Demolition of Masjid al-Dirar

# Demolition of Masjid al-Dirar

## Abstract

The demolition or burning of Masjid al-Dirar (Arabic: مسجد الضرار), or the Mosque of Dissent, is mentioned in the Qur'an. Masjid al-Dirar was a Medinian mosque that was erected close to the Quba Mosque and which the Islamic prophet Muhammad initially approved of but subsequently had destroyed while he was returning from the Expedition to Tabouk (which occurred in October 630 CE). In the main account narrated by the majority of scholars, the mosque was built by 12 hypocrites (munafiqeen) on the commands of Abu 'Amir al-Fasiq; a Hanif who refused Muhammad's invitation to Islam and instead fought along with the Meccan non-Muslims against Islam in the Battle of Uhud. Abu 'Amir reportedly urged his men to establish a stronghold and prepare whatever they can of power and weapons as he promised and insinuated to them that he will lead an army, backed by Heraclius, to fight Muhammad and his companions, and defeat his message by expelling him from Medina. Ahmad ibn Yahya al-Baladhuri also relates that the men, who built the Al-Dirar mosque "for mischief and for infidelity and to disunite the Believers" refused to pray in Quba Mosque claiming that it was built in a place where a donkey used to be tied up.

Muhammad prepared himself to go to the Mosque, before he was prevented by a revelation about the hypocrisy and ill design of the builders of the Mosque

Upon learning that these men were hypocrites (munafiqeen) and had ulterior motives for building the Al-Dirar mosque, he ordered his men to burn it down.

According to the Islamic tradition, Muhammad was asked to lead prayer there but received a revelation (mentioned in the Qur'anic verses 9:107 and 9:110) in consequence of which the mosque was destroyed by fire. Henceforth, it was known as the Mosque of Opposition.

## Accounts

Abu Amir ar- Rahib was a Hanif. He disliked Muhammad, and reportedly fought in the Battle of Badr. He wanted him expelled from Medina and Islam eradicated. He also joined the Quraysh against the Muslim in the Battle of Uhud. The Majority have said that Abu Amir asked the ruler of the Byzantine for help against Muhammad. The hypocrite and enemy of Islam, Abd-Allah ibn Ubayy, was his nephew. Abu Amir died in 9AH or 10AH of the Islamic calendar in the court yard of Heraclius.

Ibn Kathir mentions in his Tafsir that Abu 'Amir Ar-Rahib (a Christian monk) told some disaffected Muslim Ansar to build the mosque. Abu Amir is reported to have said to some people that he will go to the emperor (Caesar) of the Byzantine Empire and return with Roman soldiers, to expel Muhammad.

According to Ar-Rahīq al-Makhtum (the Sealed Nectar), a modern Islamic biography of Muhammad written by the Indian Muslim author Saif ur-Rahman Mubarakpuri, a mosque called Masjid-e-Darar (the mosque of harm) was created by the Munafiq (hypocrites). When the mosque was completely built, the creators approached Muhammad and asked him to pray in it. But Muhammad put the request on hold till his return from the Battle of Tabuk. Through a "Divine Revelation", Muhammad was told that the Mosque was promoting anti-Islamic elements. Thus, on Muhammad's return from Tabuk, he sent a party of Muslim fighters to demolish the mosque.

Ahmad ibn Yahya al-Baladhuri also mentioned this. He said the Mosque was built by some men who refused to pray in Masjid al-Quba because it was built in a place where a donkey was tied up. Rather they said they will build another mosque until Abu Amir could lead the service in it. But Abu Amir did not convert to Islam, rather he left Medina and converted to Christianity. The Banu Amir ibn Awf built Masjid al-Quba and Muhammad led the prayer in it, but their brother tribe, the Banu Ghan ibn Auf were jealous and also wanted Muhammad to pray in the Mosque, they also said that: "Abu Amir may pass here on his way from Syria, and lead us in prayer" Muhammad prepared himself to go to the Mosque, before he was prevented by a revelation about the hypocrisy and ill design of the builders of the Mosque

## Burning of Masjid al-Dirar

### Details of the burning

When Muhammad was returning from Tabuk, the Muslims halted at Dhu Awan. Some Muslims constructed the mosque claiming it was for the sick and needy, but because of Muhammad's belief that it was an opposition mosque, he sent Muslim fighters to burn it down. The men entered the mosque and set fire to it with its people inside, "and the people ran away from it".

### Analysis and speculation about the burning

Isma'il Qurban Husayn (translator of Tabari, Volume 9, Last years of the prophet) speculated by saying in footnote 426, that the people were "probably" linked to those who wanted to kill Muhammad in the Battle of Tabuk, but Tabari himself did not make that claim.

William Muir mentions that Muhammad believed the Mosque was built to create disunity among Muslims by drawing people away from another Mosque in Quba i.e. Masjid al-Quba, which was the first Mosque to be built by Muslims.

Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab at-Tamimi mentioned in an abridged version of Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya 's biography of Muhammad (named Zad al-Ma'ad), that the people of the city watched as the mosque was burnt down, and he also used this event to provide teachings to justify his belief that burning down people of sin is permissible in Islam.

## Islamic sources

### Primary sources

The event is mentioned in the Quran verse 9:107, the verse states:

And there are those who put up a mosque by way of mischief and infidelity - to disunite the Believers - and in preparation for one who warred against Allah and His Messenger aforetime. They will indeed swear that their intention is nothing but good; But Allah doth declare that they are certainly liars.

The Muslim scholar Ibn Kathir 's commentary on this verse is as follows:

(If we come back from our travel, Allah willing.) When the Messenger of Allah came back from Tabuk and was approximately one or two days away from Al-Madinah, Jibril came down to him with the news about Masjid Ad-Dirar and the disbelief and division between the believers, who were in Masjid Quba' (which was built on piety from the first day), that Masjid Ad-Dirar was meant to achieve. Therefore, the Messenger of Allah sent some people to Masjid Ad-Dirar to bring it down before he reached Al-Madinah. 'Ali bin Abi Talhah reported that Ibn 'Abbas said about this Ayah (9:107), "They are some people of the Ansar to whom Abu 'Amir said, 'Build a Masjid and prepare whatever you can of power and weapons, for I am headed towards Caesar, emperor of Rome, to bring Roman soldiers with whom I will expel Muhammad and his companions.' When they built their Masjid, they went to the Prophet and said to him, "We finished building our Masjid and we would like you to pray in it and invoke Allah for us for His blessings.

The event is mentioned by the Muslim jurist Tabari as follows:

"The Messenger of God proceeded until he halted in Dhu Awan, a town an hour’s daytime journey from Medina. The people who had built the Mosque of Dissent (masjid al-dirar) had come to him while he was preparing for Tabuk saying, 'O Messenger of God, we have built a mosque for the sick and needy and for rainy and cold nights, and we would like you to visit us and pray for us in it.' said that he was on the verge of traveling, and he was preoccupied, or words to that effect, and that when he returned, God willing, he would come to them and pray for them in it. When he stopped in Dhu Awan, news of the mosque came to him, and he summoned Malik b. al-Dukhshum, a brother of the Banu Salim b. 'Awf, and Ma’n b. 'Adi, or his brother 'Asim b. 'Adi, brothers of the Banu al-'Ajlan, and said, "Go to this mosque whose owners are unjust people and destroy and burn it". They went out briskly until they came to the Banu Salim b. 'Awf who were Malik b. al-Dukhshum’s clan. Malik said to Ma’n, "Wait for me until I bring fire from my people." He went to his kinsfolk and took a palm branch and lighted it. Then both of them ran until they entered the mosque, its people inside, set fire to it and destroyed it and the people dispersed. Concerning this, it was revealed in the Quran...


Siege of Baghdad

# Siege of Baghdad

## Abstract

The siege of Baghdad took place in early 1258 at Baghdad, the historic capital of the Abbasid Caliphate. After a series of provocations from its ruler, Caliph al-Musta'sim, a large army under Hulegu, a prince of the Mongol Empire, attacked the city. Within a few weeks, Baghdad fell and was sacked by the Mongol army—al-Musta'sim was killed alongside hundreds of thousands of his subjects. The city's fall has traditionally been seen as marking the end of the Islamic Golden Age; in reality, its ramifications are uncertain.

After the accession of his brother Möngke Khan to the Mongol throne in 1251, Hulegu, a grandson of Genghis Khan, was dispatched westwards to Persia to secure the region. His massive army of over 138,000 men took years to reach the region but then quickly attacked and overpowered the Nizari Ismaili Assassins in 1256. The Mongols had expected al-Musta'sim to provide reinforcements for their army—the Caliph's failure to do so, combined with his arrogance in negotiations, convinced Hulegu to overthrow him in late 1257. Invading Mesopotamia from all sides, the Mongol army soon approached Baghdad, routing a sortie on 17 January 1258 by flooding their camp. They then invested Baghdad, which was left with around 30,000 troops.

The assault began at the end of January. Mongol siege engines breached Baghdad's fortifications within a couple of days, and Hulegu's highly-trained troops controlled the eastern wall by 4 February. The increasingly desperate al-Musta'sim frantically tried to negotiate, but Hulegu was intent on total victory, even killing soldiers who attempted to surrender. The Caliph eventually surrendered the city on 10 February, and the Mongols began looting three days later. The total number of people who died is unknown, as it was likely increased by subsequent epidemics; Hulegu later estimated the total at around 200,000. After calling an amnesty for the pillaging on 20 February, Hulegu executed the caliph. In contrast to the exaggerations of later Muslim historians, Baghdad prospered under Hulegu's Ilkhanate, although it did decline in comparison to the new capital, Tabriz.

## Background

Baghdad was founded in 762 by al-Mansur, the second caliph of the Abbasid dynasty, which had recently overthrown the empire of the Umayyads. Al-Mansur believed that the new Abbasid Caliphate needed a new capital city, located away from potential threats and near the dynasty's power base in Persia. Incredibly wealthy due to the trade routes and taxes it controlled, Baghdad quickly became a world city and the epicentre of the Islamic Golden Age: poets, writers, scientists, philosophers, musicians, and scholars of every type thrived in the city. Containing centres of learning like the House of Wisdom and astronomical observatories, which used the newly-arrived technology of paper and the gathering of the teachings of antiquity from all Eurasia, Baghdad was "the intellectual capital of the planet", in the words of the historian Justin Marozzi.

During the tenth century, the Abbasids gradually decreased in power. This culminated in Baghdad being occupied, first by the Buyids in 945 and then the Seljuks in 1055, by which time the caliphs had only local authority. They focused their attentions on Baghdad itself, which retained its position as one of the preeminent cities of the world—it was joined only by Kaifeng and Hangzhou in having over a million inhabitants between 1000 and 1200. The caliphate reemerged as a significant power under al-Nasir (r. 1180–1225), who saw off threats from the last Seljuk rulers and their successors, the Khwarazmians. Muhammad II of Khwarazm 's 1217 invasion of the Abbasids failed, and his realm was soon invaded by the armies of Genghis Khan, first ruler of the Mongol Empire.

