2018 in Georgia

# 2018 in Georgia

## Abstract

The following lists events in 2018 in Georgia.

## Incumbents

### National

- President: Giorgi Margvelashvili (17 November 2013 – 16 December 2018), Salome Zurabishvili (16 December 2018 – present)

- Prime Minister: Giorgi Kvirikashvili (30 December 2015 – 13 June 2018), Mamuka Bakhtadze (20 June 2018 – present)

- Chairperson of Parliament: Irakli Kobakhidze (18 November 2016 – present)

### Autonomous republics

#### Adjara

- Chairman of the Government: Zurab Pataradze (15 July 2016 – 4 July 2018); Tornike Rizhvadze (21 July 2018 – present)

- Chairman of the Supreme Council: Davit Gabaidze (28 November 2016 – present)

#### Abkhazia

- Chairman of Government (-in-exile): Vakhtang Kolbaia (acting; 8 April 2013 – present)

- Chairman of the Supreme Council (-in-exile): Elguja Gvazava (20 March 2009 – present)

### Disputed territories

#### Abkhazia

- President: Raul Khadjimba (25 September 2014 – present)

- Prime Minister: Beslan Bartsits (5 August 2016 – 24 April 2018); Gennadi Gagulia (24 April 2018 – 8 September 2018); Valeri Bganba (18 September 2018 – present)

- Chairman of People's Assembly: Valeri Kvarchia (13 April 2017 – present)

#### South Ossetia

- President: Anatoly Bibilov (23 April 2017 – present)

- Prime Minister: Erik Pukhayev (16 May 2017 – present)

- Chairman of Parliament: Pyotr Gasiev (7 June 2017 – present)

## Events

### January

- 3 January – Protests erupt in breakaway Abkhazia over the de facto president Khadjimba's decision to pardon and hand over to the Georgian authorities the region's ethnic Georgian native serving a 20-year prison term for the kidnapping and murder of Abkhaz officials. The region's legislature convenes in an emergency session and sets up a special commission which would confirm the legality of Khadjimba's move, to the ire of the opposition.

- 5 January – The Tbilisi City Court sentences the former President Mikheil Saakashvili to three-year imprisonment in absentia for abusing power in pardoning the former Interior Ministry officials convicted in the 2006 Sandro Girgvliani murder case. Saakashvili, the opposition United National Movement party, and the incumbent President Giorgi Margvelashvili denounce the decision.

- 30 January – Ceiling collapse at the Tbilisi Metro station Varketili, renovated in August 2017, injures at least 14. An investigation into possible violation of safety norms is launched.

### February

- 22 February – A Georgian citizen, Archil Tatunashvili, dies while in custody of the Russian-backed South Ossetian authorities in Tskhinvali, leading to an outrage in Georgia and concerns expressed by the EU mission and foreign embassies. Despite continued requests from Tbilisi, backed by the West, de facto South Ossetian authorities continue to refuse to hand over body, citing need for post-mortem by Russian experts until 20 March, about a month after reported death.

### March

- 18 March – De facto Abkhazia and South Ossetia take part in the 2018 Russian presidential election, showing record turnout in voting, with local authorities organizing vote and campaigning for Vladimir Putin. Tbilisi condemns the polls as illegal.

- 19 March – Russia launches large-scale military drills including in Abkhazia and South Ossetia, involving some 8,000 troops.

- 21 March – The Parliament of Georgia adopts a bipartisan resolution condemning "gross human rights violations in the Russian-occupied Abkhazia and Tskhinvali Region", including the deaths of two Georgians, Giga Otkhozoria and Archil Tatunashvili in the conflict zones in May 2016 and February 2018, respectively.

- 23 March – The Parliament of Georgia adopts with the third and final reading amendments to the new constitution, incorporating several Venice Commission -recommended changes to the original amendments.

### April

- 4 April – Georgian government unveils a new peace initiative for the breakaway entities of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, consisting of new package of laws and project papers in the areas such as simplified registration, increased trade, and education opportunities for people living in these regions. The proposal is rejected by Russia and the de facto authorities in Abkhazia and South Ossetia.

### May

- 1 May – Georgia implements new smoking regulations, banning smoking in public places and imposing restrictions on selling and advertising of tobacco products.

- 11 May – Facing internal splits, the ruling Georgian Dream party elects its influential founder and the former Prime Minister Bidzina Ivanishvili to chair the party.

- 12–14 May – Thousands protests in front of the Parliament building in Tbilisi following heavy-handed police raids on the city's leading nightclubs, including the internationally famed Bassiani, for search of suspected drug dealers. The demonstrators, dancing to club music, denounce excessive use of force by police and the government's repressive drug police. The rally—described in the media as the Rave Revolution—stops without achieving any tangible results after the Interior Minister Giorgi Gakharia pledges to further work on drug policy reform.

- 18 May – The Federal Customs Service of Russia signs a contract with the Geneva-based testing and inspection company, SGS, on carrying out cargo monitoring through three "trade corridors" between Georgia and Russia, two of which run through the breakaway entities of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, and the third one on the Zemo Larsi-Kazbegi border crossing point in the undisputed section of Georgia–Russia border. This comes as part of the Swiss-mediated agreement between the two neighboring countries signed on 9 November 2011.

- 18 May – The United States and Georgian officials inaugurate the US-sponsored Georgia Defense Readiness Program, envisaging training of nine Georgian battalions over the next three years with the stated aim to "add to Georgia's interoperability and strengthen its territorial defense capabilities."

- 26 May – Georgia celebrates the 100th anniversary of the declaration of independence of the First Republic of Georgia. More than 20 high level delegations arrive to attend the event, including the presidents of Poland, Slovakia, Latvia, Finland, Armenia, and the European Commission.

- 29 May – The Bashar al-Assad government of Syria recognizes the independence of Georgia's breakaway Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Georgia retaliates by severing diplomatic relations with Syria and calls for international support. The Syrian opposition leader Naser al-Hariri condemns the move by Syria's government. Two Syrian airlines are barred by Georgia from accessing its airspace, one of which used to transport private Russian military contractors to take part in the Syrian conflict.

- 31 May – A wave of demonstrations starts in the streets of Tbilisi to protest a perceived miscarriage of justice following the killing of two teenagers in a street brawl in December. The protests continue sporadically until June 11, when the police dismantle camps erected by the protesters in front of the parliament building in Tbilisi. Georgia's chief prosecutor Irakli Shotadze resigns over the case, while the government establishes a special parliamentary fact-finding commission chaired by an opposition politician. The commission would field its final report on 5 September, but its ruling party members would reject it.

### June

- 13 June – Prime Minister Giorgi Kvirikashvili resigns following the May protests, citing differences with Bidzina Ivanishvili, the newly elected chairman of the ruling Georgian Dream party.

- 14 June – The European Parliament passes a resolution demanding Russia reverse its "decision to recognise the so-called independence of the Georgian territories of Abkhazia and South Ossetia".

- 20 June – Georgia's new Prime Minister Mamuka Bakhtadze and his government win the parliamentary vote of confidence with 99 votes in favor to 6 against. The cabinet is reconfirmed by the parliament on 14 July after the previously announced structural reforms in the cabinet ministries are implemented.

- 26 June – Georgian government presents the Tatunashvili-Otkhozoria sanctions list for approval by the parliament. The list contains 33 names of suspects in crimes reportedly committed against ethnic Georgians in Abkhazia and South Ossetia since the end of the secessionist wars in the 1990s.

- 28 June – The governments of Georgia and Hong Kong, the special administrative region of the People's Republic of China, sign a free trade agreement aimed at expanding bilateral trade in goods and services.

- 28 June – The Tbilisi City Court sentences the former President Mikheil Saakashvili in absentia to six years in prison for the alleged abuse of power by trying to cover up evidence related to the 2005 beating of the opposition politician Valeri Gelashvili. Saakashvili denounces the verdict as politically motivated.

### July

- 4 July – Zurab Pataradze, the head of the government of the Autonomous Republic of Adjara, steps down, triggering the resignation of the region's entire cabinet.

- 9 July – Police arrests a 19-year-old shepherd on suspicion of killing an American–Georgian family of three—44-year-old Ryan Smith, his 43-year-old wife Laura Smith, and their four-year-old son—vacationing in the Khada Gorge. The man would be found guilty and sentenced to life in prison in March 2019.

- 16 July – Four miners are killed and six others are injured in a mining accident at the Mindeli coal mine in Tkibuli, western Georgia. This is the second major mining accident in the same mine in 2018, the previous one killing six on 5 April.

- 21 July – Tornike Rizhvadze and his four-member cabinet of Adjara are approved by the autonomous region's legislature. The move was preceded by a controversy over the government formation process between Georgia's President Giorgi Margvelashvili and the ruling Georgian Dream party.

- 30 July – The Constitutional Court of Georgia ruling outlaws administrative punishments, such as fines, for cannabis consumption, eight months after the court abolished criminal sanctions for cannabis use. Cultivation and selling remain a crime. The Ministry of Internal Affairs of Georgia unveils consumption regulations on 5 September.

### August

- 23–24 August – German Chancellor Angela Merkel pays a two-day visit to Georgia as part of his South Caucasian tour, travelling to an occupation line near Tskhinvali Region/South Ossetia. Meeting with students, she speaks about "injustice" in relation to continued Russian military presence in Georgia's breakaway regions, which she calls "occupation". She also downplays prospects for Georgia's membership of NATO and EU any time soon. During Merkel's visit, Germany and Georgia sign development cooperation deals worth over €193 million, including projects to improve drinking water and sewage systems and to build a gas storage facility. Merkel says Germany will soon designate Georgia as a safe country of origin.

### September

- 8 September – Breakaway Abkhazia's prime minister, Gennady Gagulia dies when his car is hit by a vehicle driven by a young Abkhaz man, allegedly "under the influence of narcotics".

- 16 September – Several hundreds of protesters, inspired by a sermon of Ilia II, head of the Georgian Orthodox Church, against cannabis legalization, took to the streets of Tbilisi after the government hints Georgia might cultivate and export cannabis for medical use.

### October

- 1 October – A group of thirteen leading civil society organizations (CSO) of Georgia release a statement condemning "a severe crisis in the governance system, clear signs of high level corruption and informal, clan rule", leading to a series of verbal attacks from the ruling party and government officials against the CSOs.

- 11 October – Georgia is named the Guest of Honor at the 2018 edition of the Frankfurt Book Fair, the world's largest literary event.

