Cornelius Rost

# Cornelius Rost

## Abstract

Cornelius Rost (27 March 1919, Kufstein, Austria – 18 October 1983, Munich, Germany) was an Austrian drafted into the German army as a soldier in World War II who allegedly escaped from a Soviet Gulag camp in Chukchi Peninsula, Siberia. His supposed experiences were the basis for a book, a television series, and a film. Later research strongly indicates that Cornelius Rost's escape story is not true.

## Life

Rost was born on 27 March 1919 in Kufstein, Tyrol, Austria. He was living in Munich when the Second World War broke out, and during the war, he was captured by the Soviet Army. By his own statement, made in 1942, he held the rank of private, although Clemens Forell, his alias in his novel, was depicted as a Wehrmacht officer.

According to the Munich registration office, Rost returned from war imprisonment in Russia on 28 October 1947. In 1953, he started working in the in-house printing division of the Franz Ehrenwirth publishing house in Munich. After ruining numerous book covers, Rost said that he had been made color blind by being imprisoned in Soviet lead mines. Seeking an explanation, Ehrenwirth learned of Rost's prisoner of war experiences. Sensing a good story, Ehrenwirth asked Rost to write down his recollections. Rost's script was of very poor quality, but Ehrenwirth was keen on the story and hired professional writer Josef Martin Bauer to get the material into shape.

## Book

Allegedly fearing a possible backlash by the post-war Allied authorities, Rost agreed to an oral interview only after being granted the use of the alias Clemens Forell. Bauer then processed the eight hours of taped material into his famous 1955 So weit die Füße tragen (As far as my feet will carry me).

In the 1960s, Rost used some of his recollections in his own paperback, Unternehmen Konterbande (Mission Contraband), but it was never printed or published. Bauer's novel, however, was translated into at least 15 languages and is still being re-published.

## Death

Rost died on 18 October 1983 and was interred at Munich's Central Cemetery.

## True identity

Almost 20 years after Rost's death, Ehrenwirth's son Martin revealed Rost's true identity to radio journalist Arthur Dittlmann, who researched the life of Bauer for a radio feature-documentary for the author's 100th birthday anniversary.

## Adaptations

In 1959, Rost's story was the subject of a six-part television adaption, starring the German character actor Heinz Weiss. When it was first aired, it quickly became Germany's first television blockbuster. In 2001, it was remade as the film As Far as My Feet Will Carry Me, starring Bernhard Bettermann as Forell. Added to the story was a duel between Forell and a Soviet officer who was chasing him, ending in a showdown on a bridge on the Soviet-Iranian border. Many scenes feature characters speaking Russian and other foreign languages, without any subtitles; the intention was to convey to German and other non-Russian viewers the feeling of helplessness experienced by the protagonist with his limited knowledge of Russian.

## Fraud Allegations

Currently Rost's escape story is widely dismissed. In addition to numerous factual errors (e.g., the supposed lead mine in the Chukchi Peninsula never existed), key points in his tale cannot be verified (e.g., his repatriation via Iran). After many years of research, in three broadcasts on Bayerischer Rundfunk on 2, 3 and 4 April 2010, the journalist Arthur Dittlmann concluded that Rost's descriptions cannot be true. As a result, within Germany today, Rost's tale is widely regarded as "eine Fälschung" (a fake).


Doug Weston

# Doug Weston

## Abstract

Alexander Douglas Weston (December 13, 1926 – February 14, 1999) was an American nightclub owner, known as the owner of The Troubadour nightclub in Los Angeles which in the 1960s and 1970s was particularly responsible for promoting many successful singer-songwriters in the early stages of their careers.

## Career

Weston founded the club as a coffee house on La Cienega Boulevard in 1957. It moved to its current location at 9081 Santa Monica Boulevard, West Hollywood in 1961 and has remained open continuously ever since. The Troubadour played an important role in the careers of Elton John, Linda Ronstadt, the Eagles, The Byrds, Joni Mitchell, James Taylor, Carole King, Bonnie Raitt, JD Souther, Jackson Browne, Van Morrison, Buffalo Springfield, Guns N' Roses, and other prominent and successful performers whose early performances at the club helped establish their future fame. Los Angeles Times music critic Robert Hilburn said that Weston was "arguably the godfather of the Southern California singer-songwriter movement in the late '60s and early '70s".

A charismatic impresario, 6'6" tall with long hair, Weston became known for the agreements he made with new artists, which stipulated that, after they became famous, they would return to the club to perform. According to Hilburn:

At first, the pop world bowed to Weston's contract provisions because of the room's proven power. But industry figures finally rebelled against the demands and his increasingly eccentric behaviour, the latter due to heavy use of alcohol and drugs.

## Later years

In later years, Weston was no longer involved in running the club, but retained ownership. He died from pneumonia in a Los Angeles hospital on February 14, 1999, aged 72. A memorial was held at the Troubadour with performances and dedications from musicians as a tribute to him for his role in the success in so many entertainers' careers.

## In popular culture

Weston and the Troubadour feature in the 2019 Elton John biopic Rocketman with Tate Donovan playing Weston. Weston and the Troubadour are also featured in the 2020 David Mitchell novel Utopia Avenue.


Renault RS01

# Renault RS01

## Abstract

The Renault RS01 was the first Formula One car to be powered by a turbocharged engine. It was also the first to use radial tyres, which were provided by Michelin. Designed by André de Cortanze and Jean-Pierre Jabouille, it first appeared at the 1977 British Grand Prix. The rules of F1 at the time permitted 3.0 litre naturally-aspirated engines, with a clause for a 1.5 litre supercharged or turbocharged engine. None of the teams had pursued this avenue, and stuck to Ford Cosworth DFV engines, whilst Ferrari, Matra and Alfa Romeo concentrated on developing Flat-12 engines for their cars, and their customer teams of Ligier and Brabham. Leading French car manufacturer Renault decided to develop a 1.5 litre turbocharged engine, and a car to accompany the powerplant.

## Development

Team Lotus had introduced ground effect with the Lotus 78, while Tyrrell were using the six wheeled Tyrrell P34. Renault continued to innovate with their car, drawing on the knowledge gained from their turbocharged 2.0L V6 engine used in Sports car racing which culminated in finishing 2nd at Le Mans in 1977 and winning in 1978, proving that Renault's turbocharged engines could not only be powerful, but reliable.

The RS01 appeared cumbersome and overweight and indeed it was. But it was nothing more than an experimental test car at this stage, and Jabouille, who was also the team's driver, worked hard to develop it. The engine block was made in cast iron to withstand the pressures of turbocharging, whilst the chassis itself was kept as uncomplicated as possible to aid development.

## Race history

The RS01 was chronically unreliable, earning the nickname 'the yellow teapot' from rival teams (as it tended to blow up fairly regularly, usually in a cloud of white smoke), but Jabouille and the team pressed on throughout the rest of 1977 and 1978 until scoring the car's first points, a fourth place at the 1978 United States Grand Prix at Watkins Glen. The car had been developed so much it barely resembled the chunky machine that it had been when it first appeared, and the team's performance picked up throughout the season. Reliability improved, as the huge turbo lag had been overcome with the use of twin turbochargers.

The RS01 started the 1979 season for the team, with Jabouille scoring the first pole position for a turbo car at the South African Grand Prix at Kyalami, a circuit located at high altitude where the thinner air saw the turbos operating at their maximum while the naturally aspirated cars such as the flat 12 Ferrari and Alfa Romeos, and the V8 Cosworth DFV, actually lost approximately 20% of their power compared to at sea level.

Within three years most of the other teams would begin adopting turbochargers for themselves, with Ferrari, Alfa, and other manufacturers such as BMW, Honda and Porsche all supplying turbocharged engines.

## Complete Formula One results

(key) (results in bold indicate pole position; results in italics indicate fastest lap)

- All points were scored using the Renault RS10

## Sources

- The Concise Encyclopedia of Formula One by David Tremayne


The Passion of Ayn Rand (film)

# The Passion of Ayn Rand (film)

## Abstract

The Passion of Ayn Rand is a 1999 American biographical drama television film directed by Christopher Menaul and written by Howard Korder and Mary Gallagher, based on the 1986 book of the same name by Barbara Branden.

The film stars Helen Mirren as philosopher and novelist Ayn Rand, who engages in an affair with Nathaniel Branden, played by Eric Stoltz, a psychologist who is 25 years younger than she is. Branden built up an institute to spread Rand's ideas, but the two eventually had a falling-out. The film also stars Julie Delpy as Branden's wife Barbara and Peter Fonda as Rand's husband Frank O'Connor.

The Passion of Ayn Rand premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on January 27, 1999, and aired on Showtime on May 30, 1999. It received moderately positive reviews from critics.

## Cast

- Helen Mirren as Ayn Rand

- Eric Stoltz as Nathaniel Branden

- Julie Delpy as Barbara Branden

- Peter Fonda as Frank O'Connor

- Tom McCamus as Richard

## Production

Filming took place in Toronto.

