Linda McMahon

# Linda McMahon

## Abstract

Linda Marie McMahon (née Edwards; born October 4, 1948) is an American political executive, business executive, and retired professional wrestling performer. She served as the 25th administrator of the Small Business Administration from 2017 to 2019.

McMahon, along with her husband, Vince McMahon, founded sports entertainment company Titan Sports, Inc. (later World Wrestling Entertainment, Inc.) where she worked as the president and later CEO from 1980 to 2009. During this time, the company grew from a regional business in the northeast to a large multinational corporation. Among other things, she initiated the company's civic programs, Get R.E.A.L. and SmackDown! Your Vote. She made occasional on-screen performances, most notably in a feud with her husband that culminated at WrestleMania X-Seven.

In 2009, McMahon left World Wrestling Entertainment to run for a seat in the United States Senate from Connecticut as a Republican, but lost to Democrat Richard Blumenthal in the 2010 general election. She was the Republican nominee for Connecticut's other Senate seat in the 2012 race, but lost to Democrat Chris Murphy.

On December 7, 2016, Donald Trump (president-elect at the time) announced that he would nominate McMahon to be Administrator of the Small Business Administration. The Senate confirmation hearing began on January 24, 2017, and on February 1, her nomination was approved by the Senate Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship with an 18–1 vote and confirmed by the full Senate on February 14, by a vote of 81–19.

On March 29, 2019, the Trump administration announced McMahon would step down as the administrator of the Small Business Administration to assume new responsibilities within President Trump's reelection campaign, and the resignation took effect on April 12. On April 15, she was named chairwoman of America First Action, a pro-Trump Super PAC.

## Early life

McMahon was born Linda Marie Edwards in New Bern, North Carolina, in a Welsh-American family, the daughter of Evelyn and Henry Edwards. She was an only child and grew up as a " tomboy " playing basketball and baseball. Her parents were both employees at Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point, a military base. She grew up in a conservative Baptist family, but converted to Roman Catholicism in her later years.

Linda M. Edwards, at the age of 13, met Vince McMahon, then age 16. Her mother worked in the same building as McMahon's mother, but they had not met.

Vince's mother became good friends with the Edwards family, and Vince, who had lived with several abusive stepfathers, enjoyed the feeling of stability that he felt at their home. Edwards and McMahon dated throughout their high school years; she attended Havelock High School and he attended Fishburne Military School in Virginia. During this time, Vince was a "permanent fixture" at her home, and spent hours with Linda and her family. He attended East Carolina University, studying business administration. Edwards was an honors student in high school and aspired to become a pediatrician.

Shortly after her high school graduation, Vince asked her to marry him. They married on August 26, 1966, when she was 17, and he was 21. She enrolled at East Carolina University in 1966, where she obtained a bachelor's degree in French, and certification to teach. From 1968 to 1971, Vince worked as a traveling cup salesman before joining his father 's company, the World Wide Wrestling Federation (WWWF, now WWE). Linda finished college in three years so she could graduate with Vince. Their son Shane was born in 1970, followed by daughter Stephanie in 1976.

## Early career

In 1969, the McMahons moved to Gaithersburg, Maryland. McMahon worked as a receptionist at the corporate law firm of Covington & Burling; she translated French documents, trained as a paralegal in the probate department, and studied intellectual property rights.

Financially, the couple fared poorly for several years and, despite her husband working 90 hours a week at a quarry, briefly received food stamps. In 1976, after a series of failed business ventures including financing stunt performer Evel Knievel's Snake River Canyon Jump, and while pregnant with Stephanie, McMahon and her husband filed for bankruptcy.

By 1979, Vince decided to start promoting wrestling events at the Cape Cod Coliseum. He purchased the Coliseum in Massachusetts and founded Titan Sports, Inc. in 1980. The McMahons held small hockey and other sporting events in addition to wrestling at the Cape Cod Coliseum. At one point, Linda cooked meatball sandwiches to feed the fans at these sporting events. As the company grew, Linda assisted Vince with administration and used her knowledge of intellectual property law to assist in trademark protection for the company. During much of those early years, she had little interest in professional wrestling.

In 1982, Vince McMahon's Titan Sports, Inc. purchased Capitol Wrestling, better known as the parent company of the World Wrestling Federation (WWF), from his father. He later expanded his market by airing WWF shows on national television.

In 1983, the McMahons moved to Greenwich, Connecticut. They have six grandchildren.

## World Wrestling Federation/World Wrestling Entertainment

### Corporate roles

#### Overview

Linda McMahon co-founded Titan Sports, Inc. in 1980. Many workers in the company referred to her as the "co-chief executive". McMahon became president in 1993 and CEO of the company in 1997. The company's explosive growth and the way it transformed the wrestling industry caused some observers to label her and Vince "business geniuses".

One of her major interests in WWF and WWE was product merchandising. She negotiated many of the company's business deals with outside vendors and established the company's first line of action figures, Wrestling Superstars, in 1984. It was a first in the wrestling industry and helped expand the company's popularity with children. She was also the primary negotiator for the World Wrestling Federation's 2000 TV deal with Viacom.

During an interview with The Detroit News, when asked what it was like being CEO in a " testosterone -charged industry," McMahon replied, "It's lots of fun. I'm an only child, so I grew up as my father's son and mother's daughter. I was quite a jock. I played baseball, basketball—I think that background made Vince and I very compatible. I really have a very good understanding of the male psyche—I'm very comfortable in a guy environment. I have to say that there are very strong women in this company as well. Our human resources division and our consumer goods division are headed by women—It's still a testosterone business, and I like it."

On September 16, 2009, Linda McMahon resigned from her position as CEO of WWE and left WWE to run as a Republican for a seat in the United States Senate from Connecticut. However, she still remains a minority owner of WWE.

#### McMahon's memorandum to Pat Patterson

In a 1989 memo to the company's vice president, Pat Patterson, McMahon directed Patterson to fire on-call physician George Zahorian and inform him of imminent legal charges charging him with steroid distribution.

Although you and I discussed before about continuing to have Zahorian at our events as the doctor on call, I think that is now not a good idea. Vince agreed, and would like for you to call Zahorian and to tell him not to come to any more of our events and to also clue him in on any action that the Justice Department is thinking of taking.

This memo became known publicly as the "Tip-Off Memo" during her campaign for Senate in 2010. It became a political liability used against her in both the nomination and general election campaigns.

#### Federal steroids investigation

Following the murder-suicide of Chris Benoit in 2007, the Oversight and Government Reform Committee investigated steroid usage in the wrestling industry. The Committee investigated WWE and Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA), asking for documentation of their companies' drug policies. The McMahons both testified. The documents stated that 75 wrestlers—roughly 40 percent—had tested positive for drug use since 2006, most commonly for steroids.

McMahon was asked why there had been no follow-up during a televised interview with CBS Face the State on January 20, 2010 and responded: "There's not been any follow-up from any of the inquiries that were made because I believe we had furnished thousands of documents and testimony for them, and I think if they looked at our policy and really delved into it, they would be very satisfied."

#### PG rating

In July 2008, WWE changed its TV parental guidelines rating from TV-14 to TV-PG. In December 2008, at a UBS Media Conference, McMahon described the new rating as a marketing strategy to attract a young generation of wrestling fans and create loyalty to the brand. Due to the TV-PG rating, chair shots to the head were banned, as well as sex scenes, blood, and vulgar language.

#### Company legacy

During the 1980s, the WWF successfully overcame considerable opposition and some media ridicule in lobbying for deregulation in Connecticut, Delaware, Michigan, New Jersey, California, Florida, Pennsylvania, and Texas. By 2000, fewer than half of the 50 states had athletic regulations on the wrestling industry.

Following common practice in professional sports, WWE classifies its wrestlers as independent contractors rather than employees. The classification allowed the company to avoid paying Social Security, Medicare and unemployment insurance for wrestlers. McMahon stated the WWE wrestlers had lucrative contracts, merchandising deals, royalty payments, and appearance fees. She noted that many of the wrestlers had agents and considered them to be on par with "singers, golfers, or tennis players". The company offered seminars to help wrestlers select health insurance plans.

Under McMahon's tenure, WWE became one of the largest recipients of special tax credits for film and TV production granted by the state of Connecticut.

During her 2010 campaign, Blumenthal's campaign criticized her and WWE for accepting the tax credits while laying off workers in 2009.

### On-screen roles

McMahon often referred to the creative side of WWE as Vince's specialty, stating that she was primarily in the management team, although she appeared in several storylines. McMahon debuted on WWF TV during the Corporate Ministry storyline, on the May 3, 1999, episode of Raw during the Attitude Era. During an interview with Fox News, she said that she often did not know what the storylines were in advance and watched events unfold as the general public did.

### Charitable work through WWE

#### Donations and achievements

Through WWE, the McMahons were major donors to The Donald J. Trump Foundation, giving $4 million in 2007 and $5 million in 2009. The McMahons donated over $8 million in 2008 to the Fishburne Military School, Sacred Heart University, and East Carolina University. Nonprofit Quarterly noted the majority of the McMahons' donations were towards capital expenditures. In 2006, they paid $2.5 million for construction of a tennis facility in Ebensburg, Pennsylvania. As of 2010, she served on the board of the Close Up Foundation, a nonprofit which offers youth field trips to Washington, D.C.

McMahon became a member of the board of trustees of Sacred Heart University in Fairfield, Connecticut in November 2004. She supported many organizations, including the USO, the Make-A-Wish Foundation, the Multiple Myeloma Research Foundation, the Starlight Foundation, and Community Mayors. In 2005, she won appointment to The Make-A-Wish Foundation of America National Advisory Council and received the Arthur M. Sackler Award from the Connecticut Grand Opera and Orchestra for WWE's support of its arts education program.

