LED-backlit LCD

# LED-backlit LCD

## Abstract

An LED-backlit LCD is a liquid-crystal display that uses LEDs for backlighting instead of traditional cold cathode fluorescent (CCFL) backlighting. LED-backlit displays use the same TFT LCD (thin-film-transistor liquid-crystal display) technologies as CCFL-backlit LCDs, but offer a variety of advantages over them.

Televisions that use a combination of an LED backlight with an LCD panel are sometimes advertised as LED TV s, although they are not truly LED displays.

Backlit LCDs cannot achieve true blacks for pixels, unlike OLED and microLED displays. This is because even in the "off" state, black pixels still allow some light from the backlight through. Some LED-backlit LCDs use local dimming zones to increase contrast between bright and dim areas of the display, but this can result in a "blooming" or "halo" effect on dark pixels in or adjacent to an illuminated zone.

## Comparison with CCFL-backlit LCDs

### Advantages

When compared with earlier CCFL backlights, using LEDs for backlighting offers:

- Wider color gamut (with RGB-LED or QDEF) and dimming range

- Greater contrast ratio

- Very slim (some screens are less than 0.5 inches (13 mm) thin in edge-lit panels)

- Significantly lighter and cooler, as much as half the total chassis and system weight of a comparable CCFL

- Typically 20–30% lower power consumption and longer lifespan

- Greater reliability

## LED arrangements

LED backlights replace CCFL (fluorescent) lamps with a few to several hundred white, RGB or blue LEDs. An LCD with LED-Backlight may be edge- or direct-lit:

- edge-lit (ELED): LEDs form a line around the rim of the screen. May additionally support: frame dimming: adjusts the brightness of the entire backlight based on the content displayed, as if local dimming was supported but only with a single zone local dimming: multiple vertical or horizontal zones are individually controlled

- frame dimming: adjusts the brightness of the entire backlight based on the content displayed, as if local dimming was supported but only with a single zone

- local dimming: multiple vertical or horizontal zones are individually controlled

- direct-lit (DLED) or full-array: LEDs form an array directly behind the screen at equally spaced intervals. May additionally support: frame dimming: adjusts the brightness of the entire backlight based on the content displayed, as if local dimming was supported but only with a single zone local dimming: multiple direct-lit LED clusters (rectangles) are individually controlled. Commonly referred to as Full Array Local Dimming (FALD).

- frame dimming: adjusts the brightness of the entire backlight based on the content displayed, as if local dimming was supported but only with a single zone

- local dimming: multiple direct-lit LED clusters (rectangles) are individually controlled. Commonly referred to as Full Array Local Dimming (FALD).

Additionally a special diffusion panel (light guide plate, LGP) is often used to spread the light evenly behind the screen.

The local dimming method of backlighting allows to dynamically control the level of light intensity of specific areas of darkness on the screen, resulting in much higher dynamic-contrast ratios, though at the cost of less detail in small, bright objects on a dark background, such as star fields or shadow details.

A 2016 study by the University of California (Berkeley) suggests that the subjectively perceived visual enhancement with common contrast source material levels off at about 60 LCD local dimming zones.

## Technology

LED-backlit LCDs are not self-illuminating (unlike pure-LED systems). There are several methods of backlighting an LCD panel using LEDs, including the use of either white or RGB (Red, Green, and Blue) LED arrays behind the panel and edge-LED lighting (which uses white LEDs around the inside frame of the TV and a light-diffusion panel to spread the light evenly behind the LCD panel). Variations in LED backlighting offer different benefits. The first commercial full-array LED-backlit LCD TV was the Sony Qualia 005 (introduced in 2004), which used RGB LED arrays to produce a color gamut about twice that of a conventional CCFL LCD television. This was possible because red, green and blue LEDs have sharp spectral peaks which (combined with the LCD panel filters) result in significantly less bleed-through to adjacent color channels. Unwanted bleed-through channels do not "whiten" the desired color as much, resulting in a larger gamut. RGB LED technology continues to be used on Sony BRAVIA LCD models. LED backlighting using white LEDs produces a broader spectrum source feeding the individual LCD panel filters (similar to CCFL sources), resulting in a more limited display gamut than RGB LEDs at lower cost.

Television sets described as "LED TVs" are LCD-based, with the LEDs dynamically controlled using the video information (dynamic backlight control or dynamic "local dimming" LED backlight, also marketed as HDR, high dynamic range television, invented by Philips researchers Douglas Stanton, Martinus Stroomer and Adrianus de Vaan

The evolution of energy standards and the increasing public expectations regarding power consumption made it necessary for backlight systems to manage their power. As for other consumer electronics products (e.g., fridges or light bulbs), energy consumption categories are enforced for television sets. Standards for power ratings for TV sets have been introduced, e.g., in the US, EU, Australia, and China. A 2008 study showed that among European countries power consumption is one of the most important criteria for consumers when they choose a television, as important as the screen size.

Using PWM (pulse-width modulation), a technology where the intensity of the LEDs are kept constant but the brightness adjustment is achieved by varying a time interval of flashing these constant light intensity light sources, the backlight is dimmed to the brightest color that appears on the screen while simultaneously boosting the LCD contrast to the maximum achievable levels, drastically increasing the perceived contrast ratio, increasing the dynamic range, improving the viewing angle dependency of the LCD and drastically reducing power consumption.

The combination of LED dynamic backlight control in combination with reflective polarizers and prismatic films (invented by Philips researchers Adrianus de Vaan and Paulus Schaareman make these "LED" (LCD) televisions far more efficient than the previous CRT-based sets, leading to a worldwide energy saving of 600 TWh in 2017, equal to 10% of the electricity consumption of all households worldwide, or twice the energy production of all solar cells in the world.

The prismatic and reflective polarization films are generally achieved using so called DBEF films manufactured and supplied by 3M. These reflective polarization films using uniaxial oriented polymerized liquid crystals (birefringent polymers or birefringent glue) were invented in 1989 by Philips researchers Dirk Broer, Adrianus de Vaan and Joerg Brambring.

A first dynamic "local dimming" LED backlight was public demonstrated by BrightSide Technologies in 2003, and later commercially introduced for professional markets (such as video post-production). Edge LED lighting was first introduced by Sony in September 2008 on the 40-inch (1,000 mm) BRAVIA KLV-40ZX1M (known as the ZX1 in Europe). Edge-LED lighting for LCDs allows thinner housing; the Sony BRAVIA KLV-40ZX1M is 1 cm thick, and others are also extremely thin.

LED-backlit LCDs have longer life and better energy efficiency than plasma and CCFL LCD TVs. Unlike CCFL backlights, LEDs do not use mercury in their manufacture, which is an environmental pollutant. However, other elements (such as gallium and arsenic) are used in the manufacture of the LED emitters; there is debate over whether they are a better long-term solution to the problem of screen disposal.

Because LEDs can be switched on and off more quickly than CCFLs and can offer a higher light output, it is theoretically possible to offer very high contrast ratios. They can produce deep blacks (LEDs off) and high brightness (LEDs on). However, measurements made from pure-black and pure-white outputs are complicated by edge-LED lighting not allowing these outputs to be reproduced simultaneously on screen.

Full-array mini-LED backlights, consisting of several thousand WLEDs, were being researched for TVs and mobile devices in 2017.

The white LEDs in LED backlights may use special silicate phosphors, which are brighter but degrade faster. The size of the LEDs is one of the factors that determines the size of the bezel of LED-backlit LCDs.

### Quantum dot enhancement film (QDEF)

Quantum dots are photoluminescent; they are useful in displays because they emit light in specific, narrow normal distributions of wavelengths. To generate white light best suited as an LCD backlight, parts of the light of a blue-emitting LED are transformed by quantum dots into small-bandwidth green and red light such that the combined white light allows a nearly ideal color gamut to be generated by the RGB color filters of the LCD panel. The quantum dots may be in a separate layer as a quantum dot enhancement film, or replace pigment-based green and red resists normally used in LCD color filters. In addition, efficiency is improved, as intermediate colors are no longer present and do not have to be filtered out by the color filters of the LCD screen. This can result in a display that more accurately renders colors in the visible spectrum. Companies developing quantum dot solutions for displays include Nanosys, 3M as a licensee of Nanosys, QD Vision of Lexington, Massachusetts, US and Avantama of Switzerland. This type of backlighting was demonstrated by various TV manufacturers at the Consumer Electronics Show 2015. Samsung introduced their first 'QLED' quantum dot displays at CES 2017 and later formed the 'QLED Alliance' with Hisense and TCL to market the technology.

