavy metals from their environment and incorporate them into compounds that are more easily recoverable.

In materials science, a genetically modified virus has been used in a research laboratory as a scaffold for assembling a more environmentally friendly lithium-ion battery. Bacteria have also been engineered to function as sensors by expressing a fluorescent protein under certain environmental conditions.

### Agriculture

One of the best-known and controversial applications of genetic engineering is the creation and use of genetically modified crops or genetically modified livestock to produce genetically modified food. Crops have been developed to increase production, increase tolerance to abiotic stresses, alter the composition of the food, or to produce novel products.

The first crops to be released commercially on a large scale provided protection from insect pests or tolerance to herbicides. Fungal and virus resistant crops have also been developed or are in development. This makes the insect and weed management of crops easier and can indirectly increase crop yield. GM crops that directly improve yield by accelerating growth or making the plant more hardy (by improving salt, cold or drought tolerance) are also under development. In 2016 Salmon have been genetically modified with growth hormones to reach normal adult size much faster.

GMOs have been developed that modify the quality of produce by increasing the nutritional value or providing more industrially useful qualities or quantities. The Amflora potato produces a more industrially useful blend of starches. Soybeans and canola have been genetically modified to produce more healthy oils. The first commercialised GM food was a tomato that had delayed ripening, increasing its shelf life.

Plants and animals have been engineered to produce materials they do not normally make. Pharming uses crops and animals as bioreactors to produce vaccines, drug intermediates, or the drugs themselves; the useful product is purified from the harvest and then used in the standard pharmaceutical production process. Cows and goats have been engineered to express drugs and other proteins in their milk, and in 2009 the FDA approved a drug produced in goat milk.

### Other applications

Genetic engineering has potential applications in conservation and natural area management. Gene transfer through viral vectors has been proposed as a means of controlling invasive species as well as vaccinating threatened fauna from disease. Transgenic trees have been suggested as a way to confer resistance to pathogens in wild populations. With the increasing risks of maladaptation in organisms as a result of climate change and other perturbations, facilitated adaptation through gene tweaking could be one solution to reducing extinction risks. Applications of genetic engineering in conservation are thus far mostly theoretical and have yet to be put into practice.

Genetic engineering is also being used to create microbial art. Some bacteria have been genetically engineered to create black and white photographs. Novelty items such as lavender-colored carnations, blue roses, and glowing fish, have also been produced through genetic engineering.

## Regulation

The regulation of genetic engineering concerns the approaches taken by governments to assess and manage the risks associated with the development and release of GMOs. The development of a regulatory framework began in 1975, at Asilomar, California. The Asilomar meeting recommended a set of voluntary guidelines regarding the use of recombinant technology. As the technology improved the US established a committee at the Office of Science and Technology, which assigned regulatory approval of GM food to the USDA, FDA and EPA. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, an international treaty that governs the transfer, handling, and use of GMOs, was adopted on 29 January 2000. One hundred and fifty-seven countries are members of the Protocol, and many use it as a reference point for their own regulations.

The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation. Some countries allow the import of GM food with authorisation, but either do not allow its cultivation (Russia, Norway, Israel) or have provisions for cultivation even though no GM products are yet produced (Japan, South Korea). Most countries that do not allow GMO cultivation do permit research. Some of the most marked differences occur between the US and Europe. The US policy focuses on the product (not the process), only looks at verifiable scientific risks and uses the concept of substantial equivalence. The European Union by contrast has possibly the most stringent GMO regulations in the world. All GMOs, along with irradiated food, are considered "new food" and subject to extensive, case-by-case, science-based food evaluation by the European Food Safety Authority. The criteria for authorisation fall in four broad categories: "safety", "freedom of choice", "labelling", and "traceability". The level of regulation in other countries that cultivate GMOs lie in between Europe and the United States.

One of the key issues concerning regulators is whether GM products should be labeled. The European Commission says that mandatory labeling and traceability are needed to allow for informed choice, avoid potential false advertising and facilitate the withdrawal of products if adverse effects on health or the environment are discovered. The American Medical Association and the American Association for the Advancement of Science say that absent scientific evidence of harm even voluntary labeling is misleading and will falsely alarm consumers. Labeling of GMO products in the marketplace is required in 64 countries. Labeling can be mandatory up to a threshold GM content level (which varies between countries) or voluntary. In Canada and the US labeling of GM food is voluntary, while in Europe all food (including processed food) or feed which contains greater than 0.9% of approved GMOs must be labelled.

## Controversy

Critics have objected to the use of genetic engineering on several grounds, including ethical, ecological and economic concerns. Many of these concerns involve GM crops and whether food produced from them is safe and what impact growing them will have on the environment. These controversies have led to litigation, international trade disputes, and protests, and to restrictive regulation of commercial products in some countries.

Accusations that scientists are " playing God " and other religious issues have been ascribed to the technology from the beginning. Other ethical issues raised include the patenting of life, the use of intellectual property rights, the level of labeling on products, control of the food supply and the objectivity of the regulatory process. Although doubts have been raised, economically most studies have found growing GM crops to be beneficial to farmers.

Gene flow between GM crops and compatible plants, along with increased use of selective herbicides, can increase the risk of " superweeds " developing. Other environmental concerns involve potential impacts on non-target organisms, including soil microbes, and an increase in secondary and resistant insect pests. Many of the environmental impacts regarding GM crops may take many years to be understood and are also evident in conventional agriculture practices. With the commercialisation of genetically modified fish there are concerns over what the environmental consequences will be if they escape.

There are three main concerns over the safety of genetically modified food: whether they may provoke an allergic reaction; whether the genes could transfer from the food into human cells; and whether the genes not approved for human consumption could outcross to other crops. There is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, members of the public are less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe.

## In popular culture

Genetic engineering features in many science fiction stories. Frank Herbert 's novel The White Plague describes the deliberate use of genetic engineering to create a pathogen which specifically kills women. Another of Herbert's creations, the Dune series of novels, uses genetic engineering to create the powerful Tleilaxu. Few films have informed audiences about genetic engineering, with the exception of the 1978 The Boys from Brazil and the 1993 Jurassic Park, both of which make use of a lesson, a demonstration, and a clip of scientific film. Genetic engineering methods are weakly represented in film; Michael Clark, writing for the Wellcome Trust, calls the portrayal of genetic engineering and biotechnology "seriously distorted" in films such as The 6th Day. In Clark's view, the biotechnology is typically "given fantastic but visually arresting forms" while the science is either relegated to the background or fictionalised to suit a young audience.


2010 Monterrey Open

# 2010 Monterrey Open

## Abstract

The 2010 Monterrey Open was a tennis tournament played on outdoor hard courts. It was the second edition of the Monterrey Open and was categorized as an International tournament on the 2009 WTA Tour. It took place at the Sierra Madre Tennis Club in Monterrey, Mexico, from March 1 through March 7, 2010.

The tournament was headlined by former world no. 1 Jelena Janković, top-ranked Slovak players, Daniela Hantuchová and Dominika Cibulková, Ágnes Szávay, and Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova. Also in the field were Anabel Medina Garrigues, Aleksandra Wozniak, and 2010 Open GDF Suez finalist Lucie Šafářová.

## Finals

### Singles

Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova defeated Daniela Hantuchová, 1–6, 6–1, 6–0

- It was Pavlyuchenkova's first career singles title.

### Doubles

Iveta Benešová / Barbora Záhlavová-Strýcová defeated Anna-Lena Grönefeld / Vania King, 3–6, 6–4,

## Entrants

### Seeds

- Rankings and seedings are as of February 22, The seedings can change.

### Other entrants

The following players received wildcards into the main draw:

- Dominika Cibulková

- Daniela Hantuchová

- Jelena Janković

The following players received entry via qualifying:

- Corinna Dentoni

- Lourdes Domínguez Lino

- Olga Savchuk

- Anna Tatishvili


Stefan Mross

# Stefan Mross

## Abstract

Stefan Mross (born November 26, 1975) is a German trumpeter, singer,and television presenter. He is one of the most famous German folk musicians.

## Early life and education

Stefan Mross was born on November 26, 1975 in Traunstein, Upper Bavaria.

Mross completed his secondary education in his hometown. He took the entrance exam to the Mozarteum in Salzburg, but then concentrated on his musical career.

