2022 in Guatemala

# 2022 in Guatemala

## Abstract

The following lists events in the year 2022 in Guatemala.

## Incumbents

- President: Alejandro Eduardo Giammattei Falla (since 2020)

- Vice-President: César Guillermo Castillo Reyes (since 2020)

## Events

Ongoing – COVID-19 pandemic in Guatemala

- July 9 – Guatemala puts 66 of its municipalities on alert due to a sharp increase in the number of COVID-19 cases.

- July 30 – One person is wounded in an assassination attempt on President of Guatemala Alejandro Giammattei. The president is unharmed.

## Sports

- August 2021 - May 2022: 2021–22 Liga Nacional de Guatemala

- July 2022 - May 2023: 2022–23 Liga Nacional de Guatemala

## Deaths

- January 6 – Rómulo Méndez, 83, football referee

- February 17 – Gerardo Humberto Flores Reyes, 96, Roman Catholic prelate, bishop of Verapaz (1971–2001)

- February 24 – Roberto Carpio, 91, politician, vice president (1986–1991)

- March 14 – José Ramiro Pellecer Samayoa, 92, Roman Catholic prelate, auxiliary bishop of Guatemala (1967–2010)


San Diego Gas & Electric

# San Diego Gas & Electric

## Abstract

San Diego Gas & Electric (SDGE or SDG&E) is a regulated public utility that provides natural gas and electricity to San Diego County and southern Orange County in southwestern California, United States. It is owned by Sempra, a Fortune 500 energy services holding company based in San Diego.

SDGE provides energy service to 3.3 million consumers through 1.4 million electric meters and more than 840,000 natural gas meters. The utility's area spans 4,100 square miles (10,600 square kilometers). SDGE employs about 5,000 people.

## Generation portfolio

In 2004, the California Public Utilities Commission approved SDGE's long-term energy resource plan, which relies on a balanced mix of resources to meet the growing energy needs of San Diego. That mix includes increased emphasis on energy efficiency, more renewable energy resources, and additional baseload generation plants and transmission capacity. In 2014 SDGE had a renewables mix of 36.4%, more than the 33% requirement by 2020. By 2016, 43.2% of SDGE's electrical power sources were renewable. In 2016 SDGE

SDGE's system includes 134 distribution substations, 10,558 miles of underground power systems, and 6,527 miles of overhead power systems.

### Power plants

- Palomar Energy Center (“PEC”)

- Desert Star Energy Center (“DSEC”)

- Miramar Energy Facility (“MEF”)

- Cuyamaca Peak Energy Plant (“CPEP”)

- Escondido Battery Energy Storage System (“Escondido BESS”)

- El Cajon Battery Energy Storage System (“El Cajon BESS”)

- Ramona Solar Energy Project (“RSEP”)

## Interconnections

SDGE has two 230 kV lines (Miguel-Tijuana line and the LaRosita-Imperial Valley Line) that connect the Californian transmission system with the Mexican Comisión Federal de Electricidad transmission system in Baja California. The Path 45 transmission corridor, spanning over the United States-Mexico border, has a capacity of 408 Megawatts. SDGE has a 500 kV line connecting to Arizona Public Service. There is also a 230 kV line connecting to Imperial Irrigation District. Both of these are part of the massive Path 46 transmission system ensuring Southern California has adequate energy.

The Sunrise Powerlink includes approximately 117 miles (188 km) of 500-kV and 230-kV overhead and underground transmission lines with several large 230/500-kV substations. The transmission line linking San Diego to Imperial Valley, one of the most renewable-rich regions in California was put into service on June 18, 2012. Solar energy from Southern California's Imperial Valley will ultimately be delivered to San Diego through the Sunrise Powerlink transmission lines.

## History

### Founding

In 1881, power first came to the city of San Diego in the form of gas-lit street lamps. The San Diego Gas Company, a newly formed partnership of eight local businessmen, supplied the gas for the lamps, which were located on Fifth Street in downtown.

The city's first incandescent lighting was provided by a small plant at India and Kalmia Streets. It was installed in 1888 to power the city's first electric streetcar, built that year by the Electric Rapid Transit Street Car Company.

Henry H. Jones, a civil, construction, and electrical engineer, came to San Diego in 1910 as vice president and manager of the San Diego Consolidated Gas & Electric Company and became president shortly thereafter.

Henry Harrison Jones was born in Reading, Pennsylvania, March 31, 1874, son of Richard Hall and Ellen (Hughes) Jones. After graduating from high school in 1890 he was a bookkeeper at the Second National Bank, then entered Lehigh University to pursue a technical course. He graduated as a Civil Engineer in 1897, then for a year was a draftsman and assistant engineer for the Chicago, Peoria, and St. Louis Railroad Company in Springfield, Illinois, then a member of the general engineering staff of the Pennsylvania Railroad at Philadelphia until 1899, when he again went west. Until 1903 he was in Chicago as an assistant engineer of the Chicago & Northwestern Railroad. For seventeen years his work was chiefly confined to traction and electric power engineering. He was general superintendent for the Springfield Railway & Light Company at Springfield, Illinois, until 1909, and before coming to San Diego was the manager of the Northern Idaho & Montana Power Company. In 1905, the San Diego Gas and Electric Light Company was struggling to meet the demand for its services. The company was sold that year to a Chicago firm H.M. Byllesby & Company and renamed the San Diego Consolidated Gas and Electric Company. Included in the deal were the company's main assets: an electric generating plant with four steam-driven turbines, a gas treatment plant, thirty miles of electric lines, thirty-four miles of gas mains, and the accounts of exactly 3426 customers. Henry H. Jones, a civil, construction, and electrical engineer, came to San Diego in 1910 as vice president and manager of the San Diego Consolidated Gas & Electric Company and became president shortly thereafter.

By 1920 the company furnished gas and electric service to San Diego city and forty adjacent towns and districts as far north as San Juan Capistrano in Orange County, and south to the Mexican border. When Jones took the management of the company in 1910 it had less than six thousand electric customers and less than nine thousand gas customers, while the number of customers in each branch in 1920 numbered nearly twenty-seven thousand. The quantity measure of service increased in proportion, necessitating the investment of millions of dollars in new equipment and distribution systems. In 1920 the company had five hundred and thirty miles of gas main and over seven hundred miles of electric poll lines.

Mr. Jones served as a director and member of the executive committee during the Panama-California Exposition (1915), whose group was responsible for designing, creating, and building the first, original structures and buildings in Balboa Park, San Diego, California.

### Later history

In 1940, to comply with federal law, the company ended corporate ownership, made its stock available to the public, and renamed itself San Diego Gas and Electric Company.

SDGE began construction on the South Bay power plant in 1958, and the first of four oil fuel-burning units came online in 1960. The plant provided much-needed electricity to help the region expand and grow its economy.