### Mini LED

Mini LED displays are LED-backlit LCDs with mini-LED–based backlighting supporting over a thousand full array local dimming (FALD) zones, providing deeper blacks and a higher contrast ratio. An example of a product that uses Mini LED backlighting is Apple's 2021 year 12.9 inch iPad Pro.

### Backlight-dimming flicker

LED backlights are often dimmed by applying pulse-width modulation to the supply current, switching the backlight off and on more quickly than the eye can perceive. If the dimming-pulse frequency is too low or the user is sensitive to flicker, this may cause discomfort and eyestrain similar to the flicker of CRT displays at lower refresh rates. This can be tested by simply waving a hand in front of the screen; if it appears to have sharply-defined edges as it moves, the backlight is pulsing at a fairly low frequency. If the hand appears blurry, the display either has a continuously-illuminated backlight or is operating at a frequency too high to perceive. Flicker can be reduced (or eliminated) by setting the display to full brightness, although this can degrade image quality and increases power consumption.


Liebster Gott, wann werd ich sterben

# Liebster Gott, wann werd ich sterben

## Abstract

" Liebster Gott, wann werd ich sterben " ("Dearest God, when will I die") is a Lutheran hymn which Caspar Neumann, an evangelical theologian from Breslau, wrote around 1690. The topic of the hymn, which has five stanzas of eight lines, is a reflection on death. An elaborate analysis of the hymn's content was published in 1749. A few text variants of the hymn originated in the 18th century. Neumann's text is usually sung to the hymn tune of " Freu dich sehr o meine Seele ".

Daniel Vetter, a native of Breslau, set the hymn in the first half of the 1690s, and published this setting in a version for SATB singers in 1713. This setting was picked up by Johann Sebastian Bach, who based some of his compositions on it. His chorale cantata based on Neumann's hymn, Liebster Gott, wenn werd ich sterben, BWV 8, was first performed in Leipzig in 1724, Vetter's hymn tune, Zahn No. 6634, appearing in its outer movements.

The closing chorale of BWV 8 is a reworked version of Vetter's four-part setting. The appreciation of the similarity (or: difference) between this cantata movement, BWV 8/6, and Vetter's original ranges from "somewhat altered" to "with radical alterations", the 1998 edition of the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis listing the 1724 version as a composition by Vetter. Another setting of Neumann's hymn was published in 1747.

## Text

Neumann was born in Breslau (now Wrocław in Poland, then in German Silesia) in 1648. From 1667 to 1670 he studied in Jena. Less than a year after having been assigned court preacher in Altenburg in 1678, he returned to his native town, where he became pastor at the St Mary Magdalene Church in 1689. He wrote "Liebster Gott, wann werd ich sterben" around 1690. It is a Lutheran hymn in five stanzas of eight lines. Its hymn metre is 8.7.8.7.7.7.8.8. The topic of the hymn text is a reflection on death. Gabriel Wimmer's extensive commentary on the hymn was published in 1749.

### Adaptations

Copies of the 1720 and 1721 prints of Franz Anton von Sporck 's Verschiedene Buß-Gedancken Einer Reumüthigen Seele, Uber Die Sterblichkeit deß Menschens are extant. The publication contains "O Gott! mein Zeit laufft immer hin", which is an adaptation of Neumann's hymn. Like the original, it has five stanzas of eight lines.

The text of the four middle movements of BWV 8 is an expanded paraphrase of stanzas two to four of Neumann's hymn. The second and third stanza of the hymn form the basis of the second and third movement of the cantata, which are an aria followed by a recitative. The text of the next two movements of the cantata, again an aria followed by a recitative, draws from, and expands upon, the hymn's fourth stanza.

In 1789, Benjamin Friedrich Schmieder published Hymnologie, oder, Ueber Tugenden und Fehler der verschiedenen Arten geistlicher Lieder, in which he presented an improved version of Neumann's hymn. Schmieder clarifies the improvements he proposes in accompanying prose. The incipit of this version reads: "Ach wie bald, Herr, kan ich sterben!" (lit. ' Ah how soon, Lord, can I die! ').

## Melodies and settings

Shortly after Neumann's death, in 1715, his collected prayers and hymns were published in Breslau, under the title Kern Aller Gebete und Gesänge. The publication mentions two possible pre-existing hymn tunes for "Liebster Gott, wann werd ich sterben":

- "Freu dich sehr o meine Seele"

- " Werde munter, mein Gemüte "

The second, Zahn No. 6551, was composed by Johann Schop and published in 1642. The first, Zahn No. 6543, EG 524, became the common melody for Neumann's hymn. This tune was originally published for a French (1551), and later a German (1587), version of Psalm 42 ("As the hart panteth after the water brooks"), before it was used for the "Freu dich sehr o meine Seele" hymn in the early 17th century, with which it was later generally associated. This melody is also known as GENEVAN 42, referring to its first publication, as "Wie nach einer Wasserquelle", referring to the German version of Psalm 42, and as "Abermal ein Jahr verflossen", referring to another hymn sung to the same tune. Bach adopted this melody with various texts (none of these, however, from Neumann's hymn) in his cantatas BWV 13, 19, 25, 30, 32, 39, 70 and 194. Hymnals which contain the text of Neumann's hymn and indicate the Zahn 6543 melody as its tune include:

- Das Privilegirte Ordentliche und Vermehrte Dreßdnische Gesang-Buch, No. 623 in editions of 1730, 1759 and 1768

- Sammlung von geist- und trostreichen Sterb- und Begräbniß-Liedern (1747), No. 62

- Neues vollständiges Gesang-Buch, für die Königlich-Preußische, auch Churfürstlich-Brandenburgische und andere Lande, No. 623 in editions of 1748 and 1757

- Neu-eingerichtetes Kirchen- und Haus- Gesang-Buch (1749), No. 1007

- Allgemeines und vollständiges Evangelisches Gesangbuch für die Königl. Preuß. Schles. Lande (1751), No. 1046

- Seelen erquickendes Harpffen-Spiel (1764), No. 571

- Pommerscher Sing- Bet- Lob- und Danck-Altar, oder vollständiges Gesang-Buch (1776), No. 763

- Liedersammlung zum Gebrauch für Kranke und Sterbende (1789), No. 58

- Ein Unpartheyisches Gesang-Buch, No. 366 in editions of 1804, 1808 and 1829

- Die Kleine Geistliche Harfe der Kinder Zions, No. 299 in editions of 1811 and 1834

- Erbauliche Lieder-Sammlung (1826), No. 581

- Die Gemeinschaftliche Liedersammlung, No. 185 in editions of 1841 and 1849

- Hamburgisches Gesangbuch (1842), No. 638

### Vetter's setting

Vetter, a native of Breslau, published his four-part setting of Neumann's hymn in 1713, in the second volume of his Musicalische Kirch- und Hauß-Ergötzlichkeit. In the introduction of that publication he wrote:

By the time Vetter wrote this, he had been an organist in Leipzig for around 35 years. Carl von Winterfeld quoted Vetter's 1713 introduction on the history of the origin of his setting. Later in the 19th century, Philipp Spitta, Johannes Zahn and Max Seiffert retold Vetter's account of the origin of his setting, as did Charles Sanford Terry in the early 20th century.

Vetter's SATB setting, which has a figured bass, is in E-flat major. It is in bar form, with the stollen comprising two lines of text. Its character is rather that of a sacred aria than that of a (church) song or chorale. The soprano's melody of Vetter's setting is a hymn tune known as Zahn No. 6634:

This expressive melody is Pietist, as opposed to the hymn tunes customary in Orthodox Lutheranism. By the late 18th century, Vetter's setting of Neumann's hymn was hardly remembered.

### Compositions based on Vetter's setting

There was a copy of the 1713 volume of Vetter's Musicalische Kirch- und Hauß-Ergötzlichkeit in the household of Johann Sebastian and Anna Magdalena Bach. Johann Sebastian composed the first version of his BWV 8 cantata in 1724. It is a cantata for the 16th Sunday after Trinity which is part of his second cantata cycle. Its first movement, setting the first stanza of the hymn, is a chorale fantasia on a modified form of Vetter's hymn tune. Its last movement, in E major like the first, is a reworked version of Vetter's four-part setting, for SATB choir, colla parte instruments and figured bass, with the last stanza of Neumann's hymn as text. By around 1735 the vocal parts of this movement, BWV 8/6, were adopted in the Dietel manuscript.