On January 29, 2007, Multichannel News named McMahon to its class of "Wonder Women" for 2007. The award recognized her outstanding contributions to the cable and telecommunications industries. In May 2007, she appeared as the keynote speaker at the Girl Scout Council of Southwestern Connecticut 's Women of Achievement Leadership Breakfast. McMahon was a Girl Scout.

Under her leadership, WWE was the recipient of the USO of Metropolitan Washington's first ever "Legacy of Hope" award for its extensive support of U.S. troops and the USO's Operation Care Package program. In 2007, the company received the Secretary of Defense Exceptional Public Service Award for its support of deployed service members in Iraq and Afghanistan. In 2008, the company received the GI Film Festival's Corporate Patriot Award.

On April 13, 2012, Sacred Heart University officially dedicated and opened the Linda E. McMahon Commons Building on its main campus in Fairfield, Connecticut.

#### Get R.E.A.L.

McMahon launched the company's Get R.E.A.L. program to deliver positive messages about education to young adults. The program encouraged literacy through public service announcements, posters, and bookmarks featuring wrestling superstars. In 2000, the American Library Association reported the WWF's Know Your Role poster was its highest-selling poster for two straight months. Since 2006, thousands of posters featuring WWE superstars have been distributed to libraries and reading facilities.

#### SmackDown! Your Vote campaign

McMahon initiated WWE's non-partisan voter registration campaign, "SmackDown! Your Vote", in August 2000. The campaign targeted the 18-to-30 voter demographic, and made use of online marketing, public service announcements, and youth voting partnerships. The campaign, which registered 150,000 new voters during the 2000 election, was started in coalition with MTV's Choose or Lose, Project Vote Smart, and Youth Vote 2000. As of the 2008 election, it listed 14 voter registration partner organizations. During the 2008 presidential election, Smackdown your Vote! registered many voters online, often in affiliation with Rock the Vote.

#### Special Olympics

The McMahons began supporting the Special Olympics in 1986. McMahon first developed an interest in the Olympics from her friendship with NBC producer Dick Ebersol and Susan Saint James, who encouraged them to participate in the mid-1980s.

She met Lowell Weicker, whose son is developmentally-disabled, through the Special Olympics. In 1995, as Connecticut Governor, Weicker appointed Linda McMahon to the Governor's Council for the World Special Olympics.

## Political career

### Connecticut Board of Education

McMahon was appointed to the State Board of Education by Governor Jodi Rell in January 2009.

She went through a confirmation process in the Connecticut State Assembly where she was questioned on her record as CEO of WWE. The State Senate approved her nomination by a vote of 34–1 and the House by 96–45 with some opponents expressing concerns that the nature of her WWE activities would send the wrong message. State representative Bruce Morris claimed she lacked "depth of knowledge regarding education". However, state representative John Hetherington said it "would be good to have someone outside the establishment on the board".

On April 1, 2010, McMahon resigned from the State Board of Education, because state law does not allow board members to solicit campaign contributions.

### 2010 U.S. Senate campaign

On September 16, 2009, McMahon announced her candidacy for U.S. Senator to represent the state of Connecticut. She announced she would spend up to $50 million of her own money to finance her campaign and refused outside donations, the third most ever spent on a senatorial campaign. She ran for the Republican nomination, campaigning on promises of lower taxes, fiscal conservatism, and job creation. She campaigned as socially moderate, and identified herself as pro-choice while also opposing partial-birth abortion and federal funding for abortions.

McMahon's spending became a key argument of one of her rivals, former Congressman Rob Simmons, who accused her of "buying the election". McMahon and Simmons engaged in a frequently bitter contest. At the party convention, McMahon received the most support, but Simmons received enough votes to qualify for the ballot for the August 10 primary, although he was not actively campaigning. In late July—two weeks before the primary—Simmons relaunched his campaign by airing ads on TV reminding voters that his name would be on the ballot, participating in debates, and accepting interviews with editorial boards. A third candidate, Peter Schiff, qualified for the ballot by submitting petition signatures. McMahon defeated her opponents and faced Richard Blumenthal in the general election, losing by 11%.

### 2012 U.S. Senate campaign

Immediately after her loss to Blumenthal, McMahon hinted she would run again for Senate in 2012. McMahon maintained a high profile following the election, running television ads, campaigning for politicians, and making frequent media appearances. When Joe Lieberman announced he would retire from the U.S. Senate, she became the Republican Party favorite for the 2012 election.

On September 20, 2011, in Southington, Connecticut, McMahon officially announced her candidacy. On May 18, 2012, McMahon earned the endorsement of the state Republican Party at the Connecticut State Republican Convention by a delegate vote of 658 to 351 over the next-highest candidate, former congressman Chris Shays. The two were the only candidates to qualify for the primary, which took place on August 14, 2012. McMahon defeated Shays by a three-to-one margin, spending $15.7 million of her money on the campaign. She lost to Democratic U.S. Representative Chris Murphy in the general election, marking her second consecutive defeat.

### Political contributions

Following her election defeats, McMahon committed herself to becoming a major Republican fundraiser and donor. She donated to groups such as American Crossroads and Ending Spending Fund, and associated with fellow mega donor Paul Singer.

As the 2016 Republican nomination process began to gear up in early 2015, McMahon, Singer, and Charles R. Schwab were among donors and prospective-candidate representatives who attended a daylong meeting near Jackson, Wyoming, that was hosted by TD Ameritrade founder Joe Ricketts and his son Todd, and featured "several Republican donors who favor same-sex marriage and immigration reform ".

After Donald Trump made an appearance at WrestleMania 23 in 2007, the McMahons donated $5 million to the Donald J. Trump Foundation in addition to the payment for the appearance. In 2016, McMahon donated $6 million to Rebuilding America Now, a Super PAC with the purpose of electing Donald Trump as US president, and in 2015 and 2016 combined, $1.2 million to Future 45, a Super PAC which funded anti- Bernie Sanders advertisements.

### Small Business Administration

On December 7, 2016, President-elect Donald Trump announced that he would nominate McMahon to be the administrator of the Small Business Administration (SBA).

With her pending nomination to become administrator of the SBA, examination of McMahon's record in preparation for her facing United States Senate confirmation began. In December she received media attention including from The Wall Street Journal, which noted that "s part of her 2012 campaign, economic plan called for getting rid of 'outdated/ineffective and duplicative programs,' and expressed support for a 2012 proposal by President Barack Obama to merge the SBA, the Commerce Department 's core functions and four other entities into one unit". The merger proposal, which did not proceed far toward approval at the time, would have eliminated the Cabinet-level post to which McMahon was nominated. The Connecticut Post of Bridgeport, Connecticut, examined issues of potential conflicts of interest from remaining WWE stock holdings and other financial assets, as well as of the relationship between WWE and smaller businesses in the wrestling world, with critics and supporters cited. The Hill provided a venue for two industry representatives to specify how they hoped McMahon would reform the agency she'd been tapped to lead.

The Senate confirmation hearing began on January 24, 2017; her nomination was approved by the Senate Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship on February 1, 2017, with an 18–1 vote, and confirmed by the full Senate on February 14, 2017, by a vote of 81–19. She was officially sworn in as administrator of the SBA on February 14, 2017.

On June 17, 2017, in an interview with CNBC, McMahon stated in her role as administrator of SBA that she is "earning how to develop business plans, how to grow, how to pitch business when trying to get investors, or to move into a different market and those are aspects of SBA that are not as well known", as the main goals of the SBA are capital, counseling, contracts and disaster relief. She also stated that the goals were being challenged, as the agency faced a five percent budget cut and future restructuring. “What we have done is look inside SBA, and what I have found is there are some duplicative programs that we are going to be merging.”

Later in 2017, she visited 68 cities to hear from small business owners and to support the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 backed by President Trump. On McMahon's first anniversary as head of the SBA, on January 29, 2018, The Washington Post said the SBA's progress under McMahon had been "so far, so good" and credited her with improving the SBA's offices' emergency call centers in the aftermath of Hurricane Harvey, hiring an additional 3,000 people to work them, and revamping the administration's online presence.

On March 29, 2019, McMahon announced her resignation as administrator of the SBA to chair America First Action, a pro-Trump Super PAC. The resignation took effect on April 12, 2019.

### Campaign finance

America First Action, a pro-Trump Super PAC chaired by McMahon, helped raise $83 million for Trump's reelection campaign in 2020. McMahon also serves as chair of the board for America First Policy Institute, along with Vice Chair Larry Kudlow, former director of the National Economic Council under Trump and Fox Business host.

### 2024 presidential campaign and transition

McMahon has joined with Howard Lutnick to co-chair Donald Trump 's 2025 transition team.

## Electoral history

Note: Blumenthal also appeared on the line of the Connecticut Working Families Party and received 30,836 votes on it. His Working Families and Democratic votes have been aggregated together on this table.

Note: Murphy also appeared on the line of the Connecticut Working Families Party and received 37,553 votes on it. His Working Families and Democratic votes have been aggregated together on this table.


# International rankings of the United States

## Abstract

The following are links to some international rankings of the United States.

## Civil liberties

- U.S. News and World Report ranked 21 of 87 in "cares about human rights"

## Economics

(Date ranges indicate different countries were sampled in different years.)