SDGE began research into nuclear power in the late 1950s. In 1961, it agreed to participate in a 350,000-kilowatt nuclear power plant with Southern California Edison known as San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station (SONGS). SDG&E owned 20% of the plant, located in San Onofre, California; SoCal Edison owned 80%. The plant became operational in 1967.

In the 1970s, SDG&E acquired Mountain Empire Rural Electric Co-op, which served eastern San Diego County.

In 1976, after purchasing the necessary land the previous year, San Diego Gas & Electric Company filed an application with the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission to build two 974 MWe Westinghouse pressurized water reactors under the name Sundesert Nuclear Power Plant. The plant was to be located about 15 miles southwest of Blythe, California, near the Arizona border. The plant received a lot of pushback and opposition from California legislators, and the general public had mixed reactions to it. In June 1976, Californians voted to reject Proposition 15, the Nuclear Power Plant Initiative. The ballot measure would have banned the construction of nuclear power plants and limited the use of existing nuclear power plants to 60% (decreasing by 10% annually after five years) and would have reduced the output of California's three existing nuclear reactors and banned new reactors unless the state legislature determined that nuclear safety systems had proven effective and that radioactive waste could be stored safely. But coverage of the failed state measure and opposition to a separate nuclear power plant in Kern County, California, grew the anti-nuclear discorse. SDGE, which would have built the Sundesert plant, failed to convince the State Assembly Resources Committee that adequate disposal technology was available. Governor Edmund G. Brown Jr. was largely responsible for Sundesert's defeat. The California State Energy Commission, appointed by the governor, voted 4–1 against the plant. After the state Senate passed a bill exempting the plant from having to dispose of its waste, Brown's allies in the Assembly leadership sent the measure to a committee, where the bill faced an uphill battle. The bill was defeated by a vote of 4 to 7, with three Republicans and one Democrat in favor of the measure and seven Democrats opposed. Sundesert had consumed an enormous amount of the company's effort for six years and a total of more than $106 million.

The South Bay Power Plant was built in 1958. It changed ownership at least four times over the past five decades, including Duke Energy, The Unified Port of San Diego, and LS Power. During its operation, it began burning natural gas instead of fuel oil. At one point, it would generate up to 700 megawatts - enough to power 500,000 homes in Southern California. In 1988, the Port began fighting to decommission and dismantle the plant so that the 13-acre site on which it was built could be put to better use. Eventually, the plant was decommissioned in 2010, but the California Independent System Operator (CAL ISO) had said that two units at the South Bay plant were needed in 2011 to ensure the reliability of the electricity supply, so demolition did not occur until 2012.

## Controversies

### United States v. San Diego Gas & Electric

The Encanto Gas Holder was a natural gas holding station composed of over 9 miles (14 km) of underground 30-inch (760 mm) pipe on about 16 acres (65,000 m) of land in Lemon Grove, adjacent to the city of San Diego. First brought online in the mid-1950s, the Encanto Gas Holder was decommissioned in 2000–2001 by San Diego Gas and Electric, Sempra as the agent of SDGE, and the IT Corporation as the main contractor for the decommissioning. TriState was brought on board to abate strips of asbestos-containing pipe coating for another contractor to cut the holder bottle into 40-foot (12 m) sections. TriState was later tasked with stripping the coating at the gas holder site despite employee and nearby residents' concerns over friable asbestos generated as a byproduct of the gross stripping processes employed by SDGE contractors.

In 2006, SDGE was indicted by U.S. Attorney Carol C. Lam in the Southern District of California on five counts, including conspiracy, fraud, and three counts of mishandling regulated asbestos-containing materials in violation of the National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants. Additional defendants included SDGE's director of environmental compliance, an uncertified asbestos removal consultant, and the IT Corporation project manager. Charges were dismissed without prejudice in November 2006, but the defendants were re-indicted in early 2007 on nearly identical charges, and the case was heard in San Diego's federal court in June and July 2007. On July 13, 2007, three guilty verdicts were returned against defendants SDGE, IT Corporation project manager Kyle Rhuebottom, and SDGE environmental specialist David "Willie" Williamson, including false statements, failure to provide adequate notice to government agencies of regulated asbestos on the site, and violating asbestos work practice standards to avoid the cost of lawful environmental compliance. SDGE environmental director Jacquelyn McHugh was found not guilty, and defense attorneys vowed to appeal for unjust prosecution.

In late 2007 U.S. District Judge Dana Sabraw ruled that SDGE and the workers deserved a new trial. Criminal charges were dismissed against SDGE on October 6, 2009.

### 2008 marine helicopter crash lawsuit

On September 3, 2008, a jury awarded $55.6 million to the families of four United States Marine aviators killed when their UH-1 helicopter crashed into a 130-foot-tall SDGE utility tower at Camp Pendleton. The amount awarded included $15.2 million in compensatory damages and $40.4 million in punitive damages. The jury held SDGE responsible for $9.48 million of the compensation amount and all of the punitive damages.

During the trial, the plaintiffs argued that SDGE was negligent in its policy of placing warning lights only on towers over 200 feet (61 m) in height. The company said the power line had been on the base for 25 years and that SDGE would have installed lights if the Marine Corps had asked. Since the crash, the company has installed lights, said Todd Macaluso, the lawyer for the families. SDGE said that it would appeal the judgment.

### 2011 county-wide power outage

On September 8, 2011, at 3:38 PM Pacific Standard Time, a major power outage left all 1.4 million SDGE customers without power. The problems started with a fault in an Arizona Public Service substation near Yuma, Arizona that caused widespread problems in western Arizona and eastern California. In time, SDGE's system was drawing from the San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station (SONGS) considerably more power than was being produced, pulling it from Los Angeles, and a "safety net" system cut it off from the nuclear plant. Once this happened, SDGE's system rapidly collapsed due to a mismatch of generation and load, unable to drop load faster than generation was lost. SDGE implemented its system restoration plan and cautioned its customers to expect a prolonged outage. The outage appears to have been caused by the actions of an employee at APS 's North Gila substation in Arizona, and it is unknown why safeguards did not keep the outage limited to the Yuma area.

By Friday morning on the 9th, power had been restored to all 1.4 million SDGE customers.

### 2020 Emmanuel Cafferty firing

In the wake of the 2020 George Floyd protests and the subsequent attention brought onto topics related to racism and white supremacy, SDGE became the center of national controversy when it fired one of its employees, Emmanuel Cafferty (A Mexican-American), for allegedly displaying the OK gesture, a sign that had recently become associated with the alt-right and white power movement. Cafferty claimed that he was unaware of the connotations of the sign he was displaying. The story of Cafferty's termination was covered by national news publications and periodicals, and while SDGE has remained silent on the matter, it has faced scrutiny over the termination. Cafferty later filed a defamation lawsuit against his former employer.