## Career

Since 2005, Mross has hosted the ARD (SWR) show Immer wieder sonntags live from Europa-Park in Rust. On August 10, 2014, Mross collapsed during a live broadcast of the show after eating a very hot currywurst and had to stop presenting. He was represented by Guido Cantz for the rest of the broadcast.

## Personal life

Mross was married to Stefanie Hertel from 2006 to 2012 and has a daughter with her in 2001. Three months after the couple announced their separation, Karl Moik claimed on December 6, 2011 on the ZDF show Markus Lanz that the partnership between his former Mross and Hertel had been arranged for the media.

Mross was married to production assistant Susanne Schmidt from 2013 to 2016. The marriage produced a daughter in 2013 and a son in 2015. The couple lived in Unterwössen, a municipality in the Traunstein district of Upper Bavaria, until their separation in autumn 2016.

Since December 2016, he has been in a relationship with singer Anna-Carina Woitschack, whom he met on his show Immer wieder sonntags in the summer of 2016. In the show Das Adventsfest der 100.000 Lichter he proposed to her on November 30, 2019. On June 6, 2020, the two got married live on television in the music show Schlagerlovestory.2020 with presenter Florian Silbereisen as witnesses. The couple lived in Windorf near Passau. In November 2022, they announced their separation. Mross has been in a relationship with Eva Luginger since March 2023.


Heidi Andreasen

# Heidi Andreasen

## Abstract

Heidi Andreasen (born 18 December 1985) is a Faroese swimmer.

She represented the Faroe Islands at the 2000 Summer Paralympics, winning three silver medals, in the S8 50m freestyle, the S8 100m freestyle, and the S8 400m freestyle, and a bronze in the S8 100m backstroke.

She was the Faroe Islands' sole representative at the 2004 Summer Paralympics, where she won the Islands' only medal: a bronze in the S8 400m freestyle, with a time of 5:26,29.

Andreasen competed again at the 2008 Summer Paralympics, and was the Faroe Islands' flagbearer during the Games' opening ceremony. She did not win a medal. It was her last participation in the Paralympic Games.

There were no Olympic-sized pools in the Faroe Islands, where Andreasen trained in a 25-metre pool.


Walt Disney Home Video (VHS)

# Walt Disney Home Video (VHS)

## Abstract

Walt Disney Home Video is a discontinued video line launched to release Disney animated features on home video. This was done by a division of the same name under the parent Walt Disney Telecommunications and Non-Theatrical Company (WDTNT). As an entity, the name Walt Disney Home Video is now known as Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment. The scope of this list is mostly limited to Disney's North American live action movie releases. Cartoon collections were concurrently released as Walt Disney Cartoon Classics which include the "Limited Gold Editions". The initial price for early Disney cassettes at the time was "prohibitory expensive" for many, this changed in the mid-1980s when VCRs became affordable.

## History

Disney started out by establishing its own video distribution operation in 1980 as part of Walt Disney Telecommunications and Non-Theatrical Company (WDTNT) with Jim Jimirro as its first president. WDTNT Co. also handled marketing of other miscellaneous ancillary items such as short 8 mm films for home movies. When Disney started with video cassettes, "Home video" was not considered to be a major market by them at the time. Their first releases on videotape were 13 titles that were licensed for rental to Fotomat on March 4, 1980. Disney was unusual among the major studios in offering a program for authorized rentals. Most of the other studios involved in the videocassette market at the time were trying to find ways to stop dealers from renting out their movie tapes. Magnetic Video (with titles from 20th Century Fox and others) ceased doing business with Fotomat after Fotomat began renting Magnetic Video cassettes without authorization.

The switchover from rental to sales was a "thorny" issue that was solved by giving dealers an option on the type of outlet they desired. For those who just wanted to rent video cassettes, a title was given (for US$52) on a 13-week cycle. The dealer could then set the price as many times as they wanted in those 13 weeks before purchasing a new title from Disney. Video cassette rentals were more "functionally" packaged with a heavier box and less elaborately detailed illustrations. For those who wanted to sell video cassettes, a "fairly straightforward" program involved 4 color packaging and a suggested retail price. In order to separate the two mediums, the cassette either featured " FOR RENTAL ONLY/Not intended for Sale " or "FOR SALE ONLY/Not intended for Rental". The 13 titles that had been licensed for rental to Fotomat subsequently became available for purchase.

Throughout their release history, "Walt Disney Home Video" cassettes were promoted by Disney. An early example is the 1981 release of "A Walt Disney Christmas" where a "Free Mickey Mouse Plush Toy" was offered as an incentive. Disney later offered a promotion for Summer 1982 called "Disney's American Summer", where they sold some of their cartoon collections on cassettes for a discounted price. At the time this promotion was done in an effort to make video cassettes more affordable, and boosted the video software involved. Marketing included a 7 foot tall gazebo which was set up in stores and a free mug as an incentive. Towards the end of 1984, Disney did a “Wrapped And Ready to Give” christmas promotion which included 7 newly released titles on video cassette. Later promotions include Disney's 1986 "Wonderland Campaign" as a further attempt to bring prices down.

When the Disney Channel was launched on April 18, 1983 it gave the company an opportunity to air made for TV films such as Tiger Town and Gone Are the Dayes, both of which were released to home video in 1984. During that same year Disney also started releasing their animated feature films under the Walt Disney Classics line starting with Robin Hood. On March 8, 1985 Disney released " Love Leads the Way " which became their first title that went straight to Home Video. The Walt Disney Home Video division was legally incorporated as Buena Vista Home Video on February 13, 1987. This name change however, did not stop some VHS releases under the Walt Disney Home Video line from being released throughout the year.

## North American releases

## Worldwide releases

Disney first offered Dumbo, Mary Poppins, Mi Amigo El Dragon (Pete's Dragon), Su Mas Fiel Amigo (Old Yeller), La Montana Embrujada (Escape to Witch Mountain), Los Tres Caballeros (The Three Caballeros), Mickey's Christmas Carol, and 2 cartoon collections in Spanish on November 30, 1985 In the United Kingdom, titles from the "Walt Disney Home Video" product line such as Mary Poppins, Pete's Dragon and Bedknobs and Broomsticks were not released to video cassette until November 26, 1988. Additional VHS releases in other countries under the "Walt Disney Home Video" are possible, but need further sourcing.

## Rarity

In terms of consignment, Heritage Auctions has placed in their "Vintage VHS Tapes Value Guide" that the most desirable VHS tapes released between 1979 and 1990 are still in their original factory shrink wrap. When VCRs were first released in 1977, they were priced between $1,000 to $1,400 which would roughly equal $4,900 to $6,900 in 2023 USD. As this amount was initially unattainable for most homes fewer people were buying VHS tapes, which in turn meant fewer copies being produced. A "likely sum of money for a video cassette at the time was between $80 and $100 or $400+ in 2023 USD. These higher costs lasted until 1985 when VCRs finally began dropping in price. While this meant more tapes were produced, it did not mean that they became any less of a rarity.

In regard to Disney "Only the earliest of Disney VHS cassettes produced prior to 1985 hold any value to most collectors." Titles such as "Tron" which remains "elusive" for early copies have sold for high amounts in mint condition. Things to look for in general include a sealed tape, a studio logo on the shrink-wrap, and if the latest year listed on the back of the cover is prior to 1986.


Ivan Jević

# Ivan Jević

## Abstract

Ivan Jević (Serbian Cyrillic: Иван Јевић; born 23 July 1975) is a Serbian professional football coach and a former player who played as a defender. He is an assistant coach with the Kazakhstani club Tobol.

## Honours

- Hong Kong League Cup: 2005–06

- Hong Kong Senior Shield: 2005–06

- Hong Kong Senior Shield Best Defender: 2005–06


# List of diplomatic missions in Washington, D.C.

## Abstract

This is a list of the 177 resident embassies in Washington, D.C. For other diplomatic missions in the United States, see List of diplomatic missions in the United States.

The embassy of Iran closed in 1979. It was located at 3005 Massachusetts Avenue NW in Embassy Row. The building continues to be owned by the government of Iran but is maintained by the US Department of State while the Iranian interests section is located in the Pakistani Embassy.