The final movement in the setting adopted from Vetter's reads:

The Dietel manuscript also contains a four-part setting in E-flat major, BWV deest, of Vetter's hymn tune. In 1736, a voice and continuo arrangement of Vetter's hymn tune, attributed to Bach (BWV 483), in the same key, was included in Schemellis Gesangbuch. In 1747 Bach produced a second version of his BWV 8 cantata: its outer movements are D major transpositions of the same movements of the earlier version of the cantata.

When Bach's pupil Johann Friedrich Doles had become Thomaskantor some years after the composer's death, the BWV 8 cantata was performed again in Leipzig. According to the American musicologist David Yearsley, the widowed Anna Magdalena may have heard such performance, finding consolation in the hymn's text and setting. Friedrich Wilhelm Birnstiel published the four-part setting of the closing chorale of Bach's cantata in 1765. The same also appeared in the first volume of Breitkopf's edition of Bach's four-part chorales (1784), edited by Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach.

According to Winterfeld, Vetter's 1713 setting and the closing chorale of Bach's cantata are largely comparable: he sees it as an example of how Bach could, with a few adjustments, perfect an otherwise already agreeable composition. Winterfeld compared both settings in the Annex of his 1847 publication:

The Bach Gesellschaft published the E major version of Bach's chorale cantata in 1851, edited by Moritz Hauptmann. Spitta described the closing chorale of the cantata as a somewhat altered version of Vetter's setting. The BWV 483 setting was published in the Bach Gesellschaft Edition in 1893, edited by Franz Wüllner. Henry Clough-Leighter published the vocal score of the outer movements of the BWV 8 cantata in 1935, with his own piano reduction of the instrumental accompaniment. In the 1975 volume of the Bach-Jahrbuch, Emil Platen described the BWV 8/6 setting as a reworking of Vetter's original. The New Bach Edition (NBE) contains four instances of the BWV 8/6 chorale:

- In E major, orchestrated, as part of the BWV 8.1 cantata, in Vol. I/23 (1982; editor: Helmuth Osthoff).

- In the same volume, the D major version, orchestrated, as part of the BWV 8.2 cantata.

- The E major version of the Dietel manuscript, containing only the vocal parts, in Vol. III/2.1 (1991; edited by Frieder Rempp).

- The same variant, as included in C. P. E. Bach's 18th-century edition of his father's chorales (Breitkopf edition), in Vol. III/2.2 (1996, also edited by Rempp).

Vol. I/23 of the NBE also contains both the E and D major versions of Bach's chorale fantasia on Vetter's "Liebster Gott, wann werd ich sterben" with which the BWV 8 cantata opens. The III/2.1 volume of the NBE includes the E-flat major chorale from the Dietel manuscript (in the publication indicated as BWV 8/6*), and the BWV 483 setting. In the 1998 edition of the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis, which was co-edited by Alfred Dürr, the BWV 8/6 setting was listed in the third Anhang, that is the Anhang of works spuriously attributed to Bach, with a reference to Platen's Bach-Jahrbuch article: in that version of the catalogue of Bach's works the composition is attributed to Vetter. In 2005, Richard D. P. Jones translated Dürr as writing, in his 1992 book on Bach's cantatas, that BWV 8/6 was "borrowed from Daniel Vetter, albeit with radical alterations." According to the same authors, Vetter's melody "had been commissioned for the burial of the Cantor Jakob Wilisius, and was no doubt especially well known in Leipzig."

### Setting in Reimann's collection (1747)

Johann Balthasar Reimann published his Sammlung alter und neuer Melodien Evangelischer Lieder (Collection of old and new melodies of Evangelical songs) in 1747. As No. 268 it contains a setting for Neumann's "Liebster Gott, wann werd ich sterben". Reimann was the first to publish this sacred song, but it is not his composition. Its tune, Zahn No. 6635, reappeared in an 18th-century manuscript and a 19th-century print.

## Sources

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- RISM 990003407 – facsimiles: szMJMq_zmygC at Google Books; 1077430 Liturg. 1372 o at Bavarian State Library; Musicalisches Gesang-Buch (Schemelli, Georg Christian) at IMSLP website.

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Yelena Godina

# Yelena Godina

## Abstract

Yelena Mikhailovna Godina (Russian: Елена Михайловна Година) (born 17 September 1977) is a Russian volleyball player, who was a member of the national team that won the gold medal at 2006 Volleyball World Championship in Japan and the silver medal at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney. She also competed at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta and the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, as well as the 2004 FIVB World Grand Prix.

## Honours

- 1998 World Championship – 3rd place

- 1999 World Cup – 2nd place

- 2000 Olympic Games – 2nd place

- 2002 World Championship – 3rd place

- 2006 World Championship – 1st place

- 2008 Olympic Games – 6th place

## Individual awards

- 1999 FIVB World Grand Prix "Best blocker"

- 2006 World Championship "Best server"


Haley Berg

# Haley Berg

## Abstract

Haley Lanier Berg (born September 23, 1998) is an American professional soccer player who plays as a midfielder for Dallas Trinity FC in the USL Super League.

## College career

### Texas Longhorns

Berg was a highly sought-after recruit in high school, ranked as the #2 prospect in Texas and the #11 overall midfield prospect nationally. She received multiple offers to play college soccer including offers from Notre Dame, Texas A&M, Duke, and Colorado. Ultimately, Berg chose to join the Texas Longhorns. From 2017 to 2021, she made 73 appearances and scored 24 goals for the team. In 2019, she led the Longhorns in goals (8) and assists (9).

## Professional career

### Zaragoza CFF

In 2021, she joined Spanish side Zaragoza CFF scoring one goal in thirty matches.

### Houston Dash

In June 2022, she returned back to the US, joining the Houston Dash for the 2022 NWSL season.

### FC Nordsjælland

In August 2022, she transferred to FC Nordsjælland (formerly Farum BK Women) to play in the Danish Women's League. She appeared in nine games for the Danish side.

### Valur

Berg joined league champions Valur in Reykjavík, Iceland in March 2023. She made her club debut on April 17, 2023 in the final of the Icelandic Women's Football Super Cup against Stjarnan where Valur ultimately lost on penalties. Berg scored her first goal with the club on May 21, 2023 in a 1-2 loss to Knattspyrnufélagið Þróttur in the Icelandic Women's Football Cup. In total, Berg scored two goals in twelve matches.

### Fenerbahçe

In September 2023, she transferred to Istanbul, Turkey and joined Fenerbahçe S.K. to play in the Turkish Women's Super League.

### Dallas Trinity FC

Berg joined Dallas Trinity in June 2024, ahead of the inaugural USL Super League season, becoming the team's 3rd signing overall.

## International career

### Youth teams

Berg played for the United States at several different levels in their youth squads. In 2013, she was selected to the U.S. girls' U-15 team, and took part at a training camp.

As part of the U.S. women's U-18 team, she played in three matches and scored one goal at the 2016 Women's International Cup held in Northern Ireland.

In early 2017, she joined a training camp of the U.S. women's U-19 team in Sunrise, Florida.

## Personal life

Haley Lanier Berg was born in Celina, Texas, United States on September 23, 1998. She has three siblings.

After graduating from Celina High School, she studied Applied Learning & Development: Youth & Community Studies at the University of Texas at Austin.

## Career statistics

## Honors

### The University of Texas

Individual

- Big 12 Freshman of the Week (Sept. 26 & Oct. 3, 2017)

- 2017 Big 12 All-Freshman Team

- 2017, 2019 All-Big 12 Conference Second Team

- 2017 United Soccer Coaches First-Team All-South Region

- 2017 Big 12 Conference Freshman of the Year

- 2017 Top Drawer Soccer Second-Team National Freshman Best XI

- 2018 United Soccer Coaches First-Team All-Midwest Region

- 2018 Big 12 Championship All-Tournament Team

- 2018 All-Big 12 Conference First Team

- 2018, 2019 Preseason All-Big 12 Conference Team

- 2019 MAC Hermann Trophy Preseason Watch List


Video game content rating system

# Video game content rating system

## Abstract

A video game content rating system is a system used for the classification of video games based on suitability for target audiences. Most of these systems are associated with and/or sponsored by a government, and are sometimes part of the local motion picture rating system. The utility of such ratings has been called into question by studies that publish findings such as 90% of teenagers claim that their parents "never" check the ratings before allowing them to rent or buy video games, and as such, calls have been made to "fix" the existing rating systems. Video game content rating systems can be used as the basis for laws that cover the sales of video games to minors, such as in Australia. Rating checking and approval is part of the game localization when they are being prepared for their distribution in other countries or locales. These rating systems have also been used to voluntarily restrict sales of certain video games by stores, such as the German retailer Galeria Kaufhof's removal of all video games rated 18+ by the USK following the Winnenden school shooting.

