Afro–Puerto Ricans

# Afro–Puerto Ricans

## Abstract

Afro–Puerto Ricans (Spanish: Afropuertorriqueños), most commonly known as Afroboricuas, but also occasionally referred to as Afroborinqueños, Afroborincanos, or Afropuertorros, are Puerto Ricans of full or partial sub-Saharan African origin, who are predominately the descendants of slaves, freedmen, and free Blacks original to West and Central Africa. The term Afro-Puerto Rican is also used to refer to historical or cultural elements in Puerto Rican society associated with this community, including music, language, cuisine, art, and religion.

The history of Afro-Puerto Ricans traces its origins to the arrival of free West African Black men, or libertos (freedmen), who accompanied Spanish Conquistador Juan Ponce de León at the start of the colonization of the island of Puerto Rico. Upon landing and settling, the Spaniards enslaved and exploited the indigenous Taíno natives to work in the extraction of gold. When the Taíno forced laborers were exterminated primarily due to Old World infectious diseases, the Spanish Crown began to rely on sub-Saharan African slavery emanating from different ethnic groups within West and Central Africa to staff their mining, plantations, and constructions.

While there was slavery in Puerto Rico, the island received less sub-Saharan enslaved laborers than other Spanish and non- Hispanic colonies in the Caribbean and the Americas. The need for direct enslaved labor brought through the Atlantic slave trade was greatly reduced by the depletion of gold in Puerto Rico in the 16th century, and the island began to serve primarily as a strategic and military outpost to support, protect, and defend trade routes of Spanish ships traveling between Spain and territories within the continental Americas. However, the Spanish, hoping to destabilize the neighboring colonies of competing world powers, encouraged enslaved fugitives and free people of color from the non-Hispanic Caribbean to emigrate to Puerto Rico. As a result, Puerto Rico indirectly received large numbers of sub-Saharan Africans from neighboring British, Danish, Dutch, and French colonies seeking freedom and refuge from slavery.

In the 19th century, slavery in Puerto Rico was increased, as the Spanish, facing economic decline with the loss of all of its colonial territories in the Americas aside from Cuba and Puerto Rico, established and expanded sugar cane production in the island. Since 1789, slaves in Puerto Rico were allowed to earn or buy their freedom. Throughout the years, there were several slave revolts in the island. Promised their freedom, slaves participated in the 1868 Grito de Lares revolt against Spanish rule. On March 22, 1873, slavery was officially abolished in Puerto Rico.

The contributions of Puerto Ricans of full or mostly sub-Saharan African descent to music, art, language, and heritage have been instrumental in shaping the culture of Puerto Rico.

## First Africans in Puerto Rico

When Ponce de León and the Spaniards arrived on the island of Borinquen (Puerto Rico), they were greeted by the Cacique Agüeybaná, the supreme leader of the peaceful Taíno tribes on the island. Agüeybaná helped to maintain the peace between the Taíno and the Spaniards. According to historian Ricardo Alegria, in 1509 Juan Garrido was the first free African man to set foot on the island; he was a conquistador who was part of Juan Ponce de León 's entourage. Garrido was born on the West African coast, the son of an African king. In 1508, he joined Juan Ponce de León to explore Puerto Rico and prospect for gold. In 1511, he fought under Ponce de León to repress the Carib and the Taíno, who had joined forces in Puerto Rico in a great revolt against the Spaniards. Garrido next joined Hernán Cortés in the Spanish conquest of Mexico. Another free African man who accompanied de León was Pedro Mejías. Mejías married a Taíno woman chief (a cacica), by the name of Yuisa. Yuisa was baptized as Catholic so that she could marry Mejías. She was given the Christian name of Luisa (the town Loíza, Puerto Rico was named for her).

The peace between the Spanish and the Taíno was short-lived. The Spanish took advantage of the Taínos' good faith and enslaved them, forcing them to work in the gold mines and in the construction of forts. Many Taíno died, particularly due to epidemics of smallpox, to which they had no immunity. Other Taínos committed suicide or left the island after the failed Taíno revolt of 1511.

Friar Bartolomé de las Casas, who had accompanied Ponce de León, was outraged at the Spanish treatment of the Taíno. In 1512 he protested at the council of Burgos at the Spanish Court. He fought for the freedom of the natives and was able to secure their rights. The Spanish colonists, fearing the loss of their labor force, also protested before the courts. They complained that they needed manpower to work in the mines, build forts, and supply labor for the thriving sugar cane plantations. As an alternative, Las Casas suggested the importation and use of African slaves. In 1517, the Spanish Crown permitted its subjects to import twelve slaves each, thereby beginning the African slave trade in their colonies.

According to historian Luis M. Diaz, the largest contingent of African slaves came from the areas of the present-day Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria; all these current countries are located in the Gulf of Guinea, area also known as the Slave Coast. The large majority were Yoruba and Igbo, ethnic groups from Nigeria, and Bantu from the Guinea. The number of slaves in Puerto Rico rose from 1,500 in 1530 to 15,000 by 1555. The slaves were stamped with a hot iron on the forehead, a branding which meant that they were brought to the country legally and prevented their kidnapping.

African slaves were sent to work in the gold mines to replace the Taíno, or to work in the fields in the island's ginger and sugar industries. They were allowed to live with their families in a bohio (hut) on the master's land, and were given a patch of land where they could plant and grow vegetables and fruits. Africans had little or no opportunity for advancement and faced discrimination from the Spaniards. Slaves were educated by their masters and soon learned to speak the master's language, educating their own children in the new language. They enriched the "Puerto Rican Spanish" language by adding words of their own. The Spaniards considered Africans more malleable than the Taíno, since the latter were unwilling to assimilate. The slaves, in contrast, had little choice but to adapt to their lives. Many converted (at least nominally) to Christianity; they were baptized by the Catholic Church and were given the surnames of their masters. Many slaves were subject to harsh treatment; and women were subject to sexual abuse. The majority of the Conquistadors and farmers who settled the island had arrived without women; many of them intermarried with the African or Taíno women. Their multiracial descendants formed the first generations of the early Puerto Rican population.

In 1527, the first major slave rebellion occurred in Puerto Rico, as dozen of slaves fought against the colonists in a brief revolt. The few slaves who escaped retreated to the forests and mountains, where they resided as maroons with surviving Taínos. During the following centuries, by 1873 slaves had carried out more than twenty revolts. Some were of great political importance, such as the Ponce and Vega Baja conspiracies.

By 1570, the colonists found that the gold mines were depleted. After gold mining ended on the island, the Spanish Crown bypassed Puerto Rico by moving the western shipping routes to the north. The island became primarily a garrison for those ships that would pass on their way to or from richer colonies. The cultivation of crops such as tobacco, cotton, cocoa, and ginger became the cornerstone of the economy. With the scale of Puerto Rico's economy reduced, colonial families tended to farm these crops themselves, and the demand for slaves was reduced.

With rising demand for sugar on the international market, major planters increased their cultivation and processing of sugar cane, which was labor-intensive. Sugar plantations supplanted mining as Puerto Rico's main industry and kept demand high for African slavery. Spain promoted sugar cane development by granting loans and tax exemptions to the owners of the plantations. They were also given permits to participate in the African slave trade.

To attract more workers, in 1664 Spain offered freedom and land to African-descended people from non-Spanish colonies, such as Jamaica and Saint-Domingue (later Haiti). Most of the free people of color who were able to immigrate were of mixed-race, with African and European ancestry (typically either British or French paternal ancestry, depending on the colony.) The immigrants provided a population base to support the Puerto Rican garrison and its forts. Freedmen who settled the western and southern parts of the island soon adopted the ways and customs of the Spaniards. Some joined the local militia, which fought against the British in the many British attempts to invade the island. The escaped slaves and the freedmen who emigrated from the West Indies used their former master's surnames, which were typically either English or French. In the 21st century, some ethnic African Puerto Ricans still carry non-Spanish surnames, proof of their descent from these immigrants.

After 1784, Spain suspended the use of hot branding the slave's forehead for identification. In addition, it provided ways by which slaves could obtain freedom:

- A slave could be freed by his master in a church or outside it, before a judge, by testament or letter.

- A slave could be freed against his master's will by denouncing a forced rape, by denouncing a counterfeiter, by discovering disloyalty against the king, and by denouncing murder against his master.

- Any slave who received part of his master's estate in his master's will was automatically freed (these bequests were sometimes made to the master's mixed-race slave children, as well as to other slaves for service.)

- If a slave was made a guardian to his master's children, he was freed.

- If slave parents in Hispanic America had ten children, the whole family was freed.

## Royal Decree of Graces of 1789

In 1789, the Spanish Crown issued the "Royal Decree of Graces of 1789", which set new rules related to the slave trade and added restrictions to the granting of freedman status. The decree granted its subjects the right to purchase slaves and to participate in the flourishing slave trade in the Caribbean. Later that year a new slave code, also known as El Código Negro (The Black Code), was introduced.

Under "El Código Negro", a slave could buy his freedom, in the event that his master was willing to sell, by paying the price sought. Slaves were allowed to earn money during their spare time by working as shoemakers, cleaning clothes, or selling the produce they grew on their own plots of land. Slaves were able to pay for their freedom by installments. They pay in installments for the freedom of their newborn child, not yet baptized, at a cost of half the going price for a baptized child. Many of these freedmen started settlements in the areas which became known as Cangrejos (Santurce), Carolina, Canóvanas, Loíza, and Luquillo. Some became slave owners themselves.

The native-born Puerto Ricans (criollos) who wanted to serve in the regular Spanish army petitioned the Spanish Crown for that right. In 1741, the Spanish government established the Regimiento Fijo de Puerto Rico. Many of the former slaves, now freedmen, joined either the Fijo or the local civil militia. Puerto Ricans of African ancestry played an instrumental role in the defeat of Sir Ralph Abercromby in the British invasion of Puerto Rico in 1797.

Despite these paths to freedom, from 1790 onwards, the number of slaves more than doubled in Puerto Rico as a result of the dramatic expansion of the sugar industry in the island. Every aspect of sugar cultivation, harvesting and processing was arduous and harsh. Many slaves died on the sugar plantations.

## 19th century

### Royal Decree of Graces of 1815

The Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 was intended to encourage Spaniards and later other Europeans to settle and populate the colonies of Cuba and Puerto Rico. The decree encouraged the use of slave labor to revive agriculture and attract new settlers. The new agricultural class immigrating from other countries of Europe used slave labor in large numbers, and harsh treatment was frequent. The slaves resisted -from the early 1820s until 1868, a series of slave uprisings occurred on the island; the last was known as the Grito de Lares.

In July 1821, for instance, the slave Marcos Xiorro planned and conspired to lead a slave revolt against the sugar plantation owners and the Spanish Colonial government. Although the conspiracy was suppressed, Xiorro achieved legendary status among the slaves, and is part of Puerto Rico's heroic folklore.