After the Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire ended in late 1221, they did not return to the region until 1230. In that year, Chormaqan, a leading general under Genghis' successor Ögedei Khan, arrived in Azerbaijan to eliminate the Khwarazmian prince Jalal al-Din, who was killed the following year. Thereafter, Chormaqan began to establish Mongol hegemony in northwestern Iran and the Transcaucasus. After they captured Isfahan in 1236, the Mongols began to test caliphal authority in Mesopotamia, besieging Irbil in 1237 and raiding up to the walls of Baghdad itself the following year. Chormaqan and his 1241 replacement Baiju thereafter raided the region nearly every year. Although Mongol rule was secured elsewhere in the Near East —their victory at the 1243 Battle of Köse Dağ reduced the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum to a client state —Baghdad remained unconquered, and even defeated a Mongol force in 1245. Another problem was the secretive Nizari Ismaili state, also known as the Order of Assassins, in the Elburz Mountains. They had killed Mongol commanders during the 1240s, and had allegedly dispatched 400 Assassins to the Mongol capital Karakorum to kill the khan himself.

### Campaign against the Assassins

Möngke Khan was proclaimed khan in 1251 as part of the Toluid Revolution, which established the family of Genghis' youngest son Tolui as the most powerful figures in the Mongol Empire. Möngke resolved to send his younger brothers Kublai and Hulegu on massive military expeditions to subdue rebellious vassals and problematic enemies. While Kublai was sent to vassalize the Dali Kingdom and resume the war against the Southern Song, Hulegu was dispatched westwards to destroy the Ismaili Assassins and to ensure the submission of the Abbasid caliphs. For this task, he was assigned one fifth of the empire's manpower, a figure which has been variously calculated by modern scholars as between 138,000, nearly 200,000, or 300,000 men. The force contained troops from vassalized Armenia, including its king Hetoum I, a thousand-strong corps of military engineers led by Guo Kan, auxiliaries from all over the empire, and generals from all the branches of the Mongol imperial family, including three princes from the Golden Horde, the Chagatayid prince Teguder, and possibly one of Genghis Khan's grandsons through his daughter Checheikhen.

Because of the size of his force, Hulegu's progress from Karakorum was extremely leisurely by Mongol standards. Setting out in October 1253, he spent the next years passing through Transoxiana and received homage from local rulers, including Arghun Aqa at Kish in November 1255; early the following year, he entered the Assassins' heartland of Kohistan. An advanced vanguard under the general Kitbuqa had taken numerous Ismaili fortresses, unsuccessfully besieged the stronghold at Gerdkuh, and sacked the city of Tun between 1253 and 1256. The Grand Master of the Assassins, Ala ad-Din Muhammad, had died in December 1255, and Hulegu sent ambassadors to his young successor, Rukn al-Din Khurshah. The new Grand Master attempted to stall for time, but his fortresses steadily fell to the Mongols and he surrendered from Maymun-Diz on 19 November 1256. Rukn al-Din persuaded the stronghold of Alamut to surrender on 15 December.

## Baghdad campaign

Hulegu had expected the Abbasid caliph al-Musta'sim to provide troops for the campaign against the Assassins; the caliph had initially assented, but his ministers argued that the real purpose of the request was to empty Baghdad of potential defenders, and so he refused. Later Sunni writers accused Baghdad's vizier, a Shi'ite named Muhammad ibn al-Alqami, of having betrayed the caliph by opening secret negotiations with Hulegu. In 1256, sectarian violence between Sunnis and Shi'a had broken out after a devastating flood, placing Baghdad in a difficult position; however, al-Musta'sim and his ministers were still quite delusional concerning their chances of success.

...I will bring you crashing down from the summit of the sky, Like a lion I will throw you down to the lowest depths. I will not leave a single person alive in your country, I will turn your city, lands and empire into flames.

If you have the heart to save your head and your ancient family, Listen carefully to my advice. If you refuse to accept it, I will show you the meaning of the will of God.

End of the first letter from Hulegu to al-Musta'sim, September 1257

Hulegu spent the summer of 1257 on or near the Hamadan plain, where he was rejoined by Baiju, who had been subduing restless vassals in the northwest. Baiju brought Seljuk, Georgian, and Armenian vassals, including the princes Pŕosh Khaghbakian and Zak‘arē, to join the Mongol army. In September, Hulegu began a correspondence with al-Musta'sim, described by the historian René Grousset as "one of the most magnificent dialogues in history". His first message demanded that the caliph peacefully submit and send his three principal ministers—the vizier, the commander of the soldiers, and the dawatdar (keeper of the inkpot)—to the Mongols; all three likely refused, and three less important officials were sent instead.

Al-Musta'sim's reply to Hulegu's letter called the Mongol leader young and ignorant, and presented himself as able to summon armies from all of Islam. Accompanied by disrespectful behaviour towards Hulegu's envoys, who were exposed to taunting and mockery from mobs on Baghdad's streets, this was just antagonistic bombast: the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt was hostile towards the caliph, while the Ayyubid minor rulers in Syria were focusing on their own survival. A further exchange of letters brought no progress save the caliph's concession of a small amount of tribute—al-Alqami had argued for sending large amounts, but the dawatdar argued that al-Alqami was trying to empty the treasury and win Hulegu's favour.

Losing patience, Hulegu consulted his advisors on the practicalities of attacking Baghdad. The astronomer Husam al-Din prophesied doom, stating that all rulers who had attacked Baghdad had afterwards lost their kingdom. Hulegu then turned to the polymath Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, who simply replied that none of these disasters would happen, and that Hulegu would rule in place of the caliph.

### Advance and siege

Flanked on the right wing by the Golden Horde princes, who approached via the Shahrizor plain, and on the left by Kitbuqa in Khuzistan, Hulegu commanded the main Mongol force and sacked Kermanshah on 6 December. After a council of war in mid-December, his commanders dispersed to carry out different tasks. Baiju returned to the vanguard at Irbil, and crossing the Tigris at Mosul with the help of its emir Badr al-Din Lu'lu', who also provided supplies, headed southwards towards Baghdad. Baiju reached the Nahr Isa canal in mid-January 1258, whereupon his deputy Sughunchaq pushed the advance party to around 25 miles (40 km) from the city. On 16 January, Sughunchaq was confronted by the dawatdar with 20,000 infantry and forced to retreat; the caliphal army pursued, but that night Baiju's forces broke the dykes of the Dujayl Canal and flooded the camp of the celebrating Abbasid army. Many drowned, and the remainder were engaged by Baiju's army the following morning—they were routed and only a few, including the dawatdar, made it back to Baghdad.

Meanwhile, Kitbuqa had crossed the Tigris to the south and was approaching the Karkh suburbs, while Hulegu himself reached the eastern suburbs on 22 January, where he was welcomed by the local Shi'ites. The Mongols then closely invested Baghdad by erecting a palisade around the whole city and digging a moat inside this circumvallation; these fortifications were completed within a day. They constructed mounds out of bricks for their mangonels and ballistae and prepared their ammunition—the Mongols used palm trees and stones previously used in building the suburbs until they found suitable rocks in the Jebel Hamrin mountains, three days transport away. They also used pyrotechnics such as burning naphtha. To prevent anyone from using the Tigris to escape, Hulegu ordered the construction of pontoon bridges across the river on both sides of the city. Despite Baghdad's frailty—the flood-weakened walls were in disrepair and the garrison, at most 50,000 strong before the dawatdar ' s sortie, was untrained and largely incapable—Hulegu meticulously planned his operations to cover all eventualities.

The assault on Baghdad's walls began on either 29 or 30 January. The Mongol forces arrowed messages containing guarantees of safety into the city—those covered by the guarantees included Christians, certain Muslim figures, and those who had not fought the Mongols or who had surrendered. The first breach was made in the southeast Ajami tower, near Hulegu's camp, on 1 February, but the Mongols were driven back; further breaches over the next two days enabled them to access and seize control of the east battlements by 4 February. Sensing defeat, the dawatdar attempted to escape by sailing down the Tigris, but Hulegu's preparations held and forced him back into the city with a loss of three ships.

Caliph al-Musta'sim sent out numerous envoys, including al-Alqami and Makkikha II, Patriarch of the Church of the East, during the next week, but Hulegu was determined on nothing less than unconditional surrender, especially after one of his commanders was wounded by an arrow during a parley. Both the dawatdar and the commander of Baghdad's garrison were surrendered to the Mongols during the negotiations, and were now put to death. On 7 February, a large number of unarmed soldiers and inhabitants emerged from the city, in the apparent hope that they would be spared and allowed to settle in Syria; instead, they were divided into groups and executed.

With limited options, al-Musta'sim prepared to surrender. After sending out an embassy led by his son and heir Ahmed, who secured guarantees of safety for his family, the caliph surrendered on 10 February, bringing his family and 3,000 dignitaries. Hulegu asked al-Musta'sim to order the population of the city to leave the city after laying their weapons down; those who obeyed were slaughtered. The caliph and his family were housed near Kitbuqa's forces near the southern gate.

### Sack and aftermath

On 13 February, the sack of Baghdad began. This was not an act of wanton destruction, as it has commonly been presented, but rather a calculated decision to show the consequences of defying the Mongol Empire. Sayyids, scholars, merchants who traded with the Mongols, and the Christians in the city on whose behalf Hulegu's wife Doquz Khatun, herself a Christian, had interceded, were deemed worthy and were instructed to mark their doors so their houses would be spared. The rest of the city was subject to pillaging and killing for a full week. According to Kirakos Gandzaketsi, a 13th-century Armenian historian, the Christians in Hulegu's army took special pleasure in Baghdad's sack. It is unknown how many inhabitants were killed: later Muslim writers estimated between 800,000 and two million deaths, while Hulegu himself, in a letter to Louis IX of France, noted that his army had killed 200,000. Figures may have been inflated by a subsequent epidemic among the survivors; scholars have debated whether this was an outbreak of plague, a precursor to the Black Death.

Two days into the looting, on 15 February, Hulegu visited the caliphal palace and forced al-Musta'sim to reveal his treasures; some was distributed among commanders such as Guo Kan, but most loaded onto wagons and transported either to Möngke Khan in Karakorum or to Shahi Island in Azerbaijan, where Hulegu would be buried. Having granted the palace to Makkikha to be a church, Hulegu then held a celebratory banquet in which he mockingly played host to the caliph. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, who was likely present, recorded the following dialogue:

set a golden tray before the Caliph and said: "Eat!"

"It is not edible," said the Caliph.

"Then why did you keep it," asked the khan, "and not give it to your soldiers? And why did you not make these iron doors into arrow-heads and come to the bank of the river so that I might not have been able to cross it?"

"Such", replied the Caliph, "was God's will."

"What will befall you," said the khan, "is also God's will."

This incident is likely the source of a folktale, reproduced in the writings of Christian writers such as Marco Polo, in which Hulegu subsequently locked al-Musta'sim in a cell surrounded by his treasures, whereupon he starved to death in four days. In reality, on 20 February, after Hulegu had halted the plundering and killing and moved his camp away from the city to escape the increasingly putrid air, al-Musta'sim was executed alongside his whole family and court. To avoid spilling a royal's blood, a great taboo for the Mongols, the caliph was wrapped in a rolled-up carpet and trampled to death by horses. Hulegu had debated whether to put al-Musta'sim to death at all, but eventually decided on doing so to break the myth of the caliphate being an all-powerful, invulnerable, and inviolate entity.