## Release

The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on January 27, 1999. It aired on Showtime on May 30, 1999.

## Reception

### Critical reception

Based on reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an overall approval rating from critics of 80%, with an average score of 6.8/10. Writing in Variety, David Kronke called the film "an ambitious, visually sumptuous attempt to depict a bizarre element of a controversial personality's life". Kronke went on to say, "Unfortunately, its insistence on maintaining a detached point of view towards its characters – or, rather, no point of view at all, as the filmmakers seem reticent to offend either Rand fans or detractors – renders it dramatically inert."


The Patriot (1986 film)

# The Patriot (1986 film)

## Abstract

The Patriot is a 1986 action film directed by Frank Harris and starring Gregg Henry, Simone Griffeth and Stack Pierce with Leslie Nielsen.

## Plot

A gang led by a man called Atkins (played by Stack Pierce) steal nuclear weapons from a storage facility in the desert. A burnt-out former Navy SEAL and Vietnam veteran who was dishonorably discharged is contacted by his former commanding officer to help retrieve the weapons.

## Cast

- Gregg Henry as Lieutenant Matt Ryder

- Simone Griffeth as Sean

- Michael J. Pollard as Howard

- Jeff Conaway as Commander Michael Mitchell

- Stack Pierce as Atkins

- Leslie Nielsen as Admiral Frazer

- Glenn Withrow as Pink

- Larry Mintz as Bite

- Diane Stevenett as Maggie

- Anthony Caldarella as Eight Ball

- Mike Gomez as Kenwood

- Larry Moss as Devon

- Smith Osbourne as Rosa

- Sally Brown as Girl in Bar

## Release

The Patriot was released in the United States on July 25, 1986, and in the Philippines on December 4, 1987.


Ivan Kostić (footballer, born 1995)

# Ivan Kostić (footballer, born 1995)

## Abstract

Ivan Kostić (Serbian Cyrillic: Иван Костић; born 24 October 1995) is a Serbian professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Super League Greece club Lamia.

## Career

### Timočanin

Born in Zaječar, Kostić passed throw through the Radnički Niš youth categories and later started his senior career with Timočanin in the 2013–14 season, making 7 appearances in the Serbian League East. He also continued playing with the club as a bonus player in the next season. In the winter break-off season, he was elected for the best sportsman of Knjaževac in 2014. Playing for Timočanin, Kostić made 40 appearances in the Serbian League East at total between 2013 and 2015.

### Radnički Pirot

After he had been nominated for the man of the match played between Timočanin and Radnički Pirot in the first half of the 2015–16 Serbian League East season, Kostić moved to Pirot at the beginning of 2016 and signed with Radnički. Kostić made his official debut for new club in the 17 fixture match of the season against Dunav Prahovo, when he was substituted in after Ivan Bulajić got a red card. In the next fixture match, against Sloga Despotovac, Kostić made his first league start for Radnički Pirot. In the last fixture match of the season, against Car Konstantin, Kostić replaced Bulajić in second half. Saving a goal until the end of a game, he won the Serbian League East with Radnički Pirot and made promotion to the Serbian First League. Kostić also played several Pirot district and Southern and Eastern Serbia cup matches against Jedinstvo Pirot, Lužnica, Rudar Podvis, Radnički Svilajnac and Radan Lebane. After Ivan Bulajić earned an injury at the beginning of 2016–17 Serbian First League, Kostić became starting goalkeeper from the 3rd fixture match against Mačva Šabac. After two lost matches and 4 goals conceded, Kostić saved his goal on the next 9 matches, spending 841 minute without a conceded goal.

### Metalac Gornji Milanovac

At the beginning of 2017, Kostić joined Metalac Gornji Milanovac.

### Mladost Lučani

On 22 September 2021, he signed with Mladost Lučani.

### Volos

Kostić joined Volos on 23 July 2023, He made his first league appearance on 24 November, against OFI Crete which ended in a 1–1 draw.

## Honours

- Serbian League East: 2015–16


Kiautschou Bay Leased Territory

# Kiautschou Bay Leased Territory

## Abstract

The Kiautschou Bay Leased Territory was a German leased territory in Imperial and Early Republican China from 1898 to 1914. Covering an area of 552 km (213 sq mi), it centered on Kiautschou Bay (Jiaozhou Bay) on the southern coast of the Shandong Peninsula. The administrative center was at Tsingtau (Qingdao). It was operated by the East Asia Squadron of the Imperial German Navy. The Russian Empire resented the German move as an infringement on Russian ambitions in the region.

## Background of German expansion in China

Germany was a relative latecomer to the imperialistic scramble for colonies across the globe. A German colony in China was envisioned as a two-fold enterprise: as a coaling station to support a global naval presence, and because it was felt that a German colonial empire would support the economy in the mother country. Densely populated China was viewed as a potential market to be exploited, with thinkers such as Max Weber demanding an active colonial policy from the government. In particular, the opening of China was made a high priority, because it was thought to be the most important non-European market in the world.

However, a global policy (Weltpolitik) without global military influence appeared impracticable, so, assessing that Britain's great strength came from its navy, the Germans began to build one, too. This fleet was supposed to serve German interests during peace through gunboat diplomacy, and in times of war, through commerce raiding, to protect German trade routes and disrupt hostile ones. Imitating Britain, a network of global naval bases was a key requirement for this intention.

Again, intending to directly copy Britain, the acquisition of a harbor in China was, from the start, intended to be a model colony: all installations, the administration, the surrounding infrastructure, and the utilization thereof were to show the Chinese, the German nation itself, and other colonial powers, an effective colonial policy.

## German acquisition of the territory

In 1860, a Prussian expeditionary fleet arrived in Asia and explored the region around Jiaozhou Bay. The following year, the Prussian-Chinese Treaty of Peking was signed. After journeys to China between 1868 and 1871, the geographer Baron Ferdinand von Richthofen recommended the Bay of Jiaozhou as a possible naval base. In 1896, Rear Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, at that time commander of the East Asian Cruiser Division, examined the area personally, as well as three additional sites in China, for the establishment of a naval base. Rear Admiral Otto von Diederichs replaced Tirpitz in East Asia and focused on Jiaozhou Bay, even though the Berlin admiralty had not formally decided on a base location.

On 1 November 1897, the Big Sword Society murdered two German Roman Catholic priests of the Steyler Mission in Juye County in southern Shandong. This event was known as the " Juye Incident ". Admiral von Diederichs, commander of the cruiser squadron, wired on 7 November 1897, to the admiralty: "May incidents be exploited in pursuit of further goals?" Upon receipt of the Diederichs cable, chancellor Chlodwig von Hohenlohe counseled caution, preferring a diplomatic resolution. However, Kaiser Wilhelm II intervened and the admiralty sent a message for Diederichs to "proceed immediately to Kiautschou with entire squadron..." to which the admiral replied, "will proceed... with greatest energy."

Diederichs, at that moment, only had his division's flagship SMS Kaiser and the light cruiser SMS Prinzess Wilhelm available at anchor in Shanghai. The corvette SMS Arcona was laid up for repairs and the light cruiser SMS Irene in a dockyard at Hong Kong for an engine refit. The shallow draft small cruiser SMS Cormoran, operating independent of the cruiser division, was patrolling the Yangtze. Diederichs weighed anchor, ordered Prinzess Wilhelm to follow next day, and Cormoran to catch up at sea. The three ships arrived off Qingdao after dawn on 13 November 1897, but made no aggressive moves. With his staff and the three captains of his ships aboard, Diederichs landed with his admirals tender at Qingdao's long Zhanqiao Pier to reconnoiter. He determined that his landing force would be vastly outnumbered by Chinese troops, but he had qualitative superiority.

At 06:00, Sunday, 14 November 1897, Cormoran steamed into the inner harbor to provide inshore fire support, if necessary. Kaiser and Prinzess Wilhelm cleared boats to carry an amphibious force of 717 officers, petty officers, and sailors armed with rifles. Diederichs, on horseback, and his column marched toward the Chinese main garrison and artillery battery. A special unit swiftly disabled the Chinese telegraph line and others occupied the outer forts and powder magazines. With speed and effectiveness, Diederichs’ actions had achieved their primary objective by 08.15.

Signalmen restored the telegraph line, and the first messages were received and deciphered. Diederichs was stunned to learn that his orders had been canceled, and that he was to suspend operations at Jiaozhou pending negotiations with the Chinese government. If he had already occupied the village of Qingdao, he was to consider his presence temporary. He responded, thinking the politicians in Berlin had lost their nerve to political or diplomatic complications: "Proclamation already published.... Revocation not possible." After considerable time and uncertainty, the admiralty finally cabled congratulations and the proclamation was to remain in effect; Wilhelm II promoted him to vice admiral.