## Comparison table

A comparison of current video game rating systems, showing age on the horizontal axis. Note however that the specific criteria used in assigning a classification can vary widely from one country to another. Thus a color code or age range cannot be directly compared from one country to another.

Key:

- White – No restrictions: Suitable for all ages / Aimed at young audiences / Exempt / Not rated / No applicable rating.

- Yellow – Advisory: Parental guidance is suggested for designated age range.

- Purple – Strong advisory: Not recommended for a younger audience but not restricted.

- Red – Restricted: Parental accompaniment required for younger audiences.

- Black – Prohibitive: Exclusively for older audience / Purchase age-restricted / Banned.

In the above table, Italics indicate a multinational/transnational organization.

## Initial controversy

Similar to other forms of media, video games have been the subject of argument between leading professionals and restriction and prohibition. Often these bouts of criticism come from use of debated topics such as video game graphic violence, virtual sex, violent and gory scenes, partial or full nudity, drug use, portrayal of criminal behavior or other provocative and objectionable material.Video games have also been studied for links to addiction and aggression. A meta analysis of studies from both eastern and western countries yielded evidence that "strongly suggests that exposure to violent video games is a causal risk factor for increased aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, and aggressive affect and for decreased empathy and prosocial behavior."

There are also groups that have argued to the contrary, that few if any scientifically proven studies exist to back up these claims, and that the video game industry has become an easy target for the media to blame for many contemporary issues. Researchers have also proposed potential positive effects of video games on aspects of social and cognitive development and psychological well-being. It has been shown that action video game players have better hand-eye coordination and visuo-motor skills, such as their resistance to distraction, their sensitivity to information in the peripheral vision and their ability to count briefly presented objects, than non-players.

## Rating systems

### Argentina

The law 26.043 (passed in 2005) states that the National Council of Children, Youth and Family (' Consejo Nacional de la Niñez, Adolescencia y la Familia') in coordination with the National Institute of Cinema and Audiovisual Arts will be the government agencies that assigns age ratings. The Argentine Game Developer Association (Asociación de Desarrolladores de Videojuegos Argentina) was critical of the law. There are three ratings: "Suitable for all public", "Suitable for those over 13 years of age" and "Suitable for those over 18 years of age".

### Australia

- Advisory categories General (G) – General. The content is very mild in impact. The G classification is suitable for everyone. Parental Guidance (PG) – Parental guidance recommended. The content is mild in impact. It is not recommended for viewing or playing by persons under 8 without guidance from parents or guardians. Mature (M) – Recommended for mature audiences. The content is moderate in impact. Children under 15 may legally access this material because it is an advisory category. However, M classified films and computer games may include classifiable elements such as violence and nudity of moderate impact that are not recommended for children under 12 years.

- General (G) – General. The content is very mild in impact. The G classification is suitable for everyone.

- Parental Guidance (PG) – Parental guidance recommended. The content is mild in impact. It is not recommended for viewing or playing by persons under 8 without guidance from parents or guardians.

- Mature (M) – Recommended for mature audiences. The content is moderate in impact. Children under 15 may legally access this material because it is an advisory category. However, M classified films and computer games may include classifiable elements such as violence and nudity of moderate impact that are not recommended for children under 12 years.

- Restricted categories Mature Accompanied (MA 15+) – Not suitable for people under 15. Under 15s must be accompanied by a parent or adult guardian. The content is strong in impact. Restricted (R 18+) – Restricted to 18 years and over. The content is high in impact. Despite this category being legally restricted, in Queensland the restriction is not applicable to persons under 2.

- Mature Accompanied (MA 15+) – Not suitable for people under 15. Under 15s must be accompanied by a parent or adult guardian. The content is strong in impact.

- Restricted (R 18+) – Restricted to 18 years and over. The content is high in impact. Despite this category being legally restricted, in Queensland the restriction is not applicable to persons under 2.

The Australian Classification Board (ACB) is a statutory classification body formed by the Australian Government which classifies films, video games and publications for exhibition, sale or hire in Australia since its establishment in 1970. The Classification Board was originally incorporated in the Office of Film and Literature Classification (OFLC) which was dissolved in 2006. Originally a part of the Attorney-General's Department and overseen by the Minister for Justice, the ACB is now a branch of the Department of Communications and the Arts which provides administrative support to the Board and is overseen by the Minister for Communications & the Arts. Decisions made by the Board may be reviewed by the Australian Classification Review Board.

### Austria

There is uniform ratings system in Austria, and the nine states regulate content in different ways. The two main systems are PEGI (applied in Vienna) and Germany's USK system (applied in Salzburg).

0+: Suitable for all age groups

9+: Suitable for children 9 and over.

13+: Suitable for persons 13 and over.

17+: Only Suitable for mature audiences

18+: Parental Guidance recommended

These video games are classified as All Ages, Ages 9+, Ages 13, Ages 17 or Ages 18+.

### Brazil

The advisory rating (ClassInd) (Classificação Indicativa in Portuguese) rates films, games and television shows in Brazil. It is controlled by the Ministry of Justice (Ministério da Justiça).

### Chile

Games are classified by the Council of Cinematographic Classification (Consejo de Calificación Cinematográfica) which is a central agency under the Ministry of Education.

The current age ratings are:

- ER (Especilmente Recomendado) – Recommended for children.

- TE (Todo Edad) – All ages.

- 8+ – Not recommended for children under 8 years of age.

- 14+ – Not recommended for children under 14 years of age.

- 18+ – Not recommended for children under 18 years of age.

The manufacturers, importers, suppliers and merchants are only permitted to sell and rent video games that are classified as 8, 14 or 18, to those who prove they meet those ages respectively. In the case of each sale or lease by physical means, the respective identity card is required.

### China

China introduced a pilot content rating system in December 2020 called the Online Game Age-Appropriateness Warning, which is overseen by the governmental agency China Audio-video and Digital Publishing Association (CADPA). Games with online components are required to show one of the three classifications on websites and registration pages: green for "8+" (appropriate for players 8 years and older), blue for "12+", and yellow for "16+".

### Europe

The Pan European Game Information (PEGI) is a European video game content rating system established to help European parents make informed decisions on buying computer games with logos on games boxes. It was developed by the Interactive Software Federation of Europe (ISFE) and came into use in April 2003; it replaced many national age rating systems with a single European system. The PEGI system is now used in more than thirty-one countries and is based on a code of conduct, a set of rules to which every publisher using the PEGI system is contractually committed. PEGI self-regulation is composed by five age categories and seven content descriptors that advise the suitability and content of a game for a certain age range based on the games content. The ratings are:

- 3: Suitable for all age groups.

- 7: Suitable for children 7 and over.

- 12: Suitable for persons 12 and over.

- 16: Suitable for mature audiences.

- 18: Only for adults.

The ratings do not indicate the difficulty of the game or the skill required to play it.

### Germany

Unterhaltungssoftware Selbstkontrolle (USK) (Entertainment Software Self-control), is Germany 's software rating organization founded in 1994.

- USK 0 - Playable for all ages

- USK 6 - Ages 6 and over

- USK 12 - Ages 12 and over

- USK 16 - Ages 16 and over

- USK 18 - Ages 18 and over

### Hong Kong and Macau

There is no game grading system in Hong Kong and Macau, but a unified publication classification is adopted, which is divided into three categories: I, II and III. Class I publications can be purchased at all ages without any restrictions. Class II publications need to be marked with warnings and cannot be provided to people under the age of 18, which is equivalent to a restricted level. Class III publications are not allowed to be sold publicly, but there is no restriction on private or friend-to-friend communication. This classification system is equivalent to a hidden classification, The Obscene Articles Tribunal is responsible for the classification and evaluation.

警告:本物品内容可能令人反感；不可将本物品派发、传阅、出售、出租、交给或出借予年龄未满18岁的人士或将本物品向该等人士出示、播放或放映。 WARNING: THIS ARTICLE CONTAINS MATERIAL WHICH MAY OFFEND AND MAY NOT BE DISTRIBUTED, CIRCULATED, SOLD, HIRED, GIVEN, LENT, SHOWN, PLAYED OR PROJECTED TO A PERSON UNDER THE AGE OF 18 YEARS.

The Regulation on the Control of Obscene and Indecent Articles requires that Class II publications must use this statutory warning slogan, and must be marked in both Chinese and English, and the font size must account for 20% of the total area.