If, as later writers allege, al-Alqami had betrayed Baghdad to the Mongols, Hulegu would have had him executed—such was the Mongol policy regarding all traitors. Instead, because of his efforts to dissuade the caliph from a foolish path, he was reappointed to the vizierate, although he died less than three months later. Having also appointed a Khwarazmian daruyachi (' overseer official ') named Ali Ba'atar for the region and stationed 3,000 soldiers in the city, Hulegu gave instructions to rebuild Baghdad and to open its bazaars. On 8 March, he left the area, travelling northwards to Hamadan and then Azerbaijan, where he remained for a year.

## Legacy

The fall of Baghdad marked the end of the five hundred-year-old Abbasid Caliphate—although a member of the dynasty eventually made it to Cairo, where the Mamluks installed him as Al-Mustansir II, he and his descendants were puppets of the Mamluk state and never gained much recognition in the wider Muslim world; they would later be usurped by the Ottomans, who maintained the title of caliph up to the 20th century. It also marked a shift of power away from Baghdad and towards cities like Tabriz, the capital of the Ilkhanate, the khanate founded by Hulegu in the aftermath of the siege.

Baghdad's fall was not as era-defining as has been suggested, although the end of the caliphate marked a momentous occasion for the Islamic world. Muslim writers have traditionally ascribed the decline of the Islamic Golden Age, and consequently the subsequent rise of the Western world, to this one event; however, such an argument has been criticized as simplistic and lazy. Whereas an oft-quoted description from a 16th-century historian details that so many books from Baghdad's libraries were thrown into the Tigris that "the colour of the river changed into black from their multitude," the historian Michal Biran has shown that large libraries reopened for learning and teaching within two years of the siege. Hulegu and his successors as rulers of the Ilkhanate actively patronized and encouraged musical and literary traditions; it was subsequent sieges like those conducted by Timur in 1393 and 1401 and by the Ottomans in 1534 that ensured the city's long-term marginalization.


Dónall Farmer

# Dónall Farmer

## Abstract

Dónall Farmer (born Daniel Patrick Farmer; 24 November 1937 – 6 December 2018) was an Irish television film director, producer, RTÉ Head of Drama (succeeding Chloe Gibson) and actor who performed on stage and in film and television productions. Known for his part in Glenroe, the Irish television series in which he played Father Tim Devereux, he won two Jacob's Awards for his work on RTÉ Television, in 1969 and 1979 respectively. A notable contributor to stage productions in the Abbey Theatre, his play parts span 1980–1989. He was also involved in the Irish-language Damer Theatre.


RCA (trademark)

# RCA (trademark)

## Abstract

RCA is an American multinational trademark brand owned by Talisman Brands, Inc. (d/b/a Established Incorporated, stylized as established.) which is used on products made by that company as well as Sony Music Entertainment, Voxx International and ON Corporation. RCA is an abbreviation for the Radio Corporation of America, founded in 1919. The company became known as the RCA Corporation in 1969. In late 1986, RCA was purchased by General Electric and over the next few years, GE sold or liquidated most of the corporation's various divisions and assets.

## Current users

At present, the RCA trademark is owned by Talisman Brand, Inc. (d/b/a Established.) since 2022, Though it generally no longer uses the brand directly, Talisman Brand licenses the RCA trademark to other companies for use on various products along 10 different product lines:

- RCA Records (RCA Victor): now licensed to Sony Music Entertainment, which acquired the record label through their former joint venture Sony BMG (2004–08). In 1987, BMG purchased RCA Records and several subsidiary and associated record labels directly from GE following the acquisition of the RCA Corporation, together with a perpetual license to use the various RCA brands and trademarks (including RCA's interest in the famous Nipper His Master's Voice trademark). As a perpetual license, it has survived both GE's sale of the brand name to Thomson and BMG's transfer of RCA Records and associated labels to Sony BMG and Sony Music.

- RCA Commercial Electronics: licensed to DTI Services, LLC - an Indianapolis, Indiana based company. They manufacture commercial televisions and commercial LED lighting, acquiring the trademark in 2009.

- RCA Monitors: licensed to DTI Services, LLC - an Indianapolis, Indiana based company. They attained the license in 2023, and released their first products on September 31, 2023.

- RCA Telephones: Formerly manufactured by Thomson SA, sold in 2009 to Telefield North America

- RCA Audio/Video: Manufactured by Voxx, produces RCA DVD players, video cassette recorders, direct broadcast satellite decoders, camcorders, and audio equipment. (link on Voxx website)

- RCA Accessories: Manufactured by Voxx, produces Audio and video connectors, remote controls, keyboards, Computer mice and television antennas.

- RCA Televisions: Manufactured by Curtis International Ltd. (Canada) (Was ON Corporation)

- RCA Car Stereo: Also known as RCA Mobile

- RCA Appliances: Produces RCA brand Microwaves, refrigerators, and ranges marketed by Curtis International Ltd. (Canada)

- RCA Computers: Produces RCA Computers marketed by American Future Technology Corporation

- RCA Computer Tablets: RCA tablets manufactured by Alco Electronics Ltd.

- RCA Projectors: Manufactured by Telefield

- RCA Digital TV Box: Produces RCA Set-top Boxes marketed by Search Commercial Inc. (Philippines).

- RCA Communication Systems: Two-way radios

BMG (for the record labels) and Thomson (for the remaining businesses) bought those assets from General Electric, which took over the RCA Corporation in 1986 and kept RCA's NBC broadcast television interests (GE sold off the NBC Radio Network and the NBC-owned radio stations). Initially, GE continued to own the RCA trademarks (including the His Master's Voice / Nipper and Victor/Victrola trademarks which were then licensed to Thomson and Bertelsmann Music Group. Thomson eventually purchased the rights to the RCA trademarks from GE in 2003 subject to the perpetual license GE had issued to BMG.

In December 2006, Thomson SA agreed to sell its consumer electronics accessory business, including rights to use the RCA name for consumer electronic accessories, to Audiovox

On October 16, 2007, Thomson SA agreed to sell its consumer electronics audio video business outside Europe including the worldwide rights to the RCA Brand for consumer electronics audio video products

In April 2010, ON Corporation took over distribution of RCA branded TVs.

Bertelsmann AG was new to the RCA family (though the creation of Sony BMG is similar to that of EMI more than 70 years earlier). Sony took full ownership of Sony BMG in 2008 and the record company was renamed Sony Music. Thomson started as the French subsidiary of Thomson-Houston Electric, a company which later evolved into General Electric.

In 2022, Technicolor sold the trademark and licensing rights to the RCA brand and logos to Talisman Brands, Inc.

## Sponsorship

RCA sponsored the Argentinian football club San Lorenzo de Almagro from 2005 until 2007, and the Argentinian football club Estudiantes de La Plata from 2008 to mid-2011. It currently sponsors Racing Club de Avellaneda, another first division Argentinean football club.

In the mid-1990s, RCA bought the naming rights to the Hoosier Dome (the original home of the Indianapolis Colts). The stadium became the RCA Dome and was known as such until it was demolished in December 2008 when the Colts departed for the new Lucas Oil Stadium and the Indiana Convention Center was expanded onto the RCA Dome footprint.

RCA was the main sponsor for the No. 98 Cale Yarborough Motorsports team in the NASCAR Winston Cup Series with drivers Jeremy Mayfield from 1995-1996 and with John Andretti in 1997. They appeared on the No. 00 Quin Houff in 2021 as a throwback to the above mentioned No. 98 car.


Stray

# Stray

## Abstract

Stray or The Stray or variation, may refer to:

## Animals

- A feral (abandoned or escaped) domestic animal; see also estray

- A stray or free-ranging dog

## Places

- Areas of open grassland in North Yorkshire: Strays of York The Stray (Harrogate) The Stray, an area of open grassland in Redcar

- Strays of York

- The Stray (Harrogate)

- The Stray, an area of open grassland in Redcar

## Film

- Strays (1991 film), an American made-for-television horror film

- Strays (1997 film), an American drama film by Vin Diesel

- A Stray, a 2016 film with Barkhad Abdi

- The Stray (film), 2017 film with Sarah Lancaster and Michael Cassidy

- The Strays (film), a 2023 British horror-thriller film

- Strays (2023 film), an American live-action/animated comedy film

- Stray, planned film adaptation of the eponymous 2023 video game

## Television

- Strays (TV series), spin-off of Kim's Convenience

### Episodes

- "The Stray" (Westworld), 2016 episode

- "Stray", episode of Law & Order: Criminal Intent (season 3)

- "Stray", episode of Smallville (season 1)

- "Strays", 2004 episode, see list of The Shield episodes

- "Strays", 2017 episode, see list of One Day at a Time (2017 TV series) episodes

## Music

- 97.2 Stray FM, a radio station based in Harrogate, North Yorkshire, UK

### Bands

- Stray (band), a 1966-1970s rock group from London, led by Del Bromham

- Stray, a side project by American band Unter Null

### Albums

- Stray (album), an album by Aztec Camera

- Strays (Jane's Addiction album)

- Strays (Junkhouse album)

- Strays (Margo Price album)

### Songs

- "Stray", a song by Aztec Camera from the eponymous album Stray (album)

- "Stray", a song by Bradley Joseph from Rapture

- "Stray", a song by Yoko Kanno and Steve Conte used as the opening theme for the anime Wolf's Rain

- "Stray", a 2022 song by Strayz

- "Strays", a song by Jane's Addiction from the eponymous album Strays (Jane's Addiction album)

- "The Strays", a song by Sleeping With Sirens from the album Madness

## People

- Thomas Stray (born 1970), Norwegian businessman

- Tom Stray (born 1987), Australian cricketer

## Other uses

- Stray (video game), a 2022 video game developed by BlueTwelve Studio

- Stray (novel), a novel by A.N. Wilson


The Magic Christmas Tree

# The Magic Christmas Tree

## Abstract

The Magic Christmas Tree is a 1964 American Christmas -themed fantasy - adventure film about a boy who uses a magic ring to bring a Christmas tree to life. The tree then grants the boy three wishes.

## Plot

Three boys are walking home from school on the afternoon of Halloween. On the way home, one boy, Mark, agrees to help a strange old woman to get her cat, Lucifer, out of a tree. Mark climbs the tree, but falls and is knocked unconscious. When Mark wakes up, he discovers that the old woman is really a witch. The witch gives Mark a magic ring, and tells him that if he plants the seeds inside along with the wishbone of a Thanksgiving turkey, a magic tree will grow. When Thanksgiving comes, Mark performs the magic spell that the witch taught him, and a magic evergreen tree grows overnight in the back yard. Mark's father tries to cut down the tree, but to no avail. Later, on Christmas Eve, the Magic Tree comes to life, and grants Mark three wishes. The boy first wishes for one hour of absolute power, which he promptly abuses. Mark's second wish is to have Santa Claus all to himself. When Mark sees the unhappiness his selfishness causes after seeing a giant, however, he uses his third wish to return Santa Claus to the children of the world on Christmas Day. Mark wakes up, and realizes that the entire adventure was all a dream...or was it?