Admiral von Diederichs consolidated his positions at Jiaozhou Bay. The admiralty dispatched the protected cruiser SMS Kaiserin Augusta from the Mediterranean to Qingdao to further strengthen the naval presence in East Asia. On 26 January 1898, the marines of III. Seebataillon arrived on the liner Darmstadt. Jiaozhou Bay was now secure.

Negotiations with the Chinese government began and on 6 March 1898, the German Empire retreated from outright cession of the area and accepted a leasehold of the bay for 99 years, or until 1997, as the British were soon to do with Hong Kong's New Territories and the French with Guangzhouwan. One month later, the Reichstag ratified the treaty on 8 April 1898. Kiautschou Bay was officially placed under German protection by imperial decree on 27 April and Kapitän zur See Carl Rosendahl was appointed governor. These events ended Admiral von Diederichs' responsibility (but not his interest) in Kiautschou. He wrote that he had "fulfilled purpose in the navy."

As a result of the lease treaty, the Chinese government gave up the exercise of its sovereign rights within the leased territory of approximately 83,000 inhabitants (to which the city of Kiautschou was excluded), as well as in a 50 km wide neutral zone ("neutrales Gebiet"). According to international law, the leased territory ("territoire à bail") remained legally part of China but for the duration of the lease, all sovereign powers were to be exercised by Germany.

Moreover, the treaty included rights for construction of railway lines and mining of local coal deposits. Many parts of Shandong outside of the German leased territory came under German economic influence. Although the lease treaty set limits to the German expansion, it became a starting point for the following cessions of Port Arthur and Dalian to Russia to support Russia's Chinese Eastern Railway interests in Manchuria, of the transfer of Weihaiwei and Liugong Island from Japan to Great Britain, and the cession of Guangzhouwan to support France in southern China and Indochina.

### Later history

On 15 August 1914, at the outbreak of World War I in Europe, Japan delivered an ultimatum to Germany demanding that it relinquish its control of the disputed territory of Kiautschou. Upon rejection of the ultimatum, Japan declared war on 23 August and the same day, its navy bombarded the German territory. On 7 November 1914, the bay was occupied by Japanese forces. Following resolution of the Shandong Problem, the occupied territory was returned to China on 10 December 1922, but the Japanese again occupied the area from 1937 to 1945, during the Second Sino-Japanese War.

## Language

The local language was the Qingdao dialect of Jiaoliao Mandarin. A German pidgin, known as Kiautschou German pidgin, developed as well.

## Organization and development of the territory

As the territory was not, strictly speaking, a colony but a lease, and because of its importance to the German navy, it was not placed under the supervision of the Imperial Colonial Office (Reichskolonialamt) but instead under that of the Imperial Naval Office (the Reichsmarineamt or RMA).

At the top of the territory stood the governor (all five office holders were senior navy officers), who was directly subordinated to the secretary of state of the RMA, Alfred von Tirpitz. The governor was head of both the military administration (run by the chief of staff and deputy governor), and the civil administration (managed by the Zivilkommissar). Further important functionaries of Kiautschou were the official for the construction of the harbor, and after 1900, the chief justice and the Commissioner for Chinese Affairs. The Gouvernementsrat and, after 1902, the Chinese Committee advised the governor. The departments of finance, construction, education, and medical services were directly subordinated to the governor, because these were crucial with regard to the idea of a model colony.

Germany invested upwards of $100 million in modernizing the territory of Kiautschou. The impoverished fishing village of Tsingtau was laid out with wide streets, solid housing areas, government buildings, electrification throughout, a sewer system, and a safe drinking water supply, a rarity in large parts of Asia at that time and later. The area had the highest density of schools and highest per capita student enrollment in all of China, with primary, secondary, and vocational schools funded by the Berlin treasury and Protestant and Roman Catholic missions.

With the expansion of economic activity and public works, German banks opened branch offices, the Deutsch-Asiatische Bank being the most prominent. The completion of the Tsingtau-Jinan railway in 1910 provided a connection to the Trans-Siberian Railway and thus allowed travel by train from Tsingtau to Berlin.

The territory fully implemented Georgist policy. Its sole source of government revenue was the land value tax of six percent which it levied in its territory. The German colonial empire had previously had economic problems with its African colonies caused by land speculation. One of the main reasons for using the land value tax in Jiaozhou Bay was to eliminate such speculation, which the policy achieved.

After the 1911 Revolution, many wealthy Chinese and politically connected ex-officials settled in the leased territory because of the safe and orderly environment it offered. Sun Yat-sen visited the Tsingtau area and stated in 1912, “... I am impressed. The city is a true model for China’s future.”

## Governors

All governors of the Kiautschou Bay Leased Territory were high-ranking officers of the Imperial German Navy.


# Aleksandar Živković (footballer, born 1977)

## Abstract

Aleksandar Živković (Serbian Cyrillic: Александар Живковић, pronounced; born 28 July 1977) is a Serbian former professional footballer who played as a midfielder.

## Club career

Živković made his senior debuts at his hometown club Radnički Niš, aged 16, which attracted the attention of Partizan. He spent just one year with the Crno-beli, before returning to Čair in 1995. Over the next three seasons, Živković played regularly for the side, making 75 league appearances and scoring six goals. He was subsequently transferred to Belgrade club Rad in 1998. After two seasons with the Građevinari, Živković moved abroad to Japan and joined Júbilo Iwata in mid-2000. He helped the team win the Emperor's Cup in 2003.

In the 2004 winter transfer window, Živković returned to his homeland and signed for Obilić. He also played with OFK Beograd and Voždovac, before going abroad for the second time and joining Shandong Luneng in early 2006. Over the next four seasons, Živković helped the team win two Chinese Super League and one Chinese FA Cup. He also played for Shenzhen Ruby and Guangzhou R&F, before retiring from the game at the age of 34.

## International career

In 2001, Živković made two appearances for FR Yugoslavia at the Kirin Cup. He also represented Serbia at the 2008 Summer Olympics as one of the three over-age players alongside Miljan Mrdaković and Vladimir Stojković.

## Statistics

## Honours

- Emperor's Cup: 2003

- Chinese Super League: 2006, 2008

- Chinese FA Cup: 2006


The Plague Dogs (film)

# The Plague Dogs (film)

## Abstract

The Plague Dogs is a 1982 animated adventure drama film, based on the 1977 novel of the same name by Richard Adams. It was written, directed and produced by Martin Rosen, who also directed Watership Down, the film adaptation of another novel by Adams, with animation direction by Tony Guy. The Plague Dogs was produced by Nepenthe Productions; it was released by Embassy Pictures in the United States and by United Artists in the United Kingdom. The film was originally released unrated in the United States, but for its DVD release, was later re-rated PG-13 by the MPAA for mature themes such as animal cruelty, violent imagery, and emotionally distressing scenes. The Plague Dogs is the first non-family-oriented MGM animated film, and the first adult animated feature by the studio.

The film's story is centered on two dogs named Rowf and Snitter, who escape from a research laboratory in Great Britain. In the process of telling the story, the film highlights the cruelty of performing vivisection and animal research for its own sake (though Rosen said that this was not an anti-vivisection film, but an adventure).

## Plot

Rowf, a labrador - mix, and Snitter, a smooth fox terrier, are two of many dogs used for experimental purposes at an animal research facility in the Lake District of north-western England. Snitter has had his brain surgically experimented upon-(leaving the top of his head scarred and covered with bandages) while Rowf has been drowned and resuscitated repeatedly. One evening, Snitter squeezes under the netting of his cage and into Rowf's, where they discover his cage is unlatched. They explore the facility in order to escape until they sneak into the incinerator, where they are nearly killed before finally escaping.

Initially relieved and eager to experience their new freedom, the dogs are soon faced not only with the realities of life in the wild but with another more terrifying realization—they are being hunted by their former captors. They come to befriend the Tod, a nameless Geordie -accented fox who goes by the local slang term for a wild fox. The Tod teaches them to hunt in the wild in exchange for a share of their kills. Snitter hopes for a new home as he once had a master, but after accidentally killing a man by stepping onto the trigger of his shotgun as he climbs up onto him, Snitter loses hope. As time passes the two dogs grow emaciated, having to steal more and more food while still avoiding capture. The Tod is also proven to be difficult for the dogs to understand and cooperate. When the Tod finds a nest of eggs, he eats them all himself, enraging Rowf. The Tod himself disapproves of their risky behaviour, like killing domestic sheep grazing on the local hills. They go their separate ways for a time, but the Tod eventually returns to assist them by distracting a lab-hired gunman who then falls to his death. The three reconcile and wander about aimlessly, with the 3rd Battalion Parachute Regiment and the media roped into the pursuit, driven by rumours of the two dogs carrying bubonic plague and killing humans and sheep.