### Indonesia

The Indonesian Game Rating System (IGRS) is an official video game content rating system founded and set by the Indonesian Ministry of Communication and Informatics in 2016. IGRS rates games that are developed and published in Indonesia. There are 5 classifications of ratings based on the game content, which includes the use of alcohol, cigarettes, drugs, violence, blood, language, sexual content, etc.

These are the following classifications:

- SU (" Semua Umur ", All Ages in English) – Playable for all ages.

- 3+ – Age 3 and over. No restricted content is shown including adult content, use of drugs, gambling simulation, and online interactions.

- 7+ – Age 7 and over. No restricted content is shown including adult content, use of drugs, gambling simulation, and online interactions.

- 13+ – Age 13 and over. Restricted contents are partially shown, including light use of drugs and alcohol by figures/background characters, cartoon violence, mild language, gambling simulation, horror theme, and online interactions.

- 18+ – Age 18 and over. Restricted contents are mostly shown, if not all, including use of drugs and alcohol by main characters, realistic violence (blood, gore, mutilation, etc.), crude humor, gambling simulation, horror theme, and online interactions.

As of November 2019, various imported PlayStation titles released since then have been rated by the IGRS after SIE Asia opened their Indonesian office. Those titles are also marked as "Official Indonesia Products" (Indonesian: Produk Resmi Indonesia).

### International Age Rating Coalition

Some app stores that support the International Age Rating Coalition (IARC) use this rating in countries and regions where there is no rating system. The classification standard adopted by IARC is the same as that of PEGI. This rating is not recognized in some countries.

### Iran

The Entertainment Software Rating Association (Persian: اسرا) (ESRA) is a governmental video game content rating system that is used in Iran. Games that have been exempt from the rating are de facto banned from sale in Iran.

- +3 – Ages 3 and over

- +7 – Ages 7 and over

- +12 – Ages 12 and over

- +15 – Ages 15 and over

- +18 – Ages 18 and over

In practice, the rating applies largely to PC and mobile games, as none of the console games are officially released for the Iranian market.

### Japan

In Japan, the content rating is not required by law, but most commercial video game publishers take the industry self-regulations. Console manufacturers force for video game publishers that games must be rated by CERO. Distributors of PC games (mostly dating sims, visual novels, and eroge) require games having the approval of EOCS or Japan contents Review Center. These ratings are referred to by local governments, and the Ordinance Regarding the Healthy Development of Youths (青少年健全育成条例) prohibits retailers from supplying 18+ rating games to persons under 18. Dōjin softs do not have such restrictions, but distribution of obscene materials can be punished under the Article 175 of the Penal Code of Japan.

#### Computer Entertainment Rating Organization

The Computer Entertainment Rating Organization (特定非営利活動法人コンピュータエンターテインメントレーティング機構, Tokutei Hieiri Katsudō Hōjin Konpyūta Entāteinmento Rētingu Kikō) (CERO) is an organization that rates video games in Japan, with different levels of rating that inform the customer of the nature of the product and what age group it suits. It was established in June 2002 as a branch of the Computer Entertainment Supplier's Association, and became an officially recognized non-profit organization in December 2003. It currently consists of five age categories and nine content descriptors.

- A – All ages. Formerly "All."

- B – Ages 12 and over. Formerly "12."

- C – Ages 15 and over. Formerly "15."

- D – Ages 17 and over.

- Z – Ages 18 and over only. Formerly "18." This is the only rating that is legally enforced.

- CERO – Assigned to free demos and trial versions of games

- 審査予定 – Assigned to games which are currently awaiting classification

#### Ethics Organization of Computer Software

The Ethics Organization of Computer Software (一般社団法人コンピュータソフトウェア倫理機構, Ippan Shadan Hōjin Konpyūta Sofutowea Rinri Kikō) (EOCS, or Sofurin) is an incorporated association that rates PC games in Japan. It was established on November 20, 1992, and was incorporated in 2009. The association also works to crack down on copyright infringement of PC games for the companies it represents, and sponsors the Moe Game Award (萌えゲーアワード) to help PC game sales.

The current ratings are:

- General Software - All ages.

- General Software (recommended to ages 12 and over)

- General Software (recommended to ages 15 and over)

- Software that is banned from selling to persons under 18

#### Japan contents Review Center

The Japan contents Review Center (日本コンテンツ審査センター, Nihon Kontentsu Shinsa Sentā) is a cooperative that reviews adult videos and adult PC games in Japan. The organization was founded on December 1, 2010 as Ethics Organization of Video (映像倫理機構, Eizō Rinri Kikō) after the dissolution of the Content Soft Association (CSA).

### Mexico

On November 27, 2020, the Secretariat of the Interior (SEGOB) published a new set of guidelines on the Official Journal of the Federation called Lineamentos Generales del Sistema Mexicano de Equivalencias de Clasificación de Contenidos de Videojuegos (General Guidelines of the Mexican System of Classification Equivalencies for Video Game Content). This states that all games distributed in Mexico will have their own set of ratings effective May 27, 2021, replacing the ESRB ratings system that was being used, while still being in accordance with them.

The ratings are as follows:

- A (Todo Público): For all ages.

- B (+12 Años): Content for teens 12 and over.

- B15 (+15 Años): Content for ages 15 and over.

- C (Adultos +18 Años): Content not suitable for those under 18.

- D (Exclusivo Adultos): Extreme and adult content.

- P (Etiquetado Pendiente): Content pending for its classification.

### New Zealand

The Office of Film and Literature Classification (OFLC) is the government agency in New Zealand that is responsible for classification of all films, videos, publications, and some video games in New Zealand. It was created by the Films, Videos, and Publications Classification Act 1993 (FVPC Act), replacing various film classification acts, and is an independent Crown entity in terms of the Crown Entities Act 2004. The head of the OFLC is called the Chief Censor, maintaining a title that has described the government officer in charge of censorship in New Zealand since 1916.

The current ratings are:

- G: This can be shown and sold to anyone.

- PG: Films and games with a PG label can be sold, hired, or shown to anyone. The PG label means guidance from a parent or guardian is recommended for younger viewers.

- M: Films and games with an M label can be sold, hired, or shown to anyone. Films with an M label are more suitable for mature audiences 16 years and over.

- R13: Restricted to persons 13 years and over.

- R15: Restricted to persons 15 years and over.

- R16: Restricted to persons 16 years and over.

- R18: Restricted to persons 18 years and over.

- R: Restricted to a particular class of people.

### North America

The Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB) is a self-regulatory organization that assigns age and content ratings, enforces industry-adopted advertising guidelines, and ensures responsible online privacy principles for computer and video games and other entertainment software in countries of North America. PEGI ratings are used on some French-language games sold in Canada. Despite being self-regulatory, in Canada, games rated by the ESRB are required by law to be rated and/or restricted, though this only varies at a province and territory level. ESRB ratings can be found on games for Nintendo systems in the countries of Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, and the United Arab Emirates. This system was used in Mexico as well until it was replaced by a local rating system on May 27, 2021.

A similar system also exists for arcade video games, which is enforced by the American Amusement Machine Association (AAMA) and the Amusement and Music Operators Association (AMOA). It is called the Parental Advisory System, and uses three colors for ratings - green (Suitable for All Ages), yellow (Mild Content), and red (Strong Content). Stickers displaying the ratings are placed on the game marquees, and the rating can also be displayed during the attract mode if the game's developer or publisher chooses to do so.

### Russia

The Age classification of information products is a new statutory classification set of rules formed by the Russian Government after enacting in September 2012 a Federal Law of Russian Federation no. 436-FZ of 2010-12-23 “On Protecting of Children from Information Harmful to Their Health and Development” (Russian: Федеральный закон Российской Федерации от 29 декабря 2010 г. N 436-ФЗ «О защите детей от информации, причиняющей вред их здоровью и развитию»), which classifies films, video games and publications for exhibition, sale or hire in Russia since 1 September 2012. The Ministry of Culture provides administrative support to the classification.

In December 2022, the federal government has announced plans to establish a dedicated regulation procedure and age rating specifically for digital products, which include video games. There are concerns this may encompass excessive regulation and costs, as the new regulation will focus on interactive and online elements rather than just audiovisual content.

### Saudi Arabia

The General Commission for Audiovisual Media (Arabic: الهيئة العامة للإعلام المرئي والمسموع, romanized: Alhy'eh Al'amah lel-E'elam Almar'ey wal-Masmoo') (GCAM) is responsible for the age-ratings of films, television programs and interactive games.