- 20 October – The opposition Girchi Party activists hold Cannabis Legalization Festival in Deda Ena Park in downtown Tbilisi to protest the intention of the Parliament of Georgia to restrict consumption regulations for cannabis. Eleven activists, including the party leader and the candidate for the upcoming presidential election, are detained during the event, but released later that day.

- 28 October – No candidate is able to secure more than 50% of votes in the Georgian presidential elections; the vote goes into the runoff between two candidates: independent Salome Zurabishvili, supported by the ruling Georgian Dream party and Grigol Vashadze from the opposition United National Movement-led coalition.

### November

- 28 November – Presidential runoff results in the ruling party-endorsed candidate and former French diplomat Salome Zurabishvili becoming President of Georgia with 59.62% of votes. Ahead of the second round, opposition and local watchdogs complained about vote buying and intimidation of voters. International observers assess the elections as competitive and fee, stressing that "one side enjoyed an undue advantage and the negative character of the campaign on both sides undermined the process".

### December

- 16 December – Salome Zurabishvili is sworn-in as President of Georgia in Telavi. Police blocks some roads to stop a rally in support of the defeated opposition candidate Grigol Vashadze, who has refused to accept the election result. In the ensuing confrontation, eight police officers and several protesters are injured and the opposition politician Davit Kirkitadze arrested on 17 December for an attack on police vehicle.

- 16 December – Upon Zurabishvili's inauguration as President, the constitutional amendments passed in 2017 and several other laws come into effect.

- 27 December – Appointment of the controversial judge Levan Murusidze to the Court of Appeals for lifetime tenure stirs up criticism and concerns over his independence voiced by two non-judge members of the High Council of Justice and civil society groups.

## Deaths

- 3 January – Valery Chalidze, a Soviet-era dissident and human rights activist (born 1938).

- 4 January – Tristan Makhauri, a Georgian philologist and folklorist (born 1959).

- 8 January – Mariam Lordkipanidze, a Georgian historian (born 1922).

- 9 January – Mikheil Naneishvili, a Georgian philosopher and politician, MP (1992–1995, 1999–2004) (born 1934).

- 6 February – Pridon Sakvarelidze, a Georgian politician and author, MP (1992–1995, 2012–2016) (born 1954).

- 10 January – Gia Chanturia, a Georgian diplomat and oil executive, ambassador to Azerbaijan (1994–1996), head of International Oil Corporation of Georgia (1995–2004) (born 1957).

- 15 January – Samson Kutateladze, a Georgian businessman and former brigadier general, MP (2008–2012) (born 1964), shot.

- 24 January – Otar Kajaia, Georgian linguist and lexicographer (born 1923).

- 6 February – Pridon Sakvarelidze, Georgian politician and author, MP (1992–1995, 2012–2016) (born 1954).

- 12 February – Tedo Uturgaidze, Georgian philologist and scholar of the Kartvelian languages (born 1927).

- 26 February – Giorgi Maisashvili, a Georgian economist and politician (born 1962).

- 1 March – Zurab Vadachkoria, Georgian illusionist (born 1961).

- 8 April – Leila Abashidze, a Georgian actress (born 1929).

- 22 April – Nino Khurtsidze, a Georgian chess player (born 1975).

- 25 April – Dali Panjikidze, Georgian translator and Germanist (born 1937).

- 29 April – Irakli Zhordania, Georgian metallurgy engineer, Minister of Science and Technologies (1990–1993) (born 1931).

- 30 April – Zezva Medulashvili, Georgian writer and Orientalist (born 1939).

- 13 May – Baadur Tsuladze, Georgian actor, film director, writer and broadcaster (born 1935).

- 11 June – Giorgi "Gio" Khutsishvili, Georgian singer and actor (born 1962).

- 25 July – Vakhtang Balavadze, Georgian wrestler (born 1927).

- 31 August – Guram Tevzadze, Georgian philosopher, Vice-President of GNAS (2002–2018) (born 1932).

- 23 September – Mikheil Jojua, Georgian football player, FC Dinamo Tbilisi (1949–1953) (born 1925).

- 28 September – Tamaz Chiladze, Georgian poet and writer (born 1931).

- 24 November – Amiran Shalikashvili, Georgian stage actor and director, founder of the Tbilisi Mime Theatre (born 1939).

- 12 November – Iuri Chikovani, Georgian chess coach and genealogist (born 1937).

- 4 December – Nika Rurua, Georgian politician, Minister of Culture (2008–2012) (born 1968).


# Dragan Trajković (footballer, born 1986)

## Abstract

Dragan Trajković (Serbian Cyrillic: Драган Трајковић; born 7 July 1986) is a Serbian football midfielder.

## Career

Born in Leskovac, where he started his football career, in local club Dubočica. He made 9 appearances in his first season. Later he played for Mladost Lučani in two times, both as a loaned player of Dubočica. In the meantime, he was with Sloga Leskovac, Borac Čačak, and Vardar. After second period he spent in Dubočica and Mladost Lučani, he played for Dinamo Vranje, Radnički Niš, and Laçi. Then he returned in Dubočica for the third time. Dubočica dissolved in 2014.


Batrachorhina similis

# Batrachorhina similis

## Abstract

Batrachorhina similis is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. It was described by Stephan von Breuning in 1938.

## Subspecies

- Batrachorhina similis similis Breuning, 1938

- Batrachorhina similis supplementaria Breuning, 1970


Cincinnati College of Mortuary Science

# Cincinnati College of Mortuary Science

## Abstract

Cincinnati College of Mortuary Science (CCMS) is a private mortuary science college in Cincinnati, Ohio. CCMS is the oldest school of its kind in the United States, tracing its history back to the Clarke School, which organized its first class on March 8, 1882. The school was later called the Cincinnati College of Embalming, arriving at the present name in 1966. CCMS offers associate degrees and bachelor's degrees in mortuary science.

## History

### Joseph Henry Clarke

During the early periods of embalming in the United States, it became necessary to teach the skills required for new and reliable embalming techniques. To meet the need for training, a man named Joseph Henry Clarke founded a school of embalming at the corner of Park and Sixth Streets in Cincinnati, Ohio. Born November 28, 1840, in Connersville, Indiana, Clarke later would be known as the "father of American embalming schools."

After a period of working in his brother's pharmacy, Clarke studied medicine in Keokuk, Iowa, at about the time the Civil War broke out. Eventually he was permitted by the Union Army to serve in the position of assistant hospital steward in the 5th Iowa Infantry. His brother-in-law, W. Darrow, allowed him to help with amputations and visiting sick wards.

After the war Clarke became a casket salesman for the Whitewater Valley Coffin Company and began to realize the need for better methods of preservation for human bodies. To learn more, he enrolled in an anatomy course taught in Cincinnati by C. M. Lukens at the Pulte Homeopathic Medical College (1873–1910). Together they worked out the ideas for a school of embalming. Their schooling began as a demonstration of newly-developed embalming chemicals along with rudimentary teaching of arterial and venous embalming techniques. The success of their classes was based on what the students could learn as well as the quality of products sold.

The first class was organized Monday, March 8, 1882, and ended Saturday, March 13, 1882. Six days of intensive training were held in the amphitheater of Pulte Medical College at Seventh and Mound Streets. The original class consisted of seven students. They were: Frank Waterman, Boston, Massachusetts; George Thomas, Milwaukee Wisconsin; J. F. McCormick, Mt. Vernon, Ohio; George Butler, Cumberland, Maryland; John Arnold, Zanesville, Ohio; William Taylor, Paris, Kentucky; and William Greer, Oxford, Ohio. After attending the demonstrations at the amphitheater, students were presented with 8"x10" certificates from the Clarke School. The certificates were signed by C. M. Lukens, principal and Pulte professor of anatomy, Joseph Henry Clarke, and C. M. Epply, lecturers and demonstrators.

Following the second class Clarke was financially able to make the school a permanent institution of learning. The second class was organized April 24, 1882, at the Pulte Medical College with ten students. The school gained its first public recognition when a trade paper published the class material. The third class was organized June 6, 1882, with only six students. In addition, the fourth class, organized July 11, contained the same number of students, but it was conducted at Luken's office on Race Street. The fifth class, organized September 19, became the second largest class of that year with sixteen students. The sixth class was the last class of 1882 that was conducted in Cincinnati. It was organized November 7 with four students and was held at the Eclectic Medical College at Court and Plum Streets. To broaden the knowledge of students and to stimulate interest in the school, Professor Clarke and his colleagues traveled to three larger cities. The first stop was Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on November 22, 1882, where a class was held with fifteen students. It was held in a hallway over a drug store at 11th and Market Streets in Philadelphia.

Following the Philadelphia adventure the school moved on to New York City, where, on December 1, 1882, the school encountered its largest class. It contained seventeen students, and the lectures were given in a society hall. As the year-end approached, the Clarke School of Embalming proceeded to conduct its last few classes of the year. One was in Boston on December 11, and the other was in New York City for a second time. The year of 1882 was prosperous. Having taught 106 students in four major cities, Clarke stated that "This ended our first year's effort to convince the people that embalming was a successful way of preserving the human dead." Coincidentally the year 1882 was also the founding year for the National Funeral Directors Association.

As the Clarke School continued over the next few years, other schools began to develop. Their enrollments were boosted by various state laws that required licensing of embalmers. Schooling often consisted of a system of memorizing questions and model answers for licensing exams. The result was that many students were licensed without having proper knowledge. The early courses consisted of anatomy, sanitary science, and embalming.

### Charles O. Dhonau

In 1909, the ownership and management of Clarke's School was secured by Charles O. Dhonau, under whom it acquired its status as the Cincinnati College of Embalming. Dhonau was born on March 23, 1886, in Cincinnati. Early on he decided to enter the career of funeral service and work in his father's funeral home at Knowlton's Corner. But after the two-week period of instruction, Charles was dissatisfied with the length and depth of the program. He believed that mortuary education should be improved and expanded and, therefore, decided to enter the field of education. Clarke himself was soon to retire, and he encouraged Dhonau to accept the challenge of teaching and taking over the college. Dhonau accepted his advice and purchased the college in 1909.