The Tod parts company with the two dogs after leading them to a train pulled by River Irt on the Ravenglass and Eskdale Railway. While the dogs escape on the train, the Tod sacrifices his life distracting the humans in order to allow Snitter and Rowf to escape. Thanks to the Tod's distraction, Snitter and Rowf arrive at the coastal village of Ravenglass, but upon departing the train, the two dogs are spotted by an RAF Sea King helicopter and are pursued by it until they reach the shoreline and can run no further. As armed troops approach and prepare to shoot the dogs, Snitter looks out over the water and claims to see an island—he jumps into the sea and begins to swim to it. Rowf is hesitant to follow due to his conditioned fear of water, but his greater fear of the gunmen drives him to jump in as well and catch up with Snitter. Two gunshots are fired at the dogs but seemingly miss; immediately a white mist envelops the pair, and the humans and the helicopter disappear. The dogs swim through the mist towards the island Snitter claims to see but Rowf can't spot, until, at last, Snitter begins to doubt that "there is any island" and he stops paddling, losing hope. Rowf, however, claims to finally spot the island and urges Snitter to continue.

As the dogs elude the helicopters in the foggy sea, audio from a phone conversation reveals that the lab would need to cease all experiments and shut down. By causing such a local panic, Rowf and Snitter saved the other lab animals from their cruelty.

The dogs venture forth heading further into the mist, en route to what maybe is an island waiting for them on the other side. The fates of Rowf and Snitter are left on an ambiguous note, as the sea they are swimming through is engulfed by the thickening layer of mist. The following moment segues to the reveal of an island visible in the distance on the horizon. It is left uncertain if the body of land shown is real or if it is an illusion with symbolic meaning.

## Cast

- John Hurt as Snitter

- Christopher Benjamin as Rowf

- James Bolam as The Tod

- Nigel Hawthorne as Dr. Boycott

- Warren Mitchell as Harry Tyson / Wag

- Bernard Hepton as Stephen Powell

- Brian Stirner as Laboratory Assistant

- Penelope Lee as Lynn Driver

- Geoffrey Matthews as Farmer

- Barbara Leigh-Hunt as Farmer's Wife

- John Bennett as Don

- John Franklyn-Robbins as Dennis Williamson

- Bill Maynard as Editor

- Malcolm Terris as Robert Lindsay

- Judy Geeson as Pekingese

- Philip Locke as Civil Servant #1

- Brian Spink as Civil Servant #2

- Tony Church as Civil Servant #3

- Anthony Valentine as Civil Servant #4

- William Lucas as Civil Servant #5

- Dandy Nichols as Phyllis Dawson

- Rosemary Leach as Vera Dawson

- Patrick Stewart as Major John Awdry

- Percy Edwards as Animal Vocalization

## Production

The film was animated in both Britain and San Francisco, California between 1979 and 1982. British animators such as Arthur Humberstone, Alan Simpson, George Jackson, and Colin White came from the unit that had previously worked on Watership Down. The San Francisco crew included Brad Bird, Phil Robinson, and Retta Scott, a "Disney veteran who had animated the vicious hunting dogs in Bambi."

Goldcrest Films invested £900,000 in the film and earned £308,000, losing the company £595,000. Jake Eberts who helped finance this and Watership Down thought the filmmakers made two errors: the film was downbeat with an unhappy ending, unlike the book, and was made without a distributor (an arrangement was made with Embassy but then the filmmakers wanted to re-negotiate and Embassy pulled out while United Artists became the film's UK distributor).

### End theme

The theme song, "Time and Tide", was composed and sung by Alan Price.

The song, as well as dialogue from the film, was sampled by the Canadian industrial group Skinny Puppy for their anti-vivisection single, " Testure ", from their 1988 album VIVIsectVI.

## Reception

The film had a test screening in Seattle on 17 December 1983. Rosen had difficulty in finding distributors for the film, and it entered a limited release in the U.S. on 9 January 1985. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 63% based on reviews from eight critics, with an average rating of 7.3/10. Janet Maslin, in her 1985 New York Times review of the U.S. release, praised the visual style: "Martin Rosen treats his Plague Dogs almost as though it were live action. He varies the scenery and the camera angles imaginatively Mr. Rosen's direction is quite ingenious, much more so than Mr. Adams's story."

## Home media

Two versions exist: the original UK theatrical release (103 minutes) and the edited US version (86 minutes). Most edits were made to reduce running time but one was for its shocking content: After hired gunman Ackland falls to his death from a steep crag from which he attempts to shoot the dogs, a military helicopter flies over the snow-covered crags and valleys and the soldiers in the helicopter find the body ripped to shreds, implying that the starving dogs had eaten the corpse.

The full theatrical cut was first released on a UK rental-only, PG-certificate VHS by Thorn EMI in December 1983; only around 8,000 copies were issued. On 22 August 1988, it was commercially released on VHS in the UK by Warner Home Video. In 1986, the edit was released on US VHS by Charter Entertainment.

In 2002, Anchor Bay released a Region 2 DVD, but contained the US recut. Soon afterwards, Dutch budget label Indies Home Entertainment released a Region 2 disc which also contained the US cut but includes forced Dutch subtitles. In 2004, a DVD was released by Hollywood DVD in the UK with the US cut. Trinity Home Entertainment released their DVD in the United States the same year; Trinity tried to get the full cut, but when they were unable to obtain it, they ended up settling with using the truncated US version. Trinity's DVD was re-released by Phase 4 Films in 2010.

In 2005, Australian distributor Umbrella Entertainment released both cuts on Region 4 DVD (they also released the full theatrical cut of Watership Down), sourced from Rosen's private print. The same print was later released on Region 2 DVD in the UK by Optimum Releasing in 2008.

In 2017, Shout! Factory announced that they had acquired the rights to the film in the United States, and that they would release the film for the first time on Blu-ray on 24 February 2018 under their Shout Select line. In late 2017, Shout! Factory announced that they had delayed the film's Blu-ray release to work with director Rosen in hopes of releasing the original version instead of the edit. In September 2018, Shout! Factory announced that the original version would be released on Blu-ray on 15 January 2019. The 2019 release includes both a 2K restoration of the original cut and the edit, as well as an interview with director Rosen regarding production. Screenbound Films also released a Blu-ray in the UK on 10 August 2020, likewise containing both cuts.

It was also featured on The Criterion Channel as part of their arthouse animation lineup.


Eumenes

# Eumenes

## Abstract

Eumenes (/ j uː ˈ m ɛ n iː z /; Greek: Εὐμένης; fl. 361–315 BC) was a Greek general, satrap, and Successor of Alexander the Great. He participated in the Wars of Alexander the Great, serving as Alexander's personal secretary and later on as a battlefield commander. Eumenes depicted himself as a lifelong loyalist of Alexander's dynasty and championed the cause of the Macedonian Argead royal house.

In the Wars of the Diadochi after Alexander's death, Eumenes initially supported the regent Perdiccas in the First Diadochi War, and later the Argead royalty in the Second Diadochi War. Despite less experience as a commander, Eumenes defeated Craterus, one of Alexander's most accomplished generals, at the Battle of the Hellespont in 321 BC. After Perdiccas' murder in 320 BC Eumenes became a public enemy of the new Post-Alexander regime under Antipater and Antigonus. In 319 BC he was defeated by Antigonus at the Battle of Orkynia and confined to Nora.

Eumenes escaped and then allied with Polyperchon and Olympias, Alexander's mother, against Cassander and Antigonus. From 318 BC onward he led a hard-fought campaign against Antigonus, defeating him at the Battle of Paraitakene, then being indecisively defeated later at the Battle of Gabiene. Afterward, Eumenes was betrayed by his soldiers (the Silver Shields) and given over to Antigonus. Antigonus executed him in the winter of 316–315 BC.

The Greek biographer and essayist Plutarch chose Eumenes as the focus of one of his biographies in Parallel Lives, where he was paired with Quintus Sertorius, the rebel Roman general who led a revolt against Rome in the 70s BC.

## Early career

Eumenes was a native of Cardia in the Thracian Chersonese. His father, a prominent citizen of Cardia, was named Hieronymus. Hieronymus cultivated a friendship with Philip II of Macedon which eventually led Eumenes to be employed as a private royal secretary (grammateus) by Philip, probably in 342 BC. He may have sought refuge in Macedonia because of the tyrant Hecataeus of Cardia's enmity toward his family.

Eumenes also impressed Alexander's mother, Olympias, who later called him "the most faithful of my friends". Despite the position of secretary being looked down on by Macedonians, Eumenes held significant authority in the office, as he oversaw all written communications and maintained a close relationship with the king.

Eumenes served as hetairoi (companion and cavalry captain) and royal secretary under both Philip and Philip's successor, Alexander the Great. After Philip's death (336 BC) Eumenes remained loyal to Alexander and Olympias and accompanied Alexander into Asia, but for most of his reign served as royal secretary. Eumenes did not get along with Hephaestion, Alexander's closest companion, repeatedly arguing with him over "trivial matters". Plutarch also reports an anecdote of Eumenes hiding money from Alexander.