The 1834 Royal Census of Puerto Rico established that 11% of the population were slaves, 35% were colored freemen (also known as free people of color in French colonies, meaning free mixed-race /black people), and 54% were white. In the following decade, the number of the slave population increased more than tenfold to 258,000, the result mostly of increased importation to meet the demand for labor on sugar plantations.

In 1836, the names and descriptions of slaves who had escaped, and details of their ownership were reported in the Gaceta de Puerto Rico. If an African presumed to be a slave was captured and arrested, the information was published.

Planters became nervous because of the large number of slaves; they ordered restrictions, particularly on their movements outside a plantation. Rose Clemente, a 21st-century black Puerto Rican columnist, wrote: "Until 1846, Blacks on the island had to carry a notebook (Libreta system) to move around the island, like the passbook system in apartheid South Africa."

After the successful slave rebellion against the French in Saint-Domingue (Haiti) in 1803, establishing a new republic, the Spanish Crown became fearful that the "Criollos" (native born) of Puerto Rico and Cuba, her last two remaining possessions, might follow suit. The Spanish government issued the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 to attract European immigrants from non-Spanish countries to populate the island, believing that these new immigrants would be more loyal to Spain than the mixed-race Criollos. However, they did not expect the new immigrants to racially intermarry, as they did, and to identify completely with their new homeland. By 1850, most of the former Spanish possessions in the Americans had achieved independence.

On May 31, 1848, the Governor of Puerto Rico Juan Prim, in fear of an independence or slavery revolt, imposed draconian laws, "El Bando contra La Raza Africana", to control the behavior of all Black Puerto Ricans, free or slave.

On September 23, 1868, slaves, who had been promised freedom, participated in the short failed revolt against Spain which became known as " El Grito de Lares " or "The Cry of Lares". Many of the participants were imprisoned or executed.

During this period, Puerto Rico provided a means for people to leave some of the racial restrictions behind: under such laws as Regla del Sacar or Gracias al Sacar, a person of African ancestry could be considered legally white if able to prove they also had ancestors with at least one person per generation in the last four generations who had been legally white. Therefore, people of black ancestry with known white lineage became classified as white. This was the opposite of the later "one-drop rule" of hypodescent in the United States, whereby persons of any known African ancestry were classified as black.

### Abolitionists

During the mid-19th century, a committee of abolitionists was formed in Puerto Rico that included many prominent Puerto Ricans. Dr. Ramón Emeterio Betances (1827–1898), whose mixed-race parents were wealthy landowners, believed in abolitionism, and together with fellow Puerto Rican abolitionist Segundo Ruiz Belvis (1829–1867), founded a clandestine organization called "The Secret Abolitionist Society". The objective of the society was to free slave children by paying for freedom when they were baptized. The event, which was also known as "aguas de libertad" (waters of liberty), was carried out at the Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria Cathedral in Mayagüez. When the child was baptized, Betances would give money to the parents, which they used to buy the child's freedom from the master.

José Julián Acosta (1827–1891) was a member of a Puerto Rican commission, which included Ramón Emeterio Betances, Segundo Ruiz Belvis, and Francisco Mariano Quiñones (1830–1908). The commission participated in the "Overseas Information Committee" which met in Madrid, Spain. There, Acosta presented the argument for the abolition of slavery in Puerto Rico. On November 19, 1872, Román Baldorioty de Castro (1822–1889) together with Luis Padial (1832–1879), Julio Vizcarrondo (1830–1889) and the Spanish Minister of Overseas Affairs, Segismundo Moret (1833–1913), presented a proposal for the abolition of slavery.

On March 22, 1873, the Spanish government approved what became known as the Moret Law, which provided for gradual abolition. This edict granted freedom to slaves over 60 years of age, those belonging to the state, and children born to slaves after September 17, 1868.

The Moret Law established the Central Slave Registrar. In 1872 it began gathering the following data on the island's slave population: name, country of origin, present residence, names of parents, sex, marital status, trade, age, physical description, and master's name. This has been an invaluable resource for historians and genealogists.

### Abolition of slavery

On March 22, 1873, slavery was abolished in Puerto Rico, but with one significant caveat. The slaves were not emancipated; they had to buy their own freedom, at whatever price was set by their last masters. The law required that the former slaves work for another three years for their former masters, other people interested in their services, or for the state in order to pay some compensation.

The former slaves earned money in a variety of ways: some by trades, for instance as shoemakers, or laundering clothes, or by selling the produce they were allowed to grow, in the small patches of land allotted to them by their former masters. In a sense, they resembled the black sharecroppers of the southern United States after the American Civil War, but the latter did not own their land. They simply farmed another's land, for a share of the crops raised. The government created the Protector's Office which was in charge of overseeing the transition. The Protector's Office was to pay any difference owed to the former master once the initial contract expired.

The majority of the freed slaves continued to work for their former masters, but as free people, receiving wages for their labor. If the former slave decided not to work for his former master, the Protectors Office would pay the former master 23% of the former slave's estimated value, as a form of compensation.

The freed slaves became integrated into Puerto Rico's society. Racism has existed in Puerto Rico, but it is not considered to be as severe as other places in the New World, possibly because of the following factors:

- In the 8th century, nearly all of Spain was conquered (711–718), by the Arab-Berber /African Moors who had crossed over from North Africa. The first African slaves were brought to Spain during Arab domination by North African merchants. By the middle of the 13th century, Christians had reconquered the Iberian peninsula. A section of Seville, which once was a Moorish stronghold, was inhabited by thousands of Africans. Africans became freemen after converting to Christianity, and they lived integrated in Spanish society. African women were highly sought after by Spanish males. Spain's exposure to people of color over the centuries accounted for the positive racial attitudes that prevailed in the New World. Historian Robert Martínez thought it was unsurprising that the first conquistadors intermarried with the native Taíno and later with the African immigrants.

- The Catholic Church played an instrumental role in preserving the human dignity and working for the social integration of the African man in Puerto Rico. The church insisted that every slave be baptized and converted to the Catholic faith. Church doctrine held that master and slave were equal before the eyes of God, and therefore brothers in Christ with a common moral and religious character. Cruel and unusual punishment of slaves was considered a violation of the fifth commandment.

- When the gold mines were declared depleted in 1570 and mining came to an end in Puerto Rico, the majority of the white Spanish settlers left the island to seek their fortunes in the richer colonies such as Mexico; the island became a Spanish garrison. The majority of those who stayed behind were either African or mulattoes (of mixed race). By the time Spain reestablished commercial ties with Puerto Rico, the island had a large multiracial population. After the Spanish Crown issued the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815, it attracted many European immigrants, in effect "whitening" the island into the 1850s. But, the new arrivals also intermarried with native islanders, and added to the multiracial population. They also identified with the island, rather than simply with the rulers.

Two Puerto Rican writers have written about racism; Abelardo Díaz Alfaro (1916–1999) and Luis Palés Matos (1898–1959), who was credited with creating the poetry genre known as Afro-Antillano.

## Spanish–American War

The Treaty of Paris of 1898 settled the Spanish–American War, which ended the centuries-long Spanish control over Puerto Rico. Like with other former Spanish colonies, it now belonged to the United States. With the United States control over the island's institutions also came a reduction of the natives' political participation. In effect, the U.S. military government defeated the success of decades of negotiations for political autonomy between Puerto Rico's political class and Madrid's colonial administration. Puerto Ricans of African descent, aware of the opportunities and difficulties for blacks in the United States, responded in various ways. The racial bigotry of the Jim Crow Laws stood in contrast to the African-American expansion of mobility that the Harlem Renaissance illustrated.

One Puerto Rican politician of African descent who distinguished himself during this period was the physician and politician José Celso Barbosa (1857–1921). On July 4, 1899, he founded the pro-statehood Puerto Rican Republican Party and became known as the "Father of the Statehood for Puerto Rico" movement. Another distinguished Puerto Rican of African descent, who advocated Puerto Rico's independence, was Arturo Alfonso Schomburg (1874–1938). After emigrating to New York City in the United States, he amassed an extensive collection in preserving manuscripts and other materials of black Americans and the African diaspora. He is considered by some to be the "Father of Black History" in the United States, and a major study center and collection of the New York Public Library is named for him, the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture. He coined the term Afroborincano, meaning African-Puerto Rican.

## Discrimination

After the United States Congress approved the Jones Act of 1917, Puerto Ricans were granted US citizenship. As citizens Puerto Ricans were eligible for the military draft, and many were drafted into the armed forces of the United States during World War I. The armed forces were segregated until after World War II. Puerto Ricans of African descent were subject to the discrimination which was rampant in the military and the U.S.

Black Puerto Ricans residing in the mainland United States were assigned to all-black units. Rafael Hernández (1892–1965) and his brother Jesus, along with 16 more Puerto Ricans, were recruited by Jazz bandleader James Reese Europe to join the United States Army 's Orchestra Europe. They were assigned to the 369th Infantry Regiment, an African-American regiment; it gained fame during World War I and was nicknamed " The Harlem Hell Fighters " by the Germans.

The United States also segregated military units in Puerto Rico. Pedro Albizu Campos (1891–1965), who later became the leader of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, held the rank of lieutenant. He founded the "Home Guard" unit of Ponce and was later assigned to the 375th Infantry Regiment, an all- black Puerto Rican regiment, which was stationed in Puerto Rico and never saw combat. Albizu Campos later said that the discrimination which he witnessed in the Armed Forces, influenced the development of his political beliefs.

Puerto Ricans of African descent were discriminated against in sports. Puerto Ricans who were dark-skinned and wanted to play Major League Baseball in the United States, were not allowed to do so. In 1892 organized baseball had codified a color line, barring African-American players, and any player who was dark-skinned, from any country. Ethnic African-Puerto Ricans continued to play baseball. In 1928, Emilio "Millito" Navarro traveled to New York City and became the first Puerto Rican to play baseball in the Negro leagues when he joined the Cuban Stars. He was later followed by others such as Francisco Coimbre, who also played for the Cuban Stars.

The persistence of these men paved the way for the likes of Baseball Hall of Famers Roberto Clemente and Orlando Cepeda, who played in the Major Leagues after the colorline was broken by Jackie Robinson of the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1947; they were inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame for their achievements. Cepeda's father Pedro Cepeda, was denied a shot at the major leagues because of his color. Pedro Cepeda was one of the greatest players of his generation, the dominant hitter in the Professional Baseball League of Puerto Rico after its founding in 1938. He refused to play in the Negro leagues due to his abhorrence of the racism endemic to the segregated United States.

Black Puerto Ricans also participated in other sports as international contestants. In 1917, Nero Chen became the first Puerto Rican boxer to gain international recognition when he fought against (Panama) Joe Gan at the "Palace Casino" in New York. In the 1948 Summer Olympics (the XIV Olympics), celebrated in London, boxer Juan Evangelista Venegas made sports history by becoming Puerto Rico's first Olympic medal winner when he beat Belgium's representative, Callenboat, on points for a unanimous decision. He won the bronze medal in boxing in the Bantamweight division. The event was also historic because it was the first time that Puerto Rico had participated as a nation in an international sporting event. It was common for impoverished Puerto Ricans to use boxing as a way to earn an income.