## Production

In the style of The Wizard of Oz, The Magic Christmas Tree presents a full- color dream sequence bracketed by black-and-white 'reality' sequences. It was filmed in La Verne, California on an extremely low budget.

## Home video

The Magic Christmas Tree was released on VHS by Goodtimes in 1992. It has been marketed in a two-pack with the Mexican film Santa Claus. In 2011, the film was parodied by Mike Nelson, Kevin Murphy and Bill Corbett of RiffTrax.


Lewisburg Cemetery

# Lewisburg Cemetery

## Abstract

Lewisburg Cemetery is a historic cemetery in Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, United States. Located immediately to the north of Bucknell University, and dating to 1848, it is a contributing site of the Lewisburg Historic District. There are around 13,000 burials in the cemetery.

The cemetery is bounded by South 7th Street to the east (from which is the only entrance), St. Catharine Street to the north, and South Derr Drive (U.S. Route 15) to the west. (St. Catharine Street is now disjointed, its layout having been altered after the cemetery's expansions. A separate section continues east to South 6th Street at Hufnagle Park.)

## History

Upon completion of the cemetery's boundaries of its original 6 acres (2.4 ha), interments from other graveyards in the town, and from Crossroads Church in nearby Buffalo Township, were moved here. As such, several early settlers of Union County, including veterans of the Revolutionary War and the War of 1812, are interred here. The McClure Monument, dating to around 1833, was removed to the cemetery from the graveyard of the Presbyterian Church on Market Street (Pennsylvania Route 45). One of the oldest burials is that of Martha Wilson, a child who died in 1788.

The original cemetery is located off to the right, well beyond the end of the paved Chapel Lane, once inside the main gate. It includes three family burial circles along a path that is wide enough to support horse-drawn hearses. The iron gate on South 7th Street, at the head of the eastern section of St. Catharine Street, would have accommodated them. The iron fence was installed in 1886.

Inside the gate there formerly stood a two-story arched gatehouse, where the cemetery's sexton lived. The gatehouse was moved to today's 638 and 640 St. George Street in 1892. Its archway has since been filled in.

The cemetery was expanded to around 12 acres (4.9 ha) in 1878. It is 38 acres (15 ha) today.

Many of the cemetery's headstones were carved, in Quincy granite, by stonemason Chauncey Foster, including that of his wife, Enna, who died in 1908. He was buried beside her and their four children upon his death eleven years later. Foster's workshop was on South 4th Street.

The cemetery's chapel was built in 1899. The columbarium and fountain in front of the chapel was added in 2012. The cemetery's vault was built at the same time as the chapel. It is now unused, since graves are dug with machinery.

A mausoleum, for above-ground burials, is located near the cemetery's entrance. It was built in 2009.

The Lewisburg Cemetery Association was incorporated when the cemetery first opened. The association's president is Kathy Lentz, who succeeded Nancy Neuman.

In 2023, to celebrate the 175th anniversary of the cemetery's establishment, tours were held.

The cemetery is site 9 on Bucknell University 's "Poetry Path".

## Notable burials

- George Ripley Bliss (1816–1893), twice president of Bucknell University

- Justin Rolph Loomis (1810–1898), president of Bucknell University

- Christy Mathewson (1880–1925), Major League Baseball player

- Merle Middleton Odgers (1900–1983), president of Bucknell University

- Robert Levi Rooke (1891–1994), benefactor of Bucknell University


Stivi Frashëri

# Stivi Frashëri

## Abstract

Stivi Frashëri (born 29 August 1990) is an Albanian professional footballer who as a goalkeeper for Liria Prizren in the Kosovar Superliga.

## Club career

### Early career

Frashëri joined the youth setup of his local side Skënderbeu Korçë as a 14-year-old, where he remained for two years until 2007, which was when he moved to Greece to sign for Aris Thessaloniki. He joined the youth team at Aris Thessaloniki, but he was also invited to train with the first team after impressing in youth games for the club. He spent three years in Greece with Aris before leaving the club in the summer of 2010 with the desire to move back to Albania and play regular first team football for the first time in his career.

### Bylis Ballsh

Frashëri joined newly promoted Albanian Superliga side Bylis Ballsh after returning to Albania, and he immediately established himself as a first team regular at the age of 20, despite competition from veteran goalkeeper and former Nigeria international Ndubuisi Egbo. In his debut season in Albania he made 22 league appearances out of a possible 33, as he helped his side finish in a respectable 6th out of 12 teams. The following season he remained the first choice goalkeeper, ahead of Ndubuisi Egbo once again and new signing Eduard Miço, as he featured in 15 out of 26 league games to help his side finish 6th out of 14 teams. His side struggled in a relegation battle during the 2012–13 season, but he managed to help Bylis Ballsh escape relegation by just a single point. After being knocked out of the Albanian Cup in the quarter finals in two consecutive campaigns, Frashëri helped his side reach the final against Laçi, which they ultimately lost as Frashëri conceded a goal in 119th minute of the game which had gone into extra time. The 2013–14 season proved to be one of the most difficult of his career, as he struggled to regain his place as first choice goalkeeper, and his side were disqualified from the Albanian Superliga due to an incident involving the club's president and Albanian Football Association officials that resulted in mass brawl. After the club was disqualified from the Albanian Superliga, Frashëri, much like the rest of the first team squad began looking for new clubs to join the following season.

### Tirana

In June 2014 Tirana were looking for a concrete replacement of Ilion Lika who left for Flamurtari and they saw Frashëri as ideal replacement, where he was a Free agent. During the same month Kukësi, a fellow Albanian Superliga club, showed interest about him but he definitively was convinced to choose Tirana, where he declared that will sign for the club. He made his debut in the opening match of championship against newbie Apolonia Fier on 24 August, keeping a clean-sheet in a 3–0 win at Qemal Stafa Stadium.

In the Derby match against Partizani Tirana, Frashëri made a mistake during a shoot and the Partizani Tirana striker Stevan Račić scored a goal which resulted decisive for the match as Partizani Tirana won the match 1–2. He was criticised too much after the match, where the coach Gugash Magani declared that Frashëri cannot cope with such a pressure match. After that Frashëri was sit on the bench for next match and then in a status update in his Facebook fanpage, Frashëri accused KF Tirana and his teammates for being hardly offended by them. On 17 March 2015, KF Tirana announced to have suspend Frashëri for 3 months due to his accuses against the club. But despite this negative situation, Frashëri made a short declaration where he said that will not leave Tirana.

Then Frashëri returned to participate in the Albanian Cup match against Laçi on 8 April 2015, but just on the bench because Tirana gave the starting place Edvan Bakaj. He returned playing again in the starting line up on 9 May 2015 against Skënderbeu Korçë where he managed to keep the clean sheet in a goalless draw.

### Return to Bylis Ballsh

On 31 January 2016, on the deadline day of that transfer window, Frashëri returned to Bylis Ballsh by signing a contract until the end of the season. He made his return debut on 6 February by keeping a clean sheet in team's 4–0 home victory against the fellow relegation strugglers Tërbuni Pukë. In the next match against his former employee Tirana, the players of Tirana refused to shake Frashëri's hand before the start of the match, which led FSHF to fine the club for its players behaviour. Frashëri played 16 matches until the end of the season, keeping seven clean sheets, which were not enough as Bylis Ballsh was relegated back to Albanian First Division after only one season.

### Flamurtari Vlorë

On 2 September 2016, Frashëri joined Flamurtari as a free agent, signing until June 2017, rejoining his former Tirana boss Gugash Magani. After appearing in 11 league matches during the season, Frashëri left the team after the end of the season, where Flamurtari narrowly escaped relegation.

### Kukësi

On 21 August 2017, Frashëri completed a transfer to fellow top flight side Kukësi by penning a two-year contract. He was brought as second choice keeper behind Enea Koliqi. After 10 matches on bench, he made his first league appearance of the season on 20 November by starting in the 1–2 home loss to Partizani Tirana.

## International career

### Youth

Frashëri was part of Albania under-17 squad in the qualifiers of 2007 UEFA European Under-17 Championship. He played in all three matches in Group 9, making his debut on 15 October in the 1–4 loss to Finland. Albania finished the group in last position with only one point.

Frashëri received his first under-19 call-up to be part of squad in the 2009 UEFA European Under-19 Championship qualifying campaign. He played his first match on 8 October 2008 versus England which finished in the 3–0 loss. Then he made another appearance in Group 9, in the 5–0 loss to Serbia before making place for Elson Demi in the final match versus Northern Ireland.

Frashëri was called up for the first time in the under-21 squad by coach Artan Bushati for 2011 UEFA European Under-21 Championship qualifying match against Azerbaijan on 4 September 2010, but he was an unused substitute behind the first choice Shpëtim Moçka.

In the next European U-21 tournament, the 2013 UEFA European Under-21 Championship qualification, Frashëri played every minute in all 8 matches of the Group 6.

### Senior

Frashëri received his first senior call-up at the senior by coach Gianni De Biasi for the friendly matches against France and Italy on 14 and 18 November 2014 and this to replace the fellow Albanian Superliga goalkeeper of Partizani Tirana, Alban Hoxha, which had some issue family problems. He was an unused substitute as a 3rd choice 23rd shirt number behind of the starter Etrit Berisha and Orges Shehi for both matches.

## Career statistics

### Club

### International

## Honours

### Club

- Albanian Cup: 2018–19

- Albanian Cup: 2019–20

- Kategoria Superiore: 2020–21

- Albanian Supercup: 2020


Multiple sub-Nyquist sampling encoding

# Multiple sub-Nyquist sampling encoding

## Abstract

MUSE (Multiple sub-Nyquist Sampling Encoding), commercially known as Hi-Vision (a contraction of HI gh-definition tele VISION) was a Japanese analog high-definition television system, with design efforts going back to 1979.

It used dot-interlacing and digital video compression to deliver 1125 line, 60 field-per-second (1125i60) signals to the home. The system was standardized as ITU -R recommendation BO.786 and specified by SMPTE 260M, using a colorimetry matrix specified by SMPTE 240M. As with other analog systems, not all lines carry visible information. On MUSE there are 1035 active interlaced lines, therefore this system is sometimes also mentioned as 1035i. It employed 2-dimensional filtering, dot-interlacing, motion-vector compensation and line-sequential color encoding with time compression to "fold" an original 30 MHz bandwidth Hi-Vision source signal into just 8.1 MHz.

Japan began broadcasting wideband analog HDTV signals in December 1988, initially with an aspect ratio of 2:1. The Sony HDVS high-definition video system was used to create content for the MUSE system, but didn't record MUSE signals. By the time of its commercial launch in 1991, digital HDTV was already under development in the United States. Hi-Vision was mainly broadcast by NHK through their BShi satellite TV channel, although other channels such as WOWOW, TV Asahi, Fuji Television, TBS Television, Nippon Television, and TV Tokyo also broadcast in MUSE.