### Singapore

The Info-communications Media Development Authority (IMDA) is a statutory board of the Singapore Government which regulates films, television programs and video games in Singapore.

### Slovakia

Jednotný systém označovania (English: Unified System of Age Rating/Labeling) (JSO) is a statutory board of Ministry of Culture of Slovakia under act 589/2007, which regulates age restriction of films, television programs and video games in Slovakia.

The current age ratings are:

- "Teddy bear's head" – Content targeted towards children younger than 12 years.

- U – General audience

- 7 – Not recommended for children younger than 7 years.

- 12 – Not recommended for children younger than 12 years.

- 15 – Not recommended for children younger than 15 years.

- 18 – Prohibited for minors under 18 years of age.

In addition, educational game ratings are:

- -7 – Targeted towards children younger than 7 years.

- 7+ – Appropriate for persons 7 years and over.

- 12+ – Appropriate for persons 12 years and over.

- 15+ – Appropriate for persons 15 years and over.

The labeling is mandatory for all physical releases (Games redeemable from gift cards including), but there is no legislative basis for labeling electronic releases (instead, PEGI rating is shown).

### South Africa

The South African Film and Publication Board (FPB) is a statutory classification body formed by the South African Government under the Films and Publications Act of 1996 which classifies films, publications, and video games for exhibition, sale or hire in South Africa. Distributors and exhibitors are legally compelled to comply with the age ratings.

The ratings, as of August 1, 2022 are;

- PG: Not recommended for young children without Parental Guidance.

- 7-9 PG: Not permitted for children under 7 years of age. Children 7 to 9 should be accompanied before purchasing the game.

- 10-12 PG: Not permitted for children under 10 years of age. Children 10 to 12 should be accompanied before purchasing the game.

- 13: Not permitted for children under 13 years of age.

- 16: Not permitted for children under 16 years of age.

- 18: Not permitted for children.

- X18: Can only be distrubuted in licensed premises to persons over 18 years of age.

- XX: Not to be distrubuted or exhibited to public.

### South Korea

The Game Rating and Administration Committee (게임물관리위원회 Geimmul Gwanri Wiwonhoe) (GRAC) is the South Korean video game content rating board. A governmental organization, the GRAC rates video and computer games to inform customers of the nature of game contents.

### Taiwan

Game Software Rating Regulations (遊戲軟體分級辦法), also translated as Game Software Rating Management Regulations, is the video game content rating system used in Taiwan.

### United Arab Emirates

The National Media Council (Arabic: المجلس الوطني للإعلام, romanized: al-Majlis al-Watani li'al-Ealam) (NMC) was a body of the federal U.A.E. government which regulated all aspects of media production, publication, and media trade in the United Arab Emirates. The body was established under Federal Law (1) of 2006, and had full authority over the media in the country, both commercial and government related.

In 2018, the NMC introduced local age rating systems for various media, including video games available in retail.

In June 2021, the Ministry of Culture & Youth launched the Media Regulatory Office (Arabic: مكتب تنظيم الإعلام, romanized: Maktab Tanzheem al-Ealam) (MRO) to execute a number of functions and tasks previously under the National Media Council, following a restructure of the federal U.A.E. government that was approved in July 2020. In June 2022, the 2018 NMC rating labels for video games began phasing out in favour of new labels reflecting the corporate image of the MRO. The ratings themselves are unchanged.

### United Kingdom

The British Board of Film Classification (BBFC), originally British Board of Film Censors, is a non-governmental organisation, funded by the film industry and responsible for the national classification of films within the United Kingdom. It has a statutory requirement to classify videos and DVDs. It no longer has responsibility for rating video games in the UK. This role has been passed to the Video Standards Council (formerly known as the VSC Rating Board).

In July 2012, the VSC Rating Board became the sole UK statutory video games regulator for the UK. The VSC Rating Board has been a PEGI Administrator since 2003 and subsequently uses the PEGI criteria to classify video games. The UK Interactive Entertainment Association, a UK industry trade group, works with the VSC to help properly label such games and provide informational material to parents. Games featuring strong pornographic content or ancillary mini-games to be included with a DVD feature will still be rated by the BBFC.

## Usage

The image below presents outdated usage of various video game content rating systems around the world. Countries filled with gradients are using several rating systems.


Wairarapa

# Wairarapa

## Abstract

The Wairarapa (/ ˌ w aɪ r ə ˈ r æ p ə /; Māori pronunciation:), a geographical region of New Zealand, lies in the south-eastern corner of the North Island, east of metropolitan Wellington and south-west of the Hawke's Bay Region. It is lightly populated, having several rural service towns, with Masterton being the largest. It is named after its largest lake, Lake Wairarapa.

The region is referred to as The Wairarapa, particularly when used after a preposition (e.g., locals will say they live "in the Wairarapa", and travel "to" and "from the Wairarapa").

## Boundaries

The Wairarapa is shaped like a rectangle, about 130 kilometres (81 mi) long (from Palliser Bay north to Woodville) and 65 kilometres (40 mi) wide (from the Tararua Range east to the coast). The Ngāti Kahungunu tribe's boundary for the region is similar. Their tribal area begins at Pōrangahau and ends at Turakirae. It is the southernmost of their three rohe (homelands) running down the eastern North Island from Wairoa. For the Rangitāne tribe, the Wairarapa is part of a wider homeland that includes Manawatū and Horowhenua.

The north–south divide was reinforced in 1989, when local authority boundaries changed. The new Tararua District Council covers northern Wairarapa and southern Hawke's Bay. The central and southern Wairarapa was divided into three district councils: Masterton, Carterton and the South Wairarapa. South Wairarapa District Council, based in Martinborough, is the local government authority for areas south of Carterton, encompassing the towns of Greytown, Featherston and Martinborough and the rural areas down to the Hutt. It is separated from Upper Hutt and Lower Hutt cities by the Rimutaka Ranges. Carterton District Council based in Carterton is the fastest growing area in New Zealand and the Masterton District Council covers areas up to the Tararua District. As such, the majority — but not all — of the Wairarapa lies within the Wellington Region.

In terms of national politics, after the proportional representation electoral system was introduced in 1996, the Wairarapa electorate expanded to include southern Hawke's Bay.

The area from Mount Bruce north, extending through Eketāhuna, Pahiatua, Woodville, Dannevirke, to just north of Norsewood is part of the Tararua District and is in the Manawatū-Whanganui region, because it is in the catchment of the headwaters of the Manawatū River. The river runs westward between the two mountain ranges (Tararua Range to the south and Ruahine Range to the north) via the Manawatū Gorge, to pass through Palmerston North and reach the west coast of the North Island.

The east coast contains settlements such as Tīnui, Castlepoint, and Riversdale Beach, while the main southern rivers drain through or past Lake Wairarapa to discharge into Palliser Bay east of Cook Strait.

## History

The name Wairarapa means "glistening waters" in te reo Māori. According to some oral histories, the Polynesian explorer Kupe named the wetlands after touching down in the area several times. According to other oral histories, explorer Haunui named the wetlands after the way the lake appeared to glisten from the Remutaka Ranges to the west.

During British colonial times the region was also known colloquially as The Wydrop.

Rangitāne and Ngāti Kahungunu were the resident Māori tribes (iwi) when European explorers arrived in the area in the 1770s.

European settlement began in the early 1840s, initially on large grazing runs leased from Māori, and with closer settlement from the 1850s.

On 23 January 1855 the strongest earthquake recorded in New Zealand hit the region; it reached magnitude 8.2 on the Richter Scale and caused five deaths among the then sparse population.

In World War II United States Marine Corps soldiers were stationed in the Wairarapa with two battalions in Masterton.

## Economy

The agricultural industries, including forestry, cropping, sheep, beef and dairy farming, are major land users. The area around Martinborough, in the south, is notable for its vineyards and wine, as are the outskirts of Masterton and Carterton. Beer has been brewed at Mangatainoka, near Pahiatua, since 1889. There are over 60 wineries in the region since the weather is very similar to Burgundy. Deer farming is growing in importance.

### Transport

The region is no longer well served by different transport modes, unless traveling to Wellington. A car is helpful. The State Highway 2, via Rimutaka Hill Road connects the region to Wellington in the south and the Manawatū in the north. The Wairarapa railway line connects the region via the Rimutaka Tunnel to Wellington. A commuter rail passenger service, the Wairarapa Connection from Masterton to Wellington is operated by Metlink Wellington for Metlink. Before 2016, it was operated by Tranz Metro.

Many residents, especially in the southern towns such as Featherston and Greytown, commute to work in Wellington, either by train or over the Rimutaka Ranges by car or motorcycle.