After Alexander's victory at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC, Eumenes began performing military and diplomatic missions, such as his pronouncement to Sangala in 326. He may have played a larger part in Alexander's eastern campaign, especially in India, than the surviving accounts say. Eumenes was promoted to leader of the companion cavalry (hipparch), formerly held by Perdiccas following Hephaestion's death in late 324 BC. Eumenes also participated in the Marriages at Susa in 324 BC with the other hetairoi. Eumenes wed Artonis, daughter of Persian satrap Artabazus II and sister of Pharnabazus III, Persian satrap of Phrygia. This was a high honour as Artonis' sister was Barsine, a mistress of Alexander.

Eumenes is recorded as an author of the Ephemerides, a chronicle of Alexander the Great's activities leading up to his illness and death.

### After the death of Alexander the Great

After Alexander's death in 323 BC, Eumenes was left without much standing, since his position depended closely on the king. Alexander had left no apparent heir. When Alexander's leading officers (somatophylakes and others) and a mass of infantry were debating whether one of the living Argeads should ascend or a regency should be installed for Alexander's unborn child (Alexander IV), Eumenes was present alongside the officers but did not speak. When the officers fled Babylon in the ensuing riot of the infantry, Eumenes remained in the city to make Meleager (the leader of the disgruntled infantry) come to an agreement with the officers.

Eumenes used his Cardian heritage to argue he had no personal motivation in the "Macedonian" struggle. The infantry were willing to listen to Eumenes because of his close association with Alexander. The officers eventually subdued Meleager and regained control over Babylon by announcing a joint kingship between Philip III Arrhidaeus and, when he was born, Alexander IV. Perdiccas became regent, effective ruler of the vast Asian section of Alexander's Empire, and Eumenes served as his advisor. Eumenes procured Alexander's "Last Plans" and gave them to Perdiccas, who read them out before the soldiers before rejecting them.

## Satrap of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia (323–319 BC)

Alexander's Empire was split in the Partition of Babylon (323 BC), where Cappadocia and Paphlagonia were assigned to Eumenes, but they were not yet subdued. The Achaemenid satrap and king Ariarathes still held Cappadocia, and the Paphlagonian tribes had renounced allegiance to the Macedonian government. Eumenes thus had to subdue these forces to actually attain his satrapy. Perdiccas used his authority as regent of the joint kings to order Leonnatus, satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, and Antigonus, satrap of Phrygia, Pamphylia and Lycia, to aid Eumenes in securing his satrapy. Eumenes left Babylon in the late summer of 323 BC.

Eumenes was probably given 5000 talents of gold from Perdiccas for the reconquest of Cappadocia. Leonnatus accompanied him, but Antigonus ignored Perdiccas' order. Eumenes arrived in Cappadocia and began to hire mercenaries. Leonnatus, however, was requested by Hecataeus of Cardia to march west to relieve Antipater who was besieged at Lamia as part of the Lamian War. Leonnatus agreed to go west, as he had received letters from Cleopatra of Macedon (daughter of Olympias, sister of Alexander the Great) asking him to marry her and become king of Macedon.

Leonnatus attempted to induce Eumenes to reconcile with Hecataeus and accompany him to Macedon to share in his far-reaching designs. Eumenes refused, fearing Antipater would murder him if he returned, and felt " to abandon his standing with Perdiccas for a mad and dangerous dash to Macedonia". He told Leonnatus he would give his answer later, then fled back to Perdiccas early in 322 BC, telling the regent of Leonnatus' plans. For this, Perdiccas elevated Eumenes to the ruling council of the Empire.

Eumenes joined Perdiccas, who installed him in Cappadocia by defeating and killing Ariarathes in the summer of 322. Eumenes reorganized his satrapy and appointed his supporters to prominent positions. The two generals traveled to Cilicia by autumn. Eumenes then returned to Cappadocia to aid Neoptolemus (satrap of Armenia) in his efforts to subdue the Satrapy of Armenia. Neoptolemus' soldiers, disgruntled with authority, refused to listen to Eumenes just as they had refused Neoptolemus. Eumenes subdued them by raising 6300 cavalry from Cappadocia, and made his satrapy peaceful and loyal by giving the Cappadocians monetary concessions. Eumenes probably successfully campaigned in Armenia throughout 322 and 321 BC.

### The arrival of Cleopatra and war

In the spring of 321 BC, Nicaea (daughter of Antipater) and Cleopatra of Macedon both came to Perdiccas and offered themselves as his bride. Eumenes may have played a role in Cleopatra's arrival; when she arrived, he championed her proposal over that of Nicaea. Eumenes' advice carried weight as the common soldiers respected him after his pacifying of Armenia.

Perdiccas married Nicaea, but when his control over Philip III was challenged by Eurydice, he sent Eumenes to Cleopatra to reopen negotiations for marriage. Antigonus fled to Macedonia, and informed Antipater of Perdiccas' intentions to divorce his daughter Nicaea and marry Cleopatra. Craterus and Antipater, having subdued most of Greece in the Lamian War, were infuriated by Antigonus' news. They suspended their plans for more campaigns in Greece and prepared to pass into Asia and depose Perdiccas.

#### Asia Minor and the Hellespont

Perdiccas and his government decided to attack Egypt, as Ptolemy had, through the help of a Perdiccan officer, obtained Alexander the Great's funeral carriage. Eumenes, in turn, was given supreme command (as autokrator) in Asia Minor to beat back Antipater and Craterus who were mustering armies in Greece.

Eumenes marched to the Hellespont, following orders to defend it, and spoke to Cleopatra again at Sardis, who this time refused to marry Perdiccas, uncertain of who would win in the war to come. Antigonus, who sailed over with a fleet and landed in western Asia Minor, succeeded in winning over many satraps and cities (Asander of Caria, Menander of Lydia, among others). Eumenes narrowly escaped capture in Sardis thanks to Cleopatra's warning. Eumenes then retreated inland as Cleitus the White defected with his fleet (allowing Craterus and Antipater to cross), and Perdiccas, hearing of these disasters, ordered Neoptolemus and Alcetas to obey him. Both of these Macedonian officers resented Eumenes, and refused to do so.

Eumenes received messages from Craterus and Antipater once they had reached Asia Minor, promising to retain him in his satrapy if he joined them. Craterus wanted to reconcile Eumenes with Antipater, while Eumenes wanted to reconcile Craterus with Perdiccas; negotiations failed however, as Eumenes stayed loyal to Perdiccas, and Craterus to Antipater. Eumenes then discovered Neoptolemus was planning to defect to Craterus and Antipater, and defeated him in battle in Phrygia, recruiting much of his army. Neoptolemus fled to Craterus and Antipater with 300 horsemen, and convinced them to march: soon after, Craterus took the majority of the Macedonian army to confront Eumenes.

Despite possessing far lower quality infantry than Craterus, Eumenes accepted the offer of battle, believing in his superior cavalry, beginning the Battle of the Hellespont. Eumenes concealed Craterus' name from his soldiers, knowing his popularity would sway their loyalty, instead claiming the Asian warlord "Pigres" had joined Neoptolemus and was marching against them. Eumenes also proclaimed he had received a dream that his army would be victorious. During the battle, Eumenes prevented any Macedonians from recognizing the popular Craterus through his troop placement and tactics, and as a result Craterus was killed, his flank overran by Eumenes' Cappadocian cavalry. Eumenes, leading the left flank, killed Neoptolemus in single combat, then induced the enemy infantry to surrender, winning a "stunning victory".

The victory brought Eumenes the enmity of some of his men due to his foreign heritage. He attempted to compel Craterus' infantry phalanx to desert to him, but failed and the infantry hastily marched south to link up with Antipater. News of Eumenes' victory, which might have restored Perdiccas' authority, reached Egypt only one day after Perdiccas was assassinated by his men in a mutiny (320 BC).

### After the death of Perdiccas and Triparadisus

After the murder of Perdiccas in Egypt, the Macedonian generals condemned Eumenes (and the other Perdiccans) to death at the Conference at Triparadisus, with Antipater assigning Antigonus as his chief executioner. Eumenes' province of Cappadocia was officially transferred to Nicanor, and Antigonus was given a large army to destroy the remaining Perdiccans in Asia. Eumenes was now in "far worse circumstances than he had been at Alexander's death" as he was an outlaw and being actively hunted, but he had an experienced, loyal army and prepared for the coming conflict with Antigonus.

Following Triparadisus, Antigonus placed a bounty on the Greek general's head of 100 talents of gold. News of this came immediately after Eumenes' financial rewards, so his officers and men were outraged and redoubled their efforts to protect their leader, assigning a large bodyguard of 1000 men to protect him at all times. He was also given the privilege of granting purple hats and cloaks to his soldiers, an honour usually only allowed for a Macedonian king. Eumenes further consolidated loyalty by arguing to his men that the joint kings had been taken by traitors to the Macedonian throne and that, in effect, he and his army were still loyalists to the Argead house.