Diana García (squash player)

# Diana García (squash player)

## Abstract

Diana García (born 21 December 1992 in Mexico City) is a Mexican professional squash player. As of February 2018, she was ranked number 79 in the world.


Carstairs

# Carstairs

## Abstract

Carstairs (/ k ɑːr ˈ s t ɛər z /, Scottish Gaelic: Caisteal Tarrais) is a village in South Lanarkshire, Scotland. Carstairs is located 5 miles (8 kilometres) east of the county town of Lanark and the West Coast Main Line runs through the village. The village is served by Carstairs railway station, which is served by the Caledonian Sleeper to and from London Euston. Carstairs is best known as the location of the State Hospital. Carstairs is applied to the places Carstairs Village and the village of Carstairs Junction where the railway station is situated. The two places are two completely different villages divided by 1 mile (1.5 kilometres) of land, a parkland area (Monteith Park) and the railway line.

Carstairs Village has massively expanded since 2007 with the building of Millwood Estate.

## Etymology

The name Carstairs is Brittonic in origin. The first part of the name is the element cajr, of which the primary sense is "an enclosed, defensible site" (Welsh caer; compare Cardiff). The second part of the name is a lost stream-name, identical in origin to the Tarras Water in Dumfriesshire, derived from the Brittonic root *tā, "melting, thawing, dissolving", suffixed with -ar an adjectival suffix common in river-names, plus -s, the Scots plural.

## History

A Roman fort was built at Castledyke in the first and second century AD. A later military castle occupied the site from at least the 12th century, known as Carstairs Castle. It has since been lost, but some underground remains have been found. A parish school was opened in 1619, and by 1754 William Roy recorded a sizeable farming village on the Lanark road to Carnwath and Edinburgh. Carstairs was made a burgh of barony in 1765. The mansion of Carstairs House was built in 1821–24 for Henry Montheith. 1848 saw the building of a railway station by the Caledonian Railway. By 1895 there was an inn and post office at the village.

During the 1920s, the Ministry of Labour acquired Lampits Farm, Carstairs Junction, for use as a labour camp. By 1938 there were 35 so-called "Instructional Centres", with a capacity of over 6,000. Their role was to 'harden' young unemployed men and prepare them for work elsewhere. Lampits Farm was originally intended in 1929 to train young men in farm and forestry work, with a view to their emigrating to Canada or Australia; it became an Instructional Centre a year later. Many of the Carstairs inmates came from coal-mining and other industrial backgrounds in the West of Scotland. The Ministry of Labour sold the site in 1935, and it reverted to use as a farm. In its last months, the Ministry of Labour used the inmates to help the Scottish Office Prison Department to build a new secure hospital.

Carstairs has gained a certain notoriety as the location of the State Hospital, a maximum-security psychiatric facility where some of Scotland and Northern Ireland 's most severe cases of mental illness are treated. Many of the patients have been convicted of serious offences and some are incarcerated at the facility indefinitely.

## Transport

The main road running through Carstairs is the A70 road. Carstairs is served by bus route 37 and 137, operated by Stuart's Coaches of Carluke.

Carstairs is served by Carstairs railway station on the West Coast Main Line and Carstairs is also the location of a triangular junction where the line to Edinburgh diverges from the mainline.


Mississippi Braves

# Mississippi Braves

## Abstract

The Mississippi Braves, or M-Braves as they are referred to locally, was a Minor League Baseball team based in Pearl, Mississippi, a suburb of Jackson. The team was the Double-A affiliate of the Atlanta Braves and played in the Southern League. The team had been owned and operated by Diamond Baseball Holdings since December 2021. After the 2024 season, the team relocated to Columbus, Georgia, to become the Columbus Clingstones.

## History

In 2005, the Southern League 's Greenville Braves relocated to Pearl from Greenville, South Carolina, due to the poor condition of Greenville Municipal Stadium, and the failure to reach an agreement with the Greenville County council for a new ballpark.

The M-Braves' first season began on April 18, 2005 at Trustmark Park with a loss to the Montgomery Biscuits.

In conjunction with Major League Baseball 's restructuring of Minor League Baseball in 2021, the Braves were organized into the Double-A South. They won the 2021 Southern Division title with a first-place 67–44 record. They qualified for the playoffs by having the best record in the league. The Braves defeated the Montgomery Biscuits, 3–2, in the best-of-five series to win the Double-A South championship. Shea Langeliers was selected as the league's Top MLB Prospect and Dan Meyer as the Manager of the Year.

In December 2021, Diamond Baseball Holdings bought the Mississippi Braves from Atlanta Braves owner Liberty Media.

In 2022, the Double-A South became known as the Southern League, the name historically used by the regional circuit prior to the 2021 reorganization.

On January 9, 2024, the Braves announced that the 2024 season would be their final season in Pearl, Mississippi and they would be relocating to Columbus, Georgia for the start of the 2025 season. In September 2024, the franchise's new identity was revealed as the Columbus Clingstones.

## Championships

On September 13, 2008, the Mississippi Braves beat the Carolina Mudcats, 3–2, in the 10th inning of the decisive Game 5 of the Southern League Championship Series. This was the M-Braves first championship and the first Southern League title for Atlanta's Double-A franchise since 1997. The M-Braves' second title came in 2021 in the Double-A South.

## Television and radio

All Mississippi Braves games were televised live on MiLB.TV. Since 2023, all regular and post-season Mississippi Braves games aired on 102.1 The Box. The broadcasters were Chris Harris and Jack Sadighian. From 2009 to 2022, games aired on WYAB 103.9 FM.

## Notable players

- Blaine Boyer * (2005)

- Danny Burawa

- Román Colón (2005)

- Chuck James (2005)

- Brian McCann * (2005)

- Jay Powell * (2005)

- Martín Prado * (2005–2006)

- Gregor Blanco (2005-2006)

- Joey Devine * (2005–2007)

- Jeff Francoeur * (2005, 2008)

- Max Fried * (2017)

- Chipper Jones * (2006)

- Yunel Escobar (2006)

- Manny Acosta (2006)

- Matt Harrison (2006)

- José Ascanio * (2006–2007)

- Jarrod Saltalamacchia * (2006–2007)

- Kris Medlen (2007-2008)

- Tommy Hanson (2008)

- Matt Diaz (2008)

- Jordan Schafer (2008, 2010)

- Jason Heyward (2009)

- Freddie Freeman (2009)

- Craig Kimbrel (2009)

- Nate McLouth * (2009)

- Julio Teherán (2010)

- Mike Minor (2010, 2014)

- Arodys Vizcaíno (2011, 2015)

- Andrelton Simmons * (2012)

- Evan Gattis (2012)

- Christian Bethancourt (2012-2013)

- Philip Gosselin (2012-2013)

- Tommy La Stella (2013)

- Alex Wood (2013)

- Mallex Smith (2015)

- Brian O'Connor (2005)

- Ronald Acuna Jr. (2017)

- Michael Harris II (2022)

* Promoted directly to Atlanta.


2024 ATP Tour

# 2024 ATP Tour

## Abstract

The 2024 ATP Tour is the global elite men's professional tennis circuit organized by the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) for the 2024 tennis season. The 2024 ATP Tour calendar comprises the Grand Slam tournaments, supervised by the International Tennis Federation (ITF), the ATP Finals, the ATP Masters 1000, the United Cup (organized with the WTA), the ATP 500 series and the ATP 250 series. Also included in the 2024 calendar are the Davis Cup (organised by the ITF), the Summer Olympics in Paris, Next Gen ATP Finals and Laver Cup, none of which distribute ranking points.

## Schedule

This is the schedule of events on the 2024 calendar.

## Statistical information

These tables present the number of singles (S), doubles (D), and mixed doubles (X) titles won by each player and each nation during the season, within all the tournament categories of the 2024 calendar: the Grand Slam tournaments, the tennis event at the Paris Summer Olympics, the ATP Finals, the ATP Masters 1000, the ATP 500 tournaments, and the ATP 250 tournaments. The players/nations are sorted by:

- Total number of titles (a doubles title won by two players representing the same nation counts as only one win for the nation);

- Cumulated importance of those titles (one Grand Slam win equalling two Masters 1000 wins, one undefeated ATP Finals win equalling one-and-a-half Masters 1000 win, one Masters 1000 win equalling two 500 events wins, one 500 event win equalling two 250 events wins);

- A singles > doubles > mixed doubles hierarchy;

- Alphabetical order (by family names for players).