Over the years it became clear that Dhonau was very concerned about the educational and licensing system and wrote, "Whatever a student really understood was secondary to his ability to memorize." He sought to change this philosophy and in doing so stated, 'When one has learned to know and understand, learned to think through the use of suitable thinking instrumentalities, one may more intelligently apply what one has learned to know and has developed the ability to do.' Six years later Dhonau moved the college to the Cincinnati General Hospital where the large number of hospital cases gave students the experience that was required. In 1919, more classroom and office space was assigned to the college at the General Hospital to accommodate larger class sizes. Even though additional space was allocated, classes were still too large for the hospital. In 1933, Dhonau moved the administrative offices and classrooms into a newly remodeled arts and science building at 3200 Reading Road. The space was greatly appreciated when the college enrolled the largest classes in its history shortly after World War II.

In 1954, Dhonau continued to promote that mortuary education consisted of more than simply memorizing questions and their model answers. He said, "Since 1909, it has been our opinion, here at Cincinnati, that a mortuary college can be an educational institution rather than a state examination coaching facility; and we have never lost sight of that academic point." To support his vision of competence and education in funeral service, Dhonau established a cooperative relationship with the University of Cincinnati for general studies and professional subjects. In 1966, Dhonau changed the name of the college to the Cincinnati College of Mortuary Science. By fostering an atmosphere of support for research and publication, Dhonau also stimulated productivity in the faculty. Over the years, some 20 books were written by CCMS faculty, and several patents were produced at the college. Among the books was the series written by Dhonau and A. J. Nunnamaker on Anatomy for Embalmers, Hygiene and Sanitary Science, Manual of Case Analysis, Manual of Restorative Art, Personalities in Funeral Management, and Dissecting Guide for Embalmers. In 1940, Thomas Stueve, a Cincinnati attorney and member of the CCMS faculty, wrote Mortuary Law, which has become a standard in funeral service and in funeral service education. In 1985, James Dorn, CCMS faculty member and Chairman of Embalming Sciences, and Barbara Hopkins, Chairperson of the Xavier University Chemistry Department, co-authored and published Thanatochemistry, which is the standard chemistry textbook in funeral service education.

As the years progressed, Dhonau came to believe that a small proprietary college would need broader support if it were to survive. In the late 1960s he worked with Thomas Stueve, and they formed the Cincinnati Foundation for Mortuary Education, a private, non-profit 501(c)(3) organization that would support the Cincinnati College of Mortuary Science. In 1970, Dhonau transferred all personal assets and responsibility to the Foundation. When Dhonau retired, George M. Sleichter became Director of the institution. Sleichter had served CCMS for over 40 years as a faculty member and chemistry teacher. In 1975, owing to health problems, Sleichter resigned, and David FitzSimmons was appointed President of CCMS early in 1976. FitzSimmons reorganized the college, renewed its faculty, and conducted a revision of the curriculum. Soon after he arrived, FitzSimmons negotiated a two- and four-year degree program with Edgecliff College in addition to the CCMS one-year diploma program.

The association with Edgecliff College gave CCMS new opportunities for growth. In 1979, CCMS moved from 3200 Reading Road to 2220 Victory Parkway on the Edgecliff campus under the terms of a lease agreement. The new surroundings offered campus life but still recognized CCMS as a distinctive and separate college. One year later Xavier University purchased Edgecliff College and changed the name to the Edgecliff Campus of Xavier University. In 1980, CCMS received authorization from the Ohio Board of Regents to award the Associate of Applied Science degree, and in 1982 it received accreditation of that degree by the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools. In 1986, CCMS became the first private college of mortuary science in the nation to be authorized to award the Bachelor of Mortuary Science degree. In 1987, CCMS was accredited by the North Central Association and by the American Board of Funeral Service Education at the bachelor's degree level. In 1994, because of continued growth, CCMS purchased 16 acres of land in Finneytown and built its own permanent home across the street from St. Xavier High School. CCMS moved into the state-of-the-art facilities in 1995.

## Notable alumni

- Rhine McLin – former mayor of Dayton, Ohio

- Rob Rue – mayor of Springfield, Ohio

- Charlie Wilson – member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Ohio's 6th congressional district


Dragan Vulević

# Dragan Vulević

## Abstract

Dragan Vulević (Serbian Cyrillic: Драган Вулевић; born 13 December 1970) is a Serbian former professional footballer who played as a forward.

During his journeyman career, Vulević represented Mladost Lučani, Red Star Belgrade, Vojvodina, Albacete, Panionios, Borac Čačak, Radnički Obrenovac, Sevojno, Novi Pazar, Sloga Bajina Bašta, and FAP.

## Honours

- FR Yugoslavia Cup: 1996–97


Clotilde Apponyi

# Clotilde Apponyi

## Abstract

Clotilde "Klotild" Apponyi (née Klotild Wilhelmine von Mensdorff-Pouilly-Dietrichstein; 23 December 1867 – 1 September 1942) was an Austro-Hungarian noblewoman, women's rights activist, politician and a diplomat.

## Early life and ancestry

Countess Clotilde was born as a third daughter and youngest child of the Austrian politician Prince Alexander von Dietrichstein-Nikolsburg and his wife, Countess Alexandrine Aline von Dietrichstein-Proskau-Leslie (1824-1906), second daughter and one of the heiresses of Joseph Franz, Prince of Dietrichstein. By virtue of birth, she was member of the House of Mensdorff-Pouilly and through Saxe-Coburg-Gotha blood was related to the British Royal Family, German Imperial family, Russian Imperial family, as well as to almost all other European Royal families.

## Career

Apponyi was president of the Klotild association for the selling of women's work from 1908, president for the alliance of Hungarian women's associations (MNSz) from 1910, board member of the Catholic protection society for women from 1913, president for the Maria Dorotea association for women teachers from 1930, as well as for numerous other charitable associations. As president of the MNSz, she addressed the Hungarian parliament in favor of women's suffrage in 1912, and supported this reform in public in 1918. After World War I, she, as president of the MNSz, became the spokesperson of the non-socialist women's associations of Hungary in oppose to the leftist MANSz under Cécile Tormay. In 1929, she protested against the suggestion to abolish women's right to run for office, and in 1939, she did the same against the suggestion to ban married women from holding office as civil servants.

During World War I, she was an informal diplomat for the Kingdom of Hungary in Switzerland, and she served as a sub-delegate to the League of Nations in Geneva in 1928-34, and as a delegate for Hungary in 1935-37.

## Personal life

On 1 March 1897 in Vienna, she married Hungarian politician Count Albert Apponyi de Nagy-Aponyi, second child and only son of Count György Apponyi de Nagy-Aponyi and his wife, Countess Júliane Sztáray de Nagymihály et Sztára (1820-1871). Albert was a leading member of the powerful Hungarian Apponyi family. Together, they were the parents of three children, one son and two daughters:

- Count György II Alexander Mária Antal Apponyi de Nagy-Aponyi (1898–1970), a politician, member of the Parliament, journalist, married in 1923 to Princess Margarete Odescalchi and had issue.

- Countess Mária Alexandrina Angela Apponyi de Nagy-Aponyi (1899–1967), who married Prince Karl of Rohan in 1933 and had issue.

- Countess Julianna Maria Georgina Antonia Apponyi de Nagy-Aponyi (1903–1994), who married Count Ferenc Pálffy of Erdöd in 1924 and had issue. They divorced in 1934 and she married Hungarian nobleman Elemér Klobusiczky de Klobusicz et Zetény in 1943, and had issue. They divorced in 1947.

## Death

Countess Clotilde Apponyi died on 1 September 1942, at the age of 74 in Budapest, Hungary. At first, she was buried in Farkasréti Cemetery in Budapest, but later, her grave and a grave of her husband were moved to Éberhárd (today Slovakia), part of the Komárom County, where Apponyi family owned a country estate with a castle.


Russell Berman

# Russell Berman

## Abstract

Russell A. Berman (born May 14, 1950) is an American academic and professor specializing in German studies and Comparative literature. He serves as the Walter A. Haas Professor in the Humanities at Stanford University. He is also a senior fellow at the Hoover Institution. He is the director of Stanford's Thinking Matters program. He previously served as associate dean and director of Stanford's Overseas Studies Program.

## Early life and career

Born in Boston, Massachusetts, Berman received a Bachelor of Arts degree from Harvard University in 1972 and completed a doctorate at Washington University in St. Louis in 1979. Since 1979, Berman has been on the faculty at Stanford University. In 2004, he became the editor of Telos, a quarterly journal of critical theory which has included extensive discussions of the Frankfurt School as well as Carl Schmitt. In 2011, he served as president of the Modern Language Association (MLA).

Together with his protégé David Tse-Chien Pan, he served on the U.S. State Department's Commission on Unalienable Rights convened by Secretary of State Mike Pompeo and led by Harvard professor Mary Ann Glendon.

## Selected bibliography

- Between Fontane and Tucholsky: Literary Criticism and the Public Sphere in Imperial Germany (New York: Lang, 1983)

- The Rise of the Modern German Novel: Crisis and Charisma (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986) - Outstanding Book in German Studies Award of the German Studies Association, 1988.

- Modern Culture and Critical Theory: Art, Politics, and the Legacy of the Frankfurt School (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989)

- Cultural Studies of Modern Germany: History, Representation, and Nationhood (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993)

- "Culture in the Conservative Revolution: The American Debate." Telos 101, Fall 1994.

- Enlightenment or Empire: Colonial Discourse in German Culture (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998) - Outstanding Book in German Studies Award of the German Studies Association, 2000.

- Anti-Americanism in Europe: A Cultural Problem (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 2004)

- Fiction Sets You Free: On Literature In History (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2007)

- "Representing the Trial: Judith Butler Reads Hannah Arendt Reading Adolf Eichmann" in Fathom Journal, Spring (2015)


Dragan Đurđević

# Dragan Đurđević

## Abstract

Dragan Đurđević (born 18 April 1981) is a Serbian football manager who is last known to have managed Jonava.

## Playing career

Before the 2007 season, Đurđević signed for Kazakhstani side Ordabasy after playing for Olimpik (Sarajevo) in Bosnia and Herzegovina, where he made 48 appearances and scored 9 goals.

Before the second half of 2008/09, he signed for the Serbian club Jagodina.

Before the 2011 season, Đurđević signed for Andijon in Uzbekistan after playing for the Kazakhstani team Kairat.

## Managerial career

After retirement, he was appointed assistant manager of Taraz in Kazakhstan.

In 2016, he was appointed manager of the Serbian outfit Jagodina.

Before the 2020 season, Đurđević was appointed manager of Samut Sakhon in the Thai second division after working as director of the Kazakhstani side, Atyrau.

In 2021, he was appointed manager of Jonava in the Lithuanian second division.