- GDP (nominal) - 1 of 213 (IMF, 2023)

- GDP (PPP) - 2 of 196 (IMF, 2024)

- Median income per capita - 1 of 45 (OECD, 2011-2021)

- Income per capita (nominal) - 7 of 190 (2009-2022, World Bank)

- Total wealth - 1 of 173 (UBS and Credit Suisse, 2023)

- International Labour Organization ranked 13 of 181 for labor productivity, 2019 (See List of countries by labour productivity)

- Income inequality - 61 highest out of 168 (World Bank, 1992-2022)

- World Economic Forum 2018–2019 Global Competitiveness Report, ranked 2nd out of 141 countries

- World Economic Forum 2016 Global Enabling Trade Report ranked 22nd

- The Heritage Foundation and The Wall Street Journal 2018 Index of Economic Freedom ranked 17th out of 178 economies

- Fraser Institute Economic Freedom of the World 2019 Annual Report (Economic Freedom Ratings for 2017) ranked 5th out of 152 countries and territories

- The Harvard Growth Lab ranked 12th in technological advancement, as of 2019.

- Global Innovation Index - 3 of 50 in 2023

## Education

- Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2015 Programme for International Student Assessment, ranked 38 of 79 in mathematics, 19 of 79 in science, 13 of 78 in reading

## Environment

- Environmental Performance Index - 43 of 180 in 2022

## Globalization

- 2006 Globalization Index (A.T. Kearney) ranked 3rd

- 2010 KOF Index of Globalization ranked 27th

## Healthcare

As of 2015, the Maternal mortality ratio was 46th lowest out of the countries ranked. (See Maternal mortality in the United States.)

Among wealthy nations, a study on 2016 data found the United States ranked first for child deaths by automobile accident and firearm, with overall child mortality 57% higher in the U.S. than other high-income countries, although traffic deaths were decreasing.

As of 2017, the United States life expectancy is 79.8 years at birth, ranking 42nd among 224 nations.

## Peace

- Vision of Humanity 2018 Global Peace Index ranked 121st out of 162 countries

## Politics

- Transparency International 2019 Corruption Perceptions Index: ranked 23rd lowest corruption out of 198 countries

- Reporters Without Borders 2022 Press Freedom Index: ranked 42nd out of 180 countries

- V-Dem Democracy indices: ranked 2023 27th out of 179 countries

- Democracy Index (The Economist): ranked 2022 30th out of 167 countries

- World Justice Project 2020 Rule of Law Index ranked 21st out of 128 countries and jurisdictions

## Standard of living

- List of countries by Human Development Index: ranked 13th out of 189 countries for 2018

- List of countries by inequality-adjusted HDI: ranked 25th out of 156 countries for 2018


Ibsen Martínez

# Ibsen Martínez

## Abstract

Ibsen Martínez (20 October 1951 – 11 September 2024) was a Venezuelan columnist, mathematician, journalist, and playwright from Caracas. Ibsen was a graduate from Central University of Venezuela in pure mathematics.

From 1995, he wrote a weekly column for El Nacional. His writings have appeared in El Nuevo Herald, The New York Times, Letras Libres, and El País. Martinez also wrote several plays for the theatre.

Martínez also wrote telenovelas. One of them was " Por Estas Calles " (Along these streets) a television drama, in 1992.

Martínez died from a heart attack on 11 September 2024, at the age of 72.


Fluid mosaic model

# Fluid mosaic model

## Abstract

The fluid mosaic model explains various characteristics regarding the structure of functional cell membranes. According to this biological model, there is a lipid bilayer (two molecules thick layer consisting primarily of amphipathic phospholipids) in which protein molecules are embedded. The phospholipid bilayer gives fluidity and elasticity to the membrane. Small amounts of carbohydrates are also found in the cell membrane. The biological model, which was devised by Seymour Jonathan Singer and Garth L. Nicolson in 1972, describes the cell membrane as a two-dimensional liquid where embedded proteins are generally randomly distributed. For example, it is stated that "A prediction of the fluid mosaic model is that the two-dimensional long-range distribution of any integral protein in the plane of the membrane is essentially random."

## Experimental evidence

The fluid property of functional biological membranes had been determined through labeling experiments, x-ray diffraction, and calorimetry. These studies showed that integral membrane proteins diffuse at rates affected by the viscosity of the lipid bilayer in which they were embedded, and demonstrated that the molecules within the cell membrane are dynamic rather than static.

Previous models of biological membranes included the Robertson Unit Membrane Model and the Davson-Danielli Tri-Layer model. These models had proteins present as sheets neighboring a lipid layer, rather than incorporated into the phospholipid bilayer. Other models described repeating, regular units of protein and lipid. These models were not well supported by microscopy and thermodynamic data, and did not accommodate evidence for dynamic membrane properties.

An important experiment that provided evidence supporting fluid and dynamic biological was performed by Frye and Edidin. They used Sendai virus to force human and mouse cells to fuse and form a heterokaryon. Using antibody staining, they were able to show that the mouse and human proteins remained segregated to separate halves of the heterokaryon a short time after cell fusion. However, the proteins eventually diffused and over time the border between the two halves was lost. Lowering the temperature slowed the rate of this diffusion by causing the membrane phospholipids to transition from a fluid to a gel phase. Singer and Nicolson rationalized the results of these experiments using their fluid mosaic model.

The fluid mosaic model explains changes in structure and behavior of cell membranes under different temperatures, as well as the association of membrane proteins with the membranes. While Singer and Nicolson had substantial evidence drawn from multiple subfields to support their model, recent advances in fluorescence microscopy and structural biology have validated the fluid mosaic nature of cell membranes.

## Subsequent developments

### Membrane asymmetry

Additionally, the two leaflets of biological membranes are asymmetric and divided into subdomains composed of specific proteins or lipids, allowing spatial segregation of biological processes associated with membranes. Cholesterol and cholesterol-interacting proteins can concentrate into lipid rafts and constrain cell signaling processes to only these rafts. Another form of asymmetry was shown by the work of Mouritsen and Bloom in 1984, where they proposed a Mattress Model of lipid-protein interactions to address the biophysical evidence that the membrane can range in thickness and hydrophobicity of proteins.

### Non-bilayer membranes

The existence of non-bilayer lipid formations with important biological functions was confirmed subsequent to publication of the fluid mosaic model. These membrane structures may be useful when the cell needs to propagate a non bilayer form, which occurs during cell division and the formation of a gap junction.

### Membrane curvature

The membrane bilayer is not always flat. Local curvature of the membrane can be caused by the asymmetry and non-bilayer organization of lipids as discussed above. More dramatic and functional curvature is achieved through BAR domains, which bind to phosphatidylinositol on the membrane surface, assisting in vesicle formation, organelle formation and cell division. Curvature development is in constant flux and contributes to the dynamic nature of biological membranes.

### Lipid movement within the membrane

During the 1970s, it was acknowledged that individual lipid molecules undergo free lateral diffusion within each of the layers of the lipid membrane. Diffusion occurs at a high speed, with an average lipid molecule diffusing ~2μm, approximately the length of a large bacterial cell, in about 1 second. It has also been observed that individual lipid molecules rotate rapidly around their own axis. Moreover, phospholipid molecules can, although they seldom do, migrate from one side of the lipid bilayer to the other (a process known as flip-flop). However, flip-flop movement is enhanced by flippase enzymes. The processes described above influence the disordered nature of lipid molecules and interacting proteins in the lipid membranes, with consequences to membrane fluidity, signaling, trafficking and function.

## Restrictions to lateral diffusion

There are restrictions to the lateral mobility of the lipid and protein components in the fluid membrane imposed by zonation. Early attempts to explain the assembly of membrane zones include the formation of lipid rafts and “cytoskeletal fences”, corrals wherein lipid and membrane proteins can diffuse freely, but that they can seldom leave. These ideas remain controversial, and alternative explanations are available such as the proteolipid code.

### Lipid rafts

Lipid rafts are membrane nanometric platforms with a particular lipid and protein composition that laterally diffuse, navigating on the liquid bilipid layer. Sphingolipids and cholesterol are important building blocks of the lipid rafts.

### Protein complexes

Cell membrane proteins and glycoproteins do not exist as single elements of the lipid membrane, as first proposed by Singer and Nicolson in 1972. Rather, they occur as diffusing complexes within the membrane. The assembly of single molecules into these macromolecular complexes has important functional consequences for the cell; such as ion and metabolite transport, signaling, cell adhesion, and migration.

### Cytoskeletal fences (corrals) and binding to the extracellular matrix

Some proteins embedded in the bilipid layer interact with the extracellular matrix outside the cell, cytoskeleton filaments inside the cell, and septin ring-like structures. These interactions have a strong influence on shape and structure, as well as on compartmentalization. Moreover, they impose physical constraints that restrict the free lateral diffusion of proteins and at least some lipids within the bilipid layer.

When integral proteins of the lipid bilayer are tethered to the extracellular matrix, they are unable to diffuse freely. Proteins with a long intracellular domain may collide with a fence formed by cytoskeleton filaments. Both processes restrict the diffusion of proteins and lipids directly involved, as well as of other interacting components of the cell membranes.

Septins are a family of GTP-binding proteins highly conserved among eukaryotes. Prokaryotes have similar proteins called paraseptins. They form compartmentalizing ring-like structures strongly associated with the cell membranes. Septins are involved in the formation of structures such as, cilia and flagella, dendritic spines, and yeast buds.

## Historical timeline

- 1895 – Ernest Overton hypothesized that cell membranes are made out of lipids.

- 1925 – Evert Gorter and François Grendel found that red blood cell membranes are formed by a fatty layer two molecules thick, i.e. they described the bilipid nature of the cell membrane.

- 1935 – Hugh Davson and James Danielli proposed that lipid membranes are layers composed by proteins and lipids with pore-like structures that allow specific permeability for certain molecules. Then, they suggested a model for the cell membrane, consisting of a lipid layer surrounded by protein layers at both sides of it.