### Rates

SDGE has implemented some of the highest rates for electricity in the United States. In 2023–2024 at about 41 cents per kilowatt-hour At the same time SDGE increased rates for customers San Diego Gas & Electric made more than $936 million in profit during 2023, up $21 million from the $915 million the company made in 2022. Sempra, the parent company of SDGE, announced in February 2024 that the company earned about $1.75 billion of its 2023 profits from its California subsidiaries (which include both SDGE and SoCalGas). SDGE alone earned a record $936 million.


2018 in Guatemala

# 2018 in Guatemala

## Abstract

The following lists events in the year 2018 in Guatemala.

## Incumbents

- President: Jimmy Morales

- Vice-President: Jafeth Cabrera

## Events

### January

- 14 January – President Morales presents his second government report and begins his second term in government amid corruption allegations and protests with Álvaro Arzú Escobar taking office as President of the Congress, despite also being accused of corruption.

- 23 January – President Morales dismisses allegations of embezzlement after questions relating to his spending on high cost luxury items.

- 26 January – Williams Mansilla, former Defense Minister, is arrested for possible corruption in collusion with President Morales with the Attorney General requesting another Supreme Court consideration to impeach Morales.

### February

- 13 February – Former President Alvaro Colom and his entire cabinet were arrested for alleged involved in corruption cases being investigated by the CICIG and detained at the Mariscal Zavala Military Center.

### April

- 1 April – Former President Efrain Rios Montt dies ending the trials of genocide against him.

- 15 April – Guatemalan territorial dispute referendum, 2018, on whether the Guatemalan government should request the International Court of Justice to finally resolve the Belizean–Guatemalan territorial dispute.

### June

- 3 June – Volcán de Fuego Eruption up in air, 38 people dies, 100 injured report, last time bigger Eruption since 1974.

## Deaths

- 18 February – Elmar Rojas, artist (born 1941).

- 24 February – Óscar Julio Vian Morales, Roman Catholic prelate (born 1947)

- 31 March – Margarita Carrera, philosopher, professor and writer (born 1929)

- 1 April – Efraín Ríos Montt, military officer, President (1982–1983) (born 1926).

- 27 April – Álvaro Arzú, politician, President (1996–2000) (born 1946).

- 25 December – Felipe Gomez Alonzo, 8, Guatemalan refugee who died while in the custody of U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement in El Paso, Texas; influenza


Ya'akov Meshorer

# Ya'akov Meshorer

## Abstract

Professor Ya'akov Meshorer (August 14, 1935 – June 23, 2004) was the Chief Curator for archaeology at the Israel Museum in Jerusalem and a prominent Israeli numismatist.

## Early life

Known to colleagues and friends as 'Yankele', Meshorer was born in Jerusalem in 1935 into the prominent Mani family, who had lived in the area for centuries. He and his twin brother Asher used to find ancient coins as they played around the city, which was in the process of being built up. The 14-year-old twins donated the coins they had found to the Israel Department of Antiquities in 1949. He joined the Israel Defense Forces in 1954. After completing his army service in 1956 he became a member of Kibbutz Hazerim, where he married Adaya Weiss in 1956. Meshorer established a museum on the kibbutz before moving to Jerusalem in 1960, where he was a student at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem from 1960 to 1966, receiving a BA in archaeology and Jewish history and an MA in classical archaeology. He received his Ph.D in numismatics in 1971 from the Hebrew University. Meshorer served as a reservist in the Jerusalem Reconnaissance Company and in 1967 was slightly wounded in the Six-Day War. He later served as an officer in the UN liaison unit.

## Academic career

Meshorer was appointed Professor of Numismatics at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 1983. He established the Numismatic Division at the Israel Museum in Jerusalem in 1969, remaining at its head until 1993. He also served as the university's Chief Curator for Archaeology from 1975 to 1982 and from 1990 to 1996. He retired from the Israel Museum in 2000.

Meshorer was a member of the Archaeological Council of the Israel Antiquities Authority and supervised the establishment of two museums devoted to Biblical Archaeology, the museum of the Cleveland Jewish Community Center in 1976, and The Hecht Museum at the University of Haifa in 1984. He was also a member of the Directorate of the Israel Society for Medals and Coins, serving on the committees that chose the design of the modern Israeli coins. He was instrumental in the decision to base the design of many of the modern coins on ancient Jewish coinage, in this way linking past and present in the State of Israel.

He published 19 books and more than 100 articles, almost all of them dealing with the coins of the Holy Land.

## Honors and awards

Meshorer was invited to lecture and research at several major institutions, including the American Numismatic Society in New York City, Duke University, the British Museum, the Jewish Theological Seminary in New York, and the Bibliothèque nationale de France in Paris. Among the honors Meshorer received were the Huntington Medal of the American Numismatic Society in 2001, and in 2002 he was awarded the Irene Levi-sala Book Prize in Archaeology of Israel for his book ‘A Treasury of Jewish Coins From the Persian Period to Bar-Kochba’. He was elected an honorary member of the Council International Numismatic Commission at the opening of the 13th International Numismatic Congress of Madrid in 2003.

In 2002 a prize, the Ya'akov Meshorer Numismatic Prize, was established in memory of Meshorer at the Israel Museum; its first recipient was Dr. Andrew Burnett in 2002, and the second Michel Amandry in 2006.

Meshorer died in Jerusalem aged 69 after a six-year battle against cancer.

## Publications

- ‘A Treasury of Jewish Coins From the Persian Period to Bar-Kochba’, Yad Ben-Zvi Press, Jerusalem (2001)

- 'Coins of the Ancient World (Lerner Archaeology Series: Digging Up the Past)' Lerner Publishing Group (1980) ISBN 0-8225-0835-4

- 'A Treasury of Jewish Coins' Amphora Books (2001) ISBN 0-9654029-1-6

- 'Palestine-South Arabia (American Numismatic Society: Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum)' American Numismatic Society (1981) ISBN 0-89722-187-7

- 'City-Coins of Eretz-Israel and the Decapolis in the Roman Period' The Israel Museum, Jerusalem (1985) ISBN 965-278-036-7

- 'Coins of the Holy Land' American Numismatic Society (2006) ISBN 0-89722-283-0

- 'Jewish Coins of the Second Temple Period' Am Hassefer and Massada, Tel Aviv, (1967)

- 'Ancient Jewish Coinage Volume I: Persian Period Through Hasmonaeans' Amphora Books (1982) ASIN: B000MMINWI

- 'Ancient Jewish Coinage Volume II: Herod the Great Through Bar Cochba' Amphora Books (1982)

- 'TestiMoney' Amphora Books (2001) ISBN 965-278-256-4

- 'The Coinage of Aelia Capitolina' Israel Museum (1989) ISBN 965-278-076-6

- Ya'akov Meshorer and Shraga Qedar 'The Coinage of Samaria in the Fourth Century BCE' Numismatics Fine Arts International (1991)


# List of 2024 box office number-one films in the United States

## Abstract

This is a list of films that ranked number one at the weekend box office for the year 2024.