On March 30, 1965, José "Chegui" Torres defeated Willie Pastrano by technical knockout and won the World Boxing Council and World Boxing Association light heavyweight championships. He became the third Puerto Rican and the first one of African descent to win a professional world championship.

Among those who exposed the racism and discrimination in the US which Puerto Ricans, especially Black Puerto Ricans, were subject to, was Jesús Colón. Colón is considered by many as the "Father of the Nuyorican movement". He recounted his experiences in New York as a Black Puerto Rican in his book Lo que el pueblo me dice--: crónicas de la colonia puertorriqueña en Nueva York (What the people tell me---: Chronicles of the Puerto Rican colony in New York).

Critics of discrimination say that a majority of Puerto Ricans are racially mixed, but that they do not feel the need to identify as such. They argue that Puerto Ricans tend to assume that they are of Black African, American Indian, and European ancestry and only identify themselves as "mixed" only if they have parents who appear to be of distinctly different "races". Puerto Rico underwent a "whitening" process while under U.S. rule. There was a dramatic change in the numbers of people who were classified as "black" and "white" Puerto Ricans in the 1920 census, as compared to that in 1910. The numbers classified as "Black" declined sharply from one census to another (within 10 years' time). Historians suggest that more Puerto Ricans classified others as white because it was advantageous to do so at that time. In those years, census takers were generally the ones to enter the racial classification. Due to the power of Southern white Democrats, the US Census dropped the category of mulatto or mixed race in the 1930 census, enforcing the artificial binary classification of black and white. Census respondents were not allowed to choose their own classifications until the late 20th and early 21st centuries. It may have been that it was popularly thought it would be easier to advance economically and socially with the US if one were "white".

## African influence in Puerto Rican culture

The descendants of the former slaves became instrumental in the development of Puerto Rico's political, economic and cultural structure. They overcame many obstacles and have contributed to the island's entertainment, sports, literature and scientific institutions. Their contributions and heritage can still be felt today in Puerto Rico's art, music, cuisine, and religious beliefs in everyday life. In Puerto Rico, March 22 is known as "Abolition Day" and it is a holiday celebrated by those who live in the island. The Spanish's limited focus on assimilating the black population, and maroon communities established from slave plantations, contributed to the majority African influence in black Puerto Rican culture. High amounts of interracial marriage and reproducing, since the 1500s, is the reason why the majority of Puerto Ricans are mixed-race European, African, Taino, but only a small number are of predominant or full African ancestry.

The first black people in the island came alongside European colonists as workers from Spain and Portugal known as Ladinos. During the 1500s, the slaves that Spain imported to Puerto Rico and most of its other colonies, were mainly from the Upper Guinea region. However, in the 1600s and 1700s, Spain imported large numbers of slaves from Lower Guinea and the Congo. According to various DNA studies, majority of the African ancestry among black and mixed-race Puerto Ricans comes from a few tribes such as the Wolof, Mandinka, Dahomey, Fang, Bubi, Yoruba, Igbo, and Congolese, correlating to the modern-day countries of Senegal, Mali, Benin, Equatorial Guinea, Nigeria, and Angola. Slaves came from all parts of the western coast of Africa, from Senegal to Angola. The Yoruba and Congolese made the most notable impacts to Puerto Rican culture. There's been evidence of intercolonial migration between Puerto Rico and its neighbors during the 1700s and 1800s, which consisted of migration of free blacks and purchases of slaves from neighboring islands.

### Language

Many African slaves imported to Cuba, Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico spoke "Bozal" Spanish, a Creole language that was Spanish-based, with Congolese and Portuguese influence. Although Bozal Spanish became extinct in the nineteenth century, the African influence in the Spanish spoken in the island is still evident in the many Kongo words that have become a permanent part of Puerto Rican Spanish.

### Music

Puerto Rican musical instruments such as barriles, drums with stretched animal skin, and Puerto Rican music-dance forms such as Bomba or Plena are likewise rooted in Africa. Bomba represents the strong African influence in Puerto Rico. Bomba is a music, rhythm and dance that was brought by West African slaves to the island.

Plena is another form of folkloric music of African origin. Plena was brought to Ponce by blacks who immigrated north from the English-speaking islands south of Puerto Rico. Plena is a rhythm that is clearly African and very similar to Calypso, Soca and Dance hall music from Trinidad and Jamaica.

Bomba and Plena were played during the festival of Santiago (St. James), since slaves were not allowed to worship their own gods. Bomba and Plena evolved into countless styles based on the kind of dance intended to be used. These included leró, yubá, cunyá, babú and belén. The slaves celebrated baptisms, weddings, and births with the "bailes de bomba". Slaveowners, for fear of a rebellion, allowed the dances on Sundays. The women dancers would mimic and poke fun at the slave owners. Masks were and still are worn to ward off evil spirits and pirates. One of the most popular masked characters is the Vejigante (vey-hee-GANT-eh). The Vejigante is a mischievous character and the main character in the Carnivals of Puerto Rico.

Until 1953, Bomba and Plena were virtually unknown outside Puerto Rico. Island musicians Rafael Cortijo (1928–1982), Ismael Rivera (1931–1987) and the El Conjunto Monterrey orchestra introduced Bomba and Plena to the rest of the world. What Rafael Cortijo did with his orchestra was to modernize the Puerto Rican folkloric rhythms with the use of piano, bass, saxophones, trumpets, and other percussion instruments such as timbales, bongos, and replace the typical barriles (skin covered barrels) with congas.

### Cuisine

Nydia Rios de Colon, a contributor to the Smithsonian Folklife Cookbook, also offers culinary seminars through the Puerto Rican Cultural Institute. She writes of the cuisine:

Puerto Rican cuisine also has a strong African influence. The melange of flavors that make up the typical Puerto Rican cuisine counts with the African touch. Pasteles, small bundles of meat stuffed into a dough made of grated green banana (sometimes combined with pumpkin, potatoes, plantains, or yautía) and wrapped in plantain leaves, were devised by African women on the island and based upon food products that originated in Africa."—Nydia Rios de Colon, Arts Publications

Similarly, Johnny Irizarry and Maria Mills have written:

"The salmorejo, a local land crab creation, resembles Southern cooking in the United States with its spicing. The mofongo, one of the island's best-known dishes, is a ball of fried mashed plantain stuffed with pork crackling, crab, lobster, shrimp, or a combination of all of them. Puerto Rico's cuisine embraces its African roots, weaving them into its Indian and Spanish influences."

### Religion

In 1478, the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, established an ecclesiastical tribunal known as the Spanish Inquisition. It was intended to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms.

The Inquisition maintained no rota or religious court in Puerto Rico. However, heretics were written up and if necessary remanded to regional Inquisitional tribunals in Spain or elsewhere in the western hemisphere. Africans were not allowed to practice non-Christian, native religious beliefs. No single organized ethnic African religion survived intact from the times of slavery to the present in Puerto Rico. But, many elements of African spiritual beliefs have been incorporated into syncretic ideas and practices. Santería, a Yoruba -Catholic syncretic mix, and Palo Mayombe, Kongolese traditions, are also practiced in Puerto Rico, the latter having arrived there at a much earlier time. A smaller number of people practice Vudú, which is derived from Dahomey mythology.

Palo Mayombe, or Congolese traditions, existed for several centuries before Santería developed during the 19th century. Guayama became nicknamed "the city of witches", because the religion was widely practiced in this town. Santeria is believed to have been organized in Cuba among its slaves. The Yoruba were brought to many places in the Caribbean and Latin America. They carried their traditions with them, and in some places, they held onto more of them. In Puerto Rico and Trinidad Christianity was dominant. Although converted to Christianity, the captured Africans did not abandon their traditional religious practices altogether. Santería is a syncretic religion created between the diverse images drawn from the Catholic Church and the representational deities of the African Yoruba ethnic group of Nigeria. Santería is widely practiced in the town of Loíza. Sister traditions emerged in their own particular ways on many of the smaller islands. Similarly, throughout Europe, early Christianity absorbed influences from differing practices among the peoples, which varied considerably according to region, language and ethnicity.

Santería has many deities said to be the "top" or "head" God. These deities, which are said to have descended from heaven to help and console their followers, are known as " Orishas ". According to Santería, the Orishas are the ones who choose the person each will watch over.

Unlike other religions where a worshiper is closely identified with a sect (such as Christianity), the worshiper is not always a "Santero". Santeros are the priests and the only official practitioners. (These "Santeros" are not to be confused with the Puerto Rico's craftsmen who carve and create religious statues from wood, which are also called Santeros). A person becomes a Santero if he passes certain tests and has been chosen by the Orishas.

## Current demographics

Considering the 2020 Census is the first to allow respondents to apply multiple races in their responses, there is considerable overlap that while appearing contradictory is in reality reflective of Puerto Rico's mixed history and population. As of the 2020 Census, 17.1% of Puerto Ricans identify as white, 17.5% identify as black or black in combination with another race, 2.3% as Amerindian, 0.3% as Asian, and 74% as "Some Other Race Alone or in Combination." Although estimates vary, most sources estimate that about 60% of Puerto Ricans have significant African ancestry. The vast majority of blacks in Puerto Rico are Afro–Puerto Rican, meaning they have been in Puerto Rico for generations, usually since the slave trade, forming an important part of Puerto Rican culture and society. Recent black immigrants have come to Puerto Rico, mainly from the Dominican Republic, Haiti, and other Latin American and Caribbean countries, and to a lesser extent directly from Africa as well. Many black migrants from the United States and the Virgin Islands have moved and settled in Puerto Rico. Also, many Afro–Puerto Ricans have migrated out of Puerto Rico, namely to the United States. There and in the US Virgin Islands, they make up the bulk of the U.S. Afro-Latino population.

Under Spanish and American rule, Puerto Rico underwent a whitening process. Puerto Rico went from around 50% of its population classified as black and mulatto in the first quarter of the 19th century, to nearly 80% classified white by the middle of the 20th century. Under Spanish rule, Puerto Rico had laws such as Regla del Sacar or Gracias al Sacar, which classified persons of mixed African-European ancestry as white, which was the opposite of " one-drop rule " in US society after the American Civil War. Additionally, the Spanish government's Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 encouraged immigration from other European countries. Heavy European immigration swelled Puerto Rico's population to about one million by the end of the 19th century, decreasing the proportion Africans made of Puerto Rico. In the early decades under US rule, census takers began to shift from classifying people as black to "white" and the society underwent what was called a "whitening" process from the 1910 to the 1920 census, in particular. During the mid 20th century, the US government forcefully sterilized Puerto Rican women, especially non-white Puerto Rican women.

Afro–Puerto Rican youth are learning more of their peoples' history from textbooks that encompass more Afro–Puerto Rican history. The 2010 US census recorded the first drop of the percentage whites made up of Puerto Rico, and the first rise in the black percentage, in over a century. Many of the factors that may possibly perpetuate this trend include: more Puerto Ricans may start to identify as black, due to increasing black pride and African cultural awareness throughout the island, as well as an increasing number of black immigrants, especially from the Dominican Republic and Haiti, many of whom are illegal immigrants, and increasing emigration of white Puerto Ricans to the mainland US.