- 1957 – J. David Robertson, based on electron microscopy studies, establishes the "Unit Membrane Hypothesis". This, states that all membranes in the cell, i.e. plasma and organelle membranes, have the same structure: a bilayer of phospholipids with monolayers of proteins at both sides of it.

- 1972 – SJ Singer and GL Nicolson proposed the fluid mosaic model as an explanation for the data and latest evidence regarding the structure and thermodynamics of cell membranes.

- 1997 – K Simons and E Ikonen proposed the lipid raft theory as an initial explanation of membrane zonation.

- 2024 – TA Kervin and M Overduin proposed the proteolipid code to fully explain membrane zonation as the lipid raft theory became increasingly controversial.


New London Union Station

# New London Union Station

## Abstract

New London Union Station is a railroad station on the Northeast Corridor located in downtown New London, Connecticut, United States. Union Station is a station stop for most Amtrak Northeast Regional trains and all CT Rail Shore Line East commuter rail trains, making it the primary railroad station in southeastern Connecticut. It serves as the centerpiece of the Regional Intermodal Transit Center, with connections to local and intercity buses as well as ferries to Long Island and Fishers Island, New York, and Block Island, Rhode Island. The station has one side platform and one island platform serving the two-track Northeast Corridor; the latter platform also serves a siding track that connects to the New England Central Railroad mainline.

Rail service to New London began with the New London, Willimantic, and Palmer Railroad in 1848 and the New Haven and New London Railroad in 1852. The original stations were each replaced in the 1860s; after several consolidations, they were served by the Central Vermont Railway (CV) and New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad (New Haven) by the 1870s. After one of the stations burned in 1885, a new three-story brick union station was erected in 1887. It was the last and largest railroad station designed by famed architect H. H. Richardson, and his best according to biographer Henry-Russell Hitchcock.

Passenger service declined in the 20th century; all CV passenger service to New London ended in 1949. The New London Redevelopment Agency began planning in 1961 to demolish the station as part of urban renewal. Amtrak took over passenger service in May 1971; Union Station was added to the National Register of Historic Places the next month following a local effort. After several years of controversy over whether to demolish or preserve the structure, it was purchased by architect George M. Notter in 1975. Notter's firm renovated the station for combined use by Amtrak and commercial tenants; it was the first station to be restored for Amtrak's use, and one of the earliest cases of adaptive reuse of an industrial-age building in New England.

Shore Line East commuter service joined Amtrak intercity service at the station in 1996. High-level platforms were added in 2001 to serve the new Acela Express service. A second renovation in 2002–03 restored the exterior and returned the waiting room to its original configuration. The planned National Coast Guard Museum, which will be located across the tracks from the station, will include a long-planned footbridge over the tracks.

## History and design

### Early stations

Union Station is the sixth railroad station to serve New London. When the New London, Willimantic, and Palmer Railroad opened in 1848, an existing building on Water Street a block east of Federal Street was converted into a station. A two-story Greek Revival depot was built near the modern location in 1852 with the arrival of the New Haven and New London Railroad (NH&NL). The New London, Willimantic, and Palmer continued to use its older station for some time, although a track was built to join the two railroads.

In 1854, a connecting track was opened through downtown Norwich, allowing trains from the Norwich and Worcester Railroad to connect with steamships at New London rather than Allyn's Point. Use of the connection stopped in November 1855, but was continuous after April 1859. After the completion of the New London and Stonington Railroad to Groton Wharf in 1858, ferry service ran from New London to Groton to allow through railroad service. The NH&NL station was soon too small to handle large passenger loads, and the Bureau of Railroad Commissioners was petitioned for a new station as early as 1859.

The New Haven and New London Railroad merged with the New London and Stonington in 1857 to form the New Haven, New London and Stonington Railroad. The line was leased by the New York, Providence and Boston Railroad (NYP&B) in 1859. The NYP&B bought the section east of Groton outright in 1864; the section from New London westward was spun off as the Shore Line Railway. In 1870, the Shore Line was leased by the New York and New Haven Railroad, which itself became part of the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad in 1872. At some point during this series of events, the 1852-built station was replaced by a larger, two-story structure, which was also used by some through trains from the north.

In 1861, the New London Northern Railroad succeeded the New London, Willimantic, and Palmer. That year, the railroad constructed a freight depot and steamboat wharf (likely also used for passenger trains) along Water Street. The depot burned on May 8, 1864, but was rebuilt on the same site.

The NYP&B-era station was highly unpopular; the Bureau was petitioned for a replacement not long after it was built, and local newspapers took up the issue in 1874 and 1875. In 1877, the commissioners referred to the "wholly insufficient and inconvenient accommodations" at the station. When the building burned on February 5, 1885, one newspaper remarked "few New London people are sorry, as the ancient structure had long since outlived its usefulness." It was torn down in April 1886.

### H.H. Richardson station

After the previous depot was destroyed, the Central Vermont Railroad (which then leased the New London Northern) began making plans for a larger replacement station. The Central Vermont and the New Haven Railroad (which had bought the Shore Line in 1870) bought the east end of the Parade from New London for the unusually low price of $15,000, with the understanding that the railroads would build a structure more suitable for the bustling city.

Noted American architect Henry Hobson Richardson, known for his public buildings including several Boston and Albany Railroad depots, was hired by the Central Vermont in September 1885 to design the new station. Richardson likely obtained the commission through his friend and former classmate James A. Rumrill, who was a director of the railroad. New London was the last of many railroad stations worked on by Richardson before his death in 1886, though numerous others were designed by his students (including the nearby New London Public Library designed by Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge). Many of Richardson's later attributed works were designed primarily by his office staff, but the quality of the design indicates that it was closely supervised by Richardson. Richardson's biographer, Henry-Russell Hitchcock, considered New London to be his best station design.

Union Station is particularly large for a Richardson train station, and stands out as the only of his stations not built in the Richardsonian Romanesque style of Trinity Church in Boston. Instead, it is a "severe, compact brick box", with significant Colonial influence taken from other buildings in New London. Its design is heavily based on Sever Hall at Harvard University, which Richardson designed in 1878. The station has a similar profile, brick color and patterns, and arched entryway, but lacks the ornamentation of Sever. Richardson originally designed Union Station with rough stone walls and Longmeadow trim like his other stations, but the material was changed to less expensive brick shortly before construction; the ornamentation was also likely eliminated at this time. The strict symmetry is atypical of Richardson's designs and may have been a later change by Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge after Richardson's death.

Although different from his other stations, the 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 -story structure features many of Richardson's characteristic motifs, including its multi-faceted roof, prominent arched entrance, and elegant brickwork. Like many of his stations, the roofline is dominant and contrasts the monochrome walls. The bricks are arranged in a mixture of Flemish bond and two different herringbone styles, broken by details around windows and doors, to create visual interest. A projecting central section tempers the roofline on the east and west facades, while the dormers shown a slight Asian influence common in his designs. The rear bay window – the lone circular element save for the matching arched front doorway – served as the ticket booth. The ceiling and third floor are suspended from the roof trusses using an array of 2-inch (51 mm) -diameter iron rods, which allowed for a large two-story waiting room without interior columns. The platform canopy was notable for matching the broad curve of the tracks; it originally extended further south, with a raised "eyebrow" section over State Street.

The new station began construction in September 1886 and opened in 1887, with a total cost of $76,300. It was designated a union station as it connected two railroads – the Central Vermont Railroad which succeeded the New London, Willimantic, and Palmer, and the Shore Line which would merge into the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad in 1897. The Thames River Bridge was opened in October 1889, connecting the station to the New York, Providence and Boston Railroad and completing the Shore Line rail link from New York to Boston. The southern end of the Norwich and Worcester Railroad was completed through Gales Ferry in June 1899, allowing traffic from Worcester to reach New London via the bridge rather than through Norwich.

Around 1912, New London citizens successfully petitioned the Public Utilities Commission for the installation of a footbridge connecting the station to the ferry docks in order to improve pedestrian safety. At the time, with no bridge crossing the river below Norwich, the ferries were heavily used. The footbridge, constructed of steel with a canopy to keep out rain, was constructed soon after.

### Decline and revival

Central Vermont passenger service running north ended in 1949, but service running east and west along the Shore Line has remained continuous since the station was built. In the latter days of the New Haven Railroad, infrastructure was not maintained in order to cut costs, and stations like New London suffered for it. In 1953, the railroad asked the Public Utilities Commission for permission to remove the footbridge, but the request was denied. The railroad petitioned again in 1961, seeking to spend $1,250 to remove the bridge rather than $15,000 repairing it. Of the average 132 people using the bridge daily (versus 612 crossing the tracks on the street), most were reportedly using it as an "observation post" to view the harbor. In 1955, architect Marcel Breuer designed new stations at Rye and New London for the New Haven Railroad as part of a design program overseen by Knoll Associates. Neither new station was ultimately built.

In 1961, the New London Redevelopment Agency called for the station to be demolished to make room for a shopping mall or department store as an " urban renewal " project. This began a fifteen-year fight over the station building, pitting the Redevelopment Agency against a small group of private citizens who wished to have the building restored for further use. The city paid $120,000 to buy the station; demolition costs were estimated at $55,000. The New Haven Railroad folded into Penn Central in 1969; continually beset with financial problems, Penn Central had no interest in investing in the station. The station by this time was "a dust-covered derelict with urine-soaked floors and peeling ceilings." Amtrak took over intercity passenger service on May 1, 1971; Penn Central continued to operate a limited amount of local service that was discontinued over the rest of the decade. After a local effort, Union Station was added to the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) in June 1971 over the lobbying efforts of former mayor Richard Martin. Martin claimed that ninety percent of the city agreed with the redevelopment plans. Under the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, the addition to the NRHP prevented local authorities from using federal funds for demolition, although the law did not provide for enforcement or punishment.