MP Materials

# MP Materials

## Abstract

MP Materials Corp. is an American rare-earth materials company headquartered in Las Vegas, Nevada. MP Materials owns and operates the Mountain Pass mine, the only operating rare earth mine and processing facility in the United States. The rare earth materials industry is dominated by China, which produces 60% of the world's rare earth elements and processes 90% of these materials, including imports from other countries. MP Materials focuses its production on Neodymium - Praseodymium (NdPr), a rare earth material used in high-strength permanent magnets that power the traction motors found in electric vehicles, robotics, wind turbines, drones and other advanced motion technologies. MP Materials is listed on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker symbol "MP". As of December 2021, JHL Capital Group, QVT Financial and CEO James Litinsky were the company's three largest shareholders, with about 7.7% of the company owned by Shenghe Resources, a Chinese rare earth business located in Sichuan.

## History

In 2015, Molycorp, the previous owners of the Mountain Pass mine, filed for bankruptcy. At the time, it was the only U.S. producer of rare earth elements. While in bankruptcy, Secure Natural Resources (SNR), a company owned by Molycorp's creditors, including JHL Capital Group, gained control of the mine's mineral rights. In June 2017, the Mountain Pass mine was purchased at auction for $20.5 million by a new entity called MP Mine Operations LLC (MPMO). MPMO was a consortium formed principally by JHL Capital Group, a Chicago-based investment firm led by James Litinsky, along with QVT Financial LP and Shenghe Resources. Shenghe, a Sichuan China rare earth company, held a minority, non-voting interest. At the time, Mountain Pass was in a state of "care and maintenance" and had only eight employees according to Litinsky.

Following the asset acquisitions and formation of the entities that became MP Materials, the company restarted operations at Mountain Pass. On July 15, 2020, the company announced a reverse takeover whereby MPMO and SNR would be merged with Fortress Value Acquisition Corporation to become a public company under the name MP Materials Corp. The transaction, which closed on November 17, 2020, raised $545 million. On November 18, 2020, MP Materials began trading on the New York Stock Exchange under the symbol "MP".

In December 2021, MP Materials signed a long-term agreement with General Motors to provide neodymium-iron-boron magnets for use in GM's electric vehicle motors. As part of the contract, MP Materials also agreed to provide alloy and finished magnets to GM for its electric vehicles and to open a new factory located in Fort Worth, Texas to produce the magnets.

As of December 2021, JHL Capital Group, QVT Financial, and CEO James Litinsky were the company's three largest shareholders, and about 7.7% of the company was owned by Shenghe Resources, a Chinese company. Apart from institutions, other investors own 18%.

MP Materials and Australia's Lynas held a confidential discussion regarding a potential merger which fell through on February 5, 2024. Lynas is the second largest rare earth material company outside of China.

As of 2024, CEO James Litinsky was the company's largest shareholder. Other large shareholders include Vanguard, Shenghe Resources, BlackRock and Hancock Prospecting.

In April 2024, Hancock Prospecting, an Australian mining firm owned by Gina Rinehart, disclosed a 5.3% stake in MP Materials, comprising 8.8 million shares, and a 5.8% stake in Lynas.

### Mountain Pass mine

Discovered in 1949 in San Bernardino County, California, Mountain Pass mine consists of a bastnäsite ore-body with significant concentrations of rare earth elements. The mine once supplied most of the world's rare earth elements. Mountain Pass is the only operational rare earth mining and processing facility in the United States. The expected Mountain Pass mine life is approximately 24 years.

MP Materials produced 28,000 tonnes of rare-earth oxide equivalent from Mountain Pass in 2019, and 38,500 tonnes in 2020, or more than 15% of global production. As of late 2020, Shenghe Resources was the sole purchaser of MP Material's rare earth concentrate.

As of 2023, MP Materials had a three-stage plan for scaling its operations:

- Stage I: Production of rare earth concentrate

- Stage II: Production of separated and refined rare earths

- Stage III: Production of rare earth metals, alloys, and permanent magnets

As of 2024, the company had completed stage I and had begun working on stage II. MP Materials signed a supply chain agreement with Japanese trading house Sumitomo Corporation in 2023.

## U.S. government contracts

In July 2020, the United States Department of Defense issued a preliminary contract to MP Materials intended to restore domestic heavy rare earth production and separation capabilities to the United States. In November 2020, the United States Department of Defense awarded MP Materials $9.6 million as part of a government effort to increase domestic production of rare earth materials.

On September 30, 2020, President Donald Trump issued an executive order targeting China's dominance of rare earth materials. In the executive order, he expressed concern for the heavy reliance of the US on China for 80 percent of rare earth materials. He reiterated the importance of producing and refining rare earth in the US and discussed various tariffs and government grants to rare earth material companies such as MP Materials.

In 2021, MP Materials received $3 million in funding from the United States Department of Energy to design and study the feasibility of a system to produce rare earth oxides and metals from coal by-products in collaboration with the University of Kentucky.

In February 2022, U.S. President Joe Biden announced at a press conference that the United States Department of Defense was investing $35 million into MP Materials as part of an effort to spur domestic rare earth production in the United States. Biden said that this move was designed to reduce America's reliance on rare earth minerals imported from other countries. The Biden administration said the federal funding is earmarked to assist the company to develop a new commercial facility for “heavy” rare earth mineral processing.

On May 24, 2024, the Biden Administration announced a 25 percent tariff on rare earth magnets from China, set to take effect in 2026. This marks the first time that critical minerals, including rare earth magnets, have been specifically included in the tariffs. Following the tariffs MP Materials put out a statement listing the tariffs. After the announcement, CEO James Litinsky attended an event with Biden at the White House.


Women's Emancipation Union

# Women's Emancipation Union

## Abstract

The Women's Emancipation Union was founded by Elizabeth Clarke Wolstenholme Elmy in September 1891, following an infamous court case. Regina v Jackson, known colloquially as the Clitheroe Judgement, occurred when Edmund Jackson abducted his wife in a bid to enforce his conjugal rights, long before the concept of marital rape existed. The court of appeal freed Mrs Jackson under habeas corpus. Recognising the significance of this judgement in relation to coverture, the principle that a wife's legal personhood was subsumed in that of her husband, Wolstenholme left the Women's Franchise League to form this new women's campaigning group.

The group was funded by subscriptions and benefactor Mrs Russell Carpenter. It had a four point agenda:

- Equality of right and duty with men in all matters affecting the service of community and the state

- Equality of opportunity for self-development by the education of the schools and of life

- Equality in industry by equal freedom of choice of career

- Equality in marriage and in parental rights.