On May 20, 1994, Panasonic released the first MUSE LaserDisc player. There were also a number of players available from other brands like Pioneer and Sony.

Hi-Vision continued broadcasting in analog until 2007.

## History

MUSE was developed by NHK Science & Technology Research Laboratories in the 1980s as a compression system for Hi-Vision HDTV signals.

- Japanese broadcast engineers immediately rejected conventional vestigial sideband broadcasting.

- It was decided early on that MUSE would be a satellite broadcast format as Japan economically supports satellite broadcasting. MUSE was transmitted at a frequency of 21 GHz or 12 GHz.

- Japanese broadcast engineers had been studying the various HDTV broadcast types for some time. It was initially thought that SHF, EHF or optic fiber would have to be used to transmit HDTV due to the high bandwidth of the signal, and HLO-PAL would be used for terrestrial broadcast. HLO-PAL is a conventionally constructed composite signal (based on Y {\displaystyle Y} for luminance and C {\displaystyle C} for chroma like NTSC and PAL) and uses a phase alternating by line with half-line offset carrier encoding of the wideband/narrowband chroma components. Only the very lowest part of the wideband chroma component overlapped the high-frequency chroma. The narrowband chroma was completely separated from luminance. PAF, or phase alternating by field (like the first NTSC color system trial) was also experimented with, and it gave much better decoding results, but NHK abandoned all composite encoding systems. Because of the use of satellite transmission, Frequency modulation (FM) should be used with power-limitation problem. FM incurs triangular noise, so if a sub-carrierred composite signal is used with FM, demodulated chroma signal has more noise than luminance. Because of this, they looked at other options, and decided to use Y / C {\displaystyle Y/C} component emission for satellite. At one point, it seemed that FCFE (Frame Conversion Fineness Enhanced), I/P conversion compression system, would be chosen, but MUSE was ultimately picked.

- Separate transmission of Y {\displaystyle Y} and C {\displaystyle C} components was explored. The MUSE format which is transmitted today, uses separated component signalling. The improvement in picture quality was so great, that the original test systems were recalled.

- One more power saving tweak was made: lack of visual response to low frequency noise allows significant reduction in transponder power if the higher video frequencies are emphasised prior to modulation at the transmitter and de-emphasized at the receiver.

## Technical specifications

MUSE's "1125 lines" are an analog measurement, which includes non-video scan lines taking place while a CRT 's electron beam returns to the top of the screen to begin scanning the next field. Only 1035 lines have picture information. Digital signals count only the lines (rows of pixels) that have actual detail, so NTSC's 525 lines become 486i (rounded to 480 to be MPEG compatible), PAL's 625 lines become 576i, and MUSE would be 1035i. To convert the bandwidth of Hi-Vision MUSE into "conventional" lines-of-horizontal resolution (as is used in the NTSC world), multiply 29.9 lines per MHz of bandwidth. (NTSC and PAL/SECAM are 79.9 lines per MHz) - this calculation of 29.9 lines works for all current HD systems including Blu-ray and HD-DVD. So, for MUSE, during a still picture, the lines of resolution would be: 598-lines of luminance resolution per-picture-height. The chroma resolution is: 209-lines. The horizontal luminance measurement approximately matches the vertical resolution of a 1080 interlaced image when the Kell factor and interlace factor are taken into account. 1125 lines was selected as a compromise between the resolution in lines of NTSC and PAL and then doubling this number.

MUSE employs time-compression integration (TCI) which is another term for time-division multiplexing, which is used to carry luminance, chrominance, PCM audio and sync signals on one carrier signal/in one carrier frequency. However, TCI achieves multiplexing by compression of the contents in the time dimension, in other words transmitting frames of video that are divided into regions with chrominance compressed into the left of the frame and luminance compressed into the right of the frame, which must then be expanded and layered to create a visible image. This makes it different from NTSC which carries luminance, audio and chrominance simultaneously in several carrier frequencies. Hi-Vision signals are component video signals with 3 channels: they were RGB initially, and later YP P.

Key features of the MUSE system:

- Scanlines (total/active): 1,125/1,035

- Pixels per line (fully interpolated): 1122 (still image)/748 (moving)

- Reference clock periods: 1920 per active line

- Interlaced ratio: 2:1

- Aspect ratio 16:9

- Refresh rate: 59.94 or 60 frames per second

- Sampling frequency for broadcast: 16.2 MHz

- Vector motion compensation: horizontal ± 16 samples (32.4 MHz clock) / frame, a vertical line ± 3 / Field

- Audio: "DANCE" discrete 2- or 4-channel digital audio system: 48 kHz/16 bit (2 channel stereo: 2 front channels)/32 kHz/12 bit (4 channel surround: 3 front channels + 1 back channel)

- DPCM Audio compression format: DPCM quasi-instantaneous companding

- Required bandwidth: 27 MHz

### Colorimetry

The MUSE luminance signal Y {\displaystyle Y} encodes Y M {\displaystyle YM}, specified as the following mix of the original RGB color channels:

The chrominance C {\displaystyle C} signal encodes B − Y M {\displaystyle B-YM} and R − Y M {\displaystyle R-YM} difference signals. By using these three signals (Y M {\displaystyle YM}, B − Y M {\displaystyle B-YM} and R − Y M {\displaystyle R-YM}), a MUSE receiver can retrieve the original RGB color components using the following matrix:

The system used a colorimetry matrix specified by SMPTE 240M (with coefficients corresponding to the SMPTE RP 145 primaries, also known as SMPTE-C, in use at the time the standard was created). The chromaticity of the primary colors and white point are:

The luma (E Y {\displaystyle EY}) function is specified as:

The blue color difference (E P B {\displaystyle EPB}) is amplitude-scaled (E B − E Y {\displaystyle EB-EY}), according to:

The red color difference (E P R {\displaystyle EPR}) is amplitude-scaled (E R − E Y {\displaystyle ER-EY}), according to:

### Signal and Transmission

MUSE is a 1125 line system (1035 visible), and is not pulse and sync compatible with the digital 1080 line system used by modern HDTV. Originally, it was a 1125 line, interlaced, 60 Hz, system with a 5:3 (1.66:1) aspect ratio and an optimal viewing distance of roughly 3.3H. In 1989 this was changed to a 16:9 aspect ratio.

For terrestrial MUSE transmission a bandwidth limited FM system was devised. A satellite transmission system uses uncompressed FM.

The pre-compression bandwidth for Y {\displaystyle Y} is 20 MHz, and the pre-compression bandwidth for chrominance is a 7.425 MHz carrier.

The Japanese initially explored the idea of frequency modulation of a conventionally constructed composite signal. This would create a signal similar in structure to the Y / C {\displaystyle Y/C} composite video NTSC signal - with the Y {\displaystyle Y} (luminance) at the lower frequencies and the C {\displaystyle C} (chrominance) above. Approximately 3 kW of power would be required, in order to get 40 dB of signal to noise ratio for a composite FM signal in the 22 GHz band. This was incompatible with satellite broadcast techniques and bandwidth.

To overcome this limitation, it was decided to use a separate transmission of Y {\displaystyle Y} and C {\displaystyle C}. This reduces the effective frequency range and lowers the required power. Approximately 570 W (360 for Y {\displaystyle Y} and 210 for C {\displaystyle C}) would be needed in order to get a 40 dB of signal to noise ratio for a separate Y / C {\displaystyle Y/C} FM signal in the 22 GHz satellite band. This was feasible.

There is one more power saving that appears from the character of the human eye. The lack of visual response to low frequency noise allows significant reduction in transponder power if the higher video frequencies are emphasized prior to modulation at the transmitter and then de-emphasized at the receiver. This method was adopted, with crossover frequencies for the emphasis/de-emphasis at 5.2 MHz for Y {\displaystyle Y} and 1.6 MHz for C {\displaystyle C}. With this in place, the power requirements drop to 260 W of power (190 for Y {\displaystyle Y} and 69 for C {\displaystyle C}).

## Sampling systems and ratios

The subsampling in a video system is usually expressed as a three part ratio. The three terms of the ratio are: the number of brightness (luma) Y {\displaystyle Y} samples, followed by the number of samples of the two color (chroma) components C b {\displaystyle Cb} and C r {\displaystyle Cr}, for each complete sample area. Traditionally the value for brightness is always 4, with the rest of the values scaled accordingly.

A sampling of 4:4:4 indicates that all three components are fully sampled. A sampling of 4:2:0, for example, indicated that the two chroma components are sampled at half the horizontal sample rate of luma - the horizontal chroma resolution is halved. This reduces the bandwidth of an uncompressed video signal by one-third.

MUSE implements a similar system as a means of reducing bandwidth, but instead of static sampling, the actual ratio varies according to the amount of motion on the screen. In practice, MUSE sampling will vary from approximately 4:2:1 to 4:0.5:0.25, depending on the amount of movement. Thus the red-green chroma component C r {\displaystyle Cr} has between one-half and one-eighth the sampling resolution of the luma component Y {\displaystyle Y}, and the blue-yellow chroma C b {\displaystyle Cb} has half the resolution of red-green.

## Audio subsystem

MUSE had a discrete 2- or 4-channel digital audio system called " DANCE ", which stood for Digital Audio Near-instantaneous Compression and Expansion.

It used differential audio transmission (differential pulse-code modulation) that was not psychoacoustics-based like MPEG-1 Layer II. It used a fixed transmission rate of 1350 kbp/s. Like the PAL NICAM stereo system, it used near-instantaneous companding (as opposed to Syllabic-companding like the dbx system uses) and non-linear 13-bit digital encoding at a 32 kHz sample rate.

It could also operate in a 48 kHz 16-bit mode. The DANCE system was well documented in numerous NHK technical papers and in a NHK-published book issued in the USA called Hi-Vision Technology.

The DANCE audio codec was superseded by Dolby AC-3 (a.k.a. Dolby Digital), DTS Coherent Acoustics (a.k.a. DTS Zeta 6x20 or ARTEC), MPEG-1 Layer III (a.k.a. MP3), MPEG-2 Layer I, MPEG-4 AAC and many other audio coders. The methods of this codec are described in the IEEE paper:

## Real world performance issues

MUSE had a four-field dot-interlacing cycle, meaning it took four fields to complete a single MUSE frame. Thus, only stationary images were transmitted at full resolution. However, as MUSE lowers the horizontal and vertical resolution of material that varies greatly from frame to frame, moving images were blurred. Because MUSE used motion-compensation, whole camera pans maintained full resolution, but individual moving elements could be reduced to only a quarter of the full frame resolution. Because the mix between motion and non-motion was encoded on a pixel-by-pixel basis, it wasn't as visible as most would think. Later, NHK came up with backwards compatible methods of MUSE encoding/decoding that greatly increased resolution in moving areas of the image as well as increasing the chroma resolution during motion. This so-called MUSE-III system was used for broadcasts starting in 1995 and a very few of the last Hi-Vision MUSE LaserDiscs used it (A River Runs Through It is one Hi-Vision LD that used it). During early demonstrations of the MUSE system, complaints were common about the decoder's large size, which led to the creation of a miniaturized decoder.