The conflict was generally seen locally as outside "meddlers" – state officials, rich "out-of-state bleeding hearts", and historians – interfering with local plans that would improve the city. Robert P. Turk, director of the Redevelopment Agency, wrote a letter accusing preservationists of dealing in "pure academic nonsense". Frank Scheetz, a Groton local and former submariner, attempted to buy the station for use as a submarine museum, with plans to berth a decommissioned submarine nearby. The Redevelopment Agency rejected Scheetz's offer, claiming he was a speculator; Scheetz alleged that the city duplicitously changed prices in order to refuse the legitimate offer. (Scheetz later funded the display of the USS Croaker in Groton from 1977 to 1987, and was "instrumental" in bringing the USS Nautilus to permanent display at Submarine Force Library and Museum at the Naval Submarine Base New London in the 1980s.) In September 1973, the City Council voted to allow demolition. Amtrak responded with a letter stating that the company wanted to discuss the possibility of preservation and would be willing to contribute financially. That year, a number of the same local activists formed the Union Railroad Station Trust, intending to restore the station.

On February 20, 1975, the Redevelopment Agency voted to demolish the building. Union Railroad Station Trust asked the Boston architectural firm Anderson Notter Associates to prepare a study of adding office and restaurant space. George M. Notter, one of the firm's principals (and later president of the American Institute of Architects), was an early advocate of adaptive reuse. Surprised that no developers were pursuing what he saw as a sure profit, Notter formed Union Station Associates as a subsidiary of Anderson Notter and invested a substantial sum of his own money into the station. Notter convinced Amtrak to agree to a 20-year lease for part of the station at $45,000 annually, thus giving the group a stronger negotiating point. After eighteen months of negotiations, Union Station Associates purchased the building on July 24, 1975, effectively saving the station. The group paid only the cost of the underlying land, $11,400 – the same figure Scheetz initially offered two years before.

Union Station Associates spend hundreds of thousands of dollars on a full renovation of the building for combined use by Amtrak and commercial tenants. The exterior was restored to the original 1885 specifications. However, some of the interior work modified the station far from its original configuration. A mezzanine was built over half the waiting area to provide restaurant seating, and the floor of the rest was cut out to create an atrium. The basement became the passenger waiting area, with a newsstand and a plant shop occupying additional space. New, wider platforms were built to improve the boarding experience. The renovated station was celebrated and rededicated in July 1976. The New London Day, which five years before called the station an "eyesore", ran their coverage under the headline "We were wrong!" New London Union Station was the first station in the country to be restored for Amtrak use. It represented a "watershed" in historic preservation as one of the first industrial age structures in New England to be reused – a shift away from the previous attitude that valued only Colonial buildings – as well as the recognition of the historic value of the old downtowns of New England 's port cities.

### Turn of the century

As Notter predicted, the renovated station initially proved attractive to commercial tenants. When an engineering firm moved into the "Crow's Nest" of the attic space in the late 1980s, the building was fully occupied for the first time since the heyday of the New Haven railroad. However, Notter and others involved in the 1975 purchase were approaching retirement age. In the late 1990s, the city offered to buy the station for use as a maritime museum detailing the history of the adjacent Thames River. No longer worried about the safety of the building, the developers sold, and the tenants moved elsewhere.

In 1996, the well-connected owners of Cross Sound Ferry proposed a footbridge from the Water Street parking garage to the ferry slips so that ferry passengers would not have to cross Water Street and the tracks at grade. Amtrak saw the project as an opportunity to build a new elevated station nearby and contributed $1 million to the design of the bridge. However, Amtrak reversed course in 1999 and decided to keep using Union Station; in 2001, the railroad declined to fund the footbridge. Also in 2001, Amtrak built a pair of high-level platforms to serve the new Acela high-speed service, thus adapting the 19th-century station for 21st-century usage. Catenary wires were installed over the tracks as part of the introduction of the Acela. Late that year or early in 2002, the 1899-built freight house on the east side of the tracks was torn down as part of redevelopment sponsored by the New London Development Corporation. The freight house had previously been used by Amtrak maintenance-of-way crews, and before that by the Fishers Island Ferry District.

By this time, many of the 1970s repairs were beginning to wear down, and the city put aside its plans for the maritime museum. The New London Railroad Company, fronted by historian Barbara Timken and local businessman Todd O'Donnell, bought the station from the city as the New London Railroad Company in 2002. The pair organized a second full restoration of the station, including a new slate roof, restored brickwork, and restoration of the waiting room to its original configuration. The mezzanine level and basement atrium created in the 1976 renovation were removed. Additionally, mechanical systems were upgraded and various accessibility concerns addressed. The baggage room was restored for Greyhound use. Amtrak and Greyhound rent space from the company for offices and passenger waiting areas.

Despite Amtrak's disinterest in the project, Cross Sound continued to pursue construction of the footbridge. Standing as high as 73 feet (22 m) (higher than the station itself), the bridge was to cost $10 million, paid by public funds. In 2003, the city used eminent domain to take portions of the station property in order to build a footbridge from the Water Street parking garage to the ferry slips on the east side of the tracks. The city only wished to pay for the small area taken up by the footprints, but O'Donnell wanted more compensation because the large footbridge would detract from the aesthetics of the historic station. With no agreement reached, the issue went to court. Meanwhile, O'Donnell was in a financial conundrum: the taxi and auto traffic generated by the bus, rail, and ferry traffic was limiting his ability to lease space in the station. He abandoned renovations to the upper floors, and was forced to consider ending the leases with Amtrak and Greyhound and seek alternate tenants. In 2007, the city abandoned the eminent domain case and scrapped the footbridge plans, although O'Donnell was still considering selling the building.

### Shore Line East

In February 1996, a single Shore Line East weekday round trip was extended from Old Saybrook to New London. An additional round trip was extended in February 2010, and 3 more in May 2010 for a total of 5 daily round trips between New London and New Haven. Weekend Shore Line East service between Old Saybrook and New Haven Union Station began in 2008, but no regular weekend trains ran to New London.

In July 2012, Governor Dannel Malloy announced that 5 weekend round trips would be extended to New London beginning in April 2013. However, the extension was dependent on ongoing negotiations with the marine industry over mandated closings of the Old Saybrook – Old Lyme bridge. Two weekday midday trips were added in May 2013, while weekend service began on June 1, 2013, after the application for additional bridge closings was approved by the state Department of Energy and Environmental Protection. Because Shore Line East service to New London is limited, Amtrak honors monthly Shore Line East passes on select intercity trains between New London and New Haven. By 2019, weekend Shore Line East ridership at New London was nearly twice weekday ridership.

### Upgrades and Coast Guard Museum

In 2006, the Southeastern Connecticut Council of Governments (SCCOG) began a study of how to improve the Regional Intermodal Transportation Center (RITC), including Union Station. The study analyzed problems with the RITC – including poor pedestrian connections, minimal bus facilities, and a lack of food vendors – and considered but rejected a move to a Fort Trumbull site. The proposed alternative released in 2010, which would cost around $20 million, would relocate Water Street slightly to the west. The bus terminal would be expanded, with a new building adding onto the existing former baggage office. A pedestrian bridge was to be constructed connecting the Water Street Garage, the main station area, the northbound Amtrak platform, and the ferry terminal – a design that served station passengers as well as the ferries. Other pedestrian improvements were to include wayfinding signs, pedestrian-scale lighting, and expanded sidewalks.

Beginning in 2010, Union Station was considered a possible site for the National Coast Guard Museum, which would have added a glass atrium north of the main station building as well as a pedestrian bridge over the tracks to a second waterfront building. The Coast Guard removed the site from consideration in May 2012 due to opposition from Cross Sound Ferry over use of its property. The station's private owners stated that they would consider other uses for the space.

However, after further consideration, the Coast Guard announced in April 2013 that the museum was to be located at Union Station. The main portion of the museum is to be located east of the tracks, with a new 500-passenger ferry terminal likely integrated into the four-story, 54,300-square-foot glass-faced building. A pedestrian bridge will connect the museum to the station and the northbound platform, as well as to the Water Street garage.

In July 2013, the station owners sent a letter of concern to the state, seeking that the Environmental Impact Report for the museum and footbridge consider a breadth of possible impacts, particularly from the footbridge. The museum itself received a Finding Of No Significant Impact in March 2014. The Environmental Impact Evaluation for the footbridge, released in July 2014, analyzed seven alternatives for the footbridge location. Alternative 5a, located east of the baggage building and including a section to the garage, was the preferred alternative. The state committed $20 million towards the cost of the potential footbridge.

In 2014, O'Donnell and Timken began talks with the Coast Guard Museum Association about selling the station to a third-party investor associated with the Association. The sale was originally to be effective at the end of 2014, but was delayed because the Redevelopment Agency never issued a formal certificate of completion for the 1975 sale and renovations. Since the Agency was dissolved in 2008, the City Council issued the certificate in early January 2015, allowing the sale the proceed. On January 12, the Council released the station from the 1960s urban renewal plan as part of an agreement with O'Donnell and Timken to ease the sale process. The new agreement also included stipulations for historic preservation of the building, and allowed – but did not require – its continued use as a train station. On January 29, 2015, Union Station Development sold the station to the New London RR Company – a holding company owned by James Coleman Jr., chairman of the Association – for $3 million. Coleman brought in a restaurant serving locally sourced food for the first floor, and intended to renovate the second floor for use by museum-related tenants.