The WEU had an executive council, annual conference, ten local organisers in cities from Glasgow to Bristol and an international subscription list of over 7,000. The mixed sex members were an eclectic mix the main requirement of membership being that they were active in political life. Well known members included Charlotte Carmichael Stopes, Harriot Stanton Blatch Florence Dixie, Mona Caird and George Holyoake. A Parliamentary Sub Committee was formed in 1893.

The Women's Emancipation Union pioneered cross class collaborations, encouraged women's resistance to authority as long as their right to vote remained unacknowledged and advocated making Women's Suffrage a test question in the selection of potential parliamentary candidates.

Isabella Ford worked on behalf of the WEU at outdoor rallies in the East End of London in 1895. Working-class women were invited to give papers concerning their working life and conditions at the annual conferences.

Following the Local Government Act 1894, the WEU worked to get as many women to use their local government franchise and stand for election. Over 100 WEU organisers were elected as Poor Law Guardians or Parish Councillors.

Following the loss of Ferdinand Begg 1897 Suffrage Bill, subscriptions halved and the death of the Union's benefactor caused the demise of this group. The final meeting was in 1899, and speakers included Harriot Stanton Blatch and Charlotte Perkins Gilman.

## Publications

The WEU published the first sex education manuals for adults to teach children and teenagers, The Human Flower and Baby Buds.

- Ellis Ethelmer Woman Free 1893

- William Henry Wilkins The Voice of the Voteless Toiler 1893

- Ellis Ethelmer The Human Flower 1894

- Ellis Ethelmer Baby Buds 1895

- Ellis Ethelmer Life to Woman 1896

- Ellis Ethelmer Phases of Love: As it Is As it may Be 1897

The pseudonym "Ellis Ethelmer" is often wrongly attributed to Elizabeth Clarke Wolstenholme Elmy but it is in fact the pseudonym of her husband Benjamin Elmy.


Churchyard

# Churchyard

## Abstract

In Christian countries a churchyard is a patch of land adjoining or surrounding a church, which is usually owned by the relevant church or local parish itself. In the Scots language and in both Scottish English and Ulster Scots, this can also be known as a kirkyard.

While churchyards can be any patch of land on church grounds, historically, they were often used as graveyards (burial places).

## Use of churchyards as a place of burial

After the establishment of the parish as the centre of the Christian spiritual life, the possession of a cemetery, as well as the baptismal font, was a mark of parochial status. During the Middle Ages, religious orders also constructed cemeteries around their churches. Thus, the most common use of churchyards was as a consecrated burial ground known as a graveyard. Graveyards were usually established at the same time as the building of the relevant place of worship (which can date back to the 6th to 14th centuries) and were often used by those families who could not afford to be buried inside or beneath the place of worship itself. However, many churchyards in Northwestern France and in the UK may predate the establishment of the Christian church there today. For example, existence of the Fortingall Yew, an ancient tree (Taxus baccata) in the churchyard of Fortingall, a village in Perthshire, Scotland, has been used to suggest pre-Christian activity on the site, although yews are difficult to date exactly.

Most headstones and other memorials are of the 17th century at the earliest, as ground would often be reused for further burials and only some families could afford any memorials.

The use of churchyards as burial grounds for the deceased was diminished all over Europe in various stages between the 18th to 19th centuries due to lack of space for new headstones. In many European states, burial in churchyards was outlawed altogether either by royal decrees or government legislation for public hygiene reasons and portions of churchyards were taken in order for roads to be built or expanded. The loss of part (or all) of the churchyard, often led also to the removal and permanent loss of centuries-old graves and headstones. In some cases the human remains were exhumed and the gravestones transferred. In other cases, all headstones have been removed, to create a park-like environment, or simply to facilitate the seasonal cutting and removal of grass or weeds. In at least one case in the United States, the headstones from a churchyard in Pittsburgh were used to help form the foundation for an addition to the church fifty years after the last burial in the churchyard took place (the foundation itself unknowingly went through fifteen graves), with the churchyard itself becoming a parking lot nearly forty years after that; the churchyard was largely forgotten until PennDOT purchased the church property via eminent domain for construction of Interstate 279 and subsequently unearthed 727 graves.

Some churchyards across the world are still used as graveyards today, particularly in most hamlets and small towns. Public cemeteries are primarily seen in major towns and cities.

### In France

Only four churchyards now remain in France.

## Ecology

Churchyards can be host to unique and ancient habitats because they may remain significantly unchanged for hundreds of years.


Chiasmocleis schubarti

# Chiasmocleis schubarti

## Abstract

Chiasmocleis schubarti is a species of frog in the family Microhylidae.It is endemic to Brazil.Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and intermittent freshwater marshes.It is threatened by habitat loss.


2023 in Guinea

# 2023 in Guinea

## Abstract

Events in the year 2023 in Guinea.

## Incumbents

- President: Mamady Doumbouya

- Prime Minister: Bernard Goumou

## Events

Ongoing – COVID-19 pandemic in Guinea

- 4 November – Guinean commando forces forcefully remove former president Moussa Dadis Camara and several other officials from a central prison in Conakry amid gunfire. Camara is later taken back into police custody shortly after the alleged kidnapping attempt.

- 18 December – Conakry oil depot explosion: At least 24 people are killed and another 454 are injured in an explosion at an oil terminal in Conakry.

## Deaths

- April 8 – Djene Kaba Condé, 62–63, socialite, first lady (2010–2021).


Central Europe

# Central Europe

## Abstract

Central Europe is a geographical region of Europe between Eastern, Southern, Western and Northern Europe. Central Europe is known for its cultural diversity; however, countries in this region also share historical and cultural similarities.

Whilst the region is variously defined, it often includes Austria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland and Transylvania in Romania. From the early 16th century until the early 18th century, parts of present-day Croatia and Hungary were under Ottoman rule. During the 17th century, the empire also occupied southern parts of present-day Slovakia. During the Early Modern period, the territories of Poland and Lithuania were part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Meanwhile, the Archduchy of Austria, the Kingdom of Bohemia (Czech Republic), the Duchy of Carniola (part of present-day Slovenia), the various German Principalities and the Old Swiss Confederacy were within the Holy Roman Empire. By the end of the 18th century, the Habsburg monarchy, a prominent power within the empire, came to reign over the territories of Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia and Slovenia, alongside parts of Serbia, Germany, Italy, Poland and Switzerland.

The countries that make up Central Europe have historically been, and in some cases continue to be, divided into either Eastern or Western Europe. After World War II, Europe was divided by the Iron Curtain into two parts, the capitalist Western Bloc and the communist Eastern Bloc, although Austria, Switzerland and Yugoslavia (encompassing the territories of present-day Croatia, Slovenia and various other Balkans nations) declared neutrality. The Berlin Wall was one of the most visible symbols of this division. Respectively, countries in Central Europe have historical, cultural and geopolitical ties with these wider regions of Europe.