Basque Country (greater region)

# Basque Country (greater region)

## Abstract

The Basque Country (Basque: Euskal Herria; Spanish: País Vasco; French: Pays basque) is the name given to the home of the Basque people. The Basque Country is located in the western Pyrenees, straddling the border between France and Spain on the coast of the Bay of Biscay.

Comprising the Autonomous Communities of the Basque Country and Navarre in Spain and the Northern Basque Country in France, the region is home to the Basque people (Basque: Euskaldunak), their language (Basque: Euskara), culture and traditions. The area is neither linguistically nor culturally homogeneous, and certain areas have a majority of people who do not consider themselves Basque, such as the south of Navarre. The concept is still highly controversial, and the Supreme Court of Navarre has upheld a denial of government funding to school books that include the Navarre community within the Basque Country area.

## Etymology

The name in Basque is Euskal Herria. The name is difficult to accurately translate into other languages due to the wide range of meanings of the Basque word herri. It can be translated as nation; country, land; people, population and town, village, settlement. The first part, Euskal, is the adjectival form of Euskara "the Basque language". Thus a more literal translation would be "country/nation/people/settlement of the Basque language", a concept difficult to render into a single word in most other languages.

The two earliest references (in various spelling guises) are in Joan Perez de Lazarraga 's manuscript, dated around 1564–1567 as eusquel erria and eusquel erriau and heuscal herrian ('in the Basque Country') and Heuscal-Herrian in Joanes Leizarraga 's Bible translation, published in 1571.

## Territory

The term Basque Country refers to a collection of regions inhabited by the Basque people, known as Euskal Herria in Basque language, and it is first attested as including seven traditional territories in Axular 's literary work Gero (he goes on to suggest that Basque language is spoken "in many other places"), in the early 17th century. Some Basques refer to the seven traditional districts collectively as Zazpiak Bat, meaning "The Seven One", a motto coined in the late 19th century.

### Northern Basque Country

The Northern Basque Country, known in Basque as Iparralde (literally, "the northern part"), is the part of the Basque Country that lies entirely northside the Pyrenees, as part of the Pyrénées-Atlantiques département of France, and constitutes the Basque Municipal Community. As such it is usually known as French Basque Country (Pays basque français in French). In most contemporary sources, it is defined as covering the arrondissement of Bayonne and the cantons of Mauléon-Licharre and Tardets-Sorholus, but sources disagree on the status of the village of Esquiule. Within these conventions, the area of Northern Basque Country (including the 29 square kilometres (11 square miles) of Esquiule) is 2,995 square kilometres (1,156 square miles).

The French Basque Country is traditionally subdivided into three provinces:

- Labourd, historical capital Ustaritz, main settlement today Bayonne

- Lower Navarre, historical capitals Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port and Saint-Palais, main settlement today Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port

- Soule, historical capital Mauléon (also current main settlement)

This summary presentation suggests difficulty in justifying the inclusion of a few communes in the lower Adour region. Jean Goyhenetche suggests it would be more accurate to depict the region as the reunion of five entities: Labourd, Lower Navarre, Soule but also Bayonne and Gramont.

### Southern Basque Country

The Southern Basque Country, known in Basque as Hegoalde (literally, "the southern part"), is the part of the Basque region that lies completely within Spain. It is frequently known as Spanish Basque Country (País Vasco español in Spanish). It is the largest and most populated part of the Basque Country. It includes two main regions: the Basque Autonomous Community (Vitoria-Gasteiz is the capital) and the Chartered Community of Navarre (capital city Pamplona).

The Basque Autonomous Community (7,234 km²) consists of three provinces, specifically designated "historical territories":

- Álava (capital: Vitoria-Gasteiz)

- Biscay (capital: Bilbao)

- Gipuzkoa (capital: Donostia-San Sebastián)

The Chartered Community of Navarre (10,391 km²) is a single-province autonomous community. Its name refers to the charters, the Fueros of Navarre. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 states that Navarre may become a part of the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country if it is so decided by its people and institutions (the Disposicion transitoria cuarta or "Fourth Transitory Provision"). To date, there has been no implementation of this law. Despite demands for a referendum by minority leftist forces and Basque nationalists in Navarre, it has been opposed by mainstream Spanish parties and the Navarrese People's Union, which was the ruling party until 2015. The Union has repeatedly asked for an amendment to the Constitution to remove this clause.

In addition to those, two enclaves located outside of the respective autonomous community are often cited as being part of both the Basque Autonomous Community and also the Basque Country (greater region).

- The Treviño enclave (280 km²), a Castilian enclave in Álava

- Valle de Villaverde (20 km²), a Cantabrian exclave in Biscay

- Navarre holds two small administrative strips in Aragon, organised as Petilla de Aragón.

## Climate

The Basque Country region is dominated by a warm, humid and wet oceanic climate. The coastal area is part of Green Spain and by extension, the climate is similar for Bayonne and Biarritz as well. Inland areas in Navarre and the southern regions of the autonomous community are transitional, with continental Mediterranean climate, with somewhat wider temperature swings between seasons. The list only sources locations in Spain, but Bayonne/Biarritz have a very similar climate to nearby Hondarribia on the Spanish side of the border. The values do not apply to San Sebastián, since its weather station is at a higher elevation than the urban core, where temperatures are higher year-round and similar to those in Bilbao and Hondarribia.

## History

### Ancient period

According to some theories, Basques may be the least assimilated remnant of the Paleolithic inhabitants of Western Europe (specifically those of the Franco-Cantabrian region known as Azilian) to the Indo-European migrations. Basque tribes were mentioned by Greek writer Strabo and Roman writer Pliny the Elder, including the Vascones, the Aquitani, and others. There is considerable evidence to show their Basque ethnicity in Roman times in the form of place-names, Caesar's reference to their customs and physical make-up, the so-called Aquitanian inscriptions recording names of people and gods (approx. 1st century, see Aquitanian language), etc.

Geographically, the Basque Country was inhabited in Roman times by several tribes: the Vascones, the Varduli, the Caristi, the Autrigones, the Berones, the Tarbelli, and the Sibulates. Some ancient place-names, such as Deba, Butrón, Nervión, Zegama, suggest the presence of non-Basque peoples at some point in protohistory. The ancient tribes are last cited in the 5th century, after which track of them is lost, with only Vascones still being accounted for, while extending far beyond their former boundaries, e.g. in the current lands of Álava and most conspicuously around the Pyrenees and Novempopulania.

The territory of the Cantabri encompassed probably present-day Biscay, Cantabria, Burgos and at least part of Álava and La Rioja, i.e. to the west of Vascon territory in the Early Middle Ages, but the ethnic nature of this people, often at odds with and finally overcome by the Visigoths, is not certain. The Vascones around Pamplona, after much fighting against Franks and Visigoths, founded the Kingdom of Pamplona (824), inextricably linked to their kinsmen the Banu Qasi.

All other tribes in the Iberian Peninsula had been, to a great extent, assimilated by Roman culture and language by the end of the Roman period or early period of the Early Middle Ages, while ethnic Basques inhabited well east into the lands of the Pyrenees (Pallars, Val d'Aran) from the 8th to the 11th century.

### Middle Ages

In the Early Middle Ages (up to the 9th century) the territory between the Ebro and Garonne rivers was known as Vasconia, a blurred ethnic area and polity struggling to fend off the Frankish feudal authority from the north and the pressure of the Iberian Visigoths and Andalusi Cordovans from the south.

By the turn of the millennium, a receding Carolingian royal authority and establishing feudalism left Vasconia (to become Gascony) fragmented into a myriad of counties and viscounties, e.g. Fezensac, Bigorre, Astarac, Béarn, Tartas, Marsan, Soule, Labourd, etc., out of former tribal systems and minor realms (County of Vasconia), while south of the Pyrenees, besides the above Kingdom of Pamplona, Gipuzkoa, Álava and Biscay arose in the current lands of the Southern Basque Country from the 9th century onward.

These westerly territories pledged intermittent allegiance to Navarre in their early stages, but were annexed to the Kingdom of Castile at the end of the 12th century, so depriving the Kingdom of Navarre of direct access to the ocean. In the Late Middle Ages, important families dotting the whole Basque territory came to prominence, often quarreling with each other for power and unleashing the bloody War of the Bands, only stopped by royal intervention and the gradual shift of power from the countryside to the towns by the 16th century. Meanwhile, the viscounties of Labourd and Soule under English suzerainty were finally incorporated to France after the Hundred Years' War, with Bayonne remaining the last Plantagenet stronghold up to 1453.

### Modern period

In Navarre, the civil wars between the Agramont and the Beaumont confederacies paved the way for the Spanish conquest of the bulk of Navarre from 1512 to 1524. The independent Navarre north of the Pyrenees was largely absorbed by France in 1620, despite the fact that King Henry III of Navarre had decreed Navarre's permanent independence from France (31 December 1596). In the decades after the Spanish annexation, the Basque Country went through increased religious, ideological and national homogenization, encouraged by new national ideas embraced by the rising Spanish and French absolutist monarchies during the Renaissance.

From 1525, witchcraft allegations originating in a number of Pyrenean valleys on the rearguard of the Lower Navarre front and recent theatre of war (Salazar, Roncal, Burguete, etc.) were followed by the intervention of newly reformed and recent institutions, such as Spain's central tribunal Inquisition, the (Navarrese) Royal Tribunals, and the Diocesan Tribunal, who organized a series of trials for alleged witchcraft and heretical practices. In the heat of the Wars of Religion and the struggle for Navarre, persecution came to a head in the hysteria of the 1609–1611 Basque witch trials on both sides of the Spanish-French border, easing afterwards.

In the French Basque Country, its provinces underwent an ever-shrinking self-government status until the French Revolution, when the traditional provinces were reshaped to form the current Basses-Pyrénées department along with Béarn. In the Southern Basque Country, the regional Charters were upheld until the Carlist Wars, when the Basques supported heir-apparent Carlos and his descendants to the cry of "God, Fatherland, King" (The Charters were finally abolished in 1876). The ensuing centralized status quo bred dissent and frustration in the region, giving rise to Basque nationalism by the end of the 19th century, influenced by European Romantic nationalism.