### Titles information

The following players won their first main circuit title in singles, doubles or mixed doubles:

- Alejandro Tabilo (26 years, 7 months and 11 days) – Auckland (draw)

- Jiří Lehečka (22 years, 2 months and 5 days) – Adelaide (draw)

- Luciano Darderi (21 years, 11 months and 28 days) – Córdoba (draw)

- Facundo Díaz Acosta (23 years, 2 months and 3 days) – Buenos Aires (draw)

- Jordan Thompson (29 years, 10 months and 5 days) – Los Cabos (draw)

- Jan-Lennard Struff (33 years, 11 months and 27 days) – Munich (draw)

- Giovanni Mpetshi Perricard (20 years, 10 months and 17 days) – Lyon (draw)

- Jack Draper (22 years, 5 months and 25 days) – Stuttgart (draw)

- Nuno Borges (27 years, 5 months and 2 days) – Båstad (draw)

- Marcos Giron (30 years, 11 months and 27 days) – Newport (draw)

- Tomáš Macháč (23 years, 3 months and 29 days) – Marseille (draw)

- Zhang Zhizhen (27 years, 3 months and 26 days) – Marseille (draw)

- Julian Cash (27 years, 5 months and 21 days) – Delray Beach (draw)

- Robert Galloway (31 years, 4 months and 26 days) – Delray Beach (draw)

- Nicolás Barrientos (36 years, 10 months and 1 day) – Rio de Janeiro (draw)

- Tomás Barrios Vera (26 years, 4 months and 19 days) – Santiago (draw)

- Alejandro Tabilo (26 years and 9 months) – Santiago (draw)

- Henry Patten (27 years and 11 months) – Marrakesh (draw)

- Albano Olivetti (32 years, 4 months and 28 days) – Munich (draw)

- Sebastian Korda (23 years, 9 months and 29 days) – Madrid (draw)

- Orlando Luz (26 years, 5 months and 13 days) – Båstad (draw)

- Sem Verbeek (30 years, 3 months and 9 days) – Newport (draw)

- Guido Andreozzi (32 years, 11 months and 24 days) – Umag (draw)

- Jan Zieliński (27 years, 2 months and 9 days) – Australian Open (draw)

- Édouard Roger-Vasselin (40 years, 6 months and 9 days) – French Open (draw)

- Tomáš Macháč (23 years, 9 months and 20 days) – 2024 Summer Olympics (draw)

- Andrea Vavassori (29 years and 4 months) – US Open (draw)

The following players defended a main circuit title in singles, doubles, or mixed doubles:

- Taylor Fritz – Delray Beach (draw)

- Alex de Minaur – Acapulco (draw)

- Carlos Alcaraz – Indian Wells (draw), Wimbledon Championships (draw)

- Nikola Mektić – Auckland (draw)

- Andrés Molteni – Córdoba (draw), Barcelona (draw)

- Máximo González – Córdoba (draw), Barcelona (draw)

- Simone Bolelli – Buenos Aires (draw)

- Max Purcell – Houston (draw)

- Jordan Thompson – Houston (draw)

- Kevin Krawietz - Hamburg (draw)

- Tim Pütz - Hamburg (draw)

- Alexander Erler - Kitzbuhel (draw)

- Nathaniel Lammons - Atlanta (draw), Winston-Salem (draw)

- Jackson Withrow - Atlanta (draw), Winston-Salem (draw)

### Best ranking

The following players achieved their career-high ranking in this season inside top 50 (in bold the players who entered the top 10 or became the world No. 1 for the first time):

- Roman Safiullin (reached place No. 36 on 8 January)

- Sebastian Ofner (reached place No. 37 on 8 January)

- Jiří Lehečka (reached place No. 23 on 15 January)

- Adrian Mannarino (reached place No. 17 on 29 January)

- Tomás Martín Etcheverry (reached place No. 27 on 12 February)

- Alexander Shevchenko (reached place No. 45 on 19 February)

- Dominik Koepfer (reached place No. 49 on 4 March)

- Ugo Humbert (reached place No. 13 on 15 April)

- Facundo Díaz Acosta (reached place No. 47 on 22 April)

- Alexander Bublik (reached place No. 17 on 6 May)

- Fábián Marozsán (reached place No. 36 on 6 May)

- Nicolás Jarry (reached place No. 16 on 20 May)

- Jannik Sinner (reached place No. 1 on 10 June)

- Mariano Navone (reached place No. 29 on 10 June)

- Tomáš Macháč (reached place No. 33 on 10 June)

- Pavel Kotov (reached place No. 50 on 17 June)

- Sebastián Báez (reached place No. 18 on 24 June)

- Alejandro Tabilo (reached place No. 19 on 1 July)

- Alex de Minaur (reached place No. 6 on 15 July)

- Giovanni Mpetshi Perricard (reached place No. 44 on 15 July)

- Arthur Fils (reached place No. 20 on 22 July)

- Zhizhen Zhang (reached place No. 31 on 22 July)

- Hubert Hurkacz (reached place No. 6 on 5 August)

- Luciano Darderi (reached place No. 32 on 5 August)

- Marcos Giron (reached place No. 37 on 5 August)

- Sebastian Korda (reached place No. 15 on 12 August)

- Alexei Popyrin (reached place No. 23 on 12 August)

- Matteo Arnaldi (reached place No. 30 on 12 August)

- Flavio Cobolli (reached place No. 31 on 12 August)

- Ben Shelton (reached place No. 13 on 19 August)

- Jack Draper (reached place No. 20 on 9 September)

- Jordan Thompson (reached place No. 29 on 9 September)

- Nuno Borges (reached place No. 30 on 9 September)

- Brandon Nakashima (reached place No. 40 on 9 September)

- Alex Michelsen (reached place No. 47 on 9 September)

- Rohan Bopanna (reached place No. 1 on 29 January)

- Jackson Withrow (reached place No. 16 on 19 February)

- Matthew Ebden (reached place No. 1 on 26 February)

- Sadio Doumbia (reached place No. 30 on 4 March)

- Nicolás Barrientos (reached place No. 47 on 22 April)

- Marcel Granollers (reached place No. 1 on 6 May)

- Horacio Zeballos (reached place No. 1 on 6 May)

- Ariel Behar (reached place No. 34 on 6 May)

- Adam Pavlásek (reached place No. 34 on 20 May)

- Aleksandr Nedovyesov (reached place No. 38 on 20 May)

- Robert Galloway (reached place No. 35 on 1 July)

- Andrea Vavassori (reached place No. 9 on 15 July)

- Julian Cash (reached place No. 38 on 15 July)

- Zhizhen Zhang (reached place No. 47 on 15 July)

- Albano Olivetti (reached place No. 40 on 22 July)

- Hendrik Jebens (reached place No. 45 on 5 August)

- Yuki Bhambri (reached place No. 43 on 9 September)

- Tomáš Macháč (reached place No. 50 on 5 August)

- Constantin Frantzen (reached place No. 45 on 12 August)

- Henry Patten (reached place No. 12 on 19 August)

- Marcelo Arévalo (reached place No. 4 on 9 September)

- Jordan Thompson (reached place No. 7 on 9 September)

- Max Purcell (reached place No. 8 on 9 September)

- Nathaniel Lammons (reached place No. 20 on 9 September)

- Fabien Reboul (reached place No. 28 on 9 September)

## ATP rankings

## Point distribution

Points are awarded as follows:

## Retirements

The following is a list of notable players (winners of a main tour title, and/or part of the ATP rankings top 100 in singles, or top 100 in doubles, for at least one week) who announced their retirement from professional tennis, became inactive (after not playing for more than 52 weeks), or were permanently banned from playing, during the 2024 season:

- Attila Balázs joined the professional tour in 2006 and reached a career-high ranking of No. 76 in singles in March 2020. Balázs announced his retirement in February 2024.

- Dustin Brown joined the professional tour in 2002 and reached a career-high ranking of No. 64 in singles in October 2016 and No. 43 in doubles in May 2012. He won two doubles titles. Brown announced in January 2024 that he would retire at the end of the season and expressed the possibility of playing several events.