Electrification and track work on Track 6, necessary to allow use of M8 electric railcars on Shore Line East, took place from November 2021 to April 2022. The cars entered service for Shore Line East that May. In June 2023, the US Department of Transportation awarded $17 million for transportation improvements in downtown New London, including the footbridge and station renovations.

## Layout

New London has an unconventional platform layout due to the State Street grade crossing and its location on a sharp curve. The two Northeast Corridor tracks (Tracks 1 and 2) are next to the station, while the New England Central Railroad (formerly Central Vermont) freight track (Track 6) is further away.

Both NEC tracks have high-level platforms, which were added in 2001 for use by Acela trains, which cannot use low platforms. The southbound NEC track is served by a low platform behind the station, which leads to a short high-level platform south of State Street. The northbound NEC track is served by a high-level platform behind the station building; the low platform south of State Street is generally only used for deboarding passengers from busy trains. Because of the sharp curve, the high-level platforms are set slightly back from the tracks to avoid scraping the ends of train cars, and thus bridge plates are needed to span the gap between platform and car.

The northbound platform, currently a side platform, can serve as an island platform should passenger service return to the NECR track. The 2010 SCCOG report indicated that Amtrak wished Shore Line East to move its operations to Track 6, freeing the mainline tracks for through trains. In 2013, most Shore Line East trains began using Track 6. Most passengers use the low-level section of the platform south of State Street, but a short metal spur on the high-level platform provides handicapped accessible boarding for trains using the track. A low-level section of the northbound platform also remains north of the high-level section; it has not been used since the high-level section was constructed.

The southbound platform is adjacent to the station building, and its high-level section requires crossing only a lightly used spur of State Street. However, access to the northbound platform requires crossing both Northeast Corridor tracks. The footbridge to the planned Coast Guard Museum will allow access to the northbound platform without crossing tracks, which will improve safety and prevent passengers from being trapped on the platform by stopped trains.

## Service

All Amtrak Northeast Regional trains that run on the Northeast Corridor east of New Haven (about 9 trains each direction daily) stop at New London.

The station was previously also served by a small number of Acela trains: one southbound train in the morning, and northbound trains in the morning and evening. When Acela trains served the station, most ran nonstop between Providence and New Haven. Acela service was discontinued by 2022.

Shore Line East service to New London is limited by slots available over the Connecticut River bridge between Old Saybrook and Old Lyme; service is operated at uneven headways on weekdays and weekends. Multi-ride and monthly Shore Line East tickets are accepted on several Northeast Regional trains as well.

The Central Corridor Rail Line is a proposed regional service which would run from New London north through Norwich, Willimantic, and Amherst to Brattleboro, Vermont over the New England Central Railroad. While locally supported by some towns along the route, the service is not currently funded.

### Intermodal connections

Several ferry services run from docks on Ferry Street just north of the station. The Cross Sound Ferry runs to Orient Point on Long Island with approximately hourly service year-round. The Block Island Fast Ferry, a high-speed catamaran to Block Island, runs several daily round trips during the summer months. The Fishers Island Ferry offers year-round local service to Fisher's Island, about 5 miles offshore, with multiple daily trips.

Greyhound Bus Lines offers limited intercity service from a stop on Water Street. Current service consists of two daily buses in each direction operating along the I-95 corridor, with transfers available to other routes in Boston, New Haven, and New York City. Greyhound and Peter Pan Bus (which no longer serves New London) previously used the former baggage and express office.

Union Station is one of four major transfer points for Southeast Area Transit (SEAT) local bus service, with timed connections on a clock-face schedule between several routes running from New London to nearby areas including Norwich, Groton, Niantic, Waterford, and Foxwoods Casino. SEAT buses serving the station stop at a shelter north of the station building on Water Street. The following SEAT routes run from Union Station:

- 1 Norwich / Mohegan Sun / New London – Route 32

- 2 Norwich / Groton/ New London – Route 12

- 3 Groton / New London / Niantic

- 12 Jefferson Avenue / Crystal Mall / New London Shopping Center / Senior Center

- 13 Shaws Cove / L & M Hospital / Ocean Beach

- 14 New London Mall / Waterford Commons / Crystal Mall / New London Shopping Center

- 15 New London / Waterford – Evening Service

- 101 Norwich / Mohegan Sun / New London – Route 32

- 108 New London / Groton / Mistick Village / Foxwoods

Union Station is also served by 9 Town Transit route 643. The drop-off lane in front of the station also serves as a taxi stand for several local companies. Special buses to Foxwoods Casino, which connect primarily to Cross Sound Ferry services, also stop nearby.


Hamilton City, California

# Hamilton City, California

## Abstract

Hamilton City (formerly, Hamilton) is a census-designated place (CDP) in Glenn County, California, United States. The population was 1,759 at the 2010 census, down from 1,903 at the 2000 census. Hamilton City is located 9.5 miles (15 km) east of Orland, and 10 miles west of Chico at an elevation of 151 feet (46 m). The community is inside area code 530. The default prefix used for wired telephones in the Hamilton City area is 826. The postal ZIP Code is 95951.

## Signature features

The community is located along the Sacramento River near Mile 199. Hamilton Union High School is well known locally because of its sports and agricultural program as well as being recognized as a California Distinguished School. The large silos of the former Holly Sugar Plant (formerly served by California Northern Railroad) are visible from all over town. "La Palmas" (Palm Drive) is well known to locals and is 2.1 miles (3.4 km) long.

## Geography

According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 0.3 square miles (0.78 km), all of it land.

### Climate

According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Hamilton City has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated "Csa" on climate maps.

## History

The town began in 1905 with the founding of a large sugar beet processing plant later belonging to Holly Sugar Corporation. What is known today as the Holly Sugar Plant was built in 1906 by James Hamilton and the Alta California Sugar Beet Company. The name of the company was changed in 1908 to Sacramento Valley Sugar Company. It was sold in 1936 to Spreckels Sugar Company, which is the parent company of Holly Sugar. Spreckels was later purchased by Imperial Sugar The first post office at Hamilton City opened in 1906. As the population of the town grew, to make room for development the local cemetery was moved to a new location about 10 miles north of Artois, California.

The sugar plant closed in 2006.

## Demographics

### 2010

At the 2010 census Hamilton City had a population of 1,759. The population density was 5,642.8 inhabitants per square mile (2,178.7/km). The racial makeup of Hamilton City was 834 (47.4%) White, 18 (1.0%) African American, 23 (1.3%) Native American, 15 (0.9%) Asian, 0 (0.0%) Pacific Islander, 804 (45.7%) from other races, and 65 (3.7%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1,489 persons (84.7%).

The whole population lived in households, no one lived in non-institutionalized group quarters and no one was institutionalized.

There were 510 households, 269 (52.7%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 304 (59.6%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 79 (15.5%) had a female householder with no husband present, 48 (9.4%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 40 (7.8%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 5 (1.0%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 54 households (10.6%) were one person and 24 (4.7%) had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 3.45. There were 431 families (84.5% of households); the average family size was 3.66.

The age distribution was 530 people (30.1%) under the age of 18, 203 people (11.5%) aged 18 to 24, 493 people (28.0%) aged 25 to 44, 359 people (20.4%) aged 45 to 64, and 174 people (9.9%) who were 65 or older. The median age was 29.6 years. For every 100 females, there were 103.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 106.6 males.

There were 539 housing units at an average density of 1,729.1 per square mile (667.6/km),of which 510 were occupied, 289 (56.7%) by the owners and 221 (43.3%) by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 2.0%; the rental vacancy rate was 5.1%. 947 people (53.8% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 812 people (46.2%) lived in rental housing units.

### 2000

At the 2000 census there were 1,903 people, 513 households, and 431 families in the CDP. The population density was 6,043.9 inhabitants per square mile (2,333.6/km). There were 543 housing units at an average density of 1,724.6 per square mile (665.9/km). The racial makeup of the CDP was 38.10% White, 0.37% Black or African American, 1.21% Native American, 0.32% Asian, 56.38% from other races, and 3.63% from two or more races. 80.56% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. Of the 513 households 52.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 64.9% were married couples living together, 11.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 15.8% were non-families. 10.5% of households were one person and 4.7% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 3.71 and the average family size was 4.00.

The age distribution was 33.4% under the age of 18, 12.6% from 18 to 24, 28.3% from 25 to 44, 18.5% from 45 to 64, and 7.2% 65 or older. The median age was 28 years. For every 100 females, there were 106.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 113.1 males.

The median household income was $33,169 and the median family income was $34,167. Males had a median income of $20,405 versus $14,191 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $9,047. About 17.5% of families and 20.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 29.0% of those under age 18 and 9.2% of those age 65 or over.

## Politics

In the state legislature Hamilton City is in the 4th Senate District, represented by Republican Marie Alvarado-Gil, and in the 3rd Assembly District, represented by Republican James Gallagher.

Federally, Hamilton City is in California's 3rd congressional district, represented by Republican Kevin Kiley.

## Education

The Hamilton Union High School District and Hamilton Union Elementary School Districts unified in 2009 to become the Hamilton Unified School District. Longtime Hamilton Union High School Principal/Superintendent Ray Odom served as the first Superintendent of the new Hamilton Unified School District. Mr. Odom retired in 2011. The current Superintendent is Charles Tracy and the current High School Principal is Cris Oseguera. Hamilton Unified School District includes Hamilton High School, Hamilton Elementary School, Ella Barkley High School, Hamilton Adult School, Hamilton High Community Day School, and Hamilton Elementary Community Day School.

## Emergency services

Law enforcement is provided by the Glenn County Sheriff 's Department.