The following lists only include only the number of people who identify as black and do not attempt to estimate everyone with African ancestry. As noted in the earlier discussion, several of these cities were places where freedmen gathered after gaining freedom, establishing communities.

The municipalities with the highest percentages of residents who identify as black, as of 2020, were:

Loiza: 64.7% Canóvanas: 33.4% Maunabo: 32.7% Rio Grande: 32% Culebra: 27.7% Carolina: 27.3% Vieques: 26% Arroyo: 25.8% Luquillo: 25.7% Patillas: 24.1% Ceiba: 23.8% Juncos: 22.9% San Juan: 22.2% Toa Baja: 22.1% Salinas: 22.1% Cataño: 21.8%

## Notable Afro–Puerto Ricans

- Rafael Cordero (1790–1868), was born free in San Juan, Puerto Rico. Of African descent, he became known as "The Father of Public Education in Puerto Rico". Cordero was a self-educated Puerto Rican who provided free schooling to children regardless of their race. Among the distinguished alumni who attended Cordero's school were future abolitionists Román Baldorioty de Castro, Alejandro Tapia y Rivera, and José Julián Acosta. Cordero proved that racial and economic integration could be possible and accepted in Puerto Rico. In 2004, the Roman Catholic Church, upon the request of San Juan Archbishop Roberto González Nieves, began the process of Cordero's beatification. He was not the only one in his family to become an educator. In 1820, his older sister, Celestina Cordero, established the first school for girls in San Juan.

- José Campeche (1751–1809), born a free man, contributed to the island's culture. Campeche's father, Tomás Campeche, was a freed slave born in Puerto Rico, and his mother María Jordán Marqués came from the Canary Islands. Since she was considered European (or white), her children were born free. Of mixed-race, Campeche was classified as a mulatto, a common term during his time meaning of African-European descent. Campeche is considered to be the foremost Puerto Rican painter of religious themes of the era.

- Capt. Miguel Henriquez (c. 1680–17??), was a former pirate who became Puerto Rico's first black military hero by organizing an expeditionary force that defeated the British in the island of Vieques. Capt. Henriques was received as a national hero when he returned the island of Vieques back to the Spanish Empire and Puerto Rico. He was awarded " La Medalla de Oro de la Real Efigie "; and the Spanish Crown named him "Captain of the Seas", awarding him a letter of marque and reprisal which granted him the privileges of a privateer.

- Rafael Cepeda (1910–1996), also known as "The Patriarch of Bomba and Plena", was the patriarch of the Cepeda family. The family is one of the most famous exponents of Puerto Rican folk music, with generations of musicians working to preserve the African heritage in Puerto Rican music. The family is well known for their performances of the bomba and plena folkloric music and are considered by many to be the keepers of those traditional genres.

- Sylvia del Villard (1928–1990) was a member of the Afro-Boricua Ballet. She participated in the following Afro–Puerto Rican productions, Palesiana y Aquelarre and Palesianisima. In 1968, she founded the Afro-Boricua El Coqui Theater, which was recognized by the Panamerican Association of the New World Festival as the most important authority of Black Puerto Rican culture. The Theater group were given a contract which permitted them to present their act in other countries and in various universities in the United States. In 1981, del Villard became the first and only director of the Office of Afro–Puerto Rican Affairs of the Institute of Puerto Rican Culture. She was known as an outspoken activist who fought for the equal rights of the Black Puerto Rican artist.

### In fiction

- The Marvel Comics superhero Miles Morales / Spider-Man is Afro-Puerto Rican, as he was born to an African-American father and a Afro-Puerto Rican mother.


1944 in Germany

# 1944 in Germany

## Abstract

Events in the year 1944 in Germany.

## Incumbent

### National level

Head of State and Chancellor

- Adolf Hitler (the Führer) (Nazi Party)

## Events

- 4 January — World War II: The Battle of Monte Cassino begins.

- 20 January — World War II: The Royal Air Force drops 2,300 tons of bombs on Berlin.

- 27 January — World War II: The 3-year Siege of Leningrad is lifted.

- 29 January — World War II: The Battle of Cisterna takes place.

- 15 February — World War II – Battle of Monte Cassino: A monastery atop Monte Cassino is destroyed by Allied bombing.

- 20 February — World War II: The "Big Week" begins with American bomber raids on German aircraft manufacturing centers.

- 26 February — Holocaust: Shooting begins on the Nazi propaganda film, The Fuehrer Gives a Village to the Jews in Theresienstadt.

- 15 March — World War II: Battle of Monte Cassino: Allied aircraft bomb German-held monastery and stage an assault.

- 17 March — World War II: The Nazis execute almost 400 prisoners, Soviet citizens and anti- fascist Romanians at Rîbniţa.

- 19 March — World War II: Germany's Panzerfaust occupy Hungary.

- 23 March — World War II: Members of the Italian Resistance attack Nazis marching in Via Rasella, killing 33.

- 9 May — World War II: In the Ukrainian city of Sevastopol, Soviet troops completely drive out German forces, who had been ordered by Hitler to “fight to the last man.”

- 12 May — World War II: Soviet troops finalize the liberation of the Crimea.

- 15 May — Holocaust: Deportation of Hungarian Jews to Auschwitz begins.

- 18 May — World War II: Battle of Monte Cassino: The Germans evacuate Monte Cassino and Allied forces take the stronghold after a struggle that claimed 20,000 lives.

- June — German V-2 rockets on test from Peenemünde become the first man-made objects to enter space. By the end of the month, more than 380,000 Hungarian Jews have been transferred to concentration camps - around half of the country's Jewish population.

- 4 June — World War II: A hunter-killer group of the United States Navy captures the German submarine U-505, marking the first time a U.S. Navy vessel has captured an enemy vessel at sea since the 19th century.

- 5 June — World War II: More than 1,000 British bombers drop 5,000 tons of bombs on German gun batteries on the Normandy coast in preparation for D-Day.

- 5 June — The German Navy's Enigma messages are decoded almost in real time.

- 6 June — World War II: Battle of Normandy: Operation Overlord, commonly known as D-Day, commences with the landing of 155,000 Allied troops on the beaches of Normandy in France. The Allied soldiers quickly break through the Atlantic Wall and push inland, in the largest amphibious military operation in history. This operation helps liberate France from Germany, and also weakens the Nazi hold on Europe.

- 10 June — World War II: 642 men, women and children are killed in the Oradour-sur-Glane massacre in France.

- 13 June — World War II: Germany launches a V1 Flying Bomb attack on England.

- 22 June — World War II: Operation Bagration: A general attack by Soviet forces clears the German forces from Belarus, resulting in the destruction of German Army Group Centre, possibly the greatest defeat of the Wehrmacht during World War II.

- 3 July — World War II: Soviet troops liberate Minsk.

- 7 July — Holocaust: Hungarian Regent Horthy orders Jewish transports to Auschwitz halted; 437,000 Jews have already been deported, mostly to their deaths.

- 10 July — World War II: Soviet troops begin operations to occupy the Baltic countries.

- 31 July — World War II: Vilnius is liberated.

- 20 July — World War II: Adolf Hitler survives an assassination attempt, led by Claus von Stauffenberg.

- 24 July — Holocaust: Russian troops liberate the first concentration camp, at Majdanek, where 360,000 Jews have been exterminated.

- 1 August — World War II: The Warsaw Uprising begins.

- 2 August — World War II: Turkey ends diplomatic and economic relations with Germany.

- 4 August — Holocaust: A tip from a Dutch informer leads the Gestapo to a sealed-off area in an Amsterdam warehouse, where they find Jewish diarist Anne Frank and her family.

- 5 August — Holocaust: Polish insurgents liberate a German labor camp in Warsaw, freeing 348 Jewish prisoners.

- 6 August — Holocaust: Łódź, the last remaining Jewish ghetto in Poland, is liquidated and 60,000 Jews are sent to Auschwitz.

- 19 August — World War II: An insurrection starts in Paris.

- 20 August — World War II: American forces successfully defeat Nazi forces at Chambois, closing the Falaise Gap.

- 20 August — World War II: 168 captured allied airmen, including Phil Lamason, accused of being "terror fliers" by the Gestapo, arrive at Buchenwald concentration camp.

- 24 August — World War II: Liberation of Paris: The Allies enter Paris, successfully completing Operation Overlord.

- 25 August — World War II: German surrender of Paris: General Dietrich von Choltitz surrenders Paris to the Allies in defiance of Hitler's orders to destroy it.

- 25 August — World War II: Maillé massacre: Massacre of 129 civilians (70% women and children) by the Gestapo at Maillé, Indre-et-Loire.

- 25 August — World War II: Hungary decides to continue the war together with Germany.

- 3 September — World War II: The Allies liberate Brussels.

- 4 September — World War II: Finland breaks off relations with Germany.

- 8 September — World War II: London is hit by a V-2 rocket for the first time.

- 2 October — Holocaust: Nazi troops end the Warsaw Uprising.

- 7 October — Holocaust: A revolt by Jewish slave labourers at Auschwitz-Birkenau results in the complete destruction of Crematory IV.

- 10 October — Holocaust: Porajmos: 800 Romani children are systematically murdered at the Auschwitz death camp.

- 14 October — World War II: German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel commits suicide rather than face execution for allegedly conspiring against Adolf Hitler.

- 18 October — World War II: The Volkssturm is founded on Hitler 's orders.

- 20 October — World War II: Belgrade is liberated by Yugoslav Partisans and the Red Army.

- 21 October — World War II: Aachen, the first German city to fall, is captured by American troops.

- 25 October — World War II: The Red Army liberates Kirkenes, the first town in Norway to be liberated.

- 30 October — Holocaust: The last gassings take places at Auschwitz.

- 25 November — Holocaust: Himmler orders the destruction of the crematories at Auschwitz.

- 16 December — World War II: Germany begins the Ardennes offensive, later known as Battle of the Bulge.

- 17 December — World War II: German troops carry out the Malmedy massacre.

- 19 December — World War II: The entire territory of Estonia is taken by the Red Army.

- 31 December — World War II: Hungary declares war on Germany.