Central Europe began a "strategic awakening" in the late 20th and early 21st century, with initiatives such as Central European Defence Cooperation, the Central European Initiative, Centrope, and the Visegrád Four Group. This awakening was accelerated by writers and other intellectuals, who recognized the societal paralysis of decaying dictatorships and felt compelled to speak up against Soviet oppression.

## Historical perspective

### Middle Ages and early modern period

In the early Middle Ages, Central Europe had a diverse landscape, with various ethnic groups inhabiting the region. Germanic tribes, among them the Franks, Alemans and Bavarians, were predominantly situated in the west, while Slavic tribes were predominantly in the east. However, the region encompassed a wide spectrum of additional tribes and communities.

From the late 6th century to the early 9th century, the area roughly corresponding to the Carpathian Basin was part of the Avar Khaganate, the realm of the Pannonian Avars. While the Avars dominated the east of what is now Austria, its north and south were under Germanic and Slavic influence, respectively. Meanwhile, the territories now comprising Germany and Switzerland were under the influence of the Merovingian dynasty, and later the Carolingian dynasty. Various Slavic tribes that inhabited eastern Central Europe established settlements during this period, primarily in present-day Croatia, Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia. The territory of Lithuania was inhabited by Baltic tribes. Amongst them were the Samogitians, Aukštaitians and Curonians.

The Holy Roman Empire was founded at the turn of the 9th century, following the coronation of Charlemagne by Pope Leo III. At its inception, it incorporated present-day Germany and nearby regions, including parts of what is now Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovenia and Switzerland. Three decades later, Great Moravia, centred in present-day Czech Republic and Slovakia, became one of the first West Slavic states to be founded in Central Europe. In the late 9th Century, the Hungarian tribes, originating in the Ural Mountains and Western Siberia, settled in the Carpathian Basin and established the Principality of Hungary.

The earliest recorded concept of Europe as a cultural sphere (instead of simply a geographic term) was formed by Alcuin of York in the late 8th century during the Carolingian Renaissance, limited to the territories that practised Western Christianity at the time. "European" as a cultural term did not include much of the territories where the Orthodox Church represented the dominant religion until the 19th century.

Following the Christianization of various Central European countries, elements of cultural unity emerged within the region, specifically Catholicism and Latin. Eastern Europe remained Eastern Orthodox, and was dominated by Byzantine cultural influence. After the East–West Schism in 1054, it developed cultural unity and resistance to Catholic and Protestant influence within the framework of the Eastern Orthodox Church, Church Slavonic language, and the Cyrillic alphabet.

According to historian Jenő Szűcs, at the end of the first millennium Central Europe became influenced by Western European developments. Szűcs argued that between the 11th and 15th centuries, not only did Christianization influence the cultures within Central Europe, but well-defined social features were also implemented in the region based on Western characteristics. The keyword of Western social development after the turn of the millennium was the spread of Magdeburg rights in some cities and towns of Western Europe. These began to spread in the middle of the 13th century in Central European countries, bringing about self-governments of towns and counties.

In 1335, the Kings of Poland, Bohemia and Hungary and Croatia met in the castle of Visegrád and agreed to cooperate closely in the field of politics and commerce, inspiring the post- Cold War Visegrád Group.

In 1386, Jogaila, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, converted to Christianity (specifically Catholicism) and subsequently became King of Poland through marriage to Queen Jadwiga of Poland. This initiated the Christianization of Lithuania. It also resulted in the Union of Krewo, signifying a personal union between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland. The union commenced an enduring political alliance between the two entities and laid the foundations for the later establishment of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569.

Between the 15th and early 16th centuries, the Kingdom of Croatia, which was at the time in personal union with the Kingdom of Hungary, served as a significant maritime gateway of Central Europe, with its ports facilitating key trade routes between Central Europe and the Mediterranean. The Republic of Ragusa emerged as a prominent hub for cultural exchange during this time. Following the Ottoman and Habsburg wars of the 16th and 17th centuries, the Kingdom of Croatia, under Habsburg rule, began to regain its position as a significant trade route, restoring ports and revitalising commercial activity.

### Before World War I

Before 1870, the industrialization that had started to develop in Northwestern and Central Europe and the United States did not extend in any significant way to the rest of the world. Even in Eastern Europe, industrialization lagged far behind. Russia, for example, remained largely rural and agricultural, and its autocratic rulers kept the peasants in serfdom. The concept of Central Europe was already known at the beginning of the 19th century, but it developed further and became an object of intensive interest towards the 20th century. However, the first concept mixed science, politics, and economy – it was strictly connected with the aspirations of German states to dominate a part of European continent called Mitteleuropa. At the Frankfurt Parliament, which was established in the wake of the March Revolution of 1848, there were multiple competing ideas for the integration of German-speaking areas, including the mitteleuropäische Lösung (Central European Solution) propagated by Austria, which sought to merge the smaller German-speaking states with the multi-ethnic Habsburg Empire, but was opposed by Prussia and others. An imperialistic idea of Mitteleuropa also became popular in the German Empire established in 1871, which experienced intensive economic growth. The term was used when the Union of German Railway Administrations established the Mitteleuropäische Eisenbahn-Zeit (Central European Railway Time) time zone, which was applied by the railways from 1 June 1891 and was later widely adopted in civilian life, thus the time zone name shortened to the present-day Central European Time.

The German term denoting Central Europe was so fashionable that other languages started referring to it when indicating territories from Rhine to Vistula, or even Dnieper, and from the Baltic Sea to the Balkans. An example of this vision of Central Europe may be seen in Joseph Partsch 's book of 1903.

On 21 January 1904, Mitteleuropäischer Wirtschaftsverein (Central European Economic Association) was established in Berlin with economic integration of Germany and Austria (with eventual extension to Switzerland, Belgium and the Netherlands) as its main aim. Another time, the term Central Europe became connected to the German plans of political, economic, and cultural domination. The "bible" of the concept was Friedrich Naumann 's book Mitteleuropa in which he called for an economic federation to be established after World War I. Naumann's proposed a federation with Germany and the Habsburg empire as its centre, eventually uniting all external European nations through economic prosperity. The concept failed after the German defeat in World War I. The revival of the idea may be observed during the Hitler era.

### Interwar period

The interwar period (1918–1938) brought a new geopolitical system, as well as economic and political problems, and the concept of Central Europe took on a different character. The centre of interest was moved to its eastern part – particularly to the countries that had (re)appeared on the map of Europe. Central Europe ceased to be the area of German aspiration to lead or dominate and became a territory of various integration movements aiming at resolving political, economic, and national problems of "new" states, being a way to face German and Soviet pressures. However, the conflict of interests was too big and neither Little Entente nor Intermarium (Międzymorze) ideas succeeded. Hungarian historian Ádám Magda wrote in her study Versailles System and Central Europe (2006): "Today we know that the bane of Central Europe was the Little Entente, military alliance of Czechoslovakia, Romania and Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia), created in 1921 not for Central Europe's cooperation nor to fight German expansion, but in a wrong perceived notion that a completely powerless Hungary must be kept down". The events preceding World War II in Europe —including the so-called Western betrayal / Munich Agreement were very much enabled by the rising nationalism and ethnocentrism that typified that period.