Eumenes first travelled to Mount Ida where there was a royal stable, and took a large number of horses to replenish his Cappadocian cavalry. He took the time to file an account with the overseers of the stables despite his outlaw status. Upon hearing this, Antipater was greatly amused, however, it is clear that Eumenes made this move to show that he was acting under the law and in the service of the Argead House.

Eumenes marched to the Hellespont, where he quartered his army and plundered the locals who refused to pay his soldiers. He "continued to demonstrate his prowess as a military commander," attacking Hellespontine Phrygia and Phrygia itself while Antigonus and Antipater were present (on their return trip to Macedonia). Since he would be facing a force superior in infantry, Eumenes decided to position himself in the plains of Sardis of Lydia where his advantage in cavalry would be decisive. To further guarantee the loyalty of subordinates, Eumenes also sold off the estates of Phrygia to them and provided military support to claim the purchased land from the, obviously, unwilling and disgruntled Phrygian property owners. This revenue was used to pay his soldiers.

He had also hoped to win the support of Cleopatra of Macedon, who was present in Sardis at the time. Cleopatra and Eumenes had been friends since childhood, however, Cleopatra was not willing to back what seemed to be a losing cause and implored Eumenes to leave the area lest she incur the wrath of Antipater. Eumenes obliged her and moved north into Phrygia to winter. Eumenes' plundering campaigns during this time were very successful, so much so that Antipater's soldiers began to become disgruntled. Eumenes spent the winter of 320/319 BC in Celaenae.

In the winter, Eumenes sent messages to the other Perdiccan leaders, including Alcetas and Attalus (Perdiccas' brother-in-law), imploring them to unite their forces against Antigonus. A conference was held with the Perdiccan leaders in Celaenae: Eumenes argued that Antipater and Antigonus were unpopular, and that a united offensive would not only prove successful but also attract many deserters. Negotiations broke down, however, as neither Eumenes nor Alcetas would serve the other, and other commanders contested the chief position. Eumenes also dealt with a defection of 3500 of his men this winter; he executed the leaders and pardoned the soldiers.

When Eumenes' Macedonian generals approached him about one of them taking overall command, Eumenes is said to have retorted that "formalities and technicalities would not protect them from death and destruction".

#### Battle of Orkynia

In 319 BC, Antigonus marched his army into Cappodocia and engaged Eumenes at the Battle of Orkynia; Eumenes accepted the battle as the ground was advantageous for cavalry. Eumenes was easily defeated due to the mid-battle desertion of a mercenary cavalry officer named Apollonides, who Antigonus had bribed. Antigonus may have also used a ruse (pretending he received reinforcements) to discourage Eumenes' men before the battle. Although defeated, Eumenes swiftly acted to chase down and execute Apollonides, which restored the faith of his men.

Eumenes was put to flight, however, having lost some 8000 men, and moved toward Armenia. Antigonus pursued Eumenes and forced him to move carefully. Following the battle, Antigonus had neglected to address the dead and had immediately set off in pursuit for Eumenes. Determined to follow tradition, Plutarch reports that Eumenes made the unexpected move of returning to the battlefield so that he could construct a proper funeral pyre for the dead. This action greatly impressed Antigonus.

#### Remainder of the campaign

The remainder of the campaign turned into a battle of manoeuvre, with Eumenes avoiding further battle with Antigonus. At one point, Eumenes was in a position to capture the baggage of Antigonus' forces. Eumenes knew that he would not be able to prevent his soldiers from plundering this loot if they found out about it and also that doing so would decrease the essential mobility of his forces. Eumenes dispatched a private message to his old friend, the general Menander, advising him to move the baggage uphill so that its capture would be impossible. Menander immediately followed this advice. Eumenes feigned disappointment to his men and moved on. Menander and the other Antigonid officers were shocked by Eumenes' warning; only Antigonus knew of his actual motives.

Eumenes was pursued by Antigonus for several weeks until the following winter. He used guerrila warfare to hold off Antigonus, but his men were deserting him. In the late spring of 319 BC, Eumenes disbanded his army, save for a small, crack force of 600 men and holed up in Nora, a strong and well-supplied fortress on the border between Cappadocia and Lycaonia. Antigonus arrived shortly after and decided to enter into negotiation with Eumenes instead of undergoing a lengthy siege.

Eumenes required Antigonus to send hostages to Nora before he was willing to come out and negotiate. Antigonus wanted to acquire Eumenes as his own officer and so first demanded that Eumenes address him as a superior officer. Eumenes refused, replying:

While I am able to wield a sword, I shall think no man greater than myself.

Despite their appointed role as enemies, Antigonus and Eumenes were actually old friends, and when they met they renewed their friendship, speaking amiably to one another. Eumenes' demands for surrender were that he retain Cappadocia as his satrapy and his status as outlaw be rescinded. Antigonus completed his siege constructions around Nora (blockading Eumenes in) and said he would ask the regent Antipater to confirm Eumenes' demands. Eumenes, overall unsatisfied after the long conference, was willing to hold out longer for a more favourable position in the imperial hierarchy. Antigonus departed with his army to confront the remaining Perdiccans, who were led by Alcetas and Attalus in Pisidia, whom he defeated.

Eumenes kept the morale of his besieged men high by mingling with them regularly, aided, apparently, by his friendly appearance. In the cramped city, he was forced to come up with novel solutions so that his men and horses remained in fighting shape including; emptying large rooms where men exercised on a set schedule, and creating a suspension device, likened to an ancient treadmill, on which horses could run.

Eumenes sent envoys under his friend and countryman Hieronymus of Cardia to Antipater to negotiate his surrender, probably in the late summer of 319 BC. Nothing came of this, however. Eumenes effectively held out for more than a year until the death of Antipater threw his opponents into disarray.

## The Second War of the Diadochi (319–315 BC)

Antipater had become regent since Triparadisus, when he acquired the joint kings from the dead Perdiccas. He had taken them to Macedonia, but after his death left the regency to his friend Polyperchon instead of his son Cassander. Cassander, therefore, allied himself with Antigonus, Lysimachus and Ptolemy as he prepared to confront Polyperchon. Following Antipater's death, Antigonus sent generous terms to Eumenes in Nora through Hieronymus of Cardia that were nearly the same as Eumenes' initial demands. Eumenes probably agreed to the terms in 318 BC, swore loyalty to Antigonus, and left Nora. Another, less probable account says that Eumenes escaped Nora by rewriting his oath of loyalty to the joint kings instead of Antigonus.

With Macedonia in disarray, Antigonus prepared to conquer outward, revolt against the joint kings, and expand his power. Polyperchon, in order to shore up his allies in the coming conflict with Cassander, had written to Olympias requesting help; Olympias, in turn, wrote to Eumenes for advice (who she had been in contact with). Eumenes told her to wait and see what would happen. Soon after, in the late summer of 318 BC, Polyperchon wrote to Eumenes himself, requesting an alliance in the name of the joint kings.

Polyperchon said Eumenes could march to Macedonia and become guardian of the kings, or stay in Asia with supreme command over the region and remain "a protector of royalty" abroad. Furthermore he promised Eumenes command over the Asian treasuries (Susa and Cyinda, which would allow Eumenes to hire many mercenaries) and the allegiance of the formidable Silver Shields, highly skilled veterans who had fought with Alexander for years, if he accepted.

Eumenes decided to accept Polyperchon's offer, either out of a wish to protect the Argead royalty and Olympias, or because of his own ambition and disinclination to be subordinate to another. Eumenes' acceptance meant the war in Asia with Antigonus would start once again.

### Campaign in Cilicia and Syria

Eumenes acted quickly to muster his army and marched into Cilicia, evading an army Antigonus sent to capture him. In Cilicia he allied with Antigenes and Teutamus, the commanders of the famous Silver Shields, the same men who had once condemned him to death after Perdiccas' murder. Eumenes was able to secure control over the unruly commanders of the Silver Shields by playing on their undying loyalty to, and superstitious awe of, Alexander. He claimed that Alexander had visited him in a dream and told him that he would be present with them at every battle. Eumenes even went so far as to set up a tent for the late conqueror complete with a throne, diadem, and scepter. This "ingenious stratagem" consolidated Eumenes' control and placated his Macedonian officers, who felt that they were listening less to a Cardian foreigner and more to the late Alexander. As a result, Eumenes' orders were followed. Furthermore, Eumenes argued that as a Greek, a Cardian, "his only concern was the defence of the royal family".

Eumenes used the royal treasury at Cyinda to recruit an army of mercenaries to add to his own troops, a process that took several months but built up a sizeable army. Propaganda attempts by Ptolemy to subvert supporters of Eumenes in Asia, military and political, failed uniformly. Antigonus attempted this as well and successfully convinced Teutamus (one of two commanders of the Silver Shields) but Antigenes, the other, stayed loyal to Eumenes, ironically because of his foreign heritage. Eumenes emerged from Antigonus' propaganda campaign with a generally greater authority among his Macedonian troops.