## Births

- 4 January - Judy Winter, German actress

- 9 January - Harun Farocki, German filmmaker, author, and lecturer (died 2014)

- 12 January - Klaus Wedemeier, German politician

- 16 January - Thomas Fritsch, German actor (died 2021)

- 21 January — Hasso Plattner, German entrepreneur

- 24 January — Klaus Nomi, German singer (died 1983, USA)

- 31 January - Uwe Kockisch, German actor

- 5 February - Thekla Carola Wied, German actress

- 12 February - Ortwin Runde, German politician

- 28 February — Sepp Maier, German footballer

- 2 March — Uschi Glas, German actress

- 15 March - Josef Joffe, German publisher

- 20 March — Erwin Neher, German biophysicist

- 21 March — Gila von Weitershausen, German actress

- 24 March — Rebecca Horn, German visual artist (died 2024)

- 6 April - Bernd Spier, German singer (died 2017)

- 7 April Christof Nel, German theatre and opera director (died 2024) Gerhard Schröder, former Chancellor of Germany

- Christof Nel, German theatre and opera director (died 2024)

- Gerhard Schröder, former Chancellor of Germany

- 16 April — Elmar Wepper, German actor (died 2023)

- 29 April - Hermann Scheer, German politician (died 2010)

- 30 April - Rudi Assauer, German football manager and player (died 2019)

- 1 May - Costa Cordalis, German singer (died 2019 in Spain)

- 3 May - Renate Blume, German actress

- 4 May - Monica Bleibtreu, German actress (died 2009)

- 13 May - Uwe Barschel, German politician (died 1987)

- 15 May - Ulrich Beck, German sociologist (died 2015)

- 16 May - Friedrich Schorlemmer, German theologian (died 2024)

- 6 June - Edgar Froese, German artist and electronic music pioneer (died 2015)

- 19 June - Amélie Mummendey, German social psychologist (died 2018)

- 22 June - Helmut Dietl, German film director and author

- 27 June - Paul Koslo, German-Canadian actor (died 2019, USA)

- 5 July - Hendrik Born, German vice admiral (died 2021)

- 6 July - Bernhard Schlink, German jurist and writer

- 7 July - Jürgen Grabowski, German footballer (died 2022)

- 18 August - Volker Lechtenbrink, German singer (died 2021)

- 22 August - Peter Hofmann German singer (died 2010)

- 30 August – Wolf Roth, German actor

- 4 September — Rüdiger Mielke, German footballer

- 14 September Günter Netzer, German footballer Martin Sperr, German dramatist and actor (died 2002)

- Günter Netzer, German footballer

- Martin Sperr, German dramatist and actor (died 2002)

- 15 September — Jürgen E. Schrempp, German businessman

- 18 September — Gunther Emmerlich, German operatic bass (died 2023)

- 19 September — Friedrich Christian Flick, German businessman and art collector

- 20 September — Josef Bille, German physicist (died 2023)

- 24 September Bernd Bransch, German footballer (died 2022) Diana Körner, German actress

- Bernd Bransch, German footballer (died 2022)

- Diana Körner, German actress

- 27 September - Helmut Kosmehl, German handball player

- 29 September - Lerke Osterloh, German judge

- 30 September - Bernd Meinunger, German lyricist and record producer

- 3 October - Roy Horn, German-born American magician and entertainer (died 2000 in the United States)

- 14 October - Udo Kier, German actor

- 18 October - Harry Blum, German politician (died 2020 in the United States)

- 28 October - Anton Schlecker, German businessman

- 29 October - Barbara Stamm, German politician (died 2022)

- 12 November - Liesel Westermann, German discus thrower

- 15 November - Joy Fleming, German singer (died 2017)

- 18 November - Ibrahim Böhme, German politician (died 1999)

- 18 November — Wolfgang Joop, German artist, fashion designer and art collector

- 2 December - Botho Strauß, German novelist and playwright

- 14 December - Michael Glos, German politician

- 24 December - Erhard Keller, German speed skater

- Date not known Inge Solbrig, German actress

- Inge Solbrig, German actress

## Deaths

- 9 January - Kurt Hasse, German equestrian (born 1907)

- 11 February — Carl Meinhof, German linguist (born 1857)

- 18 February - Hermann Blau, German engineer and chemist, and inventor of Blau gas (born 1871)

- 3 March - Anton Geiss, German politician (born 1858)

- 5 April — Isolde Kurz, German painter (born 1853)

- 13 April - Hugo Graf von und zu Lerchenfeld auf Köfering und Schönberg, German politician (born 1871)

- 21 April — Hans-Valentin Hube, German army general (born 1890)

- 5 May — Bertha Benz, German automotive pioneer (born 1849)

- 20 June - Toni Merkens, German cyclist (born 1912)

- 23 June — Thomas-Emil von Wickede, Wehrmacht general and Knight's Cross recipient (born 1893)

- 20 July — Ludwig Beck, German general and Chief of the German General Staff (born 1880)

- 21 July — Claus von Stauffenberg, German military and resistance fighter (born 1907), Henning von Tresckow (born 1901), Heinz Brandt (born 1907), Werner von Haeften (born 1908), Friedrich Olbricht (born 1888) and Albrecht Mertz von Quirnheim (born 1905)

- 22 July — Günther Korten, German Colonel General and Chief of the General Staff of the Luftwaffe in World War II. (born 1898)

- 23 July - Max Nettlau, German historian (born 1865)

- 23 July — Eduard Wagner, general in the Army of Nazi Germany who served as quartermaster-general (born 1894)

- 26 July — Wessel Freytag von Loringhoven, colonel in the High Command of the German Armed Forces (born 1899)

- 8 August — Erwin von Witzleben, Paul von Hase and Erich Hoepner

- 10 August — Berthold Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg, aristocrat, lawyer and member of the July 20 plot (born 1905)

- 17 August — Günther von Kluge, German field marshal (born 1882)

- 18 August - Ernst Thälmann, German politician (born 1886)

- 23 August - Carl Moritz, German architect (born 1863)

- 26 August — Adam von Trott zu Solz, German diplomat (executed) (born 1909)

- 27 August — Georg von Boeselager German nobleman and an officer in the Wehrmacht (born 1915)

- 30 August — Carl-Heinrich von Stülpnagel, German general in the Wehrmacht (born 1886)

- 4 September — Erich Fellgiebel German Army general (born 1886)

- 4 September - Fritz Thiele, member of the German resistance who served as the communications chief of the German Army (born 1894)

- 8 September - Ulrich Wilhelm Graf Schwerin von Schwanenfeld, German landowner, officer, and resistance fighter against the Nazi régime (born 1902)

- 8 September - Ulrich von Hassell, German diplomat (born 1881)

- 14 September - Heinrich Graf zu Dohna-Schlobitten, German major general and resistance fighter (born 1882)

- 16 September — Gustav Bauer, Chancellor of Germany (born 1870)

- 17 September — Friedrich Zickwolff, Wehrmacht general (born 1893)

- 22 September — Fritz Lindemann, German officer in the Wehrmacht (born 1894)

- 29 September — Otto Herfurth, Wehrmacht general, Knight's Cross recipient and July 20 conspirator (born 1893)

- 1 October — Rudolf Schmundt, German officer in the Wehrmacht and adjutant to Adolf Hitler (born 1896)

- 7 October - Diego von Bergen, German diplomat (born 1872)

- 14 October — Erwin Rommel, Wehrmacht Field Marshall (born 1891)

- 19 October - Erich Koch-Weser, German lawyer and politician (born 1875)

- 24 October — Karl Freiherr von Thüngen, German general in the Wehrmacht (born 1893)

- 26 October - Joseph Fischer, German cartographer (born 1856)

- 28 October - Kurt Gerron, actor (born 1897)

- 10 November - Friedrich Werner von der Schulenburg, German diplomat (born 1875)

- 13 November - Paul Graener, German composer and conductor (born 1872)

- 19 November - Ludwig Dettmann, painter (born 1865)

- 30 November - Max Halbe, German dramatist (born 1865)

- 19 December — Rudolph Karstadt, German entrepreneur (born 1856)

- 20 December — Caesar von Hofacker, German Lieutenant Colonel and member of the 20 July plot against Adolf Hitler (born 1896)


Learner Tien

# Learner Tien

## Abstract

Learner Tien (born December 2, 2005) is an American tennis player. He has a career-high ATP singles ranking of world No. 191 achieved on 26 August 2024. He also has a career-high doubles ranking of No. 754 achieved on 20 November 2023.

## Early life

Tien was born in Irvine, California to Vietnamese parents. His first name, Learner, is inspired by his mother's profession - a math teacher. His sister is named Justice after his father's profession – an attorney.

Tien started playing tennis as an infant, and won his first tournament at the Racquet Club of Irvine at the age of 5.

## Junior career

Tien had a very successful career as a junior, compiling a 76-23 win-loss record and reaching two junior Grand Slam finals, at the 2023 Australian Open and the 2023 US Open, culminating with a ranking of world no. 4 in singles. He also reached the world no. 4 ranking in doubles, compiling a 36-18 win-loss record and winning the 2023 Australian Open, partnering Cooper Williams.

### Junior Grand Slam singles results

Australian Open: F (2023) French Open: SF (2023) Wimbledon: QF (2022, 2023) US Open: F (2023)

### Junior Grand Slam doubles results

Australian Open: W (2023) French Open: QF (2023) Wimbledon: 2R (2022) US Open: 2R (2022)

## Professional career

### 2022-2023: Junior National champion, Major debut

At just 16 years old, Tien won the 2022 USTA Boys 18s National Championship, which earned him a wildcard into the main draw of the 2022 US Open. This made him the youngest player to compete in the men’s singles main draw at the US Open since a then 16 years old Donald Young (also the champion at Kalamazoo) played in the 2005 US Open and also the first player aged 16 to compete since Zachary Svajda in 2019. He lost in four sets to 32nd seed Miomir Kecmanović.

In August 2023, he received a wildcard into the 2023 US Open but lost to Frances Tiafoe in the first round.

### 2024: First Challenger titles & ATP wins & quarterfinal, top 155

In July, he also received a wildcard for the 2024 Cranbrook Tennis Classic in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan where he lifted his maiden Challenger title. He became the youngest American Challenger champion since 2016, when an 18-year-old Frances Tiafoe won in Granby, Canada.

At the end of July, two weeks later, he made again the quarterfinals at the 2024 Chicago Men's Challenger and reached the top 250 in the rankings on 29 July 2024. He reached his second Challenger semifinal of the season defeating eight seed Hong Seong-chan. A week later, he also made the quarterfinals at the 2024 Lexington Challenger but lost to Hugo Grenier.

He secured a main draw wildcard for the US Open by winning the US Open wildcard challenge.

Ranked No. 231, he qualified for the main draw at the 2024 Winston-Salem Open and defeated fellow qualifier Tristan Schoolkate and upset ninth seed Fábián Marozsán and Thiago Seyboth Wild to record his first three ATP Tour wins and reach his first quarterfinal in his career. He became the youngest American ATP tour-level quarterfinalist since Brandon Nakashima in 2020 (in Delray Beach). As a result he climbed close to 40 positions in the singles rankings to the top 195 at world No. 191 on 26 August 2024.

Ranked No. 191, he won his second Challenger title in Las Vegas defeating Tristan Boyer and moved another 40 positions in the singles rankings reaching a new career-high of world No. 151 on 16 September 2024.