The interwar period brought new elements to the concept of Central Europe. Before World War I, it embraced mainly German-speaking states, with non-German speaking territories being an area of intended German penetration and domination – German leadership was to be the 'natural' result of economic dominance. Post-war, the Eastern part of Central Europe was placed at the centre of the concept. At that time the scientists took an interest in the idea: the International Historical Congress in Brussels in 1923 was committed to Central Europe, and the 1933 Congress continued the discussions.

According to Emmanuel de Martonne, in 1927, Central Europe encompassed Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Switzerland, northern Italy and northern Yugoslavia. The author uses both Human and Physical Geographical features to define Central Europe, but he doesn't take into account the legal development or the social, cultural, economic, and infrastructural developments in these countries.

The avant-garde movements of Central Europe contributed to the evolution of modernism, reaching its peak throughout the continent during the 1920s. The Sourcebook of Central European avantgards (Los Angeles County Museum of Art) contains primary documents of the avant-gardes in the territories of Austria, Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania and Yugoslavia from 1910 to 1930.

### Mitteleuropa

With the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire around 1800, there was a consolidation of power among the Habsburgs and Hohenzollerns as the two major states in the area. They had much in common and occasionally cooperated in various channels, but more often competed. One approach in the various attempts at cooperation, was the conception of a set of supposed common features and interests, and this idea led to the first discussions of a Mitteleuropa in the mid-nineteenth century, as espoused by Friedrich List and Karl Ludwig Bruck. These were mostly based on economic issues.

Mitteleuropa may refer to a historical concept or a contemporary German definition of Central Europe. As a historical concept, the German term Mitteleuropa (or alternatively its literal translation into English, Middle Europe) is an ambiguous German concept. It is sometimes used in English to refer to an area somewhat larger than most conceptions of 'Central Europe'. According to Fritz Fischer Mitteleuropa was a scheme in the era of the Reich of 1871–1918 by which the old imperial elites had allegedly sought to build a system of German economic, military and political domination from the northern seas to the Near East and from the Low Countries through the steppes of Russia to the Caucasus. Later on, professor Fritz Epstein argued the threat of a Slavic "Drang nach Westen" (Western expansion) had been a major factor in the emergence of a Mitteleuropa ideology before the Reich of 1871 ever came into being.

In Germany the connotation was also sometimes linked to the pre-war German provinces east of the Oder-Neisse line.

The term "Mitteleuropa" conjures up negative historical associations among some people, although the Germans have not played an exclusively negative role in the region. Most Central European Jews embraced the enlightened German humanistic culture of the 19th century. Jews of turn of the 20th century Central Europe became representatives of what many consider to be Central European culture at its best, though the Nazi conceptualisation of "Mitteleuropa" sought to destroy this culture. The term "Mitteleuropa" is widely used in German education and media without negative meaning, especially since the end of communism. Many people from the new states of Germany do not identify themselves as being part of Western Europe and therefore prefer the term "Mitteleuropa".

### Central Europe during World War II

During World War II, Central Europe was largely occupied by Nazi Germany. Many areas were a battle area and were devastated. The mass murder of the Jews depopulated many of their centuries-old settlement areas or settled other people there and their culture was wiped out. Both Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin diametrically opposed the centuries-old Habsburg principles of "live and let live" with regard to ethnic groups, peoples, minorities, religions, cultures and languages and tried to assert their own ideologies and power interests in Central Europe. There were various Allied plans for state order in Central Europe for post-war. While Stalin tried to get as many states under his control as possible, Winston Churchill preferred a Central European Danube Confederation to counter these countries against Germany and Russia. There were also plans to add Bavaria and Württemberg to an enlarged Austria. There were also various resistance movements around Otto von Habsburg that pursued this goal. The group around the Austrian priest Heinrich Maier also planned in this direction, which also successfully helped the Allies to wage war by, among other things, forwarding production sites and plans for V-2 rockets, Tiger tanks and aircraft to the USA. Otto von Habsburg tried to relieve Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and northern Yugoslavia (particularly the territories of present-day Croatia and Slovenia) from Nazi German, and Soviet, influence and control. There were various considerations to prevent German and Soviet power in Europe after the war. Churchill's idea of reaching the area around Vienna before the Russians via an operation from the Adriatic had not been approved by the Western Allied chiefs of staff. As a result of the military situation at the end of the war, Stalin's plans prevailed and much of Central Europe came under Russian control.

### Central Europe behind the Iron Curtain

Following World War II, parts of Central Europe became part of the Eastern Bloc. The boundary between the two blocks was called the Iron Curtain. Austria, Switzerland and Yugoslavia remained neutral.

The post-World War II period brought blocking of research on Central Europe in the Eastern Bloc countries, as its every result proved the dissimilarity of Central Europe, which was inconsistent with the Stalinist doctrine. On the other hand, the topic became popular in Western Europe and the United States, much of the research being carried out by immigrants from Central Europe. Following the Fall of Communism, publicists and historians in Central Europe, especially the anti-communist opposition, returned to their research.

According to Karl A. Sinnhuber (Central Europe: Mitteleuropa: Europe Centrale: An Analysis of a Geographical Term) most Central European states were unable to preserve their political independence and became Soviet satellites. Besides Austria, Switzerland and Yugoslavia, only the marginal European states of Cyprus, Finland, Malta and Sweden preserved their political sovereignty to a certain degree, being left out of any military alliances in Europe.

The opening of the Iron Curtain between Austria and Hungary at the Pan-European Picnic on 19 August 1989 then set in motion a peaceful chain reaction, at the end of which there was no longer an East Germany and the Eastern Bloc had disintegrated. It was the largest escape movement from East Germany since the Berlin Wall was built in 1961. After the picnic, which was based on an idea by Otto von Habsburg to test the reaction of the USSR and Mikhail Gorbachev to an opening of the border, tens of thousands of media-informed East Germans set off for Hungary. The leadership of the GDR in East Berlin did not dare to completely block the borders of their own country and the USSR did not respond at all. This broke the bracket of the Eastern Bloc and Central Europe subsequently became free from communism.

### Roles

According to American professor Ronald Tiersky, the 1991 summit held in Visegrád attended by the Czechoslovak, Hungarian and Polish presidents was hailed at the time as a major breakthrough in Central European cooperation, but the Visegrád Group became a vehicle for coordinating Central Europe's road to the European Union, while development of closer ties within the region languished.

American professor Peter J. Katzenstein described Central Europe as a way station in a Europeanization process that marks the transformation process of the Visegrád Group countries in different, though comparable ways. According to him, in Germany's contemporary public discourse "Central European identity" refers to the civilizational divide between Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. He argued that there is no precise way to define Central Europe and that the region may even include Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia and Serbia.