- Federico Delbonis joined the professional tour in 2007 and reached a career-high ranking of No. 33 in singles in May 2016. He won two singles and two doubles titles. Delbonis announced his retirement in January 2024 and made a final professional appearance at the Argentina Open in doubles partnering Facundo Bagnis.

- Ryan Harrison joined the professional tour in 2007 and reached a career-high ranking of No. 40 in singles in July 2017 and No. 16 in doubles in November 2017. He won one singles title and four doubles titles, including a Grand Slam doubles title at the 2017 French Open partnering Michael Venus. Harrison announced his retirement in January 2024.

- Tatsuma Ito joined the professional tour in 2006 and reached a career-high ranking of No. 60 in singles in October 2012. Ito announced in April 2024 that he would retire at the end of the season.

- Roman Jebavý joined the professional tour in 2009 and reached a career-high ranking of No. 43 in doubles in March 2019. He won four doubles titles. Jebavý announced his retirement in August 2024, with his last professional appearance being at the 2024 Svijany Open.

- Steve Johnson joined the professional tour in 2012 and reached a career-high ranking of No. 21 in singles in July 2016 and No. 39 in doubles in May 2016. He won four singles titles and two doubles titles, as well as a bronze medal at the 2016 Summer Olympics partnering Jack Sock. Johnson announced his retirement in March 2024 and made a final professional appearance at the 2024 BNP Paribas Open.

- Ivo Karlović joined the professional tour in 2000 and reached a career-high ranking of No. 14 in singles in August 2008 and No. 44 in doubles in April 2006. He won eight singles and two doubles titles. Karlović announced his retirement in February 2024 following two and a half years of inactivity.

- Wesley Koolhof joined the professional tour in 2008 and reached a career-high ranking of No. 1 in doubles in November 2022. He won nineteen doubles titles, including a Grand Slam title at the 2023 Wimbledon Championships partnering Neal Skupski. Koolhof announced in November 2023 that he would retire at the end of the season.

- Filip Krajinović joined the professional tour in 2008 and reached a career-high ranking of No. 26 in singles in April 2018. Krajinović announced his retirement in August 2024, with his final appearance being at the 2024 US Open.

- Ben McLachlan joined the professional tour in 2014 and reached a career-high ranking of No. 18 in doubles in November 2018. He won seven doubles titles. McLachlan announced his retirement in April 2024.

- John Millman joined the professional tour in 2006 and reached a career-high ranking of No. 33 in singles in October 2018. He won one singles title. Millman announced his retirement in November 2023 and made a final professional appearance at the 2024 Australian Open.

- Andy Murray joined the professional tour in 2005 and reached a career-high ranking of No. 1 in singles in November 2016 and No. 51 in doubles in October 2011. Murray won forty-six singles titles (including three Grand Slam titles) and three doubles titles. He was also the winner of the 2016 ATP World Tour Finals and won two Olympic gold medals in singles. Murray announced his retirement in July 2024 following the 2024 Paris Olympics.

- Philipp Oswald joined the professional tour in 2005, reached a career-high ranking of No. 31 in doubles in June 2021. He won eleven doubles titles. Oswald retired in July 2024 and made a final professional appearance at the Generali Open Kitzbühel, partnering Joel Schwärzler.

- Lukáš Rosol joined the professional tour in 2004 and reached a career-high ranking of No. 26 in singles in September 2014 and No. 37 in doubles in October 2014. He won two singles and three doubles titles. Rosol announced his retirement in April 2024.

- Artem Sitak joined the professional tour in 2001 and reached a career-high ranking of No. 32 in doubles in September 2018. He won five doubles titles. Sitak announced his retirement in January 2024 and made a final professional appearance at the 2024 ASB Classic.

- João Sousa joined the professional tour in 2008 and reached a career-high ranking of No. 28 in singles in May 2016 and No. 26 in doubles in May 2019. He won four singles titles. Sousa announced his retirement in February 2024 and made a final professional appearance at the 2024 Estoril Open.

- Dominic Thiem joined the professional tour in 2011 and reached a career-high ranking of No. 3 in singles in March 2020 and No. 67 in doubles in October 2019. He won seventeen singles titles, including a major title at the 2020 US Open. Thiem announced his retirement in May 2024 due to recurring pain from a tendon sheath injury in his right wrist that he originally suffered in 2021. His final tournament will be at the Vienna Open in October.

- Donald Young ended his career at the US Open, playing his last match partnered Taylor Townsend in mixed doubles.

### Inactivity

- Kevin Anderson became inactive having not played for more than a year.

- Ernests Gulbis became inactive having not played for more than a year.

- Cedrik-Marcel Stebe became inactive having not played for more than a year.

- Fernando Verdasco became inactive having not played for more than a year.

## Comebacks and appearances

- Marc López made a final appearance at the 2024 Brisbane International, partnering Rafael Nadal in doubles.

- Kamil Majchrzak returned to the ITF Men's World Tennis Tour following the expiration of his doping suspension in January 2024.

- Andrej Martin returned to the ITF Men's World Tennis Tour after his doping suspension expired in June 2024.

- Tim van Rijthoven returned to the ATP Tour after he received a wildcard for the Rosmalen Grass Court Championships. Van Rijthoven had not played a match since February 2023. He also participated in the Wimbledon Championships qualifying competition.

- Chung Hyeon returned to the ITF Men's World Tennis Tour in September 2024.


Limia

# Limia

## Abstract

Limia is a genus of livebearing fishes belonging to the Cyprinodontiform family Poeciliidae, which includes other livebearers such as platys, swordtails (genus Xiphophorous), guppies and mollies (genus Poecilia). They are found in fresh and brackish water. Of the 22 described Limia species, 17 are endemic to Hispaniola, one is found on both Hispaniola and Jamaica, and the Cayman Islands, Cuba, and Venezuela have an endemic species each. Limia are popular in aquaria among more advanced hobbyists.

## Taxonomy

The genus Limia belongs to Poecilidae, the most abundant and species-rich family of freshwater fish on the Antilles. Other Poecilidae genera found on the Antilles include Poecilia, Gambusia, and the endemic genera Girardinus and Quintana. Limia, however, is represented on the islands by more species than any other poeciliid genus, with 22 currently known from Cuba, Grand Cayman Hispaniola, and Jamaica. Cuba, Grand Cayman, and Jamaica each have one endemic species: L. vittata, L. caymanensis, and L. melanogaster, respectively. The rest are found exclusively on Hispaniola, making the island a center of endemism for the genus. Their distribution on Hispaniola indicates a evolutionary radiation from Lake Miragoâne on the Tiburon Peninsula in particular. Nine species endemic to the lake having been described: L. fuscomaculata, L. garnieri, L. grossidens, L. immaculata, L. islai, L. mandibularis, L. miragoanensis, L. nigrofasciata, and L. ornata.

### Evolution and phylogeny

Most recent studies about the origin of limias conclude that the genus reached the Antilles islands through oceanic dispersal or vicariance. GAARlandia, a hypothesized land bridge connecting the area of the modern islands to the South American mainland during the Eocene–Oligocene transition, might have enabled the fish to colonize the Antilles through a combination of dispersal, vicariance, and island hopping. Limia ancestors are unlikely to have arrived exclusively over land, however, because Limia and all other native Antillean species are tolerant of saltwater; if a land bridge had been sufficient, intolerant species would have also colonized the islands.

Limia forms a clade with Pamphorichthys, Mollienesia, Micropoecilia, and Poecilia. Some authorities advocate for all of these taxa to be considered seperate genera, while others maintain that some or all of them should be treated as subgenera of the genus Poecilia. The sister clade to Limia is the one formed by the Hispaniolan Poecilia species P. elegans, P. dominicensis, and P. hispaniolana; all three have been found to be more closely related to Limia than to other Poecilia species, adding to the uncertainty in the taxonomic designations of Poecilia. Limia and the Hispaniolan Poecilia species diverged from Pamphorichthys during the Eocene–Oligocene transition.

The first to split off from the other Limia species, near the Oligocene–Miocene boundary, was L. melanogaster, which went on to colonize Jamaica. This was followed by the colonization of the combined Cuba-Hispaniola landmass. When the Windward Passage divided the landmass into the modern islands of Cuba and Hispaniola, the ancestors of L. vittata and L. caymanensis split from the Hispaniolan species.