## ATP Challenger and ITF World Tennis Tour finals

## Junior Grand Slam finals


Cinemax

# Cinemax

## Abstract

Cinemax, also known as Max, is an American pay television network owned by Home Box Office, Inc., a subsidiary of Warner Bros. Discovery. Launched on August 1, 1980, as a "maxi-pay" service to complement the offerings of its parent network, Home Box Office (HBO), Cinemax initially focused on recent and classic films. Today, its programming primarily includes recent and classic theatrically released films, original action series, documentaries, and special behind-the-scenes features.

It operates eight 24-hour linear channels and offers a traditional subscription video-on-demand service called Cinemax On Demand. Cinemax previously provided a TV Everywhere streaming platform, Cinemax Go, which is no longer available. However, its linear channels are accessible through multichannel video programming distributors such as Apple TV, Amazon Video, and Roku.

## History

Home Box Office, Inc., owned by Time Inc. 's Time-Life Broadcasting unit, launched a movie-centered pay service called Take 2 on April 1, 1979, as a companion to HBO. However, Take 2 struggled with subscriber growth and was discontinued in February 1981. HBO then announced the launch of Cinemax, a "maxi-pay" channel designed to complement HBO and compete with other movie channels. Cinemax debuted on August 1, 1980, focusing on theatrical films with no commercials or edits for content.

Cinemax initially aired on 56 cable systems in the Eastern and Central time zones, with a West Coast feed launching on September 1, 1980. The channel transitioned to a 24-hour schedule on January 1, 1981. Cinemax offered uncut films and was marketed as a premium addition to HBO, often bundled with HBO for a discount.

In October 1983, Cinemax faced a trademark infringement lawsuit from Tulsa 23 Limited Partnership over its promotional slogan, "We Are Your Movie Star." The court ruled in favor of Tulsa 23, and Cinemax was ordered to discontinue the slogan.

As competition increased, Cinemax adjusted its programming strategy by including more adult-oriented films and launching the "Friday After Dark" late-night block in 1984. The channel also introduced original music programming and series, including Second City Television and The Max Headroom Show. In February 1988, the network premiere of Lethal Weapon became one of Cinemax's highest-rated broadcasts.

On March 4, 1989, Warner Communications announced its intent to merge with HBO's parent company, Time Inc., for $14.9 billion. Despite legal challenges from Paramount Communications, the merger was completed on January 10, 1990, creating Time Warner (later WarnerMedia, now Warner Bros. Discovery), which remains the parent company of Cinemax and HBO.

In August 1991, Cinemax, along with HBO, was among the first American pay TV services to introduce multiplexed channels. Starting in 1992, Cinemax reintroduced television series development with adult-oriented scripted series, such as Erotic Confessions, Hot Line, Passion Cove, Lingerie, and Co-Ed Confidential.

From 1992 to 1997, Cinemax featured daily movie showcases centered on specific genres, identified by pictograms. This practice ended in September 1997, with Cinemax adopting a simplified branding strategy that included "Max Hits at 8" and "Max Prime at 10."

On March 1, 1994, Cinemax, HBO, Showtime, and The Movie Channel introduced a content advisory system to inform viewers about program content. A revised system with content codes was implemented on June 10, 1994.

In 1998, Cinemax began offering "sneak preview" blocks for its multiplex channels, ActionMax and ThrillerMax. Classic films, once a staple of the Cinemax schedule, were increasingly featured on multiplex channels like 5StarMax. By the mid-2000s, the main channel's programming focused on films from the 1990s to the present.

In 2001, Cinemax began premiering select blockbuster and lesser-known films before their HBO debut. In February 2011, Cinemax shifted its focus to original programming, launching action-themed series to compete with other premium and streaming services, and to rebrand its image from being primarily known for softcore pornographic content.

Following AT&T's acquisition of Time Warner in 2018, Cinemax's focus shifted significantly. Adult programming on Cinemax and HBO's multiplexes, as well as on-demand services, nearly disappeared due to increased availability of such content online and competition from other providers.

In January 2020, WarnerMedia announced that with the upcoming launch of HBO Max, Cinemax would cease commissioning original programming but would continue as a movie-focused service through existing distributors. Cinemax's original programming, although available internationally, was not included in HBO Max. Len Amato, the executive overseeing Cinemax and HBO's film and miniseries division, left WarnerMedia on August 14, 2020, marking the end of Cinemax's original programming efforts.

On May 17, 2021, AT&T and Discovery, Inc. announced a Reverse Morris Trust agreement, wherein WarnerMedia would spin-off from AT&T and merge with Discovery for $43 billion. This merger, completed in spring 2022, resulted in the formation of Warner Bros. Discovery, led by David Zaslav. On May 23, 2023, the merged company's streaming service was rebranded as Max.

## Channels

On May 8, 1991, Home Box Office Inc. announced plans to launch multiplexed companion channels for HBO and Cinemax, offering additional programming options at no extra charge. The test launch on August 1, 1991, introduced Cinemax 2, HBO2, and HBO3 (now HBO Signature) to select TeleCable customers, providing distinct programming from their parent channels. John K. Billock, HBO’s EVP of marketing, cited subscriber dissatisfaction with program scheduling as a reason for the multiplex expansion. A November 1991 ACNielsen survey showed positive impacts from the multiplex channels, including reduced negative opinions on pricing and improved overall usage.

In February 1996, Home Box Office announced plans to expand to twelve channels, including two additional Cinemax channels and a fourth HBO channel, projected for a Spring 1997 launch. The Cinemax multiplex expanded on December 1, 1996, with the launch of Cinemax 3, and the introduction of Mountain Time Zone feeds.

The Cinemax multiplex was marketed as "MultiChannel Cinemax" in September 1994, rebranded to "MultiMax" in April 1998, and later applied to the expanded four-channel package. This included MoreMax (formerly Cinemax 2), ActionMax (formerly Cinemax 3), and the new ThrillerMax channel.

On May 17, 2001, four additional themed channels were launched: OuterMax, WMax (later MovieMax), @Max (later Max Latino), and 5StarMax. Max Latino was rebranded as Cinemáx on April 1, 2015, mirroring the flagship Cinemax schedule with Spanish-language dubs. MovieMax started as a family-oriented channel and now focuses on recent and classic movies.

### List of channels

Cinemax offers up to eight 24-hour multiplex channels, available in both standard and high definition, with regional feeds based on time zones. These channels include a subscription video-on-demand service, Cinemax on Demand. Maintenance periods, ranging from 30 minutes to two hours, occur monthly during early morning hours before the 6:00 a.m. ET/PT start of the broadcast day.

Cinemax transmits its channels on both Eastern and Pacific Time Zone schedules. The time zone-based feeds are usually packaged together, resulting in a maximum three-hour difference in local airtimes between geographic locations. The opposite-region feed serves as a timeshift channel, allowing viewers to watch programs up to three hours later or four hours earlier than their local airtime. While most providers offer only the East and West Coast feeds of the main Cinemax channel, timeshifted feeds for other multiplex channels are available on platforms like DirecTV, YouTube TV, and Hulu live TV.

### Other services

#### Cinemax HD

Cinemax HD broadcasts in 1080i resolution with Dolby Digital 5.1 sound. Cinemax provides high definition simulcast feeds for its main channel and all seven multiplex channels. Initially, from the 2008 rollout of HD simulcasts for the multiplex feeds, most pay television providers only offered the main Cinemax channel in HD, with HD availability for multiplex channels varying by market. As of 2020, most providers offer all eight Cinemax multiplex channels in HD, either on a dedicated HD channel tier or as hybrid SD/HD feeds. The flagship network switched to exclusive high definition programming on September 1, 2008.

#### Cinemax On Demand

Cinemax On Demand is the network’s companion subscription video-on-demand (SVOD) service, available at no extra charge to subscribers of the linear television service. Launched in 2002, it offers VOD content through select virtual MVPD services such as DirecTV Stream and Hulu, as well as on Cinemax’s dedicated OTT video channels via Apple TV Channels, Amazon Video Channels, and The Roku Channel.

#### Cinemax Go

Cinemax Go (formerly MAX Go) was a TV Everywhere streaming service for Cinemax subscribers, available as a desktop website and through apps for Apple and Google Play devices, as well as most digital media players and game consoles. Launched on September 13, 2010, it mirrored the content of Cinemax On Demand, excluding live simulcasts of the linear channels. New episodes of the network's original programming were available at the same time as their wireline release.

The service was available to subscribers of AT&T U-verse, Cox Communications, DirecTV, Dish Network, Suddenlink Communications, and Charter Communications. The MAX Go app was discontinued on April 30, 2020, and the desktop website, renamed Cinemax Go, continued until July 31, 2022. The service was phased out as Warner Bros. Discovery consolidated its streaming efforts under HBO Max, rebranded as Max on May 23, 2023.

## Programming

Cinemax schedules movies for 20-24 hours daily on its main channel and 24 hours on its multiplex channels. Since June 2000, new theatrical and original movies have premiered every Sunday at 8:00 p.m. ET/PT. First-run films typically debut 10 months to a year after their theatrical release and within six months of DVD or VOD release.

### Original programming

On August 12, 2011, Cinemax expanded into original programming with the U.S. premiere of the British action series Strike Back. The series, which had originally aired in the UK, was produced in partnership with HBO. Cinemax's second original series, Hunted, premiered on October 19, 2012, in collaboration with BBC One. This was followed by Banshee in 2013, and in 2014, Sandbox and The Knick.

In 2020, Cinemax announced it would stop commissioning original programming to focus on HBO Max. The martial arts drama Warrior was the last original series on Cinemax, with its third season moving to HBO Max in April 2021.

#### Former program blocks

- Drive-In Saturday Night – Running Saturday nights at 10:00 p.m. Eastern Time from 1984 to 1993 (competing against a similar block, "Joe Bob's Drive-In Theater" on The Movie Channel, during that period), the "Drive-In Saturday Night" block featured a broad mix of cult films and action movies.

- Cinemax Comic Relief – This film block ran in varied timeslots from 1985 to 1988, showcasing a selection of four or five different comedy films each month.

- Cinemax Comedy Experiment – Running from February 16, 1985, to 1988, the "Cinemax Comedy Experiment" was a showcase of original comedy specials that were more free-form in style (some featuring elements of the sketch comedy and improv genre) than the conventional stand-up format (such as the first special under the banner, Howie Mandel: Live at Carnegie Mall).

- Rising Star – This film block ran in varied timeslots from 1985 to 1986, showcasing feature films from up-and-coming actors.

- Cinemax Film Discovery – This film block ran in varied primetime timeslots from 1985 to 1990, showcasing feature films not previously seen on television or in wide theatrical release.

- Military Max – Running from 1985 to 1988, this showcase featured a mix of four or five different military-themed feature films (most commonly war films, although with occasional broadcasts of military-themed films of other genres).

- Cinemax Director's Chair – This film block ran in varied timeslots from 1985 to 1993, showcasing a selection of notable films from an acclaimed director.

- Beyond the Screen - This in-between bumper shows behind the scene looks of an upcoming movie or a movie that will soon be aired on Cinemax.

- Cinemax Western Roundup – Running from 1985 to 1993, this weekend block featured a mix of film westerns.