Fire services are provided by the Hamilton City Fire Protection District which covers the town as well as the surrounding area, including a mutual aid agreement with Butte County Fire, the Capay Volunteer Fire Department and Ord Bend Volunteer Fire Department, eight miles south.

The Fire District consists of a full-time fire chief, a part-time division chief, and volunteer firefighters. Dispatch services for HCFPD are provided by the Tehama-Glenn Unit Headquarters of the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection in Red Bluff.

## Notable people

- Kyle Lohse - Major League Baseball (MLB) pitcher for the Milwaukee Brewers; attended Hamilton Union High School.

- Rigoberto Sanchez - National Football League (NFL) punter for the Indianapolis Colts; attended Hamilton Union High School.


Learner Tien

# Learner Tien

## Abstract

Learner Tien (born December 2, 2005) is an American tennis player. He has a career-high ATP singles ranking of world No. 191 achieved on 26 August 2024. He also has a career-high doubles ranking of No. 754 achieved on 20 November 2023.

## Early life

Tien was born in Irvine, California to Vietnamese parents. His first name, Learner, is inspired by his mother's profession - a math teacher. His sister is named Justice after his father's profession – an attorney.

Tien started playing tennis as an infant, and won his first tournament at the Racquet Club of Irvine at the age of 5.

## Junior career

Tien had a very successful career as a junior, compiling a 76-23 win-loss record and reaching two junior Grand Slam finals, at the 2023 Australian Open and the 2023 US Open, culminating with a ranking of world no. 4 in singles. He also reached the world no. 4 ranking in doubles, compiling a 36-18 win-loss record and winning the 2023 Australian Open, partnering Cooper Williams.

### Junior Grand Slam singles results

Australian Open: F (2023) French Open: SF (2023) Wimbledon: QF (2022, 2023) US Open: F (2023)

### Junior Grand Slam doubles results

Australian Open: W (2023) French Open: QF (2023) Wimbledon: 2R (2022) US Open: 2R (2022)

## Professional career

### 2022-2023: Junior National champion, Major debut

At just 16 years old, Tien won the 2022 USTA Boys 18s National Championship, which earned him a wildcard into the main draw of the 2022 US Open. This made him the youngest player to compete in the men’s singles main draw at the US Open since a then 16 years old Donald Young (also the champion at Kalamazoo) played in the 2005 US Open and also the first player aged 16 to compete since Zachary Svajda in 2019. He lost in four sets to 32nd seed Miomir Kecmanović.

In August 2023, he received a wildcard into the 2023 US Open but lost to Frances Tiafoe in the first round.

### 2024: First Challenger titles & ATP wins & quarterfinal, top 155

In July, he also received a wildcard for the 2024 Cranbrook Tennis Classic in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan where he lifted his maiden Challenger title. He became the youngest American Challenger champion since 2016, when an 18-year-old Frances Tiafoe won in Granby, Canada.

At the end of July, two weeks later, he made again the quarterfinals at the 2024 Chicago Men's Challenger and reached the top 250 in the rankings on 29 July 2024. He reached his second Challenger semifinal of the season defeating eight seed Hong Seong-chan. A week later, he also made the quarterfinals at the 2024 Lexington Challenger but lost to Hugo Grenier.

He secured a main draw wildcard for the US Open by winning the US Open wildcard challenge.

Ranked No. 231, he qualified for the main draw at the 2024 Winston-Salem Open and defeated fellow qualifier Tristan Schoolkate and upset ninth seed Fábián Marozsán and Thiago Seyboth Wild to record his first three ATP Tour wins and reach his first quarterfinal in his career. He became the youngest American ATP tour-level quarterfinalist since Brandon Nakashima in 2020 (in Delray Beach). As a result he climbed close to 40 positions in the singles rankings to the top 195 at world No. 191 on 26 August 2024.

Ranked No. 191, he won his second Challenger title in Las Vegas defeating Tristan Boyer and moved another 40 positions in the singles rankings reaching a new career-high of world No. 151 on 16 September 2024.

## ATP Challenger and ITF World Tennis Tour finals

## Junior Grand Slam finals


# List of 1990s American state and local politicians convicted of crimes

## Abstract

This list includes American politicians at the state and local levels who have been convicted of felony crimes committed while in office by decade; this list encompasses the 1990s.

At the bottom of the article are links to related articles which deal with politicians who are involved in federal scandals (political and sexual), as well as differentiating among federal, state and local convictions. Also excluded are crimes which occur outside the politician's tenure in office unless they specifically stem from acts during his time of service.

Entries are arranged by date, from most current to less recent, and by state.

## Alabama

- Governor of Alabama H. Guy Hunt (R) was convicted of improperly using campaign money and was sentenced to five years' probation and fined $211,000. (1993)

## Alaska

- State Senator George Jacko (D) was found guilty of sexual harassment of a 17-year-old page (1993)

## Arizona

- State Representative Sue Laybe (D) was found guilty of bribery and given six months during the AZSCAM investigation (1990)

- State Representative Donald Kenney (R), was convicted in the AZSCAM investigation for taking a bribe of $55,000 in a gym bag and was sentenced to five years in prison. (1990)

- State Representative James Hartdegen (R), pleaded guilty to violating three campaign laws and was forced to resign as part of the AZSCAM investigation. (1990)

- State Representative James Meredith (R), was found guilty of making false campaign contributions during the AZSCAM investigation (1990)

- State Representative Bobby Raymond (D), investigated in the AZSCAM investigation, stated his favorite line was, "What's in it for me?" Found guilty of conspiracy and bribery and sentenced to two years in prison, with seven years of probation (1990)

- State Senator Jesus "Chuy" Higuera (D), guilty of taking a $4,000 bribe and demanding a shrimp and fax concession in all future casinos. Sentenced to two months in prison and four years' probation (1990)

## Arkansas

- Governor of Arkansas Jim Guy Tucker. (D) As part of the Whitewater investigation run by Kenneth Starr, Tucker was convicted of fraud and conspiracy and sentenced to four years' probation. (1996)

- Secretary of State Bill McCuen (D) pleaded guilty to bribery, kickbacks, tax evasion and trading in public office. He was sentenced to 17 years in prison and fined (1996)

- State Senator Carolyn Walker (D) was convicted of accepting payoffs for pledging to support gambling legislation as part of the AZSCAM Investigation. Sentenced to four years in prison (1991)

## California

- State Representative Brian Setencich (R) was convicted of tax evasion connected to his 1996 re-election campaign. (2000)

- The FBI's Bribery and Special Interest sting operation (BRISPEC, or " Shrimpscam ") targeted corruption in the California legislature. Five convictions were obtained. State Senator Alan Robbins (D) resigned on November 21, 1991, in advance of pleading guilty to federal racketeering charges in connection with insurance-industry bribes. State Senator Joseph B. Montoya (D) was convicted in April 1990 of rackeetering, extortion and money laundering and was sentenced to 6½ years in prison. State Senator Frank Hill (R) and his aide were found guilty of corruption and money laundering and sentenced to 46 months in prison. (1994) California Board of Equalization member Paul B. Carpenter (D) was found guilty of 11 counts of obstruction of justice and money laundering. (1993) State Assemblyman Pat Nolan (R) served 29 months for bribery in the FBI's BRISPEC sting operation.

- State Senator Alan Robbins (D) resigned on November 21, 1991, in advance of pleading guilty to federal racketeering charges in connection with insurance-industry bribes.

- State Senator Joseph B. Montoya (D) was convicted in April 1990 of rackeetering, extortion and money laundering and was sentenced to 6½ years in prison.

- State Senator Frank Hill (R) and his aide were found guilty of corruption and money laundering and sentenced to 46 months in prison. (1994)

- California Board of Equalization member Paul B. Carpenter (D) was found guilty of 11 counts of obstruction of justice and money laundering. (1993)

- State Assemblyman Pat Nolan (R) served 29 months for bribery in the FBI's BRISPEC sting operation.

### Local

- Treasurer-Tax Collector of Orange County, California Robert Citron (D) convicted of fraud. (1995)

## Connecticut

- State Treasurer Paul J. Silvester (R) was sentenced to 21 months in prison for racketeering and money laundering. (1999)

### Local

- Mayor of Waterbury Joseph J. Santopietro (R) was found guilty of taking a $25,000 payoff in return for $1 million in city pension funds. (1991)

## Florida

- Speaker of the Florida House of Representatives Bolley Johnson (D) was convicted of tax evasion. (1999)

- State Representative Marvin Couch (R) was arrested in Orlando for soliciting sex and pled guilty to unnatural or lascivious acts and exposure of his sexual organs. (1996)

### Local

- Mayor of Miami Beach Alex Daoud (D) convicted of bribery. (1991)

## Georgia

- State Senator Ralph David Abernathy III (D) convicted of fraud. (1997)

## Guam

- Governor of Guam Ricardo Bordallo (D) was convicted on ten counts of corruption and was sentenced to nine years in prison and fined more than $100,000, but committed suicide the day before he was scheduled to begin serving his prison sentence (1990)

## Illinois

- State Senator Bruce A. Farley (D) sentenced to 18 months in prison for mail fraud (1999)

- State Senator John A. D'Arco, Jr. (D) served about three years in prison for bribery and extortion (1995)

- State Representative James DeLeo (D) caught in the "Operation Greylord" investigation of corruption in Cook County. He was indicted by a federal grand jury for taking bribes and negotiated guilty plea on a misdemeanor tax offense, and was placed on probation (1992)

- State Representative Joe Kotlarz (D) convicted and sentenced to jail for theft and conspiracy for pocketing in about $200,000 for a sale of state land to a company he once served as legal counsel (1997)

- State Treasurer Jerome Cosentino (D) was convicted of bank fraud and sentenced to nine months' home confinement. (1991)