### Species

Based on the number and shape of teeth and preopercular pores, Rivas separated the Limia species into two subgenera: Limia and Odontolimia. All seven of Odontolimia species are endemic to Lake Miragoâne. One species, Pseudolimia heterandria from Venezuela, was placed in the genus Limia when it was described in 1913, but was moved to its own genus, Pseudolimia, in 2002.

#### Odontolimia

- Limia fuscomaculata Rivas, 1980 (blotched limia)

- Limia garnieri Rivas, 1980 (Garnier's limia)

- Limia grossidens Rivas, 1980 (largetooth limia)

- Limia immaculata Rivas, 1980 (plain limia)

- Limia mandibularis Rodriguez-Silva, Torres-Pineda & Josaphat, 2020 (jawed limia)

- Limia miragoanensis Rivas, 1980 (Miragoane limia)

- Limia ornata Regan, 1913 (ornate limia)

#### Limia

- Limia caymanensis Rivas & W. L. Fink, 1970 (Grand Cayman limia)

- Limia dominicensis (Valenciennes, 1846) (Tiburon Peninsula limia)

- Limia islai, Rodriguez-Silva & Weaver, 2020 (tiger limia)

- Limia melanogaster (Günther, 1866) (blackbelly limia)

- Limia melanonotata Nichols & G. S. Myers, 1923 (blackbanded limia)

- Limia nigrofasciata Regan, 1913 (black-barred limia)

- Limia pauciradiata Rivas, 1980 (few-rayed limia)

- Limia perugiae (Evermann & H. W. Clark, 1906) (Perugia's limia)

- Limia rivasi L. R. Franz & G. H. Burgess, 1983 (Rivas's limia)

- Limia sulphurophila Rivas, 1980 (sulfur limia)

- Limia tridens (Hilgendorf, 1889)

- Limia versicolor (Günther, 1866) (varicolored limia)

- Limia vittata (Guichenot, 1853) (Cuban limia)

- Limia yaguajali Rivas, 1980 (Yaguajal limia)

- Limia zonata (Nichols, 1915) (striped limia)

## Ecology

Most Limia species inhabit inland waters such as rivers, springs, and lakes. Some are confined to relatively cool mountain streams. While most are found in freshwater habitats, some species inhabit karst environments high in dissolved inorganic salts or in saline lakes. A few are even found in hypersaline coastal lagoons.

Most Limia species prefer to feed on detritus and algae, with some Hispanionalan species, such as L. nigrofasciata, showing a specialization in detrivory. A trend towards a limnivore diet has also been recorded in the genus. Widespread species such as L. perugiae, L. versicolor, and L. zonata have been found to have a more generalized diet, which (especially in the wet season) includes aquatic invertebrates.

## Reproduction

Limias are livebearers. Courtship display may have evolved on two separate occasions in the genus.

## Hybrids

Fertile hybrids have been obtained between L. melanogaster and both L. nigrofasciata and L. vittata.

John Dawes in the UK, in his book Livebearing Fishes, reported a L. melanogaster x L. nigrofasciata hybrid male has been mated to female green sailfin molly. Two hybrid fry were obtained, one was raised to maturity, ending up as a molly-like fish swimming with its head up at an angle of 45 degrees and was unable to maintain an even keel. This hybrid fails to inseminate molly females provided and no further hybrid offspring resulted.


Melissa Sue Anderson

# Melissa Sue Anderson

## Abstract

Melissa Sue Anderson (born September 26, 1962) is an American-Canadian actress. She began her career as a child actress after appearing in several commercials in Los Angeles. Anderson is known for her role as Mary Ingalls in the NBC drama series Little House on the Prairie (1974–1983), for which she received a nomination for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series.

She is also known for film roles that include Vivian in Midnight Offerings (1981), Ginny in the slasher film Happy Birthday to Me (1981), and Alex in the ABC Afterschool Special, Which Mother Is Mine? (1979).

Anderson became a naturalized citizen of Canada in 2007. In 2010, she published The Way I See It: A Look Back at My Life on Little House, an autobiographical account of her years acting in Little House on the Prairie.

## Early life

Anderson was born on September 26, 1962, in Berkeley, California, the second of two daughters, to James and Marion Anderson. Her sister Maureen is 12 years her senior. When she was seven years old, Anderson's family relocated from the San Francisco Bay Area to Los Angeles. Her parents divorced when she was 13 years old, and she was raised Roman Catholic by her mother. As a young child, Anderson appeared in commercials for Mattel and Sears.

## Career

Anderson's show business career began when a dance teacher urged her parents to find an agent for her. After appearing in commercials, she was soon in demand for television roles. Her first came in a 1972 episode of Bewitched titled "Tabitha's First Day of School". Another memorable early role was as Millicent, a girl who kissed Bobby in The Brady Bunch. She also appeared in an episode of Shaft the same year.

At the age of 11, Anderson landed the role of Mary Ingalls in Little House on the Prairie. She would go on to star in the series for eight seasons, beginning in 1974, and leaving after season seven; she later appeared in three episodes of season eight in late 1981.

In 1976, Michael Landon asked Anderson if she would appear in his autobiographical film The Loneliest Runner. Anderson agreed to play Nancy Rizzi, the first girlfriend of John Curtis (based on Landon and played by Lance Kerwin), saying she was very thrilled to have been asked. In 1977, she once again co-starred as the love interest opposite Kerwin in the television film James at 15.

She was nominated for a 1978 Primetime Emmy Award for Best Leading Actress in a Drama Series for her work on Little House on the Prairie and won the Emmy Award for her performance in Which Mother Is Mine?, which aired as an ABC Afterschool Special in 1979. Also in 1979, she played the title role of Dana Lee Gilbert, a North Dakota transfer student to Los Angeles' San Fernando Valley, in CBS 's television film Survival of Dana.

In 1980, Anderson earned a ' TP de Oro ' Award (considered to be Spain's most prestigious award for television) for 'Best Foreign Actress' for her role in Little House on the Prairie. This followed a successful visit to Spain in 1979 to appear as a guest on Televisión Española 's program, 625 Lineas. In 1981, she earned a Young Artist Award nomination for her performance in the Canadian slasher film Happy Birthday to Me. After leaving Little House, she continued acting in television series like The Equalizer, Alfred Hitchcock Presents, CHiPs, and Murder, She Wrote, and was the associate producer for the penultimate television project Michael Landon made before dying: Where Pigeons Go to Die (1990).

In 1998, she was inducted into the Western Performers Hall of Fame at the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. In 1999, she starred alongside Heather Langenkamp in the short-lived television series Partners. In 2014, Anderson had an uncredited appearance as Stosh's mother in the neo-noir mystery comedy drama film Veronica Mars (2014).

## Book

In 2010, Anderson released an autobiography titled The Way I See It: A Look Back at My Life on Little House. The book, which is primarily based on her life during her years as a child star in Little House on the Prairie, contains behind-the-scenes stories and anecdotes about the show itself, its stars, guest stars, and crew members. The autobiography also covers her pre– and post– Little House career, her side-projects during the Little House years and how her personal life was affected by her career.

## Personal life

Anderson married television writer and producer Michael Sloan in 1990. They have two children, daughter Piper and son Griffin. The family moved to Montreal in 2002 and became naturalized Canadians on Canada Day in 2007.

## Filmography


1944 Greek naval mutiny

# 1944 Greek naval mutiny

## Abstract

The 1944 Greek naval mutiny was a mutiny by sailors on five ships of the Royal Hellenic Navy in April 1944 over the composition of the Greek government-in-exile, in support of the National Liberation Front (EAM). Petros Voulgaris was called from retirement and appointed vice-admiral to quell the revolt.

The revolt began in Alexandria. Sailors Revolutionary Commissions were formed both on ships and the naval shore establishments on 4 April 1944.

The 1st Brigade of the Greek Armed Forces in the Middle East also suffered a EAM-inspired mutiny on 6 April 1944.

The American philosopher James Burnham, writing in the Partisan Review, saw the mutiny as the start of a "Third World War" as the start of a geopolitical confrontation between the Western Allies and Soviet communism.