- Cinemania – This film block ran in varied timeslots from 1988 to 1993, showcasing a selection of comedic films.

- Cinemax Classic Collection – Running from 1985 to 1993, this block showcased a selection of film classics from the 1930s to the 1960s.

- Cinemax From the Heart – This film block ran in varied timeslots from 1988 to 1993, showcasing a selection of romantic comedies and dramas.

- Vanguard Cinema – This film block ran in varied timeslots from 1988 to 1993, showcasing a selection of critically acclaimed films from the United States and abroad (the block was divided into three sub-blocks: "Cinemax Documentary", featuring first-run documentary films; "New Wave Films", featuring acclaimed recent movies; and "Cinemax Imports", originally a standalone block that began in 1985, which showcased film releases from other countries).

- Max Crime Time – This film block ran in varied timeslots from 1988 to 1997, showcasing a selection of crime dramas, detective films or film noirs.

- Starring... – This film block ran in varied timeslots from 1988 to 1997, showcasing a selection of hits as well as some early films from a particular film actor throughout the month.

- Summer of 1000 Movies – "The Summer of 1000 Movies" annual film festival ran from 1992 to 2005, and ran until the mid-2000s, in which the channel ran 1,000 films (many with a similar subject) over the course of each summer without repeats.

- Max Hits at 8 – Running from 1997 to 2001, this block showcased a popular feature film each night at 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time.

- Max Prime at 10/Max Time – Debuting in 1997 under the "Max Prime" banner, this block showcased a particular choice movie of various genres each night at 10:00 p.m. Eastern Time (or on weeknights only between 1998 and 2000, as a result of the creation of the "ActionMax on Cinemax" and "ThrillerMax on Cinemax" blocks).

#### Max After Dark

Cinemax's late-night block, Max After Dark, featured softcore pornographic films and original series with TV-MA or R ratings, primarily for strong sexual content and nudity. This block, which began on May 4, 1984, as "Cinemax Friday After Dark," expanded to seven nights a week by the late 1990s. Programs included Lingerie, Life on Top, Femme Fatales, and Topless Prophet. The block was known for its lenient scheduling around mainstream films and series and was often humorously referred to as "Skinemax."

The adult content was not limited to the main Cinemax channel but also aired on multiplex channels like MoreMax, ActionMax, ThrillerMax, and OuterMax. However, channels like MovieMax and 5StarMax avoided adult programming. The block's presence, alongside other HBO channels, was partly due to the FCC’s content regulations not applying to cable networks.

By 2013, Cinemax began reducing Max After Dark content to focus more on original programming, as internet porn's prevalence made the block's content seem relatively tame compared to HBO's original series.

## International distribution

Latin America

Cinemax launched on September 5, 1993, offering classic and recent movies, television series, and miniseries. Starting June 1, 2010, it became an ad-supported basic cable channel in the region. Original series aired on HBO's premium suite in Latin America.

Asia

Cinemax began broadcasting in 1996, featuring action, comedy, science fiction, and western movies. The channel was known as Max from 2009 to 2012.

Central Europe

Launched in February 2005, Cinemax focused on festival, indie, European, and classic films. Cinemax and Cinemax 2 are available in Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and Slovakia, and expanded to certain Balkan countries in 2009. Initially a timeshift channel, Cinemax 2 started airing a distinct schedule from 2016.


Akhund Mullah Shah Mosque

# Akhund Mullah Shah Mosque

## Abstract

Akhund Mullah Shah Masjid or Akhoon Mullah Masjid or Dara Shikoh Masjid, known as Mala Shah Mashid in Kashmiri, is a mosque built by Dara Shikoh in 1649 for his spiritual mentor. Located in Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India, it is a mosque inside a mosque. The prime sanctuary is entirely separated from the main building through a courtyard that surrounds it. There is a stone lotus that crowns the podium of the mosque.


1931 in Germany

# 1931 in Germany

## Abstract

Events in the year 1931 in Germany.

## Incumbents

- President - Paul von Hindenburg (Non-partisan)

- Chancellor - Heinrich Brüning (Centre)

## Events

- January 4 – German pilot Elly Beinhorn begins her flight to Portuguese Guinea (now Guinea-Bissau) in Africa.

- February 11 – National Socialist (NSDAP) and National Party (DNVP) members walk out of the Reichstag in protest against changes in the parliament's protocol intended to limit heckling.

- April 22 – Austria, Denmark, Germany, Italy, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States recognize the Second Spanish Republic.

- May 8 – Prosecution of Adolf Hitler by Hans Litten for complicity in manslaughter committed by members of the Sturmabteilung at the Tanzpalast Eden ("Eden Dance Palace") in Berlin in 1930 is dismissed.

- June 5 – Chancellor Brüning visits London, where he warns the British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald that the collapse of the Austrian banking system, caused by the bankruptcy of the Creditanstalt, has left the entire German banking system on the verge of collapse. Germany suspends payment of World War I reparations and, despite declaration of the Hoover Moratorium, there is massive withdrawal of domestic and foreign funds from German banks, which by mid-July have all closed.

- June 10 – The Schienenzeppelin, an experimental propeller driven railcar, sets up a new world railway speed record of 230 km/h on its way from Hamburg to Berlin which is not surpassed by any other train for 24 years.

- August 9 – Referendum in Prussia for dissolving the Landtag ends with the "yes" side winning 37% of the vote, which is insufficient for calling the early elections. The elections are intended to remove the Social Democratic Party (SPD) government of Otto Braun, which is one of the strongest forces for democracy in Germany. Supporting the "yes" side are the NSDAP, the DNVP and the Communist Party (KPD), while the SPD and Zentrum support the "no" side.

- August 29 – Airship Graf Zeppelin pioneers the air route between Germany and Brazil.

- August – The Deaflympics are held in Nuremberg.

- October 11 – Rally in Bad Harzburg leads to the Harzburg Front being founded, uniting the NSDAP, the DNVP, the Stahlhelm and various other right-wing fractions.

- December 8 – Carl Friedrich Goerdeler is appointed Reich Price Commissioner to enforce the deflationary policies of the Brüning government.

### Arts and literature

- Erich Kästner 's satire Der 35. Mai oder Konrad reitet in die Südsee is published.

- Irmgard Keun 's first novel Gilgi - eine von uns is published.

- Erich Maria Remarque 's war novel Der Weg zurück concludes serialization (January) and is published in book form (March).

- Carl Zuckmayer 's satire Der Hauptmann von Köpenick is first performed.

- Fritz Lang 's thriller M is released (May 11).

- The film version of Berlin-Alexanderplatz is released.

- The musical film version of Die 3-Groschen-Oper, is released (February 19).

- The film version of Emil und die Detektive is released.

### Science

- 10 September – Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll publish their findings after building the first prototype electron microscope.

- Adolf Butenandt identifies the sex hormone androsterone.

- The first electroencephalography is performed by Hans Berger.

- Nobel Prize in Chemistry awarded to Carl Bosch and Friedrich Bergius; Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine awarded to Otto Heinrich Warburg.

## Births

- January 8 – Bill Graham (Wulf Wolodia Grajonca), rock concert promoter (d. 1991 in the United States)

- January 16 – Johannes Rau, President of Germany 1999 – 2004 (d. 2006)

- January 17 – Mark Brandis (Nikolai von Michalewsky), journalist and science fiction author (d. 2000)

- February 2 – Walter Burkert, classical scholar (d. 2015 in Switzerland)

- February 6 – Maria Mies, sociologist and feminist (died 2023)

- February 7 – Holger Börner, politician (died 2006)

- March 3 – Werner Haas (pianist), German musician (died 1976)

- March 11 – Janosch (Horst Eckert), writer

- April 1 – Rolf Hochhuth, dramatist

- April 29 – Frank Auerbach, painter

- May 19 – Alfred Schmidt, philosopher (d. 2012)

- June 4 – Erasmus Schöfer, writer (died 2022)

- June 8 – Dana Wynter, actress (d. 2011 in the United States)

- June 29 – Ralph Klein, basketball player and coach (d. 2008 in Israel)

- June 30 – Gerda Herrmann, composer and poet (died 2021)

- July 31 – Ivan Rebroff, German singer (died 2008)

- August 20 – Bernd Becher, photographer (d. 2007)

- September 1 – Michael O. Rabin, Israeli computer scientist and Turing Award laureate

- November 6 – Mike Nichols (Mikhail Igor Peschkowsky), director (d. 2014 in the United States)

## Deaths

- February 16 – Wilhelm von Gloeden, photographer (b. 1856)

- February 23 – Eduard von Capelle, admiral (b. 1855)

- February 26 – Otto Wallach, chemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (b. 1847)

- March 11 – F. W. Murnau, film director (b. 1888; d. in United States)

- March 20 – Hermann Müller, German politician (born 1876)

- April 14 – Richard Armstedt, historian (b. 1851)

- May 6 – Hermann Anschütz-Kaempfe, German scientist and inventor (b. 1872)

- September 18 – Geli Raubal, half-niece of Adolf Hitler (b. 1908)

- September 20 – Max Littmann, architect (b. 1862)

- October 17 – Alfons Maria Jakob, neuropathologist (b. 1884)


Julie Fuchs

# Julie Fuchs

## Abstract

Julie Fuchs (born 24 July 1984) is a French soprano known for her interpretation of light-lyric repertoire.

## Childhood and studies

Born in Meaux, France to a father who was a manager, and a mother who was a swimming teacher, Fuchs grew up in Avignon. At age 7, she began violin lessons and started studying music theory and history at the Avignon Conservatory. After singing a variety of repertoire (pop, jazz...), she was selected to be part of a European choir, "Voices of Europe" with whom she toured Europe, and sang with Björk during the recording of "Which was the Son of" by Arvo Pärt. This experience marked a turning point in her young musical life, as she discovered a desire to explore singing. At age 18, she began private classical voice lessons and acting lessons.

In 2006, Fuchs entered the Conservatoire of Paris, considered the top conservatory in France. There, she made her first operatic role debuts as Elle in L'amour masqué by Messager and Susanna in Mozart's Le Nozze di Figaro. During her time at the conservatory, she met and developed relationships with artists that she is still working with today, such as the founder of the French contemporary classical music group, Le Balcon, and the pianist Alphonse Cemin. In 2010, she graduated with honours.

## Career

As soon as she finished her studies, Fuchs made her professional career performing Galatea at the Aix-en-Provence Festival.

In 2013, Fuchs joined the opera ensemble at the Zürich Opera where she debuted several roles, including Marzelline in Fidelio, Morgana in Alcina, Susanna in Le nozze di Figaro, and Angelica in Orlando.

In 2014, Fuchs signed a recording contract with Deutsche Grammophon; she released her first album Yes! the following year, which paid homage to French repertoire in the 1930s and 1940s.

Also in 2015, Fuchs made her debut at the Opéra national de Paris in the role of la Folie in Platée by Rameau. She also made her debut in the Rossini repertoire as the Comtesse Folleville at the Zürich Opera, and sang in the televised concert in celebration of Bastille Day in Paris, under the Eiffel Tower. At the Salzburg Festival that same year, she made her festival debut singing the soprano part in Mozart's Great Mass in C Minor.