Since then, attempts were made to find a new framework for self-empowerment. The occasion seemed to have arrived on the proclamation of the 2nd Spanish Republic in 1931, when a draft statute was drawn up for the Southern Basque Country (Statute of Estella), but was discarded in 1932. In 1936 a short-lived statute of autonomy was approved for the Gipuzkoa, Álava and Biscay provinces, but war prevented any progress. After Franco 's dictatorship, a new statute was designed that resulted in the creation of the current Basque Autonomous Community and Navarre, with a limited self-governing status, as settled by the Spanish Constitution. However, a significant part of Basque society is still attempting higher degrees of self-empowerment (see Basque nationalism), sometimes by acts of violence (ETA 's permanent ceasefire in 2010). The French Basque Country, meanwhile, lacks any political or administrative recognition whatsoever, while a majority of local representatives have lobbied to create a Basque department, to no avail.

## Demographics

The Basque Country has a population of approximately 3 million as of early 2006. The population density, at about 140/km (360/sq mi) is above average for both Spain and France, but the distribution of the population is fairly unequal, concentrated around the main cities. A third of the population is concentrated in the Greater Bilbao metropolitan area, while most of the interior of the French Basque Country and some areas of Navarre remain sparsely populated: density culminates at about 500/km (1,300/sq mi) for Biscay but falls to 20/km (52/sq mi) in the northern inner provinces of Lower Navarre and Soule.

A significant majority of the population of the Basque country live inside the Basque Autonomous Community (about 2,100,000, or 70% of the population) while about 600,000 live in Navarre (20% of the population) and about 300,000 (roughly 10%) in Northern Basque Country.

José Aranda Aznar writes that 30% of the population in the Basque Country Autonomous Community were born in other regions of Spain and that 40% of the people living in that territory do not have a single Basque parent.

Most of these peoples of Galician and Castilian stock arrived in the Basque Autonomous Community in the late 19th century and throughout the 20th century, as the region became more and more industrialized and prosperous and additional workers were needed to support the economic growth. Descendants of immigrants from other parts of Spain have since been considered Basque for the most part, at least formally.

Over the last 25 years, some 380,000 people have left the Basque Autonomous Community, of which some 230,000 have moved to other parts of Spain. While certainly many of them are people returning to their original homes when starting their retirement, there is also a sizable tract of Basque natives in this group who have moved due to a Basque nationalist political environment (including ETA's killings) which they perceive as overtly hostile. These have been quoted to be as high as 10% of the population in the Basque Community.

### Largest cities

### Metropolitan areas

- Greater Bilbao: 984 745 inhabitants (2014)

- Greater San Sebastian: 447 844 inhabitants (2014)

- Greater Pamplona: 346 716 inhabitants (2012)

- Metropolitan area of Vitoria: 277 812 inhabitants (2015)

- Metropolitan area of Eibar: 70 000 inhabitants (2012)

- Agglomération Côte Basque Adour: 126 072 inhabitants (2013)

### Non-Basque minorities

#### Historical minorities

Various Romani groups existed in the Basque Country and some still exist as ethnic groups. These were grouped together under the generic terms ijituak (Gypsies) and buhameak (Bohemians) by Basque speakers.

- The Cagots also were found north and south of the mountains. They lived as untouchables in Basque villages and were allowed to marry only among themselves. Their origin is unclear and has historically been surrounded with superstitions. Nowadays, they have mostly assimilated into the general society.

- The Cascarots were a Roma subgroup found mainly in the Northern Basque Country.

- A subgroup of Kalderash Roma resident in the Basque Country were the Erromintxela who are notable for speaking a rare mixed language. This is based on Basque grammar but using Romani-derived vocabulary.

- The Mercheros were Quinqui -speakers, travelling as cattle merchants and artisans. Following the industrialization, they settled in slums near big cities.

In the Middle Ages, many Franks settled along the Way of Saint James in Navarre and Gipuzkoa and to a lesser extent in Bizkaia. This process also happened in Northern Castile. They were all collectively called Franks because most of them came from French regions (Normans, Bretons, Burgundians, Aquitanians etc.) but an important minority of them were in fact of German, Dutch, Italian, English and Swiss stock. Some were also from even more distant lands such as Poland or Denmark. Due to this migration, Gascon was spoken in the centre of Donostia-San Sebastián, until the beginning of the 20th century. Navarre also held Jewish and Muslim minorities but these were expelled or forced to assimilate after the Spanish conquest in the 16th century. One of the notable members of such minorities was Benjamin of Tudela.

#### Recent immigration

Much as has been the case for Spain's two other major economic poles (Madrid and Catalonia), the Basque Country received significant immigration from other poorer regions of Spain, due to its higher level of economic development and early industrialization. During the second half of the 20th century, such immigrants were commonly referred to by some Basques as maketos, a derogatory term which is less used today.

Since the 1980s, as a consequence of its considerable economic prosperity, the Basque Country has received an increasing number of immigrants, mostly from Eastern Europe, North Africa, Latin America, Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and China, settling mostly in the major urban areas. Nevertheless, foreign immigrant population is lower in the Basque country than in Madrid and Catalonia, despite having similar GDP per capita and significantly lower levels of unemployment.

### Language

Currently, the predominant languages in the Spanish and French Basque Countries are Spanish and French, respectively. In the historical process of forging themselves as nation-states, both the Spanish and French governments have tried more or less intensely to discourage the use of Basque and its linguistic identity. The language chosen for public education is the most obvious expression of this phenomenon, something which surely had an effect on the current status of Basque.

Despite being spoken in a relatively small territory, the rugged features of the Basque countryside and the historically high population density resulted in a heavy dialectal fragmentation throughout history, which increased the value of both Spanish and French respectively as lingua francas. In this regard, the current Standard form of Basque was only introduced in the late 1960s, which helped Basque move away from being perceived – even by its own speakers – as a language unfit for educational purposes.

While the French Republic has historically attempted to absorb ethnic minority groups – including the French Basques – into a linguistically unified state, Spain in turn has accepted intermittently in its history some degree of linguistic, cultural, and political autonomy to the Basques. Altogether there was a gradual language shift towards Spanish language in the Basque-speaking areas of the Spanish Basque Country, a phenomenon initially restricted to the upper urban classes, but progressively reaching the lower classes. Western Biscay, most of Alava and southern Navarre have been Spanish-speaking (or Romance-speaking) for centuries.

But under the regime of Francisco Franco, the government attempted to suppress Basque nationalism and limit the uses of the Basque language. Even the activities of the Euskaltzaindia (Basque Language Academy) were severely curtailed. In general, during these years, cultural activity in Basque was limited to folkloric issues and the Roman Catholic Church, while a higher, yet still limited degree of tolerance was granted to Basque culture and language in Álava and Navarre, since both areas mostly supported Francoist troops during the war.

Nowadays, the Basque Autonomous Community enjoys some cultural and political autonomy and Basque is an official language along with Spanish. Basque is favoured by a set of language policies sponsored by the Basque regional government which aim at the generalization of its use. However, the actual implementation of this official status is patchy and problematic, relying ultimately on the will of the different administrative levels to enforce it—Justice, Health, Administration. It is spoken by approximately a quarter of the total Basque Country, its stronghold being the contiguous area formed by Gipuzkoa, northern Navarre and the Pyrenean French valleys. It is not spoken natively in most of Álava, western Biscay and the southern half of Navarre. Of a total estimation of some 650,000 Basque speakers, approximately 550,000 live in the Spanish Basque country, the rest in the French.

The Basque education system in Spain has three types of schools differentiated by their linguistic teaching models: A, B and D. Model D, with education entirely in Basque, and Spanish as a compulsory subject, is the most widely chosen model by parents. In Navarre, there is an additional G model, with education entirely in Spanish.

The ruling anti-Basque conservative government of Unión del Pueblo Navarro opposes Basque nationalist attempts to provide education in Basque through all Navarre (which would include areas where it is not traditionally spoken). Basque language teaching in the public education network is therefore limited to the Basque speaking north and central regions. In the central region, Basque teaching in the public education network is fairly limited, and part of the existing demand is served via private schools or ikastolak. In southern and some central areas this policy has resulted in schoolchildren having to travel sometimes for hours every day in order to attend education provided in the historic language of Navarre, largely relying on public subscription (yearly festival Nafarroa Oinez, solidarity from the ikastola network, donations, etc.) or receiving as a result no allowances for school meals. Even in northern Basque or mixed language areas, allegations raised by Basque speaker associations point regularly to a conspicuous disregard for recognised language rights, e.g. virtual non-existence of Basque language medical assistance across areas where the vast majority is Basque speaking, insufficient Basque speaking librarians, no broadcasting permission in the last 20 years (as of 2013) for the only Basque language radio in Pamplona, Spanish monolingual signalization and even removal of bilingual one, etc. Spanish is or can be spoken in Navarre by the entire population, with few exceptions in remote rural areas.

The European Commission for Regional or Minority Languages to which Spain is signatory has issued a number of recommendations in order to guarantee a real official status for Basque language (2004), e.g. the suppression of the administrative linguistic divides of Navarre for considering it an obstacle to the normal use of Basque and discriminating against Basque speakers, the filing of the case against newspaper Euskaldunon Egunkaria and restitution to its normal operation, as well as guarantees to prisoners of receiving and sending correspondence in Basque, to mention but a few.

The situation of the Basque language in the French Basque Country is vulnerable (as rated by Unesco). The pressure of French as a well-established mainstream language and different administrative obstacles to the consolidation of Basque-language schooling make the language's future prospects uncertain. On 14 June 2013, pointing to the 1850 Falloux act and declaring thereafter that French is the official language of France, the regional subprefect declared illegal the Hendaye council's subsidies to finance a new building for a Basque-language school. On 6 November 2013, the Basque language school network in the French Basque Country, Seaska, bitterly criticized the French state before UNESCO for not complying with its international commitments and actually failing to accept minorities by violating their linguistic rights. In November 2013, France decided not to ratify the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.

## Universities

The earliest university in the Basque Country was the University of Oñati, founded in 1540 in Hernani and moved to Oñati in 1548. It lasted in various forms until 1901. In 1868, in order to fulfill the need for college graduates for the thriving industry that was flourishing in the Bilbao area, there was an unsuccessful effort to establish a Basque-Navarrese University. Nonetheless, in 1897 the Bilbao Superior Technical School of Engineering (the first modern faculty of engineering in Spain), was founded as a way of providing engineers for the local industry; this faculty is nowadays part of the University of the Basque Country. Almost at the same time, the urgent need for business graduates led to the establishment of the Commercial Faculty by the Jesuits, and, some time thereafter, the Jesuits expanded their university by formally founding the University of Deusto in Deusto (now a Bilbao neighbourhood) by the turn of the century, a private university where the Commercial Faculty was integrated. The first modern Basque public university was the Basque University, founded 18 November 1936 by the autonomous Basque government in Bilbao in the midst of the Spanish Civil War. It operated only briefly before the government's defeat by Francisco Franco 's fascist forces.