Shadows and multipath still plague this analog frequency modulated transmission mode.

Japan has since switched to a digital HDTV system based on ISDB, but the original MUSE-based BS Satellite channel 9 (NHK BS Hi-vision) was broadcast until September 30, 2007.

## Cultural and geopolitical impacts

- (1940s): The NTSC standard (as a 525 line monochrome system) was imposed by the US occupation forces.

- (1950s-1960s): Unlike Canada (that could have switched to PAL), Japan was stuck with the US TV transmission standard regardless of circumstances.

- (1960s-1970s): By the late 1960s many parts of the modern Japanese electronics industry had gotten their start by fixing the transmission and storage problems inherent with NTSC's design.

- (1970s-1980s): By the 1980s there was spare engineering talent available in Japan that could design a better television system.

MUSE, as the US public came to know it, was initially covered in the magazine Popular Science in the mid-1980s. The US television networks did not provide much coverage of MUSE until the late 1980s, as there were few public demonstrations of the system outside Japan.

Because Japan had its own domestic frequency allocation tables (that were more open to the deployment of MUSE) it became possible for this television system to be transmitted by Ku Band satellite technology by the end of the 1980s.

The US FCC in the late 1980s began to issue directives that would allow MUSE to be tested in the US, providing it could be fit into a 6 MHz System-M channel.

The Europeans (in the form of the European Broadcasting Union (EBU)) were impressed with MUSE, but could never adopt it because it is a 60 Hz TV system, not a 50 Hz system that is standard in Europe and the rest of the world (outside the Americas and Japan).

The EBU development and deployment of B-MAC, D-MAC and much later on HD-MAC were made possible by Hi-Vision's technical success. In many ways MAC transmission systems are better than MUSE because of the total separation of colour from brightness in the time domain within the MAC signal structure.

Like Hi-Vision, HD-MAC could not be transmitted in 8 MHz channels without substantial modification – and a severe loss of quality and frame rate. A 6 MHz version Hi-Vision was experimented with in the US, but it too had severe quality problems so the FCC never fully sanctioned its use as a domestic terrestrial television transmission standard.

The US ATSC working group that had led to the creation of NTSC in the 1950s was reactivated in the early 1990s because of Hi-Vision's success. Many aspects of the DVB standard are based on work done by the ATSC working group, however most of the impact is in support for 60 Hz (as well as 24 Hz for film transmission) and uniform sampling rates and interoperable screen sizes.

## Device support for Hi-Vision

### Hi-Vision LaserDiscs

On May 20, 1994, Panasonic released the first MUSE LaserDisc player. There were a number of MUSE LaserDisc players available in Japan: Pioneer HLD-XØ, HLD-X9, HLD-1000, HLD-V500, HLD-V700; Sony HIL-1000, HIL-C1 and HIL-C2EX; the last two of which have OEM versions made by Panasonic, LX-HD10 and LX-HD20. Players also supported standard NTSC LaserDiscs. Hi-Vision LaserDiscs are extremely rare and expensive.

The HDL-5800 Video Disc Recorder recorded both high definition still images and continuous video onto an optical disc and was part of the early analog wideband Sony HDVS high-definition video system which supported the MUSE system. Capable of recording HD still images and video onto either the WHD-3AL0 or the WHD-33A0 optical disc; WHD-3Al0 for CLV mode (up to 10 minute video or 18,000 still frames per side); WHD-33A0 for CAV mode (up to 3 minute video or 5400 still frames per side). These video discs were used for short video content such as advertisements and product demonstrations.

The HDL-2000 was a full band high definition video disc player.

### Reel to reel VTRs

For recording Hi-Vision signals, Three reel to reel analog VTRs were released, among them are the Sony HDV-1000, the NEC TT 8-1000 and the Toshiba TVR-1000. These analog VTRs had a head drum angular speed of 3600 RPM and are similar to Type C VTRs. They have a bandwidth of 30 Mhz for luma and 7 Mhz for both chroma channels each, with a signal to noise ratio of 41 dB. They accept luma and chroma signals with bandwidths of up to 30 Mhz for both. Signals are recorded onto the tape using FM modulation. Linear tape speed is 483.1 mm/s and writing speed at the heads is 25.9 m/s. The head drum is 134.5 mm wide and has 4 video record heads, 4 video playback heads and 1 erasing head. It could record for 45 minutes on 10.5 inch reels. The video heads are made of Mn-Zn ferrite material, those used for recording have a gap of 0.7 microns and a width of 80 microns and those for playback have a gap of 0.35 microns and a width of 70 microns. It records audio on 3 linear tracks, and control signals on a linear track. Unlike conventional type C videotape recorders, Vertical Blanking Intervals are not recorded on the tape. Helical tracks have groups of 4 signals length-wise with red chrominance, blue chrominance, and two green chrominance signals with luminance information. Two tracks for green chrominance plus luminance are used to increase the bandwidth of these signals that can be recorded on the tape.

In 1987, technical standards for digital recording of Hi-Vision signals were released by NHK, and Sony and Hitachi developed the HDD-1000 and the HV-1200 digital reel to reel VTRs respectively. Audio is recorded digitally similarly to a DASH (Digital Audio Stationary Head) digital audio recorder, but several changes were made to synchronize the audio to the video. These digital VTRs can record 8 channels of digital audio on linear tracks (horizontally along the entire length of the tape). According to the standards, these VTRs operate with a head drum speed of 7200 RPM, have a bit rate of 148.5 Mb/s per video head, a linear tape speed of 805.2 mm/s and a writing speed at the heads of 51.5 m/s, are similar to Type C VTRs, have a head drum 135mm wide, 8 playback, 8 recording and 2 erase heads, with 37 micron wide helical tracks. Bandwidth is 30 Mhz for luma (Y) and 15 Mhz for chroma (P, P). Audio is recorded with a sampling rate of 48 kHz stored at 16 bits per sample in linear tape tracks, sampling rate for luma is 74.25 Mhz and 37.125 Mhz for chroma stored at 8 bits per sample. Signal to noise ratio is 56 dB for chroma and luma. Video fields are divided into 16 helical tracks on the tape. Total video bandwidth is 1.188 gigabits/s. Cue signals are recorded into 3 linear tape tracks. Video is recorded in groups of 4 tracks length-wise within each helical track, to allow for parallelization: high total data rates with relatively low data rates per head, and reduce the linear tape speed. Digital video signals are recorded line by line (1 row of pixels in every frame of video or 1 line of video at a time) with ECC (Error Correcting Code) at the end of each line and in between a number of vertical lines. Reed-Solomon code is used for ECC and each line also has an ID number for trick play such as slow motion and picture search/shuttle.

### Displays

Hi-Vision requires a display capable of handling 30 Mhz of video bandwidth simultaneously for each of the component video channels: Y, P and P. It was displayed on direct view color CRTs and CRT projectors, and plasma displays and Talaria projectors were explored to determine their ability to display Hi-Vision images.

### Cameras

Cameras based on Saticon tubes, Plumbicon tubes, Harpicon tubes and CCD image sensors were used to capture footage using the Hi-Vision format. A prototype based on Vidicon tubes was also created.

### MUSE decoders

A MUSE decoder is required for receiving MUSE broadcasts from satellites, and for viewing content in the MUSE format. The decoder converts MUSE format signals into Hi-Vision component video signals that can then be shown in a display.

### Video cassettes

W-VHS allowed home recording of Hi-Vision programmes.

For recording Hi-Vision video, NHK and 10 Japanese companies ("NEC, Matsushita Electric Industrial, Toshiba, Sharp, Sony, Hitachi, Sanyo Electric, JVC, Mitsubishi Electric, Canon") in 1989 released UniHi, a professional videocassette format. Recorders for the format were manufactured by Panasonic, Sony, NEC, and Toshiba. These machines were less expensive than their Type C counterparts. Both studio and portable versions were made. The head drum spins at 5400 RPM and uses tape that is 12.65 mm wide. It has a luminance (Y) bandwidth of 20 MHz and a chrominance (P, P) bandwidth of 7 MHz. The head drum is 76mm wide. It uses two video heads with azimuth recording and records each frame of video into 12 helical tracks; only 6 tracks are necessary for each video field if recording interlaced video. Audio is recorded digitally as a PCM signal, as a section on the helical tracks. Writing speed at the heads is 21.4 m/s. The tape also has 3 linear tracks, one for audio, control and time code each. Signal to noise ratio for luminance is 41 dB and for chrominance it is 47 dB. The tape is wrapped 180° around the head drum. Development began in 1987. It uses metal particle tape. It could record video for 1 hour (63 minutes). Linear tape speed is 120 mm/s. The cassette measures 205mm (width) x 121mm (depth) x 25mm (height). Signals are recorded using time-compression integration, in groups of two signals length-wise on each helical track. Grouping is used to increase the bandwidth that can be recorded on the tape. The cassette is intented to be air-tight with two flaps in the cassette's opening to protect the tape.

This videocassette format was developed in order to reduce the size of HD recording equipment. The Sony version of the UniHi VTR, the HDV-10, had a price of over 90,000 US dollars.


Kevin Stefanski

# Kevin Stefanski

## Abstract

Kevin Lawrence Stefanski / s t ə ˈ f ɛ n s k iː / (born May 8, 1982) is an American professional football coach who is the head coach of the Cleveland Browns of the National Football League (NFL). He began his NFL career as an assistant coach for the Minnesota Vikings from 2006 to 2019 and was the offensive coordinator during his final two seasons. Stefanski left Minnesota to become the Browns' head coach in 2020, where he led the team to their first playoff appearance since 2002. He was named NFL Coach of the Year after the season, becoming the first Browns coach to receive the honor since 1976 and the first following the franchise's 1999 return as an expansion team. He led the Browns to a second playoff appearance in 2023 and won a second NFL Coach of the Year award for his work that season.

## Early life and playing career

Stefanski graduated from St. Joseph's Preparatory School in 2000 and the University of Pennsylvania in 2004. Stefanski played defensive back while at Penn, being named the Quakers Freshman of the Year in 2000. He was part of the only undefeated Penn team of the decade and was twice an All- Ivy League selection.

## Coaching career

### Minnesota Vikings assistant

Stefanski joined the Minnesota Vikings in 2006 as an assistant to then-head coach Brad Childress. In 2009, he was promoted to assistant quarterbacks' coach, where he would serve until the 2013 season and had coached quarterbacks such as Brett Favre and Christian Ponder. Despite the Vikings' ups and downs during his tenure, Stefanski survived 3 coaching changes (Childress, Leslie Frazier, and Mike Zimmer).

In 2017, after the termination of Scott Turner, Stefanski was promoted to coach the Vikings quarterbacks, where he helped transform the Vikings into the NFL's 10th-highest scoring offense. Quarterback Case Keenum had his best season under Stefanski, throwing 22 touchdown passes and only seven interceptions. He previously worked with the running backs in 2016 and the tight ends in 2014 and 2015.

After the 2017 season, the New York Giants requested to interview and hire Stefanski as their new offensive coordinator, but the Vikings denied the request.