2016 marked her debut at the Bavarian State Opera in Munich as Musetta in La bohème. she sang with the BBC Symphony Orchestra at the BBC Proms, and she made her debut at the Chorégies d'Orange, the celebrated festival in the South of France. Her year of debuts continued in Vienna, where she was praised by the press for her debut as Marie in Donizetti's La fille du régiment.

In 2017, Fuchs returned to the Opéra national de Paris, creating the role of Esther for the premiere of the opera Trompe-la-mort de Lucas Francesconi, and to sing the role of Nannetta in Verdi's Falstaff. Other highlights included Leïla in Bizet's Les Pêcheurs de perles at the Auditorium du Nouveau Siècle in Lille and at the Théâtre des Champs-Elysées. She also returned to the Aix-en-Provence Festival as Zerlina in Don Giovanni. She also made her debut at the Teatro Real in Madrid as Giunia in Lucio Silla.

2018 began with the role of Comtesse Adèle in Le comte Ory, at the Opéra Royal de Versailles, followed by Morgana in Alcina at the Théâtre des Champs-Elysées, and a role debut as Poppea in L'incoronazione di Poppea at Opernhaus Zürich. She ended her year as Eurydice in Orphée aux enfers at the Opéra d'Avignon.

In 2019, Fuchs returned to Opernhaus Zürich for her role debut as Donna Fiorilla in Il turco in Italia by Rossini and made her role debut as Eva in La mort d'Abel at the Salzburg Whitsun Festival. In the autumn, she made yet another role debut as Émilie/Fatime in Rameau's Les Indes galantes at the Opéra national de Paris in a highly acclaimed new production that included contemporary dancers. Her final role of the year was Norina in a new production of Don Pasquale at Opernhaus Zürich. The same year, she was also the center of a media firestorm regarding her firing from the Hamburg State Opera where she was scheduled to sing Pamina in Die Zauberflöte, due to her pregnancy. The coverage surrounding her brought to light the progress that still needs to be made regarding women's right in the opera world. She also released her second recording for Deutsche Grammophon, Mademoiselle, a collection of Bel Canto arias, some of which were recorded for the first time.

In 2020, Fuchs debuted in the role of Norina in Don Pasquale at Opernhaus Zürich.

In 2021, Fuchs made her debut as Pamina in Die Zauberflöte at L'Opéra national de Paris, and she made her house debut at Opera San Carlo as Fiorilla in Il Turco in Italia.

Julie’s 2021/22 season began with a return to Opernhaus Zürich as the title role in L’incoronazione di Poppea. She then made her role debut as Mélisande in Pelléas et Mélisande at the Gran Teatre del Liceu, and reprised the role of Susanna in Le nozze di Figaro at the Teatro Real Madrid. In the summer she performed La Folie (Platée) at the Opéra national de Paris. To conclude her season she returned to the role of Adèle in Le Comte Ory as she made her debut at the Rossini Festival.

Julie commenced her 2022/23 season with a return to the Opera national de Paris for her role debut as Giulietta in Bellini’s I Capuleti E I Montecchi. To begin the New Year, Julie made her role debut as Cleopatra in a new production of Handel 's Giulio Cesare by Calixto Bieito at the Dutch National Opera, also marking her house debut. In July, she returned to both the title role in L'incoronazione di Poppea and the Gran Teatre del Liceu.

In 2022, Sony Classical announced the signing of Julie for a multi-record deal. Her first album for the label, Amadè, is dedicated entirely to Mozart and was released on 18 November 2022.

Her 2023/2024 began on the stage of Palais Garnier in Donizetti 's Don Pasquale as Norina. She then made her role debut as Gilda in Rigoletto by Giuseppe Verdi at the Teatro Real in Madrid. In March 2023, she began a recital tour with pianist Alphonse Cemin with performances in Europe and beyond.

## Other

Fuchs was a "marraine" of Tous à l'Opéra alongside Ruggero Raimondi in 2012. At the end of 2017, she sang Ave Maria by Franz Schubert at the televised funeral of Johnny Hallyday at the Madeleine Church in Paris.

Fuchs is particularly active on social media under the handle @juliefuchssoprano, and created the initiative #operaisopen, which seeks to prove that opera is open to everyone regardless of income, age, or education.

## Awards

- Révélation classique de l'Adami (2009) Finalist at the Paris Opera Competition (2010) Prize winner, Palazzetto Bru Zane at the Concours de Paris (2010) Gabriel Dussurget Prize, Aix-en-Provence Festival (2011) Révélation lyrique, Victoires de la musique classique (2012) Révélation musicale, le Syndicat professionnel de la critique de théâtre, musique et danse 2 (2012/2013) Second prize, Operalia (2013)1 Artiste lyrique de l'année, Victoires de la musique classique (2014) Artiste lyrique de l'année, Victoires de la musique classique (2021) Chevalier des Arts et des Lettres (2021)

- Révélation classique de l'Adami (2009)

- Finalist at the Paris Opera Competition (2010)

- Prize winner, Palazzetto Bru Zane at the Concours de Paris (2010)

- Gabriel Dussurget Prize, Aix-en-Provence Festival (2011)

- Révélation lyrique, Victoires de la musique classique (2012)

- Révélation musicale, le Syndicat professionnel de la critique de théâtre, musique et danse 2 (2012/2013)

- Second prize, Operalia (2013)1

- Artiste lyrique de l'année, Victoires de la musique classique (2014)

- Artiste lyrique de l'année, Victoires de la musique classique (2021)

- Chevalier des Arts et des Lettres (2021)

## Recordings

- Mélodies de Jeunesse, including works by Gustav Mahler and Claude Debussy with pianist Alphonse Cemin, recorded for Aparté/Harmonia Mundi. The complete Mélodies pour Piano et Voix by Francis Poulenc for the label Atma Classique. Ciboulette, 2014, (DVD) Opéra de Hahn, Framusica Yes !, 2015, répertoire français des années 30, Deutsche Grammophon, l’Amour Masqué by Messager Elles et Barbara, 2017, femmes qui chantent' et offrent une relecture inédite des classiques de celle qui se définissait comme 'la femme qui chante' Mercury Music Group l’Amour Masqué by Messager Les pêcheurs de perles, 2018, enregistrement live, Pentatone Music Les pêcheurs de perles (The Pearl Fishers). Cyrille Dubois, Florian Sempey, Luc Bertin-Hugault, Alexandre Bloch, Orchestre National de Lille, Les Cris de Paris. PENTATONE PTC 5186685 (2018). Le Comte Ory, DVD, 2019 Unitel Mademoiselle. 2019, Bel Canto repertoire, Deutsche Grammophon Amadè, 2022, Mozart repertoire, Sony Classical Platée, 2024, DVD, Bel Air Classiques

- Mélodies de Jeunesse, including works by Gustav Mahler and Claude Debussy with pianist Alphonse Cemin, recorded for Aparté/Harmonia Mundi.

- The complete Mélodies pour Piano et Voix by Francis Poulenc for the label Atma Classique.

- Ciboulette, 2014, (DVD) Opéra de Hahn, Framusica

- Yes !, 2015, répertoire français des années 30, Deutsche Grammophon,

- l’Amour Masqué by Messager Elles et Barbara, 2017, femmes qui chantent' et offrent une relecture inédite des classiques de celle qui se définissait comme 'la femme qui chante' Mercury Music Group

- l’Amour Masqué by Messager Les pêcheurs de perles, 2018, enregistrement live, Pentatone Music

- Les pêcheurs de perles (The Pearl Fishers). Cyrille Dubois, Florian Sempey, Luc Bertin-Hugault, Alexandre Bloch, Orchestre National de Lille, Les Cris de Paris. PENTATONE PTC 5186685 (2018).

- Le Comte Ory, DVD, 2019 Unitel

- Mademoiselle. 2019, Bel Canto repertoire, Deutsche Grammophon

- Amadè, 2022, Mozart repertoire, Sony Classical

- Platée, 2024, DVD, Bel Air Classiques


Imre Varadi

# Imre Varadi

## Abstract

Imre Varadi (born 8 July 1959) is an English former professional forward who appeared for 16 clubs at all levels of professional football in England.

## Playing career

Varadi was born in Paddington, London, to a Hungarian father and Italian mother. He started out in non-League football with Letchworth before joining Sheffield United in 1978, shortly before his nineteenth birthday.

Varadi went on to become a nomadic journeyman, who rarely spent more than two years with any club and never made 100 league appearances in the colours of any team he played for.

From Sheffield United, he moved on to Everton, Newcastle United, Sheffield Wednesday, West Bromwich Albion, Manchester City, Swansea Town, Sheffield Wednesday again, Leeds United, Luton Town, Oxford United, Rotherham United, Mansfield Town, Boston United, Scunthorpe United and finally had a spell as player-manager at Matlock Town.

He was part of the Leeds United side that won the old First Division in 1992 but only played in three matches which was not enough games to earn a winner's medal. He was also part of the Sheffield Wednesday side that won promotion to the First Division in 1984, after 14 years away. He was sold to West Bromwich Albion a year later and was their top scorer with nine league goals in 1985–86, but was unable to prevent them from being relegated in bottom place with just four wins in the league. He was then sold to Manchester City, and was unable to prevent their relegation the following season, although he did help them reach the quarter-finals of the FA Cup in his second campaign there. He was nicknamed "Imre Banana" by the City fans, following the inflatable banana craze which the club's fans helped start that season. He scored 26 league goals in two seasons at Maine Road.

He left Maine Road to sign for Sheffield Wednesday for a second time in the summer of 1988, and spent two seasons there, but after 18 months he was sold to their Yorkshire rivals Leeds United in February 1990. He spent three years at Elland Road, helping them win promotion to the First Division on his arrival, but rarely played for Leeds in the First Division due to the arrival of new players in the midfield and forward positions. He did not make enough appearances in 1991–92 to earn a league title medal. He had loan spells at Luton Town and Oxford United before finally exiting Elland Road and dropping down two divisions to sign for Rotherham United in the summer of 1993.

He spent two seasons at Millmoor, scoring 25 Division Two goals, before brief spells at Mansfield Town and Scunthorpe United. He called time on his professional career in 1995 when he became player-manager of non-league Matlock Town, before joining Guiseley.

In the spring of 1997, Varadi signed with the South Jersey Barons of the USISL D-3 Pro League in the United States. He only played in two league games before returning home to England with his manager Matt Driver citing "personal reasons." He scored his lone goal of his brief stint with the Barons against the New Hampshire Phantoms on 3 May 1997 in the club's first-ever home game at Carey Stadium in Ocean City, New Jersey.

He broke his retirement for one game for Stalybridge Celtic in 1998.

## Post-retirement

He became a fully licensed FIFA Agent in March 2004 and provides commentary on games for both PA Sport (for the Football Live project) and BBC Radio Sheffield.