Several faculties, originally teaching only in Spanish, were founded in the Basque region in the Francisco Franco era. A public faculty of economics was founded in Sarriko (Bilbao) in the 1960s, and a public faculty of medicine was also founded during that decade, thus expanding the college graduate schools. However, all the public faculties in the Basque Country were organized as local branches of Spanish universities. For instance, the School of Engineering was treated as a part of the University of Valladolid, some 400 kilometres (250 miles) away from Bilbao. Indeed, the lack of a central governing body for the public faculties of the Bilbao area, namely those of Economics in Sarriko, Medicine in Basurto, Engineering in Bilbao and the School of Mining in Barakaldo (est. 1910s), was seen as a gross handicap for the cultural and economic development of the area, and so, during the late 1960s many formal requests were made to the Francoist government in order to establish a Basque public university that would unite all the public faculties already founded in Bilbao. As a result of that, the University of Bilbao was founded in the early 1970s, which has now evolved into the University of the Basque Country with campuses in the western three provinces.

In Navarre, Opus Dei manages the University of Navarre with another campus in San Sebastián. Additionally, there is also the Public University of Navarre, with campus in Pamplona and in Tudela, managed by the Navarrese Foral Government.

Mondragón Corporación Cooperativa has established its institutions for higher education as the Mondragon University, based in Mondragón and nearby towns.

There are numerous other significant Basque cultural institutions in the Basque Country and elsewhere. Most Basque organizations in the United States are affiliated with NABO (North American Basque Organizations, Inc.).

## Politics

Since the last quarter of the 20th century, there have been very different political views on the significance of the Basque Country, with some Basque nationalists aiming to create an independent state including the whole area, and Spanish nationalism denying the very existence of the Basque Country. The dynamics of controversial decisions imposed by Spanish tribunals on Basque nationalist parties ideologically close to ETA left for over a decade a distorted representation of the Basque politics in local councils and regional parliaments, as well as a swiftly changing array of disbanded party names, new alliances, and re-accommodations (since 1998).

During the 2011 Spanish parliamentary elections, the coalition Amaiur (former Batasuna plus Eusko Alkartasuna) came up first in parliamentary seats (7) and second only to UPN -PP (5 seats) in popular vote in the Southern Basque Country, followed closely by the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (5 seats). Geroa Bai secured a seat in Navarre, with the Basque Nationalist Party getting 5 (all from Basque Autonomous Community).

Despite Amaiur's results, the group was refused a parliamentary group in an unprecedented decision in the Spanish Parliament, on the grounds that the coalition's MPs represented two different constituencies. As a result, Amaiur (5th political group in the Spanish Parliament altogether) remained in the Grupo Mixto with a myriad of different parties from all over Spain, while the so-called Basque Group includes only the 5 members of the PNV and the Basque Autonomous Community (Euskadi).

However, in December 2015, the Spanish parliamentary elections saw the rise of Podemos (7 MPs) and the Basque Nationalist Party (6 MPs) at the expense of EH Bildu (2 MPs), while Madrid-based mainstream parties continued their steady decline trend, with the Spanish Conservatives (allied with UPN in Navarre) getting 4 MPs, and the Socialists 4 MPs.

In the Northern Basque Country, the French right is the most popular political faction, but since its creation the coalition EH Bai (the northern equivalent of EH Bildu) has seen a rise in popularity, and in the 2020 municipal and 2021 departmental elections the coalition came up second in popular vote.

### Parties with presence in all the Basque Country

- The Basque Nationalist Party (EAJ-PNV-PNB) is the oldest of all nationalist parties, with over 100 years of history. It is Christian-democrat and has evolved towards rather moderate positions though it still keeps the demand for self-determination and eventual independence. It is the main party in the Basque Autonomous Community (BAC) and is the most voted party (about 40% population), but its presence in Navarre is minor and subsumed in Geroa Bai, while it remains marginal in the French Basque Country.

- Eusko Alkartasuna (EA) (Basque Solidarity). A splinter group from PNV since 1984, unleashed by EAJ-PNV's compromise with the Spanish right in Navarre against the opinion of the local branch in exchange for support in Bilbao. The party was led by charismatic lehendakari Carlos Garaikoetxea for years. The party is defined as social-democrat, and is quite more emphatic in its nationalist claims than EAJ-PNV. After Carlos Garaikoetxea retired, Begoña Errazti was elected for the chair of the party. EA went through unfavourable electoral results, the party split with a splinter group founding the half-hearted party Hamaikabat based in Gipuzkoa. Under the leadership of Peio Urizar, Eusko Alkartasuna gained momentum and moved towards an understanding with figures close to former Batasuna and new faces hailing from the same sociological environment. The party is a co-founder of the coalitions EH Bildu in the South and EH Bai in the North.

- Sortu (Create) is a party founded in February 2011 spearheaded by relevant public figures and low-profile political leaders aiming to fill the sociological and political void left by outlawed parties Euskal Herritarrok (We Basque Citizens), and Batasuna (Unity). Its ideology is Basque nationalist and socialist, rejects violence as a means of achieving political goals, and values civic and pacific disobedience as a legitimate way of opposing arbitrary and authoritarian policies. It is included in the coalition EH Bildu in the South and in EH Bai in the North.

### Parties with presence only in the French Basque Country

- Abertzaleen Batasuna (Patriots' Union), the main radical left wing Basque nationalist party in the North.

- Euskal Herria Bai (EH Bai), a left-wing coalition formed by Abertzaleen Batasuna, Sortu and Eusko Alkartasuna (Batasuna also took part in its creation). EH Bai has become the main nationalist force in the North, and has taken a more moderate stance on historical nationalist demands than its predecessors.

- Renaissance (formerly La République En Marche), the party of liberal French President Emmanuel Macron. In the Basque Country it is allied with the traditional French right and other center-right parties.

- The Republicans, the traditional French conservative party, and one of the main forces in the Northern Basque Country.

- Union of Democrats and Independents, a center-right France-wide party, an ally of The Republicans and Renaissance, and the party of the president of the Northern Basque Country Jean-René Etchegaray.

- French Socialist Party, formerly the hegemonic center-left party in France. Even though it has lost much support in recent years it has remained relevant in Basque politics.

- Europe Ecology – The Greens, the main French green party. The greens are one of the main allies of the left-wing Basque nationalists in France.

- National Rally, far-right, France-wide.

### Parties with presence in all of the Spanish Basque Country

- Euskal Herria Bildu (Basque Country Gather), a left-wing Basque nationalist coalition formed by EA, Sortu and Alternatiba. It is the main opposition in the BAC and the fourth party in the Navarrese parliament (as of 2022). Even though the coalition is considered the successor of Batasuna, it is much more moderate and officially rejects political violence.

- Spanish Socialist Worker Party (PSOE), the main social-democratic party of Spanish politics, with its regional branches: PSE-EE (mixed Spanish and Basque acronym for: Socialist Party of the Basque Country – Basque Country's Left) in the Basque Autonomous Community (BAC). PSN (Socialist Party of Navarre) in Navarre.

- PSE-EE (mixed Spanish and Basque acronym for: Socialist Party of the Basque Country – Basque Country's Left) in the Basque Autonomous Community (BAC).

- PSN (Socialist Party of Navarre) in Navarre.

- People's Party (PP), the main conservative party in Spain, with its branches: Partido Popular de Navarra (People's Party of Navarre) in Navarre Partido Popular del País Vasco (People's Party of The Basque Country) in the BAC

- Partido Popular de Navarra (People's Party of Navarre) in Navarre

- Partido Popular del País Vasco (People's Party of The Basque Country) in the BAC

- United Left (IU), a Spain-wide left-wing coalition, the former Spanish Communist Party, federalist and republican, with its branches: Ezker Anitza (Plural Left) (EzAn-IU) in the BAC Izquierda Unida de Navarra-Nafarroako Ezker Batua (United Left of Navarre) (IUN-NEB) in Navarre

- Ezker Anitza (Plural Left) (EzAn-IU) in the BAC

- Izquierda Unida de Navarra-Nafarroako Ezker Batua (United Left of Navarre) (IUN-NEB) in Navarre

- Podemos-Ahal Dugu (We can), a Spain-wide leftist party. In the BAC it is inside the coalition Elkarrekin Podemos alongside United Left, and in Navarre it is part of the coalition government.

### Parties with presence only in Navarre

- Navarrese People's Union (UPN), a conservative party formerly attached to People's Party. It was the ruling party in Navarre from 1996 to 2015, and a firm opponent of Basque nationalism, the idea of a Basque Country including Navarre, and virtually all matters Basque. It emphasizes the Spanish character of Navarre, its distinct institutional make-up, and taxation system.

- Navarra Suma, a right-wing coalition formed by UPN, PP and Citizens. It won the 2019 Navarrese regional election but it was unable to form a government.

- Geroa Bai (Yes to the Future), a progressive Basque nationalist coalition with ties to the Basque Nationalist Party. It ruled Navarre from 2015 to 2019, and entered the PSN led government in 2019. Currently it is the biggest Basque nationalist party in Navarre.

- Izquierda-Ezkerra, a leftist coalition formed by United Left and Batzarre.

### Basque nationalism

#### Political status

Since the 19th century, Basque nationalism (abertzaleak) has demanded the right of some kind of self-determination, which is supported by 60% of Basques in the Basque Autonomous Community, and independence, which would be supported in this same territory, according to a poll, by approximately 36% of them. This desire for independence is particularly stressed among leftist Basque nationalists. The right of self-determination was asserted by the Basque Parliament in 1990, 2002 and 2006.

According to Article 2 of the Spanish Constitution of 1978, "The Constitution is based on the indissoluble unity of the Spanish nation, the common and indivisible homeland of all Spaniards". Therefore, since this precludes a declaration of independence of Spanish regions, some Basques abstained and some even voted against it in the referendum of 6 December of that year. The constitution was nevertheless approved by a clear majority in the whole of Spain, albeit with some degree of opposition in the Southern Basque Country. The derived autonomous regime for the BAC was approved in later referendum and the autonomy of Navarre (amejoramiento del fuero: "improvement of the charter") was approved by the regional parliament of Navarra.

There are not many sources on the issue for the French Basque country, but the establishment of an autonomic regime in the Northern Basque Country and the officiality of the Basque language are two of the main demands of Basque nationalists.