After offensive coordinator John DeFilippo was fired following a 21–7 loss to the Seattle Seahawks, Stefanski was named interim offensive coordinator. On January 9, 2019, Stefanski was promoted to full-time offensive coordinator.

### Cleveland Browns

On January 13, 2020, Stefanski signed a five-year contract to become the 18th head coach of the Cleveland Browns, two days after the Minnesota Vikings lost in the NFC playoffs. On September 13, 2020, Stefanski lost his head coaching debut to the Baltimore Ravens by a score of 38–6. The loss marked the 16th consecutive Week 1 without a win for the Browns. On September 17, Stefanski recorded his first career win as a head coach in the 35–30 win against the Cincinnati Bengals.

On December 6, Stefanski became the first Browns head coach since Romeo Crennel in 2007 to lead the franchise to a winning season, securing his ninth win with a 41–35 victory over the Tennessee Titans. Stefanski led the Browns to a 11–5 record, finishing third in the AFC North and clinching the Browns' first playoff berth since 2002. It was also the franchise's best record since their 1999 return. However, Stefanski tested positive for COVID-19 on the Tuesday before the game, preventing him from coaching the wild card game against the Pittsburgh Steelers. The Browns went on to defeat the Steelers 48–37, which was their first playoff win since 1994, as well as their first since their 1999 re-activation. He returned to the team on January 14. The Browns lost the following week to the Kansas City Chiefs in the AFC Divisional Round, 22–17. For his work during the 2020 season, Stefanski was named as the Associated Press NFL Coach of the Year. He was the first Browns coach to receive the honor since Forrest Gregg in 1976, in addition to being the first after Cleveland's return in 1999.

During the 2023 Browns season, Stefanski led the team to a second winning season (11-6) along with another playoff appearance becoming the first Browns head coach to lead the team to multiple postseason appearances since Marty Schottenheimer. He again was named Associated Press Coach of the Year.

On June 5, 2024, the Browns signed Stefanski to a contract extension.

## Personal life

Stefanski and his wife Michelle have three children together. He is the son of NBA executive Ed Stefanski.

He is a Roman Catholic, a member of St Luke parish in Lakewood.

https://www.dioceseofcleveland.org/news/2021/09/02/alleluia-ball-sponsorship-event-draws-bishop-browns-coach-kevin-stefanski


The Battle of Shaker Heights

# The Battle of Shaker Heights

## Abstract

The Battle of Shaker Heights is a 2003 American comedy-drama teen film directed by Efram Potelle and Kyle Rankin, written by Erica Beeney, and produced by Chris Moore and Jeff Balis. It stars Shia LaBeouf, Elden Henson, Kathleen Quinlan, Amy Smart and Shiri Appleby. The film was the winning script for the second season of Project Greenlight.

## Plot

Kelly Ernswiler, a young war reenactment enthusiast, works at his local store with love interest Sarah and Bart Bowland. Kelly's father, Abe, works with drug addicts, being clean himself for over five years. His mother, Eve, is a commercial artist.

Kelly attempts to woo Bart's older sister, Tabby, even though she's set to marry Miner Weber, a handsome businessman. Kelly becomes a regular at Bart's house, being over for dinner often, and he impresses Bart's father, Harrison, with their common fondness for war memorabilia, and Bart's mother by complimenting her on her flowers, and he often talks to Tabby in her workshop. During this time, Sarah asks him to go to an Aerosmith concert, which she has a spare ticket for, telling him it would be good for him to get out more. When he bluntly makes it clear that he knows it would be a date, he tells her he is seeing someone else, obviously meaning Tabby. Before Kelly and Bart perform their plan for Lance's humiliation, Bart makes it clear to Kelly that he knows he has "his own agenda", at which Kelly is insulted and angry, and Bart displaces it as "pre-mission nervous energy". They recreate an invasion on the street where Lance lives and drag him out of the house pointing guns at him and shouting at him with German accents. They videotape the whole thing and he urinates out of fear.

Afterwards, the boys are drinking whiskey at Bart's house and Bart passes out in a chair by the fire. Kelly makes to go home and goes to the workshop to say goodbye to Tabby. He walks in on her crying, as she now thinks the marriage will be off and goes to comfort her, and they kiss. As Kelly is leaving, Bart sees him and is furious as he knew he was in the workshop. The next day, as Kelly is on a set for a war program that Bart got them in, Bart hasn't turned up. Kelly is cast in a role to be a jeep driver and when his cue is called, Bart turns up out of the bushes and confronts him about Tabby. Kelly denies it at first and then becomes speechless. As he is about to drive for his cue, Bart attacks him in the jeep and they make a mess of the set.

The next day, Abe is taken into care again for relapsing and Kelly is emotionless. He goes to the wedding the same day, only to have an annoyed Bart tell him that he can't let him in. He sneaks into Tabby's limo before it pulls in and he talks to her, and it is a moment in which he finally realizes he must grow up. He gets out of the car and everyone at the wedding sees him and are all confused. He goes round the back of the church to get his bike and leave and meets Minor again, who has no idea of what happened with Kelly and Tabby, and is civil towards him. Kelly cycles to the clinic where his father is staying and is surprised. They begin to watch television and his mother walks in and is surprised and happy to see Kelly.

In the end, it shows the voicemail message where Kelly apologizes to the Bowlands for his behavior and asks Bart if he will meet him where he will be selling all his old memorabilia, and gives a hat Bart acquired for him back. He is shown walking down the street with Sarah and they hold hands. Kelly sees Lance again on his lawn where they faked the invasion, and goes over to him and confesses, only to be punched in the jaw. Kelly lies on the grass, holds his bruised jaw, and says: "I deserved it".

## Cast

- Shia LaBeouf as Kelly Ernswiler

- Elden Henson as Bart Bowland

- Amy Smart as Tabitha "Tabby" Bowland

- Shiri Appleby as Sarah

- Kathleen Quinlan as Eve Ernswiler

- William Sadler as Abraham "Abe" Ernswiler

- Ray Wise as Harrison Bowland

- Dana Wheeler-Nicholson as Mathilda Bowland

- Billy Kay as Lance Norway

- Michael McShane as Mr. Norway

- Anson Mount as Miner Weber

- Hattie Winston as Principal Holmstead

## Production

The film was shot in and around the greater Los Angeles region. Sites included the Los Angeles County Arboretum and Botanic Garden, Reseda and Santa Monica. No live action footage featuring the stars was filmed in Shaker Heights, Ohio.

## Reception

On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 39% based on reviews from 59 critics. The critics consensus states "LaBeouf is appealing, but The Battle of Shaker Heights feels too watered down and disjointed." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 33 out of 100, based on 22 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable" reviews.

Roger Ebert gave the film two stars out of four, one less than his review for Stolen Summer. In his review, he wrote: "You get the sense of too much input, too many bright ideas, too many scenes that don't belong in the same movie. Odd, how overcrowded it seems, for 85 minutes."


Walt Disney Home Video (VHS)

# Walt Disney Home Video (VHS)

## Abstract

Walt Disney Home Video is a discontinued video line launched to release Disney animated features on home video. This was done by a division of the same name under the parent Walt Disney Telecommunications and Non-Theatrical Company (WDTNT). As an entity, the name Walt Disney Home Video is now known as Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment. The scope of this list is mostly limited to Disney's North American live action movie releases. Cartoon collections were concurrently released as Walt Disney Cartoon Classics which include the "Limited Gold Editions". The initial price for early Disney cassettes at the time was "prohibitory expensive" for many, this changed in the mid-1980s when VCRs became affordable.

## History

Disney started out by establishing its own video distribution operation in 1980 as part of Walt Disney Telecommunications and Non-Theatrical Company (WDTNT) with Jim Jimirro as its first president. WDTNT Co. also handled marketing of other miscellaneous ancillary items such as short 8 mm films for home movies. When Disney started with video cassettes, "Home video" was not considered to be a major market by them at the time. Their first releases on videotape were 13 titles that were licensed for rental to Fotomat on March 4, 1980. Disney was unusual among the major studios in offering a program for authorized rentals. Most of the other studios involved in the videocassette market at the time were trying to find ways to stop dealers from renting out their movie tapes. Magnetic Video (with titles from 20th Century Fox and others) ceased doing business with Fotomat after Fotomat began renting Magnetic Video cassettes without authorization.

The switchover from rental to sales was a "thorny" issue that was solved by giving dealers an option on the type of outlet they desired. For those who just wanted to rent video cassettes, a title was given (for US$52) on a 13-week cycle. The dealer could then set the price as many times as they wanted in those 13 weeks before purchasing a new title from Disney. Video cassette rentals were more "functionally" packaged with a heavier box and less elaborately detailed illustrations. For those who wanted to sell video cassettes, a "fairly straightforward" program involved 4 color packaging and a suggested retail price. In order to separate the two mediums, the cassette either featured " FOR RENTAL ONLY/Not intended for Sale " or "FOR SALE ONLY/Not intended for Rental". The 13 titles that had been licensed for rental to Fotomat subsequently became available for purchase.

Throughout their release history, "Walt Disney Home Video" cassettes were promoted by Disney. An early example is the 1981 release of "A Walt Disney Christmas" where a "Free Mickey Mouse Plush Toy" was offered as an incentive. Disney later offered a promotion for Summer 1982 called "Disney's American Summer", where they sold some of their live action movies for the first time. At the time this promotion was done in an effort to make video cassettes more affordable, and boosted the video software involved. Marketing included a 7 foot tall gazebo which was set up in stores and a free mug as an incentive. Towards the end of 1984, Disney did a “Wrapped And Ready to Give” christmas promotion which included 7 newly released titles on video cassette. Later promotions include Disney's 1986 "Wonderland Campaign" as a further attempt to bring prices down.

When the Disney Channel was launched on April 18, 1983 it gave the company an opportunity to air made for TV films such as Tiger Town and Gone Are the Dayes, both of which were released to home video in 1984. During that same year Disney also started releasing their animated feature films under the Walt Disney Classics line starting with Robin Hood. On March 8, 1985 Disney released " Love Leads the Way " which became their first title that went straight to Home Video. The Walt Disney Home Video division was legally incorporated as Buena Vista Home Video on February 13, 1987. This name change however, did not stop some VHS releases under the Walt Disney Home Video line from being released throughout the year.

## North American releases

## Worldwide releases

Disney first offered Dumbo, Mary Poppins, Mi Amigo El Dragon (Pete's Dragon), Su Mas Fiel Amigo (Old Yeller), La Montana Embrujada (Escape to Witch Mountain), Los Tres Caballeros (The Three Caballeros), Mickey's Christmas Carol, and 2 cartoon collections in Spanish on November 30, 1985 In the United Kingdom, titles from the "Walt Disney Home Video" product line such as Mary Poppins, Pete's Dragon and Bedknobs and Broomsticks were not released to video cassette until November 26, 1988. Additional VHS releases in other countries under the "Walt Disney Home Video" are possible, but need further sourcing.