## Wildlife

Many of New Zealand's endangered native bird species can be seen at the Pukaha / Mount Bruce National Wildlife Centre, which is just south of Eketāhuna.

## International Dark Sky Reserve

In January 2023, an area of 3,665 square kilometres (1,415 sq mi), was certified as the Wairarapa Dark Sky Reserve by the International Dark-Sky Association. It was the second dark sky reserve to be certified in New Zealand (after the Aoraki Mackenzie International Dark Sky Reserve was recognised in 2012). The certification of the new dark sky reserve was the result of 5 years of volunteer work by the Wairarapa Dark Sky Reserve Association and local partner organisations. The area covered by the reserve includes the Aorangi Forest Park, and the South Wairarapa and Carterton Districts.

## Notable people

- Max Abbott, psychologist, Pro-Vice Chancellor of Auckland University of Technology, and former president of the World Federation for Mental Health, born Featherston

- Pip Brown – singer/songwriter Ladyhawke, born Masterton

- James Cameron, film director

- Bob Charles, champion golfer and winner of the 1963 British Open, at Carterton.

- Jemaine Clement, one half of the comedy band/TV series " Flight of the Conchords "

- Marcus Daniell Masterton-born professional tennis player

- Katie Gold, potter

- Murray Halberg, middle-distance runner and Olympic gold medalist, at Eketāhuna

- Keith Holyoake, former Prime Minister of New Zealand, at Pahiatua.

- Raybon Kan, Comedian, at Masterton

- Moana Leota, singer-songwriter

- Brian Lochore, All Black captain and World Cup-winning coach, at Masterton

- Alan Graham MacDiarmid, Nobel Prize -winning chemist, born in Masterton

- Cathy Penney, helicopter pilot and founder (with Laurie Bargh) of Heli-Flight Wairarapa

- Arthur Prior, Masterton-born logician and philosopher. Professor of Philosophy at the University of Manchester, fellow and tutor at Balliol College, Oxford, and founder of Temporal logic.

- Jesse Ryder, International cricketer, at Masterton

- Ross Taylor, International cricketer

- Vincent Ward, Film director, at Greytown (What dreams may come, The Navigator, Vigil, River Queen)

- Maurice Wilkins, Nobel Prize -winning scientist, whose work led to the discovery of the structure of DNA, at Pongaroa.


Arkansas Valley Interurban Railway

# Arkansas Valley Interurban Railway

## Abstract

The Arkansas Valley Interurban Railway (AVI) was an interurban railway that operated in Kansas, United States, from 1910 to 1938 for passengers and to 1942 for freight, running between Wichita, Newton, and Hutchinson. It operated a small fleet of electrically powered passenger and freight equipment. Service was suspended during World War II and never resumed, except on a small portion owned the Hutchinson and Northern Railroad which is still in operation. (2020)

## History

### Proposal

The AVI, as it emerged, was only a portion of a proposal in 1910 for a large network of interurban lines focusing on Wichita, running passenger and freight services mainly in competition with the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway and expecting to feed freight to the St. Louis–San Francisco Railway and the Midland Valley Railroad, also to Wichita's new transcontinental line the Kansas City, Mexico and Orient Railway when that was finished -it never was.

The main line was to have been from Wichita to Salina, which two cities lacked any direct passenger railroad service between them -although the line would have run closely parallel with the Santa Fe to Newton, then the Missouri Pacific Railroad to McPherson and finally the Union Pacific Railroad to Salina.

From this line, another one would have run from Van Arsdale Junction (south-west of Newton) to Hutchinson and Great Bend, again closely paralleling Santa Fe lines. From Hutchinson, a third line would have run direct to Hudson and would have given rail access to a portion of territory that lacked it.

To the south of Wichita, a line would have run to Oxford via Belle Plaine, with a short branch to Wellington from the latter place. At Oxford, it would have joined a circular service running Oxford - Winfield - Arkansas City - Geuda Springs - Oxford which would have subsumed a pre-existing little interurban between Winfield and Arkansas City called the Southwestern Interurban Railway of Kansas.

The project was a strictly local one, financed with capital raised by selling shares in the cities it hoped to serve. The chief promoters were W. O. Van Arsdale, a Wichita stockbroker who gave his name to the railway's main junction, and George Theis Jnr who was to acquire control and who had an amusement park named after him on the line outside Newton. The city of Wichita was strongly in support, and invested $30 000. Theis, a Wichita capitalist and enthusiast for interurbans, founded the Interurban Construction Company to build the system.

### Construction

Construction began in 1910 on the first 17.8-mile (28.6 km) long section from Wichita north to Sedgwick. On 19 November 1910 the line from Wichita to Valley Center was officially opened, and service was extended to Sedgwick on 18 December.

In 1911, construction began on the Sedgwick to Newton segment, which was opened on 9 October 1911. With the completion of the line to Newton, work began on the line to Halstead, which branched off of the Newton line at Van Arsdale Junction and headed straight west for five miles. This section opened late in 1911.

It was not until 1915 that construction began on extending the Halstead branch another 24 miles (39 km) to reach Hutchinson, but work commenced in April of that year and the first AVI car ran to Hutchinson on 22 December 1915.

### Bethel Line

The only other branch operated by the AVI was a short line north from Newton to Bethel College which opened in 1913 and was abandoned in 1925. This was essentially an urban streetcar line nicknamed the Bethel Line -the city lacked a system of its own.

Unfortunately the service always ran at a loss, even after a renovation of the track and the provision of new cars in 1921. In 1923, the company tried to abandon but the Public Utilities Commission of Kansas enforced a continuation order. The AVI appealed this, and the case was heard in the Supreme Court of the United States in 1927. Judgment was against the company on the grounds that the Bethel Line was an integral part of the franchise conditions granted by the city of Newton, but by then nobody cared much -and the service never resumed.

### Downtown access

The interurban passenger services initially used the streetcar systems of Wichita and Hutchinson to access downtown, although these were separately owned. However, a private right of way was constructed into Wichita in 1923. This was very fortunate, because the Wichita streetcars were abandoned in 1933 and the interurban would have had to shut to passengers in that year otherwise.

In 1932 the AVI was forced to build its own access to the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad station at Hutchinson, after the city streetcar company (confusingly called the Hutchinson Interurban Railway) went bankrupt and was scrapped.

### End of extension hopes

These downtown extensions were the only ones that the AVI built, and the rest of the original scheme was given up in the Twenties. In 1922 George Theis Jr., President of the AVI, bought out the Southwestern Interurban Railway of Kansas on his own account, and restructured it as the Arkansas City, Winfield and Northern Railway. This was with the intention of making it part of the AVI system, but the ACW&N was a hopeless enterprise. It had originally opened in 1909 and included in-city electric trolley systems for both Ark City and Winfield, as well as the 14 miles of actual interurban trackage between the two. By mid-1925 though, Arkansas City was dismantling its in-city system and by April 1926, the trackage between the two cities was no longer in use and was being taken up. The last vestige of the ACW&N to operate was the College Hill line of the Winfield city portion of the railway, making its last run in May 1926. This was just months before George Theis' tragic death on 13 August 1926.

### Struggle for business

The interurban was three years younger than the Ford Model T automobile, and so always suffered from increasing automobile use. It was also hit by the mechanisation of agriculture in the Twenties, as combine harvesters and tractors reduced the demand for farm workers and so the number of rural travellers. On the other hand, bus competition was patchy and the company actually ran feeder bus services (many other interurbans were crippled by competition from jitney buses). The company responded to declining passenger revenue by raising fares to 3.6 cents a mile -very high for any interurban- but this did not help.

On the other hand, freight revenue increased and became very important. The AVI had been projected with freight traffic in mind, exchanged with friendly steam railroads, but initially the emphasis was on LCL (less-than-carload or parcel) freight and on milk, cream and other perishable foodstuffs taken into the cities from farms. Only when roads improved was it feasible for farmers to use trucks to get to market for such items.

As time went on, carload freight came to dominate and this was mostly switched through to steam roads. Important commodities were cattle, grain and oil. A large sand and gravel pit was at Forest Park north of Wichita, and the Carey Salt Company opened a deep salt mine just east of Hutchinson in 1923 which was to be the AVI's most important customer.

The salt mine proprietors opened a very short switching line in 1923, running from the AVI west of their mine for about 3 miles (4.8 km) south-west to the Missouri Pacific Railroad at Hutchinson, and incorporated this as a common carrier called the Hutchinson and Northern Railroad. This road also owned the mine spur from the AVI line.