#### Euskadi Ta Askatasuna

Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA) was an armed Basque nationalist and separatist organization. The group was founded in 1959 and evolved from a group promoting Basque culture to a paramilitary group with the goal of gaining independence for the Basque Country. ETA is the main organisation of the Basque National Liberation Movement and was the most important participant in the Basque conflict. ETA declared temporary ceasefires in 1989, 1996, 1998 and 2006, but these subsequently came to an abrupt end. However, on 5 September 2010, ETA declared a permanent ceasefire, and on 20 October 2011 ETA announced a "definitive cessation of its armed activity". On 2 May 2018, ETA issued a historic statement declaring a definitive end to its armed struggle and the organisation was officially dissolved, after six decades of political conflict.

### Rejection of the Basque Country idea in Navarre

A Basque Country including Navarre has proved controversial. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 included the "Disposición transitoria cuarta" (Basque: Espainiako Konstituzioko laugarren xedapen iragankorra) which allowed Navarre to be eventually absorbed in the Basque Country at their request. This was added after the rejection of the majority of the political parties of Navarre to be incorporated in a joined Basque Country Autonomous Community. The coat of arms of the Basque Autonomous Community included the coat of arms of Navarre (along the coats of arms of Álava, Biscay and Gipuzkoa) when the Statute of Autonomy of the Basque Country of 1979 was approved. Following a legal suit by the Navarre government claiming that the usage of the arms of a region on the flag of another was illegal, the Constitutional Court of Spain forced the Basque government to remove the chains of Navarre, leaving the red background where the chains were.

Among other controversies in 2018 the Supreme Court of Navarre (Spanish: Tribunal Supremo de Justicia de Navarra) ruling against the use of some school books that had in their content a map that displayed the Chartered Community of Navarre within the Basque Country area, claiming it distorted the natural, historic, legal, social, geographic and politic reality of Navarre. The same court has also ruled against considering the knowledge of the Basque language when hiring in the public administration, and the establishment of Basque-medium schools has usually been opposed by Navarrese and municipal governments. The Navarrese government and courts have also taken measures to remove Basque symbols from public buildings. As an example, the Administrative Court of Navarre (Spanish: Tribunal Administrativo de Nafarroa) recently ordered the removal of the Basque coat of arms from a fronton, placed by the municipal government.

## Culture

### Sports

The Basque Country has also contributed many sportsmen, primarily in football, rugby union, cycling, jai-alai and surfing.

The main sport in the Basque Country, as in the rest of Spain and much of France, is football. The top teams – Athletic Bilbao, Real Sociedad, Osasuna, Eibar, Alavés, Real Unión and Barakaldo – play in the Spanish football league system. Athletic Bilbao has a policy of hiring only Basque players, which has been applied with variable flexibility. Local rivals Real Sociedad used to practice the same policy, until they signed Irish striker John Aldridge in the late 1980s. Since then, Real Sociedad have had many foreign players. Athletic's policy does not apply to head coaches, with famous names as Howard Kendall and Jupp Heynckes coaching the team at various points.

The most renowned Basque footballer of all time is possibly Andoni Zubizarreta, who holds the record for appearances in La Liga with 622 games and won six league titles and one European Cup. Nowadays, the most well-known Basque football player is Xabi Alonso (winner of two European Championships and one FIFA World Cup) who played for Real Sociedad, Liverpool, Real Madrid and Bayern Munich. Other notable Basque players include Jon Andoni Goikoetxea, Mikel Arteta, Javi Martínez, Iker Muniain, César Azpilicueta, Asier Illarramendi, Andoni Iraola, Aritz Aduriz and Ander Herrera. Both Athletic and Real Sociedad have won the Spanish league, including dominating the competition in the early 1980s, with the last title won by a Basque club being Athletic's 1984 title.

At international level, Basque players were especially prominent in Spanish selections prior to the Civil War, with all of those at the 1928 Olympics, and the majority of the 1920 Olympics and 1934 World Cup squads, born in the region.

Football is slightly less popular in Northern Basque country but the region has produced two well known and successful French players, Bixente Lizarazu and Didier Deschamps, who were among 22 players that won the 1998 World Cup. In the 2010s, Aviron Bayonnais FC developed international players Stéphane Ruffier and Kévin Rodrigues (capped by Portugal) and Aymeric Laporte who eventually played for Spain based on his residency in the southern Basque country. The club has also played in the French third tier.

The territory has an unofficial 'national' team which plays occasional friendlies, but not competitive matches, against conventional national teams. Navarre has its own representative side which convenes rarely.

Cycling as a sport is popular in the Basque Country. Miguel Indurain, born in Atarrabia (Navarre), won the Tour de France five times. Fellow Basque cyclist Abraham Olano has won the Vuelta a España and the World Championship.

Movistar Team, a top level cycling team, hails from Navarre, and is a continuation from the Banesto team for which Indurain ran. Euskaltel–Euskadi was a team operating at the same level until 2013 which was commercially sponsored, but also worked as an unofficial Basque national team and was partly funded by the Basque Government. Its riders were Basque, or at least grew up in the region's cycling culture; members of the team were sometimes strong contenders in the Tour de France or Vuelta a España. The races often saw Basque fans lining the roads during Pyrenean stages of the Tour de France. Team leaders included riders such as Iban Mayo, Haimar Zubeldia, Samuel Sánchez and David Etxebarria. Another team of the same name was raised to ProTeam level in 2019.

In the north, rugby union is another popular sport with the Basque community. In Biarritz, the local club is Biarritz Olympique Pays Basque, the name referencing the club's Basque heritage. They wear red, white and green, and supporters wave the Basque flag in the stands. A number of 'home' matches played by Biarritz Olympique in the Heineken Cup have taken place at Estadio Anoeta in San Sebastian. The most famous Basque Biarritz player was the legendary French fullback Serge Blanco, whose mother was Basque, and Michel Celaya captained both Biarritz and France. Aviron Bayonnais is another top-flight rugby union club with Basque ties.

A Basque club was the last to win the cup before the banning of rugby league, along with other professional sports, by the German collaborating Vichy regime after the defeat of France in 1940.

Pelota (jai alai) is the Basque version of the European game family that includes real tennis and squash. Basque players, playing for either the Spanish or the French teams, dominate international competitions.

Mountaineering is popular due to the mountainous terrain of the Basque Country and its proximity to the Pyrenees. Edurne Pasaban became the first woman to climb the fourteen mountains of greater than 8000 metre altitude; Alberto Iñurrategi and Juanito Oiarzabal have done so without supplementary oxygen. Josune Bereziartu and Patxi Usobiaga, a former world champion, are among top Basques in rock climbing. Related to mountaineering is trail running, where the Basque Country plays host to the popular Zegama-Aizkorri skyrunning races, held annually since 2002.

One of the top basketball clubs in Europe, Saski Baskonia, is based in Vitoria-Gasteiz. Bilbao Basket and Gipuzkoa BC also play in Liga ACB, Spain's top league.

In recent years surfing has taken off on the Basque shores, and Mundaka and Biarritz have become spots on the world surf circuit.

### Traditional Basque sports

The Basque country sporting tradition is linked to agricultural pursuits such as mowing with a scythe, or loading carts, but adapted as competitions with points awarded for specific criteria such as time, precision, elegance and productivity. Rural Basque sports include Aizkolaritza (wood chopping), Harri-jasotzaileak (stone lifting), Idi probak (leading oxen to drag rocks) and Sokatira (tug-of-war).


The Epic Times

# The Epic Times

## Abstract

Epic Times was a news website network started by Jerry Doyle. EpicTimes featured contributors such as former deputy undersecretary of defense in the George W. Bush administration Jed Babbin, and actress and author Anita Finlay.


Clotilde Apponyi

# Clotilde Apponyi

## Abstract

Clotilde "Klotild" Apponyi (née Klotild Wilhelmine von Mensdorff-Pouilly-Dietrichstein; 23 December 1867 – 1 September 1942) was an Austro-Hungarian noblewoman, women's rights activist, politician and a diplomat.

## Early life and ancestry

Countess Klothilde Wilhelmine Josepha Gabriele Maria Innocenta was born as a third daughter and youngest child of the Austrian politician Prince Alexander von Dietrichstein-Nikolsburg and his wife, Countess Alexandrine Aline von Dietrichstein-Proskau-Leslie (1824-1906), second daughter and one of the heiresses of Joseph Franz, Prince of Dietrichstein. By virtue of birth, she was member of the House of Mensdorff-Pouilly and through Saxe-Coburg-Gotha blood was related to the British Royal Family, German Imperial family, Russian Imperial family, as well as to almost all other European Royal families.

## Career

Apponyi was president of the Klotild association for the selling of women's work from 1908, president for the alliance of Hungarian women's associations (MNSz) from 1910, board member of the Catholic protection society for women from 1913, president for the Maria Dorotea association for women teachers from 1930, as well as for numerous other charitable associations. As president of the MNSz, she addressed the Hungarian parliament in favor of women's suffrage in 1912, and supported this reform in public in 1918. After World War I, she, as president of the MNSz, became the spokesperson of the non-socialist women's associations of Hungary in oppose to the leftist MANSz under Cécile Tormay. In 1929, she protested against the suggestion to abolish women's right to run for office, and in 1939, she did the same against the suggestion to ban married women from holding office as civil servants.

During World War I, she was an informal diplomat for the Kingdom of Hungary in Switzerland, and she served as a sub-delegate to the League of Nations in Geneva in 1928-34, and as a delegate for Hungary in 1935-37.

## Personal life

On 1 March 1897 in Vienna, she married Hungarian politician Count Albert Apponyi de Nagy-Aponyi, second child and only son of Count György Apponyi de Nagy-Aponyi and his wife, Countess Júliane Sztáray de Nagymihály et Sztára (1820-1871). Albert was a leading member of the powerful Hungarian Apponyi family. Together, they were the parents of three children, one son and two daughters:

- Count György II Alexander Mária Antal Apponyi de Nagy-Aponyi (1898–1970), a politician, member of the Parliament, journalist, married in 1923 to Princess Margarete Odescalchi and had issue.

- Countess Mária Alexandrina Angela Apponyi de Nagy-Aponyi (1899–1967), who married Prince Karl of Rohan in 1933 and had issue.

- Countess Julianna Maria Georgina Antonia Apponyi de Nagy-Aponyi (1903–1994), who married Count Ferenc Pálffy of Erdöd in 1924 and had issue. They divorced in 1934 and she married Hungarian nobleman Elemér Klobusiczky de Klobusicz et Zetény in 1943, and had issue. They divorced in 1947.