## Rarity

In terms of consignment, Heritage Auctions has placed in their "Vintage VHS Tapes Value Guide" that the most desirable VHS tapes released between 1979 and 1990 are still in their original factory shrink wrap. When VCRs were first released in 1977, they were priced between $1,000 to $1,400 which would roughly equal $4,900 to $6,900 in 2023 USD. As this amount was initially unattainable for most homes fewer people were buying VHS tapes, which in turn meant fewer copies being produced. A "likely sum of money for a video cassette at the time was between $80 and $100 or $400+ in 2023 USD. These higher costs lasted until 1985 when VCRs finally began dropping in price. While this meant more tapes were produced, it did not mean that they became any less of a rarity.

In regard to Disney "Only the earliest of Disney VHS cassettes produced prior to 1985 hold any value to most collectors." Titles such as "Tron" which remains "elusive" for early copies have sold for high amounts in mint condition. Things to look for in general include a sealed tape, a studio logo on the shrink-wrap, and if the latest year listed on the back of the cover is prior to 1986.


The Beast of Bray Road (film)

# The Beast of Bray Road (film)

## Abstract

The Beast of Bray Road is a 2005 American horror film written and directed by Leigh Scott. A direct-to-video release produced and distributed by The Asylum, it is based on the Beast of Bray Road, a purported wolf-like cryptid that was allegedly first sighted in Elkhorn, Walworth County, Wisconsin, in 1936. It stars Jeff Denton, Thomas Downey, Sarah Lieving, Joel Ezra Hebner, and Tom Nagel.

## Plot

Phil Jenkins is the new sheriff of Walworth County, Wisconsin, which he has just transferred to from Chicago. Phil is dating Kelly Jean, the owner of a local tavern called Kelly's Roadhouse, and is assisted in his duties by Deputies Pamela Fitske and Dennis Snarski. When people and animals start turning up dead, all of them viciously ripped apart and eaten, it sparks rumors about the return of the Beast of Bray Road, a mythical, wolf-like creature whose legend dates back to the 19th century. The gossip attracts the attention of Quinn McKenzie, a cryptozoologist who inserts himself into the investigation, to the annoyance of Phil.

As the bodies pile-up, mounting evidence, such as the teeth marks on a victim's bones and DNA analysis of the fur that was found at one of the attack sites, suggests that the predator that is running amok really is a werewolf; this is confirmed by dashcam footage that is recovered from Dennis's car after he is killed by the Beast. Billy Loubes, the best local hunter and the bereaved younger brother of two of the Beast's victims, agrees to allow Phil, Quinn, and Pamela access to his vast arsenal of firearms in exchange for Phil letting him help them hunt the Beast. The quartet coat their bullets in silver (the only substance that can nullify a werewolf's regenerative powers) and brew a serum, described as "the Ebola virus for werewolves" by Quinn, out of nightshade and Wolf's bane.

The Beast wounds Quinn and bites Billy, but before it can finish either of them off, it is shot in the leg by Phil, who pursues it to the Roadhouse. Phil realizes that Kelly is the Beast when he sees her wounded leg; Kelly reveals that she was bitten by another werewolf, implied to be the actual Beast of Bray Road, and explains that, while she initially only transformed during the full moon, she eventually mastered the change, though she admits that, lately, she has "lost control of it." Kelly partially transforms and bites Phil, who injects her with Quinn's serum, forcing her back into her human form while he regroups with Pamela. To buy time while the serum wears off, Kelly tricks Pamela into shooting Phil, then kills Pamela. Phil is saved by his bulletproof vest, and as Kelly fully transforms, a pair of motorists pull up to the Roadhouse. While Kelly is distracted murdering the men, a recovered Billy sets her on fire before he and Phil finish her off by shooting her, with Billy snarking, "Eat silver bullets, bitch."

The film ends with Phil and Billy, now cursed with lycanthropy, temporarily sequestering themselves in the mountains after being supplied with more of the anti-werewolf serum by Quinn.

## Cast

- Jeff Denton as Sheriff Phil Jenkins

- Thomas Downey as Quinn McKenzie

- Sarah Lieving as Kelly Jean

- Joel Ezra Hebner as Creature/Ray Loubes

- Tom Nagel as Billy Loubes

- Noel Thurman as Deputy Pamela Fitske

- Matt Kawczynski as Deputy Dennis Snarski

- Dan Tana as Zeke Loubes

- George Williams as Father Rogers

- Bernadette Pérez as Gina Germaine

- Anne Apra as Mrs. Van Beek

- Kyle Kaplan as Jeff Van Beek

- Mark Womack as Timmy

- Christina Rosenberg as Sandy Brown

- Maija Polsley as June Brown

- Heather Conforto as Gretchin Willings

- Megan Bass-Jackson as Sheila

- Amanda Barton as Shelly Berka

- Steven C. Miller as Brad Willson/Bar Patron

- Eliza Swenson as Tami

- Andrew Lauer as Jack Berka

- Kean Cronin as George Krantz

- William Clevinger as Victor

- Kurt Altschwager as Leon Barton

- Jill McGrady as Margaret Lewis

- Jennifer Black as Dyana Stacy

- Hutchi Hancock as Maddy Mann

- Derek Riley as Pat McGuire

- Ben Thompson as Ben Slawner

- Melanie Guzekas Bar Patron

## Reception

Steve Anderson of Film Threat responded positively to the film, writing, "You know, overall, there's not a whole lot wrong with The Beast of Bray Road. This isn't one of those special, spectacular ones that I can recommend over and over again, but I tell you, if you're into monster movies, especially werewolf pictures, then The Beast of Bray Road is going to be right up your alley." In a review written for Rue Morgue, Joseph O'Brien had a middling response to the film, deriding its derivative plot and "dumb" characters while praising its special effects, ultimately concluding, "While it's unlikely to make you forget Ginger Snaps anytime soon, once you get past the fact that the events depicted in The Beast of Bray Road have as much to do with reality as professional wrestling, there's a decent, if uninspired, lupine time-waster here." Bryan Senn, author of The Werewolf Filmography: 300+ Movies, criticized the film's cast, direction, lighting, sound recording, and creature design, but also called it an "unpretentious, mildly entertaining monster movie" that "stands as one of the better films to emerge from the low-budget fringe-film factory known as The Asylum. Admittedly, coming from the company most famous for derivative schlock like Supercroc and Mega Piranha, not to mention the ludicrous-but-entertaining Sharknado series, that's not saying a whole lot."

Felix Vasquez, Jr. of Cinema Crazed lambasted the film, writing, "Even when The Asylum isn't ripping off another movie, they still suck. Beast of Bray Road could have been a fun movie had they actually had creature action and not so much utter stupidity and poor storytelling." Jon Condit of Dread Central awarded the film a score of 1½ out of 5 and wrote, "After getting off to a promising start and unveiling one of the best looking werewolf costumes to come along in quite awhile, it pains me to report that the Beast of Bray Road is a total misfire. After about a half hour, it became apparent that Beast of Bray Road was conceived by someone with no imagination that instead chose craft the film using a predictable, by-the-numbers werewolf movie template and insisted on following it to the bitter end. Even a clichéd film can be done with some flare but outside of the werewolf kills, which are surprisingly well executed and certainly gruesome enough to satisfy gore fans, the film is utterly devoid of creativity."


# Order of precedence in England and Wales

## Abstract

The following is the order of precedence in England and Wales as of September 2024. Separate orders exist for men and women.

Names in italics indicate that these people rank elsewhere—either higher in that table of precedence or in the table for the other sex. Titles in italics indicate the same thing for their holders, or that they are vacant.

Peers and their families make up a large part of these tables. It is possible for a peer to hold more than one title of nobility, and these may belong to different ranks and peerages. A peer derives his precedence from his highest-ranking title; peeresses derive their precedence in the same way, whether they hold their highest-ranking title in their own right or by marriage. The ranks in the tables refer to peers rather than titles: if exceptions are named for a rank, these do not include peers of a higher rank (or any peers at all, in the case of baronets). No exceptions are named for most categories, owing to their large size.

## Gentlemen

### Royalty, archbishops, et al.

#### Royal family

Precedence is accorded to spouses, children and grandchildren of the reigning sovereign, as well as children and grandchildren of former sovereigns.

### Nobility, bishops, et al.

### Gentry, et al.

#### Cabinet, et al.

The Prime Minister determines the order of precedence for Secretaries of State as part of the ministerial ranking (also known as the order of precedence in Cabinet).

### Other lower ranks, including esquires and gentlemen

## Ladies

### Royal Family

The order of precedence accorded to women of the royal family:

### Nobility and bishops

### Gentry, et al.

#### Cabinet, et al.

The Prime Minister determines the order of precedence for Secretaries of State as part of the ministerial ranking (also known as the order of precedence in Cabinet).

### Ladies and dames, et al.

### Members of orders, et al.

- Members of the following orders: Companions of the Order of the Bath Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George Commanders of the Royal Victorian Order Commanders of the Order of the British Empire

- Companions of the Order of the Bath

- Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George

- Commanders of the Royal Victorian Order

- Commanders of the Order of the British Empire

- Wives of Companions of the following orders: Order of the Bath Order of the Star of India Order of St Michael and St George Order of the Indian Empire Royal Victorian Order Order of the British Empire

- Order of the Bath

- Order of the Star of India

- Order of St Michael and St George

- Order of the Indian Empire

- Royal Victorian Order

- Order of the British Empire

- Wives of Companions of the Distinguished Service Order

- Lieutenants of the Royal Victorian Order

- Officers of the Order of the British Empire

- Wives of Lieutenants of the Royal Victorian Order

- Wives of Officers of the Order of the British Empire

- Companions of the Imperial Service Order

- Wives of Companions of the Imperial Service Order

### Wives and daughters of peers, baronets, and knights, et al.

- Wives of the eldest sons of sons of peers or peeresses

- Daughters of sons of peers or peeresses

- Wives of the eldest sons of baronets

- Daughters of baronets

- Wives of eldest sons of knights: Knights Companion of the Order of the Garter Knights of the Order of the Thistle Knights of the Order of St Patrick Knights Grand Cross or Grand Commander Knights Commander

- Knights Companion of the Order of the Garter

- Knights of the Order of the Thistle

- Knights of the Order of St Patrick

- Knights Grand Cross or Grand Commander

- Knights Commander

- Daughters of knights: Daughters of Knights Companion of the Order of the Garter Daughters of Knights of the Order of the Thistle Daughters of Knights Grand Cross or Grand Commander Daughters of Knights Commander

- Daughters of Knights Companion of the Order of the Garter

- Daughters of Knights of the Order of the Thistle

- Daughters of Knights Grand Cross or Grand Commander

- Daughters of Knights Commander

- Members of the Royal Victorian Order

- Members of the Order of the British Empire

- Wives of members of the Royal Victorian Order

- Wives of members of the Order of the British Empire

### Wives of younger sons

- Wives of younger sons of baronets

- Wives of younger sons of knights: Knights Companion of the Order of the Garter Knights of the Order of the Thistle Knights of the Order of St Patrick Knights Grand Cross or Knights Grand Commander Knights Commander

- Knights Companion of the Order of the Garter

- Knights of the Order of the Thistle

- Knights of the Order of St Patrick

- Knights Grand Cross or Knights Grand Commander

- Knights Commander