In the winter of 318/317 BC, Eumenes left Cilicia and marched into Syria and Phoenicia, and began to raise a naval force on behalf of Polyperchon to sail to the Aegean Sea. Ptolemy, who had recently conquered the area, did not stop him. When it was ready in early the August of 317 BC, Eumenes sent the fleet west to reinforce Polyperchon, but it was met by Antigonus's fleet off the coast of Cilicia, and the fleet changed sides. Meanwhile, Antigonus had settled his affairs in Asia Minor and marched east to take out Eumenes before he could do further damage.

Eumenes, now knowing Antigonus was coming and that he could not help Polyperchon in Macedonia, marched out of Phoenicia in late August/early September, eastward through Syria into Mesopotamia, with the idea of gathering support in the upper satrapies, where there was currently conflict.

### Campaign in the Upper Satrapies

Eumenes gained the support of Amphimachus, the satrap of Mesopotamia, then marched his army into Northern Babylonia. During the march he negotiated with Seleucus, the satrap of Babylonia, and Peithon, the satrap of Media, seeking their help against Antigonus. Seleucus replied that he would not obey someone condemned to death, and Peithon was similarly unwilling. Eumenes wintered north of Babylon in 317/316 BC, during which time he sent the letters he had gotten from Polyperchon to satraps of the upper satrapies. These letters ordered the satraps, in the kings' names, to join him with all their forces. The upper satraps had already united their armies under the leadership of Peucestas, satrap of Persis, to combat the expansionism of Peithon and were willing to join Eumenes.

Eumenes left his winter quarters early in the spring of 316 BC and marched on Susa, a major royal treasury, in Susiana. Seleucus and Peithon attempted to subvert the Silver Shields while Eumenes was in Babylonia, and when they failed flooded his camp. Eumenes drained the land and escaped, and Seleucus, unable to oppose him, signed a truce for his passage.

In Susiana, Eumenes joined the already assembled army of the upper satraps. With this combined army Eumenes' could confidently match Antigonus. Peucestas, however, argued that he deserved the high command due to his high standing and large army. Eumenes' problem of divided command was exacerbated by Peucestas and his companions, but they were again placated by Eumenes' Tent of Alexander, where communal meetings would be held to direct the war against Antigonus. In late May, Eumenes reached Susa and extensively paid and rested his troops, while also paying Eudamus for the support of his war elephant corps. When Antigonus arrived in Susiana, Eumenes ordered the treasurer Xenophilus of Susa not to give anything to Antigonus.

Eumenes then marched southeastwards into Persia, where he picked up additional reinforcements. He crossed the Pasitigris, where he planned to ambush Antigonus, knowing he would be crossing blind.

#### Battle of the river Coprates

Antigonus, meanwhile, had reached Susa and left Seleucus there to besiege the place while he himself pursued Eumenes towards the Pasitigris. Eumenes required more troops to block the entire river, and so asked Peucestas to recruit more; Peucestas initially refused to do so, resenting Eumenes, but eventually agreed. In the late July of 316 BC, Antigonus arrived at the river Coprates (a tributary of the Pasitigris) and prepared to cross. He sent an advance force ahead in boats to ensure a beachhead on the opposite side of the river. Eumenes, who had camped nearby and placed scouts across the breadth of the river to alert him, soon heard that Antigonus had sent over men and quickly rode over with an army.

Eumenes waited until the army was mid-crossing, and then surprised Antigonus' soldiers, easily routing them, capturing 4000 men while killing some 6000 others. Antigonus, whose soldiers were already struggling with the harsh temperatures, was faced with disaster. Effectively unable to cross with Eumenes' presence and victory, Antigonus abandoned the idea and turned back northward, moving up into Media and Badace, then to Ecbatana through a damaging forced march to rest his men.

This move, "a sign of just how desperate Antigonus was after this first defeat", left open a route west, to Asia Minor, for Eumenes. Eumenes and his staff wanted to march westward, cut Antigonus's supply lines and secure Asia Minor. If Eumenes had been able to move, Antigonus and his ally Cassander's position would have been greatly damaged, but the satraps, including Peucestas, refused to abandon their satrapies. Knowing that if he split his army off from the satraps it would be no match for Antigonus' superior force, Eumenes relented to the their demands and remained in the east.

#### Stay in Persis

Following the Coprates, Eumenes marched southeast towards Persepolis over 24 days. As they were in Peucestas' home territory, the satrap hosted an enormous banquet and feast for all of Eumenes' army, successfully increasing his own popularity and further contesting Eumenes position as supreme commander. Eumenes, unwilling to confront the challenge to his authority openly, forged a letter reporting news from the west and had it widely circulated in his camp. Supposedly from the satrap of Armenia Orontes, the letter said that Olympias and Alexander IV had conquered Macedon, killed Cassander, and that Polyperchon was en route to Asia with a great army.

The forged letter was believed because Eumenes had composed it in Aramaic, the common language of the Persian Empire, and Orontes was a friend of Peucestas. This "clever trick" greatly bolstered Eumenes' position as royal general and reasserted his supreme command. Eumenes then acted against Peucestas' allies, summoning the satrap of Arachosia Sibyrtius to a show trial after seizing his baggage train, making him flee. To further assure the loyalty of his subordinates, Eumenes took large loans (400 talents total) from them "in the name of the kings, thus binding them to him as anxious creditors ".

Eumenes departed Persis and set out toward Antigonus when he heard Antigonus had left Ecbatana and was marching through Media. Eumenes wanted to battle Antigonus while his army had high morale, but while entertaining his troops became sick. Eumenes halted the march as his soldiers lost morale, as they regarded Eumenes as their greatest commander. He slightly recovered, but was compelled to give over supreme command to Peucestas and Antigenes to lead the army north while Eumenes himself convalesced, being carried in a litter. Antigonus hastened to battle Eumenes' army while Eumenes was ill. Eumenes recovered, however, and when the armies were within a day or so of each other resumed overall command to meet Antigonus.

#### Battle of Paraitakene

In the late October or early November of 316 BC, the two armies met in southern Media, beginning the Battle of Paraitakene. For five days Eumenes and Antigonus skirmished but did not engage in battle. Antigonus, on the fifth day, again attempted to subvert the Silver Shields, who again refused; Eumenes praised them for their loyalty. Eumenes then learned from deserters that Antigonus was planning to break camp and move away, and guessed Antigonus wanted to relocate to the region of Gabiene. In response to this, Eumenes bribed mercenaries to pretend to defect to Antigonus and report that he planned to attack Antigonus' camp at night. Antigonus believed the mercenaries and delayed his march, preparing for battle, while Eumenes split his army and set out immediately, gaining a six to seven hour head start on Antigonus to Gabiene.

Antigonus learned he had been deceived and force marched to pursue Eumenes. He caught up to Eumenes by riding hastily with his cavalry, and forced Eumenes to array for battle by concealing the fact that the rest of his army had not caught up yet. After Antigonus had assembled his army, he engaged Eumenes.

Eumenes positioned his elite troops on his right flank, including the Silver Shields, and led the elite cavalry himself. He placed his war elephants and light infantry in a screen ahead of his heavy infantry. The formation was defensive as Eumenes did not want to attack Antigonus uphill. Peithon, sent by Antigonus against Eumenes' right cavalry, succeeded initially in confining them. In response Eumenes transferred troops to enlarge the flank and beat back Peithon, who fled; meanwhile Eumenes' Silver Shields were sharply victorious, routing the enemy phalanx. Antigonus, though now facing "annihilation", ignored advice to retreat and, observing a gap in the line between Eumenes' phalanx and his left flank cavalry, charged and routed them; Eumenes called back his victorious right flank in response.

Though both generals reformed their armies and prepared to continue the battle, it was approaching night and the armies were too tired and hungry to proceed. Eumenes wanted to stay at the battlefield and bury the dead, thus allowing him to claim victory, but his troops wanted to return to their baggage train; fearing that a refusal would give his rivals for supreme command more power, Eumenes marched away. "Antigonus, however, had no such fears", and he was able to regain the battlefield and bury the dead, while proclaiming victory.

Antigonus, whose casualties were more numerous, detained Eumenes' herald to finish burning his dead and obscure their amount. He then force marched his demoralized army to safety the next night. Eumenes returned to the battlefield and buried his own dead lavishly. He then settled into Gabiene while Antigonus, indecisively defeated, reached and rested in Media.

#### Interim to Gabiene

During the winter of 316–315 BC, Eumenes' army camp was very widely spread, either because of insubordination or lack of supplies. He had stationed sentries on the roads, but not along the freezing desert routes into Gabiene (Dasht-i Kavir, south east of Isfahan). Antigonus, learning of this, planned to march through the desert and surprise attack Eumenes, but he was observed by some locals who reported it to his opponents.