## Ships involved

- Greek corvette Apostolis

- Greek corvette Sachtouris

- Greek destroyer Kriti

- Greek destroyer Ierax

- Greek destroyer Pindos


Samsung TV Plus

# Samsung TV Plus

## Abstract

Samsung TV Plus is a free ad-supported streaming television (FAST) service owned by Samsung Electronics that was first introduced in 2015. The platform was designed to provide free, live streaming content for users with Samsung devices.

As of 2022, the service was available in 24 countries and is viewable within a multitude of Samsung products due to its integration with the Tizen operating system. Samsung TV Plus was one of the five most-used apps on the company's smart TVs in September 2020.

## Programming

The service currently has over 350+ live channels, each grouped into various categories. Channels available in the United States have included:

### News

- CBS News 24/7 – Channel No. 1110

- LiveNOW from Fox – Channel No. 1116

- ABC News Live – Channel No. 1112

- NBC News NOW – Channel No. 1114

- Bloomberg TV + UHD – Channel No. 1155

- Yahoo! Finance – Channel No. 1165

- Newsmax – Channel No. 1170

- Real America's Voice – Channel No. 1175

- TYT Network – Channel No. 1185

- Fox Weather - Channel No. 1130

- Scripps News - Channel No. 1119

- Bloomberg Originals - Channel No. 1160

- BBC News - Channel No. 1140

- Sky News - Channel No.1145

- CBC News - Channel No.1150

- The First - Channel No.1180

### Entertainment

- ALL ACTION – Channel No. 1050

- ION – Channel No. 1051

- Stories by AMC – Channel No. 1052

- TV Land Drama – Channel No. 1055

- Heartland – Channel No. 1058

- Drama Life – Channel No. 1060

- Bounce XL – Channel No. 1061

- ION Plus – Channel No. 1062

- The Walking Dead – Channel No. 1065 – includes other The Walking Dead franchise content

- 21 Jump Street – Channel No. 1066

- Degrassi – Channel No. 1067

- Lucky Dog – Channel No. 1068

- The Bob Ross Channel – Channel No. 1069

- Clarity 4K – Channel No. 1070

- Danger TV – Channel No. 1072

- Magellan TV Now – Channel No. 1073

- ElectricNOW – Channel No. 1074

- Nosey – Channel No. 1078

- REELZ Famous & Infamous – Channel No. 1080

- Circle Country – Channel No. 1425

- Shades of Black – Channel No. 1084

- Backstage – Channel No. 1085

- VICE – Channel No. 1086

- Revry – Channel No. 1089

- Shout! Factory – Channel No. 1090

- Dove Channel – Channel No. 1091

- Chicken Soup for the Soul – Channel No. 1092

- MHz Now – Channel No. 1096

- Brat TV – Channel No. 1101

- Mixible – Channel No. 1103

- Fox Soul – Channel No. 1104

- People TV – Channel No. 1105

- Rotten Tomatoes – Channel No. 1106

- Hollywire – Channel No. 1107

- Grit Xtra – Channel No. 1111

- Cowboy Way – Channel No. 1112

- Fireplace 4K – Channel No. 1221

- INFAST – Channel No. 1237

- TV Land Sitcoms – Channel No. 1326

- BET (Pluto TV) – Channel No. 1059

### Movies

- The Movie Hub – Channel No. 1450

- Paramount Movie Channel – Channel No. 1452

- Hallmark Movies & More – Channel No. 1455

- Holiday Movie Favorites by Lifetime – Channel No. 1456

- MovieSphere – Channel No. 1457

- FilmRise Free Movies – Channel No. 1459

- Pluto TV Fantastic – Channel No. 1461

- FilmRise Action – Channel No. 1463

- Documentary+ – Channel No. 1466

- Maverick Black Cinema – Channel No. 1468

- Gravitas Movies – Channel No. 1474

- CINEVAULT: Classics – Channel No. 1478

- CINEVAULT: 80’s – Channel No. 1479

- CINEVAULT: Westerns – Channel No. 1482

- Pluto TV Westerns – Channel No. 1484

- FilmRise Western – Channel No. 1488

- The Preview Channel – Channel No. 1491

- Home.Made.Nation – Channel No. 1216

### Reality and Infotainment

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- All-Out Reality – Channel No. 1230