### Failure

The Great Depression affected the AVI as it did all interurban lines, and revenues declined owing to the serious economic downturn. As a result, the company entered receivership in 1933. It had well-laid track, so the receiver ordered deferred maintenance but the deterioration resulting damaged the passenger business further. Interurban cars were engineered with relatively soft springing in order to take up irregularities in track with light rails, but once the track decayed the ride could oscillate violently as a result.

An evocative description of an interurban ride in the last days: "A ride... was an experience never to be forgotten. Particularly on the wooden cars the bodies jerked back and forth, and threatened to fly off their trucks every time the cars started or stopped quickly. Windows rattled in their rotting sashes, and interior doors that could no longer close were banging against their warped frames. The gentle rolling motion of earlier years gave way to a violent rocking that made it impossible to keep parcels in their luggage racks, and the rocking in turn was intensified by twisting lurches as one set of wheels passed over a dip in the rails where the ties had rotted."

On July 31, 1938, all passenger service on the AVI was abandoned, but the company continued to haul freight using its electric locomotives and box motors.

In November 1939 the line was sold to the H.E. Salzberg Company, which its name to Arkansas Valley Railway. Dieselization came within a year, and the last electric operation was made on October 20, 1940, by a trio of interurban cars held in storage since abandonment of passenger service. Following this run the wires came down and all freight was hauled by diesel. This only lasted a year and a half; in July 1942 the War Production Board requisitioned the line for scrap and the track was mostly torn up.

However, the salt mine at Hutchinson still needed rail access so the Hutchinson and Northern Railroad bought the length of track to there from its property in the city, about 6 miles (9.7 km). This is still in operation (2020).

## Route

### Wichita metropolitan

The company offices were at Wichita, and its terminal station was on the north-west corner of West Douglas Avenue and North Waco Avenue. Actually occupying the corner is a seven-storey hotel built by the company, the Broadview Hotel. This historic building is still a hotel, the Drury Plaza, and is in good condition. Included in it, facing Waco near the former passenger terminal (the replacement building on the site of the latter is now occupied by the AVI Seabar & Chophouse), is a wide stone arch with AVI on its keystone and the epigraph Freight Station above.

Freight connections came in from the Midland Valley Railroad and the Kansas City, Mexico and Orient Railroad, both of which terminated at Wichita and so were grateful to the AVI for forwarding freight.

The line crossed the Arkansas River, then paralleled McLean Boulevard to cross back over just west of the mouth of the Little Arkansas River. From here it ran to the west end of W Murdock Street in Riverside, where the Botanica station building survives bearing the AVI logo. Then the railway followed Amidon Street to W 13th Street N and then N Perry Avenue, diagonally across North Riverside and across the Little Arkansas River at Woodland Park with a station at 21st Street which connected with a streetcar line. From here, it was due north to the Santa Fe railroad, where Interurban Avenue preserves its course paralleling the railroad. Stops were at 24th Street, 29th Street, Bingham, Walnut Grove (where the company had an amusement park and a siding), Sullivan's Dam, Heller's Grove, Forest Park (here, an industrial spur owned by the AVI ran west to serve a gravel pit), Urbandale, Interurban Place (siding), Van View and Fairfield.

Before the AVI built its reserve access to downtown, it used the Wichita streetcar system. The interurban met the end of the latter's 21st Street line near Woodland Park, and ran to a terminal at 1st and Water. The streetcar company strengthened its tracks over this portion to bear the weight of the AVI cars.

### Wichita to Van Arsdale

The railway then ran north-west, closely parallel to the Santa Fe, on its west side, to Sedgwick where it veered due north to Van Arsdale. Here the Newton branch had a triangular wye.

Stops were at Bide-a-wee, Goodrich (siding), Substation One, Valley Center (siding), Ferguson (siding), Lloyd, Congden (siding), Mahannah, Sedgwick (siding), Seaman, Hall (siding), Bowersox and Briggs (siding). At Valley Center, a triangular wye made a freight connection to the St Louis - San Francisco Railroad.

### Newton branch

The Newton branch from Van Arsdale had stops at Royer, Hupp, Theis Park (which was another amusement park run by the company and named after its president, and which had a siding), Nicholson, Sand Creek and Newton.

The terminal was on E 5th Street and Main, where the little Bethel Line streetcar connected for its mile-long (1.6 km) run to Bethel College.

### Van Arsdale to Hutchinson

From Van Arsdale, the main line ran due west to Halstead, where it met the Santa Fe railroad again and followed it on the south side as far as the salt mine, where it turned due west to run to its downtown terminus opposite the Rock Island railroad station. Stops were at Chapel, Emma Creek, Mission (siding), McNair, Halstead (siding and freight spur), McWilliams, White (siding), Drees, Packston (siding), Armstrong or Lynn (siding), Bell (siding), Dobbin, Burrton (siding, and a triangular wye as a freight connection to the St Louis - San Francisco Railroad facing south), Fast, Fairview (with Morrison Siding and freight spur), Lassen, Smyth (siding), Masterman, Brandy Lake or Cooper (siding), Kent, Strandberg (siding), Campbell, Hutton, Salt Mine (the line to this did not belong to the AVI) and Strawboard (siding).

The terminal station building at Hutchinson survives, and is recognised as of historic importance. The address is 111 East 2nd Avenue.

The AVI in Hutchinson forwarded freight to the Rock Island Railroad and the Santa Fe, but not to the Missouri Pacific Railroad which is why the salt mine company built the Hutchinson and Northern Railroad as a connection.

The station buildings at Halstead and Burrton also survive.

## Operations

### Passengers

Passenger operations in, for example, February 1926 were typically on an 90 minute interval, running between Wichita and Hutchinson with the Newton branch having a connecting shuttle meeting at Van Arsdale. The first car out of Wichita was at 6:00, and the last at 23:30 with thirteen runs. From Hutchinson, the first was 6:20, and the last 11:25 also with thirteen runs. A direct Newton to Wichita service left at 00:10, to arrive at 1:20 and with a Hutchinson connection arriving at 1:40. All these ran daily, unchanged on Sundays, but on Mondays to Saturdays a commuter run was made additionally from Wichita to Valley Center and back, leaving at 6:35.

The Newton shuttle did not always have connections to both cities at Van Arsdale. There was a total of nineteen runs on the branch each way, including the midnight through special mentioned above.

The company did not own trailer cars, and their motor cars were not adapted for multiple-unit operation.

The 52.5 miles (84.5 km) main line run usually took two hours. The 6 miles (9.7 km) Newton branch took 20 minutes. The company advertised baggage accommodations to be the same as available on steam railroads.

For rural stops, the conductor-guard on the car sold paper tickets, each of which was printed with a list of stops, dates and fares payable. It was the conductor's job to punch out the relevant start and finish of journey, date and fare collected. Strictly speaking this was a Conductor's Cash Fare Receipt for a single journey, because it couldn't be purchased in advance and return tickets were not available. Stops within the terminal cities were included in a single fare stage, which in Wichita started or ended at 21st Street where the interurban interchanged with the city's streetcar system.

The little Newton to Bethel streetcar line serving Bethel College was a separate operation, and not timetabled with the two main services although it connected with Van Arsdale to Newton cars at the city's terminal station.

### Freight

The company in the Twenties advertised a daily express LCL freight service, using its motorised box cars, as well as carload freight trains. However, the operation of the latter was hampered by an inadequate power supply and the voltage between sub-stations sometimes dropped from its expected 625V to as low as 300V. This meant that only short carload trains could be run, or only one car at a time.

### Equipment

The passenger cars of the AVI were numbered 1 to 12, and comprised a wide variety. All but one were wooden bodied. Most came from the St. Louis Car Company, but the McGuire-Cummings Manufacturing Company, the American Car and Foundry Company and the Cincinnati Car Company provided singletons. The American firm's number 12 was considered the best.

The St Louis firm also provided motorised box cars for LCL freight. An electric locomotive for hauling freight cars, number 602, was bought from General Electric in 1929 and sold on to the Chicago North Shore and Milwaukee Railroad in 1942.

Cars number 2, 8 and 9 were sold to Bethel College after the end of passenger service, taken off their trucks and used as overflow dormitory accommodation. How horrible this was still remembered half a century later, by those who had to sleep there. Car number 10 (latterly converted to a freight trailer) became a diner at Peabody, Kansas. Car number 12, the former pride and joy, became a farmer's chicken coop and feed store at Bentley, Kansas, until rescued for the Great Plains Transportation Museum in 1988.