### Local

- Mayor of Markham, Illinois, Roger Agpawa (D) was convicted of mail fraud (1999)

- Alderman of Chicago Percy Giles (D) convicted of bribery. (1999)

- Alderman of Chicago Virgil Jones (D) convicted of bribery. (1998)

- Alderman of Chicago Lawrence Bloom (D) convicted of fraud. (1998)

- Alderman of Chicago John Madryzk (D) convicted of fraud. (1998)

- Alderman of Chicago Jesse Evans (D) convicted of racketeering. (1997)

- Alderman of Chicago Joseph Martinez (D) convicted of fraud. (1997)

- Alderman of Chicago Alan Streeter (D) convicted of bribery. (1996)

- Alderman of Chicago Ambrosio Medrano (D) convicted of bribery. (1996)

- Alderman of Chicago Fred Roti (D) convicted of bribery. (1996)

- Mayor of Chicago Heights Charles Panici (R) guilty of racketeering, bribery and extortion. Sentenced to 10 years. (1992)

## Hawaii

- State Representative Daniel J. Kihano (D) was sentenced to one year for one count of mail fraud. (1992)

## Kentucky

- FBI Operation Boptrot was an investigation into bribery and the horse racing industry. Approximately 10% of Kentucky's legislature, both the house and senate, was implicated in this scandal, some taking bribes for as little as $100. (1992) Legislators convicted as a result of Operation Boptrot included:

- House Speaker Don Blandford (D) pleaded guilty after 1992 indictment on charges of extortion, racketeering and lying. He was sentenced to 64 months in prison and was fined $10,000.

- State Representative Jerry Bronger (D) was indicted in 1992 and later pleaded guilty to charges that he accepted $2,000 in exchange for blocking legislation that would hurt harness race tracks. He was sentenced to 10 months in prison.

- State Representative Clay Crupper (D) pleaded guilty after 1992 indictment and was fined $10,000 on charges of interstate travel in aide of racketeering.

- State Senator Helen Garrett (D) was charged in 1992 with taking a $2,000 bribe from a track in exchange for helping pass legislation. She pleaded guilty and received four years' probation.

- State Senator John Hall (D) pleaded guilty to conspiracy and other charges stemming from 1992 indictment in Operation BopTrot.

- State Representative Ronny Layman (R) was indicted in 1992 on charges of conspiracy to commit extortion and making false statements to the FBI. He pleaded guilty and was sentenced to three months of home detention and community service.

- State Senator David LeMaster (D) was indicted in 1993, and acquitted of extortion and racketeering, but convicted of lying. He was sentenced to a year in prison and fined $30,000, but served just one day after resigning from the legislature.

- State Representative Bill McBee (D) was sentenced to a 15-month prison term for his role in Operation BopTrot.

- State Senator Virgil Pearman (D) pleaded guilty after 1993 indictment charging that he took an illegal $3,000 campaign contribution. He was sentenced to three months in a halfway house, probation and was fined $5,000.

- State Senator John Rogers (R), then the Minority Leader in the Kentucky Senate, was sentenced in 1994 to 42 months in prison after conviction on charges of extortion, conspiracy, attempted extortion, mail fraud and lying to the FBI.

- State Senator Art Schmidt (R) pleaded guilty to a 1993 indictment for withholding the fact that he took a $20 cash payment from another senator tied to Operation BopTrot. He was sentenced to probation and fined $2,500.

- State Senator Landon Sexton (R) pleaded guilty after 1994 indictment charging that he took an illegal $5,000 cash campaign contribution. He was sentenced to 15 consecutive weekends in jail, home detention for two months and probation for two years. In addition he was fined $5,000.

- State Representative Bill Strong (D) pleaded guilty after 1993 indictment charges that he took an illegal $3,000 campaign contribution and did not deposit the money into his campaign fund. He was sentenced to three months in a halfway house, probation and was fined $3,000.

- State Representative Richard Turner (R) pleaded guilty to a 1993 charge that he filed a false campaign finance report. Charges that he took an illegal $3,000 cash campaign contribution were dropped.

- State Senator Patti Weaver (D) pleaded guilty after 1993 indictment charging that she was promised help finding a job in exchange for support of legislation. She was sentenced to weekend incarceration, probation and community service and was fined $10,000.

## Louisiana

- State Senator Melvin Irvin (D) convicted of bribery. (1991)

- Insurance Commissioner Doug Green (D) convicted of fraud and money laundering. (1991)

## Massachusetts

- State Representative Charles Flaherty (D) pleaded guilty to felony tax evasion for submitting false receipts regarding his business expenses and to violations of the state conflict of interests law. (1996)

## Local

- Middlesex County Sheriff John P. McGonigle (D) was convicted of tax evasion and pleaded guilty to conspiracy to commit racketeering for demanding kickbacks from two of his deputies. (1994)

- Essex County Sheriff Charles Reardon (D) pleaded guilty to taking kickbacks from process servers. (1996)

## Minnesota

- State Representative Robert Johnson (R) was convicted of three drunk driving arrests in a seven-week period. He was sentenced to a year in prison. (1995)

- State Representative Randy Staten (DFL) pled guilty to writing bad checks and was given a suspended sentence of 90 days, then probation. (1986)

- State Senator Harold Finn (DFL) was found guilty of stealing $1K from the Leech Lake Band of Chippewa. Sentenced to five years. (1995)

## Missouri

- Secretary of State Judith Moriarty (D) was impeached for misconduct involving back-dating of her son's election paperwork to hide a missed filing deadline, and convicted by the state supreme court.

- Speaker of the Missouri House of Representatives Bob F. Griffin (D), Griffin pleaded guilty on the second day of the second trial, to two counts of bribery and mail fraud in conjunction with the original highway scheme. He was sentenced to 48 months in prison, a $7,500 fine, and a $100 special penalty assessment. (1995)

- Missouri Attorney General William L. Webster (R) pleaded guilty to embezzlement charges and was sentenced to two years in prison. (1993)

## Nebraska

- State Treasurer Frank Marsh (R) was convicted of misdemeanor charges for making personal, long-distance telephone calls. (1991)

## New York

- Chief Judge of the New York Court of Appeals Sol Wachtler (R), was investigated for extortion and harassment. He pleaded guilty to one charge of threatening to kidnap a teenage girl and served 15 months. (1993)

- State Senator Andrew Jenkins (D) was convicted of illegal banking, sentenced to one year and one day. (1990)

## North Carolina

- Lieutenant Governor of North Carolina James C. Green (D), was convicted of income tax fraud and was sentenced to 33 months of house arrest. (1997)

## Ohio

- State Senator Jeff Johnson (D), was convicted of three counts of extortion. (1990)

## Oklahoma

- Governor of Oklahoma David Lee Walters (D) pleaded guilty to a misdemeanor election law violation. (1993)

## Pennsylvania

- State Representative Frank Serafini (R), was convicted of perjury (1999)

- Supreme Court Justice Rolf Larsen (D) convicted of conspiracy. (1992)

- Attorney General Ernie Preate (R) pleaded guilty to mail fraud. (1995)

- State Senator William G. Stinson (D) was found guilty of voter fraud and his election was reversed. (1994)

- State Senator William Lee Slocum, Jr. (R) pleaded guilty to federal charges of violating the Clean Water Act between 1983 and 1995, when he operated the Youngsville Sewage Treatment Plant and allowed repeated pollution discharges of raw sewage. Sentenced to one month in jail, five months of home detention, and fined $15,000.

- State Senator Dan S. Delp (R), pleaded guilty to buying a 19-year-old prostitute liquor and food using state money (1998)

## Rhode Island

- Governor of Rhode Island Edward Daniel DiPrete (R) pleaded guilty to bribery and racketeering charges and served one year in prison. (1998)

## South Carolina

- State Representative Paul Wayne Derrick (R) was convicted of accepting $1,000 in cash for his support of a gambling proposal being investigated in the FBI Operation, Lost Trust. (1991)

- State Representative Rick Lee (R) pleaded guilty to violating the Hobbs Act during the FBI Operation, Lost Trust. (1990)

- State Representative Daniel E. Winstead (R) from Charleston, pled guilty to accepting bribes. (1990)

- State Senator Robert Albert Kohn (R) State Senator from Charleston, pleaded guilty to conspiracy and bribery, and served seven months in prison.

## Texas

- Attorney General of Texas Dan Morales (D) pleaded guilty to mail fraud and tax evasion in relation to a $17 million tobacco industry settlement with the State of Texas in 1998. He was sentenced to four years in a federal prison for mail fraud and tax evasion in a case involving Texas' $17 billion settlement with the tobacco industry in 1998. He was released in 2007.

- State Senator Drew Nixon (R) was arrested on a charge of soliciting sex from an undercover Austin police officer which led to another charge of carrying an unlicensed, loaded gun for which he did not have a proper permit. The jury recommended probation on the prostitution charge, but jail time on the weapons charge. He was sentenced to six months in prison and fined $6,000. (1997)

## Vermont

- Lieutenant Governor of Vermont Brian D. Burns (D), was convicted of three counts of fraud for having claimed to be working full-time for a public policy association while he also claimed to be attending Harvard University full-time. He appealed but his conviction was affirmed. (1995)

## Virginia

- State Senator Robert E. Russell Sr. (R) was convicted of embezzling $6,750 from a nonprofit cycling club. (1995)

## West Virginia

- Governor of West Virginia Arch A. Moore Jr (R) guilty of mail fraud, tax fraud, extortion and obstruction of justice. (1990)

## District of Columbia

- Mayor of the District of Columbia Marion Barry (D) caught on videotape using drugs in an FBI sting (1990)