## Death

Countess Clotilde Apponyi died on 1 September 1942, at the age of 74 in Budapest, Hungary. At first, she was buried in Farkasréti Cemetery in Budapest, but later, her grave and a grave of her husband were moved to Éberhárd (today Slovakia), part of the Komárom County, where Apponyi family owned a country estate with a castle.


Scale height

# Scale height

## Abstract

In atmospheric, earth, and planetary sciences, a scale height, usually denoted by the capital letter H, is a distance (vertical or radial) over which a physical quantity decreases by a factor of e (the base of natural logarithms, approximately 2.718).

## Scale height used in a simple atmospheric pressure model

For planetary atmospheres, scale height is the increase in altitude for which the atmospheric pressure decreases by a factor of e. The scale height remains constant for a particular temperature. It can be calculated by

H = k B T m g {\displaystyle H={\frac {k_{\text{B}}T}{mg}}} or equivalently H = R T M g {\displaystyle H={\frac {RT}{Mg}}} where:

- k = Boltzmann constant = 1.381 × 10 J⋅K

- R = molar gas constant

- T = mean atmospheric temperature in kelvins = 250 K for Earth

- m = mean mass of a molecule

- M = mean molar mass of atmospheric particles = 0.029 kg/mol for Earth

- g = acceleration due to gravity at the current location

The pressure (force per unit area) at a given altitude is a result of the weight of the overlying atmosphere. If at a height of z the atmosphere has density ρ and pressure P, then moving upwards an infinitesimally small height dz will decrease the pressure by amount dP, equal to the weight of a layer of atmosphere of thickness dz.

Thus: d P d z = − g ρ {\displaystyle {\frac {dP}{dz}}=-g\rho } where g is the acceleration due to gravity. For small dz it is possible to assume g to be constant; the minus sign indicates that as the height increases the pressure decreases. Therefore, using the equation of state for an ideal gas of mean molecular mass M at temperature T, the density can be expressed as ρ = M P R T {\displaystyle \rho ={\frac {MP}{RT}}}

Combining these equations gives d P P = − d z k B T / m g {\displaystyle {\frac {dP}{P}}={\frac {-dz}{{k_{\text{B}}T}/{mg}}}} which can then be incorporated with the equation for H given above to give: d P P = − d z H {\displaystyle {\frac {dP}{P}}=-{\frac {dz}{H}}} which will not change unless the temperature does. Integrating the above and assuming P is the pressure at height z = 0 (pressure at sea level) the pressure at height z can be written as: P = P 0 exp (− z H) {\displaystyle P=P_{0}\exp \left(-{\frac {z}{H}}\right)}

This translates as the pressure decreasing exponentially with height.

In Earth's atmosphere, the pressure at sea level P averages about 1.01 × 10 Pa, the mean molecular mass of dry air is 28.964 Da and hence m = 28.964 Da × 1.660 × 10 kg/Da = 4.808 × 10 kg. As a function of temperature, the scale height of Earth's atmosphere is therefore H / T = k / mg = 1.381 × 10 J ⋅ K / (4.808 × 10 kg × 9.81 m ⋅ s) = 29.28 m/K. This yields the following scale heights for representative air temperatures.

- T = 290 K, H = 8500 m

- T = 273 K, H = 8000 m

- T = 260 K, H = 7610 m

- T = 210 K, H = 6000 m

These figures should be compared with the temperature and density of Earth's atmosphere plotted at NRLMSISE-00, which shows the air density dropping from 1200 g/m at sea level to 0.125 g/m at 70 km, a factor of 9600, indicating an average scale height of 70 / ln(9600) = 7.64 km, consistent with the indicated average air temperature over that range of close to 260 K.

Note:

- Density is related to pressure by the ideal gas laws. Therefore, density will also decrease exponentially with height from a sea level value of ρ roughly equal to 1.2 kg ⋅ m.

- At an altitude over 100 km, the atmosphere is no longer be well-mixed, and each chemical species has its own scale height.

- Here temperature and gravitational acceleration were assumed to be constant but both may vary over large distances.

## Planetary examples

Approximate atmospheric scale heights for selected Solar System bodies:

- Venus: 15.9 km

- Earth: 8.5 km

- Mars: 11.1 km

- Jupiter: 27 km

- Saturn: 59.5 km Titan: 21 km

- Titan: 21 km

- Uranus: 27.7 km

- Neptune: 19.1–20.3 km

- Pluto: ~50 km

## Scale height for a thin disk

For a disk of gas around a condensed central object, such as, for example, a protostar, one can derive a disk scale height which is somewhat analogous to the planetary scale height. We start with a disc of gas that has a mass which is small relative to the central object. We assume that the disc is in hydrostatic equilibrium with the z component of gravity from the star, where the gravity component is pointing to the midplane of the disk: d P d z = − G M ∗ ρ z (r 2 + z 2) 3 / 2 {\displaystyle {\frac {dP}{dz}}=-{\frac {GM_{*}\rho z}{(r^{2}+z^{2})^{3/2}}}} where:

- G = Gravitational constant ≈ 6.674 × 10 m ⋅kg ⋅s

- r = the radial cylindrical coordinate for the distance from the center of the star or centrally condensed object

- z = the height/altitude cylindrical coordinate for the distance from the disk midplane (or center of the star)

- M = the mass of the star/centrally condensed object

- P = the pressure of the gas in the disk

- ρ {\displaystyle \rho } = the gas mass density in the disk

In the thin disk approximation, z ≪ r {\displaystyle z\ll r} and the hydrostatic equilibrium equation is d P d z ≈ − G M ∗ ρ z r 3 {\displaystyle {\frac {dP}{dz}}\approx -{\frac {GM_{*}\rho z}{r^{3}}}}

To determine the gas pressure, one can use the ideal gas law: P = ρ k B T m ¯ {\displaystyle P={\frac {\rho k_{\text{B}}T}{\bar {m}}}} with:

- T = the gas temperature in the disk, where the temperature is a function of r, but independent of z

- m ¯ {\displaystyle {\bar {m}}} = the mean molecular mass of the gas

Using the ideal gas law and the hydrostatic equilibrium equation, gives: d ρ d z ≈ − G M ∗ m ¯ ρ z k T r 3 {\displaystyle {\frac {d\rho }{dz}}\approx -{\frac {GM_{*}{\bar {m}}\rho z}{kTr^{3}}}} which has the solution ρ = ρ 0 exp (− (z h D) 2) {\displaystyle \rho =\rho _{0}\exp \left(-\left({\frac {z}{h_{D}}}\right)^{2}\right)} where ρ 0 {\displaystyle \rho _{0}} is the gas mass density at the midplane of the disk at a distance r from the center of the star and h D {\displaystyle h_{D}} is the disk scale height with h D = 2 k T r 3 G M ∗ m ¯ ≈ 0.0306 (T / 100 K) (r / 1 au) 3 (M ∗ / M ⊙) (m ¯ / 2 amu) au {\displaystyle h_{D}={\sqrt {\frac {2kTr^{3}}{GM_{*}{\bar {m}}}}}\approx 0.0306{\sqrt {\frac {\left(T/100\ {\text{K}}\right)\left(r/1{\text{ au}}\right)^{3}}{\left(M_{*}/M_{\odot }\right)\left({\bar {m}}/2{\text{ amu}}\right)}}}\ {\text{ au}}} with M ⊙ {\displaystyle M_{\odot }} the solar mass, au {\displaystyle {\text{au}}} the astronomical unit and amu {\displaystyle {\text{amu}}} the atomic mass unit.

As an illustrative approximation, if we ignore the radial variation in the temperature, T {\displaystyle T}, we see that h D ∝ r 3 / 2 {\displaystyle h_{D}\propto r^{3/2}} and that the disk increases in altitude as one moves radially away from the central object.

Due to the assumption that the gas temperature in the disk, T, is independent of z, h D {\displaystyle h_{D}} is sometimes known as the isothermal disk scale height.

## Disk scale height in a magnetic field

A magnetic field in a thin gas disk around a central object can change the scale height of the disk. For example, if a non-perfectly conducting disk is rotating through a poloidal magnetic field (i.e., the initial magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane of the disk), then a toroidal (i.e., parallel to the disk plane) magnetic field will be produced within the disk, which will pinch and compress the disk. In this case, the gas density of the disk is:

ρ (r, z) = ρ 0 (r) exp (− (z h D) 2) − ρ cut (r) {\displaystyle \rho (r,z)=\rho _{0}(r)\exp \left(-\left({\frac {z}{h_{D}}}\right)^{2}\right)-\rho _{\text{cut}}(r)\left} where the cut-off density ρ cut {\displaystyle \rho _{\text{cut}}} has the form ρ c u t (r) = (μ 0 σ D r) 2 (B z 2 μ 0) (Ω ∗ Ω K − 1) 2 {\displaystyle \rho _{\rm {cut}}(r)=(\mu _{0}\sigma _{D}r)^{2}\left({\frac {B_{z}^{2}}{\mu _{0}}}\right)\left({\frac {\Omega _{*}}{\Omega _{K}}}-1\right)^{2}} where

- μ 0 {\displaystyle \mu _{0}} is the permeability of free space

- σ D {\displaystyle \sigma _{D}} is the electrical conductivity of the disk

- B z {\displaystyle B_{z}} is the magnetic flux density of the poloidal field in the z {\displaystyle z} direction

- Ω ∗ {\displaystyle \Omega _{*}} is the rotational angular velocity of the central object (if the poloidal magnetic field is independent of the central object then Ω ∗ {\displaystyle \Omega _{*}} can be set to zero)

- Ω K {\displaystyle \Omega _{K}} is the keplerian angular velocity of the disk at a distance r {\displaystyle r} from the central object.

These formulae give the maximum height, H B {\displaystyle H_{B}}, of the magnetized disk as H B = h D ln (1 + ρ 0 / ρ c u t), {\displaystyle H_{B}=h_{D}{\sqrt {\ln \left(1+\rho _{0}/\rho _{\rm {cut}}\right)}},} while the e-folding magnetic scale height, h B {\displaystyle h_{B}}, is h B = h D ln (1 + 1 − 1 / e 1 / e + ρ cut / ρ 0). {\displaystyle h_{B}=h_{D}{\sqrt {\ln \left(1+{\frac {1-1/e}{1/e+\rho _{\text{cut}}/\rho _{0}}}\right)}}\.}