The satraps were alarmed by this, as Antigonus was four days away and it would take at least six days to assemble their army. Peucestas advised tactical retreat and withdrew his portion of the army to a remote area of Gabiene. Eumenes, however, successfully persuaded the satraps to remain by pointing out their troops would be well-rested while Antigonus' would be tired from traversing the desert, and told them of a plan which would give them enough time to assemble the whole army.

After the conference Eumenes had his troops light numerous fires in the mountains bordering the desert every day. This made it appear as though Eumenes' entire camp was on the desert border, and Antigonus, observing this, delayed his march to rest his men for what he assumed would be another pitched battle against Eumenes' whole army.

Through this strategy Eumenes was able to delay battle and assemble his scattered army, though Antigonus did eventually learn the truth behind the fires. Eumenes success in preventing this attack raised his position and led many of the soldiers to ask him to lead them alone. Antigonus, however, was able to attack Eudamus and his elephant corps (they had been slow in leaving camp) and successfully killed many cavalry before being driven off by reinforcements sent by Eumenes.

As the forces assembled Antigenes, Teutamus, and other prominent members of Eumenes' army began plotting to kill Eumenes after Antigonus was defeated. Eudamus learned of the conspiracy and warned Eumenes, who thought of fleeing but chose not to. Eumenes, who "was not a coward and obviously an individual confident in his own ability", may have believed that the battle was worth fighting, despite the risks, because of the possibilities if he was victorious. Eumenes destroyed his correspondence, wrote his will, and prepared for the coming battle.

#### Battle of Gabiene

A few days later both armies drew up for battle, beginning the Battle of Gabiene. In the battle, Eumenes placed himself with his elite troops on the left flank in order to face Antigonus himself, who had positioned himself on his right flank. Again, Eumenes screened his cavalry with elephants and light infantry skirmishers. Eumenes' strategy focused on his phalanx and the Silver Shields; he ordered Philip (satrap of Bactria, leading the weaker right Eumenid flank), one of his loyal supporters, not to engage the enemy. Eumenes had placed Peucestas and the other satrapal cavalry on his own flank, perhaps to ensure they followed his orders.

Antigenes sent a single horseman to the enemy phalanx who was to face the Silver Shields; the horseman shouted that " are sinning against your fathers, you degenerates, the men who conquered the world with Philip and Alexander!" This pronouncement apparently demoralized Antigonus' infantry, and was met with a cheer from Eumenes' troops; Eumenes then sounded the charge and his army marched forward.

As the battle began, Antigonus, noticing that the movement of the troops kicked up clouds of dust that obscured sight, sent a sizeable cavalry contingent behind Eumenes' army to seize his baggage camp, and successfully did so without Eumenes noticing. After the war elephants engaged one another, Eumenes' cavalry met the cavalry of Antigonus, which was led by Antigonus' son Demetrius.

Eumenes' left cavalry was defeated due to the sudden retreat of Peucestas and the satrapal horsemen, which led to panic and another 1500 cavalry retreating with him. This cavalry defeat was disastrous for Eumenes. He continued to struggle against Antigonus, leading his cavalry forward in a charge in an attempt to meet and kill Antigonus in single combat, but failing due to his inferior number of horsemen. Facing heavy losses and being vastly outnumbered, Eumenes eventually gave way and rode over to his right flank.

The Silver Shields, however, were again victorious, routing Antigonus' phalanx and inflicting mass casualties. Eumenes, noting that the enemy phalanx had been destroyed, attempted to regather his cavalry on the right flank for a final push. He had heard his baggage had been captured, but believed that if his united cavalry joined the Silver Shields a renewed offensive would not only reclaim the lost baggage, but rout Antigonus' army and claim their baggage as well. Peucestas and the satraps refused Eumenes' orders, withdrawing further away as night approached.

Antigonus then unsuccessfully attacked the Silver Shields, who were able to retreat by forming a square and marching off of the battlefield. He prevented Eumenes' cavalry from linking up with the Silver Shields, and Eumenes was forced to withdraw.

### Betrayal and Death

The Battle of Gabiene was effectively as indecisive as the previous battle at Parataikene. Although Eumenes had inflicted significantly greater casualties, he lost control of his army's baggage; in addition to all the loot of the Silver Shields (treasure accumulated over 30 years of successful warfare including gold, silver, gems and other booty), the soldiers' women and children were taken as well.

Eumenes arrived at camp following the battle after the Silver Shields and satraps did, and a conference was held in the late evening. The satraps wished to retreat, but Eumenes wanted to battle again the next day, citing the fact that the cavalry were not greatly diminished and the Silver Shields' victory in the centre. Eumenes had reason to be optimistic about another engagement, but the Silver Shields themselves, though they blamed Peucestas for the inconclusive result of the battle, wished to get their baggage back and refused both options. The conference ended without a decision.

Teutamus, one of their commanders, then sent the request to Antigonus to trade for a return of the baggage; Antigonus responded that they give him Eumenes in return, and the Silver Shields agreed, arresting Eumenes and leading him to Antigonus. Anson believes Eumenes, though he knew of the plot against his life, believed his skills as a commander would "obviously" be necessary for another battle against Antigonus and was thus taken off guard when actually arraigned.

Eumenes, during his seizure, requested and was given permission to talk to the assembled army. According to Plutarch, Eumenes said:

What trophy, you vilest of all the Macedonians! what trophy could Antigonus have wished to raise over you, more than this which you yourselves are raising, by delivering up your general bound? Was it not base enough to acknowledge yourselves beaten, though you had the upper hand, merely for the sake of your baggage, as if victory dwelt among your possessions, and not upon the points of your swords; but you must also send your general as a ransom for that baggage? For my part, though thus led, I am not conquered; I have beaten the enemy, and am ruined by my fellow-soldiers. But I conjure you by Zeus, the god of armies, and the awful deities who preside over oaths, to kill me here with your own hands. If my life be taken by another, the deed will be still yours. Nor will Antigonus complain, if you take the work out of his hands; for he wants not Eumenes alive, but Eumenes dead. If you choose not to be the immediate instruments, loose but one of my hands, and that shall do my business. If you will not trust me with a sword, throw me, bound as I am, to wild beasts. If you comply with this last request, I acquit you of all guilt with respect to me, and declare you have behaved to your general like the best and most honest of men.

This speech apparently garnered sympathy from most of the army, but the Silver Shields, unconvinced, continued to lead Eumenes on, and they were able to do so without challenge. The war was thus at an end. Eumenes was given to Antigonus, who placed him under guard and held councils to decide his fate that lasted several days.

Plutarch and Nepos write that Eumenes grew confused why Antigonus did not kill him or set him free; when his jailkeeper replied that if Eumenes wanted death he should have died in battle, Eumenes is said to have retorted that he had not died in battle because he had never encountered an opponent stronger than himself.

Antigonus, supported by his son Demetrius and Nearchus the Cretan, was disinclined to kill Eumenes, but most of the council and his soldiers demanded that his execution and so it was decided. Antigonus starved Eumenes for three days but finally sent an executioner to strangle him when he had to move camp. Eumenes' body was given to his friends to be burnt with honour, and his ashes were conveyed in a silver urn to his wife and children.

## Legacy

### Generalship

Despite Eumenes' undeniable skills as a general, he never commanded the full allegiance of the Macedonian officers in his army and died as a result. Eumenes was disliked by many of his Macedonian companions—certainly for his successes and supposedly for his non- Macedonian (in the tribal sense) background and prior office as Royal Secretary.

Eumenes is broadly seen as an excellent commander, skilled in both tactics and strategy and Antigonus' only military equal, who did his utmost to maintain the unity of Alexander's empire in Asia. He was also an "adept propagandist", who used diplomacy and ruse to his advantage wherever possible. Eumenes' efforts were repeatedly frustrated by issues of divided command and disloyal subordinates: his "most serious problem" which were handicaps many of his enemies, notably Antigonus, did not have to struggle with. Anson considers it "remarkable" that Eumenes came so close to defeating Antigonus, ultimately only losing through betrayal, given Antigonus' notable skill as a general and the repeated issues Eumenes dealt with.

### Impact on the Age

Eumenes' defeat is seen as spelling the end for the Argead loyalists and, effectively, the Argead monarchy, leaving Alexander's Empire "in the hands of men who owed no loyalty except to themselves". Bosworth believes Eumenes' duel with Antigonus "did more than anything to define the shape of the Hellenistic world ".

Romm writes that Eumenes "was the last general in the field with the ability, and will, to defend ", and that "through sheer talent Eumenes had risen through the ranks; despite his Greek origins, he had come desperately close to gaining supreme power". Eumenes has been seen as a tragic figure, a man who seemingly tried to do the right thing but was overcome by a more ruthless enemy and the treachery of his own soldiers; in essence, that he failed not due to any lack of ability, but from "ill luck, bad alliances, and one very capable opponent."

Historie is a historical fiction manga series that tells the life story of Eumenes.