- Duck Dynasty – Channel No. 1232 – includes other Duck Commander content

- Deal Zone – Channel No. 1233

- Ice Road Truckers – Channel No. 1234

- Ax Men – Channel No. 1235

- Pawn Stars - Channel No. 2714

- All Weddings WE TV – Channel No. 1238

- All Reality WE TV – Channel No. 1239

- Hell’s Kitchen – Channel No. 1240 – includes other Gordon Ramsay content

- Kitchen Nightmares – Channel No. 1241 – includes other Gordon Ramsay content

- The Hotel Inspector – Channel No. 1242

- Project Runway – Channel No. 1243

- Operation Repo – Channel No. 1244

- MTV (Pluto TV) – Channel No. 1245

- Love & Hip Hop – Channel No. 1246

- The Challenge – Channel No. 1247

- Dallas Cowboys Cheer – Channel No. 1248

- Perform – Channel No. 1249

- Dance Moms – Channel No. 1250

- Matched Married Meet – Channel No. 1251

- IGN – Channel No. 1351

- Minecraft – Channel No. 1363

- Samsung Wild Life Channel No. 1400

- Military Heroes – Channel No. 1402

- Modern Marvels – Channel No. 1403

- Love Nature 4K – Channel No. 1404

- TED – Channel No. 1405

- PBS Digital Studios – Channel No. 1406

- Xplore – Channel No. 1407

- Rovr.Pets – Channel No. 1409

- InWonder – Channel No. 1410

- WeatherSpy – Channel No. 1412

- Stingray Naturescape – Channel No. 1415

- WWE Superstar Central By A&E - Channel No. 2904

### Food and Drink

- Plated – Channel No. 1200

- Tastemade – Channel No. 1201

- Bon Appetit – Channel No. 1202

- Gusto TV – Channel No. 1203

- America’s Test Kitchen – Channel No. 1204

- Hungry – Channel No. 1206

- Tastemade Travel – Channel No. 1207

- Journy – Channel No. 1208

- Home Refresh – Channel No. 1209

- Million Dollar Listing – Channel No. 1210

- Tiny House Nation – Channel No. 1211

- Antiques Roadshow – Channel No. 1212

- This Old House – Channel No. 1213

- This Old House Makers.- Channel No. 1214

- The Design Network – Channel No. 1215

- BBC Home – Channel No. 1217

- BBC Food – Channel No. 1218

- Tastemade Home – Channel No. 1219

- Loupe 4K – Channel No. 1220

- QVC – Channel No. 1223

- HSN – Channel No. 1224

- Localish – Channel No. 1226

### Sports

- MLB Channel - Channel No. 1001

- CBS Sports HQ – Channel No. 1152

- T2 – Channel No. 1154

- GOLFPASS – Channel No. 1155

- beIN SPORTS XTRA – Channel No. 1157

- fubo Sports Network – Channel No. 1158

- Stadium – Channel No. 1159

- Pac-12 Insider – Channel No. 1161

- ACC Digital Network – Channel No. 1162

- Origin Sports – Channel No. 1163

- TNA Wrestling – Channel No. 1164

- FTF – Channel No. 1167

- EDGEsport – Channel No. 1169

- SURF NOW TV – Channel No. 1173

- Outside – Channel No. 1178

- FUEL TV – Channel No. 1179

- Whistle TV – Channel No. 1180

- People Are Awesome – Channel No. 1181

- Outdoor America – Channel No. 1182

- Waypoint TV – Channel No. 1184

- Pursuit UP – Channel No. 1185

- World Poker Tour – Channel No. 1187

- Ride or Drive – Channel No. 1188

- Top Gear – Channel No. 1189

- MAVTV Select – Channel No. 1190

- PowerNation – Channel No. 1191

- MotorTrend Fast TV – Channel No. 1192

- NHRA TV – Channel No. 1193

- MOTORVISION.TV – Channel No. 1194

- Cars – Channel No. 1195

- Torque – Channel No. 1196

- Fox Sports - Channel No 2334

- Dome - Channel No. 1003

- NBC Sports - Channel No 2338

- DraftKings - Channel No.2358

- SportsGrid -Channel No. 2362

### Game shows

- BUZZR – Channel No. 1139

- Game Show Central – Channel No. 1141

- Deal or No Deal – Channel No. 1143

- Fear Factor – Channel No. 1144

- Wipeout Xtra – Channel No. 1145

- Wild 'n Out – Channel No. 1147

- Supermarket Sweep – Channel No. 1142

### Kids

{{columns-list|colwidth=10em|

- PBS Kids – Channel No. 1376

- Nickelodeon (Pluto TV) – Channel No. 1379

- Moonbug Kids – Channel No. 1383

- The LEGO Channel – Channel No. 1385

- pocket.watch – Channel No. 1389

- Toon Goggles – Channel No. 1391

- TG Junior – Channel No. 1392

- Kidoodle.TV – Channel No. 1395

- ZooMoo – Channel No. 1398

- Hot Wheels Action - Channel No. 3614

- Fireman Sam - Channel No. 3636

- My Little Pony - Channel No 3653

- Barbie and friends - Channel No. 3613

- Blippi - Channel No. 3630

- Transformers - Channel No.3685

## Availability

Samsung TV Plus has been pre-installed on all Samsung TVs since 2016. Since April 2021, the service has also been available on Samsung mobile devices (available from the Galaxy Store) and Smart monitors. Select Family Hub refrigerators can also be connected to Samsung TV Plus in the U.S. and Korea.

In January 2023, Samsung announced it was rolling out Samsung TV Plus onto non-Samsung TVs in the form of an installable app, specifically in an integration with TCL TVs.


Mortadella

# Mortadella

## Abstract

Mortadella (Italian:) is a large salume (Italian:) made of finely hashed or ground cured pork, which incorporates at least 15% small cubes of pork fat (principally the hard fat from the neck of the pig). It is traditionally flavoured with peppercorns, but modern versions can also contain pistachios or, less commonly, myrtle berries. The sausage is then cooked.

The best-known version of mortadella is Mortadella Bologna PGI, but other varieties are found across Italy, including some made of other meats.

## Etymology

The origin of the name mortadella is debated. One theory derives the name from the Latin word mortarium (' mortar '), traditionally used in pounding the meat to produce the sausage. This theory, proposed by Giancarlo Susini, professor of ancient history in the University of Bologna, relies on two funerary steles kept in the Archaeological Museum of Bologna, believed to pertain to the same monument, one showing a herd of piglets and the other a mortar and pestle.

Another theory, introduced by Ovidio Montalbani in the 17th century, derives the name from a Roman sausage flavoured with myrtle berries that Romans called farcimen myrtatum or farcimen murtatum (myrtle sausage). Myrtle was in fact a popular spice before pepper became available to European markets.

## History

Traditionally, the pork filling was ground to a paste using a large mortar (mortaio, Italian:) and pestle.

Mortadella originated in Bologna, the capital of Emilia-Romagna. Anna Del Conte (The Gastronomy of Italy 2001) found a sausage mentioned in a document of the official body of meat preservers in Bologna dated 1376 that may be mortadella.

## Varieties

### In Italy

- Mortadella Bologna has protected geographical indication (PGI) status under European Union law and is the best known worldwide. The zone of production is extensive; as well as Emilia-Romagna and the neighbouring regions of Piedmont, Lombardy, Veneto, Marche and Tuscany, it includes Lazio and Trentino. The American sausage called " bologna " is named after the mortadella Bologna.

- The American sausage called " bologna " is named after the mortadella Bologna.

- Mortadella di Prato, produced in Tuscany (Prato), is also defined by an PGI. It is flavoured with pounded garlic and coloured with alchermes.

- Mortadella di Campotosto, high in the Apennines of northern Lazio, is lightly smoked.

- Mortadella di cavallo is made from horse meat in Albano Laziale, Lazio.

### Elsewhere

#### Ibero-American cultures

Mortadella is very popular in Spain and Portugal, where a variety with pepper and olives is widely consumed, especially in sandwiches. In eastern Spain, the standard mortadella is often referred to as mortadela italiana (lit. ' Italian mortadella ').

Mortadella is also very popular in Paraguay, Argentina, Bolivia, Peru, Brazil, Ecuador, Chile, Colombia, Uruguay and Venezuela, thanks to the Italian immigrants who settled in these countries in the early 20th century. In these countries, it is spelled mortadela, and its recipe is quite similar to the traditional Italian, with additional peppercorns. In Peru is known as jamonada.

In Brazil, São Paulo has a very popular mortadela sandwich sold in the Municipal Market.

In Puerto Rico, "smoked mortadella" is sometimes confused with commercial salami or with cooked salami because cafeterias, panaderías, colmados and restaurants buy the bulk of whole smoked mortadella. While salami may contain pork, beef, veal and small pieces of fat uniformly distributed within the sausage, mortadella has the traditional larger chunks not so uniformly distributed. Its diameter is much larger than that of hard salami and more closely resembles salame cotto (lit. ' cooked salami ') in size, hence the confusion of some people. It is smaller in diameter than the traditional mortadella Bologna because the smoking process causes some shrinkage. It is best served at room temperature to bring out its rich flavour.

#### Central, Southern and Eastern Europe

In Romania, a similar cold cut is also known as parizer. In Hungary, a similar product is called mortadella and a plain variety called pariser, parizer or párizsi. The term parizer is also often used in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia, while parizier is used in other territories of the Balkans. It mainly differs from mortadella and similar salami in that garlic is used instead of myrtle and it does not contain pieces of fat, pistachios or olives. The classic Italian mortadella is widely sold in supermarkets along the entire Adriatic coast.

In Greece, where there is a smaller version in addition to the regular one, that variety is called parizaki or mortadelaki, and in Bulgaria, Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia and North Macedonia, the product known as mortadela is widely eaten.

In Poland, mortadela slices are sometimes dipped in batter, fried and served with potatoes and salads as a quicker (and cheaper) alternative to traditional pork cutlets.

#### Middle East and North Africa

In several countries, such as Morocco, Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Israel, halal or kosher mortadella is sold, which is made from chicken, beef or turkey. The Siniora brand, a Palestinian brand established in Jerusalem in 1920, is the first in the region, a mortadella with sliced olives, pistachios or peppercorn. Lebanese Al-Taghziah is a famous brand that is sold around the world. The most popular brands in the GCC are Americana Group and Halwani Brothers. It is also popular in Iran, albeit usually made with beef or lamb, and called commonly kaalbas, from Russian kolbasa.

Pork mortadella is sold in Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan, Syria and the UAE.

#### Canada and United States

A similar commercial sausage product that omits the cubes of pork fat, called " Bologna ", is popular in Canada and the United States. A variety that includes olives and pimentos is called olive loaf.

Mortadella was banned from import into the United States from 1967 to 2000 due to an outbreak of African swine fever in Italy. This ban was a pivotal part of the plot of the 1971 film La mortadella starring Sophia Loren. The title for the United States release was Lady Liberty.

The ban in the United States was lifted due to a veterinary equivalency agreement that allowed countries to export products that had been shown to be disease-free as part of an overall agreement that would allow products deemed safe in the United States to be exported to the European Union.

#### Russia and former Soviet Union

In Russia, Ukraine and other former Soviet states, a very similar product is called doktorskaya kolbasa (Russian: Докторская колбаса, lit. ' doctor's sausage '). However, this product is usually made from a mixture of beef and pork (sometimes beef and lamb or chicken for religious reasons) and does not include pieces of fat or myrtle; mortadella-style sausages with bits of fat are called lubitelskaya and stolichnaya. Instead, it is flavoured with just cardamom, sometimes coriander and nutmeg, and also traditionally contains eggs and milk, which are usually absent in traditional mortadella. Unlike mortadella, doktorskaya kolbasa contains lower amounts of fat and is high in proteins.

The name "doctor's sausage" was coined in the Soviet Union in the 1930s to refer to sausages and meat products recommended by doctors to help with undernourishment and stomach problems. During the Soviet era, it was commonly advertised as being nutritious (due to its low-fat content) and remains popular throughout former Soviet states to the present day.

#### Southeast Asia

Chả lụa or Vietnamese mortadella is sometimes used as an accompaniment to the Vietnamese dish bánh cuốn.