## Definitions

The issue of how to name and define the Central European area is subject to debates. Very often, the definition depends on the nationality and historical perspective of its author. The concept of "Central Europe" appeared in the 19th century. It was understood as a contact zone between the Southern and Northern areas, and later the Eastern and Western areas of Europe. Thinkers portrayed "Central Europe" either as a separate region, or a buffer zone between these regions.

In the early nineteenth century, the terms "Middle" or "Central" Europe (known as "Mitteleuropa" in German and "Europe centrale" in French) were introduced in geographical scholarship in both German and French languages. At first, these terms were linked to the regions spanning from the Pyrenees to the Danube, which, according to German authors, could be united under German authority. However, after the Franco-Prussian war of 1870, the French began to exclude France from this area, and later the Germans also adopted this perspective by the end of World War I.

The concept of "Central" or "Middle Europe", understood as a region with German influence, lost a significant part of its popularity after WWI and was completely dismissed after WWII. Two defeats of Germany in the world wars, combined with the division of Germany, an almost complete disappearance of German-speaking communities in these countries, and the Communist-led isolation of Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland and Yugoslavia from the Western world, turned the concept of "Central/Middle Europe" into an anachronism. On the other side, the non-German areas of Central Europe were almost universally regarded as "Eastern European" primarily associated with the Soviet sphere of influence in the late 1940s–1980s.

For the most part, this geographical framework lost its attraction after the end of the Cold War. A number of Post-Communist countries rather re-branded themselves in the 1990s as "Central European.", while avoiding the stained wording of "Middle Europe," which they associated with German influence in the region. This reinvented concept of "Central Europe" excluded Germany, Austria and Switzerland, reducing its coverage chiefly to Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Lithuania and Yugoslavia.

### Academic

The main proposed regional definitions, gathered by Polish historian Jerzy Kłoczowski, include:

- West-Central and East-Central Europe – this conception, presented in 1950, distinguishes two regions in Central Europe: German West-Centre, with the imperial tradition of the Reich, and the East-Centre covered by a variety of nations from Finland to Greece, placed between the great empires of Scandinavia, Germany, Italy and the Soviet Union.

- Central Europe as the area of the cultural heritage of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth – Ukrainian, Belarusian and Lithuanian historians, in cooperation (since 1990) with Polish historians, insist on the importance of this concept.

- Central Europe as a region connected to Western civilisation since the foundation of the local states and churches, including countries such as the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Kingdom of Croatia, Holy Roman Empire, later German Empire and the Habsburg monarchy, the Kingdom of Hungary and the Crown of Bohemia. Central Europe understood in this way borders on Russia and South-Eastern Europe, but the exact frontier of the region is difficult to determine.

- Central Europe as the area of the former Habsburg Empire – a concept which is popular in regions along the river Danube: Austria, the Czech Republic and Slovakia, Slovenia, large parts of Bosnia, Croatia and Romania. Also, smaller parts of Poland, Serbia and Ukraine.

- A concept underlining the links connecting Belarus, Moldova and Ukraine with Russia and treating the Russian Empire together with the whole Slavic Orthodox population as one entity – this position is taken by Russian historiographers..

- A concept putting the accent on links with the West, especially from the 19th century and the grand period of liberation and formation of Nation-states – this idea is represented by the South-Eastern states, which prefer the enlarged concept of the "East Centre" expressing their links with Western culture.

Former University of Vienna professor Lonnie R. Johnson points out criteria to distinguish Central Europe from Western, Northern, Eastern and Southern Europe:

- One criterion for defining Central Europe is the frontiers of medieval empires and kingdoms that largely correspond to the religious frontiers between the Catholic West and the Orthodox East. The pagans of Central Europe were converted to Catholicism while in Southeastern and Eastern Europe they were brought into the fold of the Eastern Orthodox Church.

- Multinational empires were a characteristic of Central Europe. Hungary and Poland, small and medium-size states today, were empires during their early histories. The historical Kingdom of Hungary was until 1918 three times larger than present-day Hungary, while Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the largest state in Europe in the 16th century. Both these kingdoms housed a wide variety of different peoples.

He also thinks that Central Europe is a dynamic historical concept, not a static spatial one. For example, a fair share of Belarus and western Ukraine are in Eastern Europe today, but 240 years ago they were in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Johnson's study on Central Europe received acclaim and positive reviews in the scientific community. However, according to Romanian researcher Maria Bucur this very ambitious project suffers from the weaknesses imposed by its scope (almost 1600 years of history).

### Encyclopedias, gazetteers, dictionaries

The World Factbook defines Central Europe as: Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Liechtenstein, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland. The Columbia Encyclopedia includes: Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia and Switzerland. While it does not have a single article defining Central Europe, Encyclopædia Britannica includes the following countries in Central Europe in one or more of its articles: Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland.

The German Encyclopaedia Meyers Grosses Taschenlexikon (Meyers Big Pocket Encyclopedia), 1999, defines Central Europe as the central part of Europe with no precise borders to the East and West. The term is mostly used to denominate the territory between the Schelde to Vistula and from the Danube to the Moravian Gate.

According to Meyers Enzyklopädisches Lexikon, Central Europe is a part of Europe composed of Austria, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Germany, Hungary, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, Romania and Switzerland, and northern marginal regions of Italy and Yugoslavia (northern states – Croatia and Slovenia), as well as northeastern France.

The German Ständige Ausschuss für geographische Namen (Standing Committee on Geographical Names), which develops and recommends rules for the uniform use of geographical names, proposes two sets of boundaries. The first follows international borders of current countries. The second subdivides and includes some countries based on cultural criteria. In comparison to some other definitions, it is broader, including Luxembourg, Estonia, Latvia, and in the second sense, parts of Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, Italy, and France.

### Geographical

There is no general agreement either on what geographic area constitutes Central Europe, nor on how to further subdivide it geographically.

At times, the term "Central Europe" denotes a geographic definition as the Danube region in the heart of the continent, including the language and culture areas which are today included in the states of Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and usually also Austria and Germany.

### Governmental and standards organisations

The terminology EU11 countries refer the Central, Eastern and Baltic European member states which accessed in 2004 and after: in 2004 Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Poland, Slovenia, and Slovakia; in 2007 Bulgaria, Romania; and in 2013 Croatia.

## States

The choice of states that make up Central Europe is an ongoing source of controversy. Although views on which countries belong to Central Europe are vastly varied, according to many sources (see section Definitions) the region includes some or all of the states listed in the sections below:

- Austria

- Croatia

- Czech Republic

- Germany

- Hungary

- Lithuania

- Poland

- Slovakia

- Slovenia

- Switzerland

- Serbia

Depending on the context, Central European countries are sometimes not seen as a specific group, but sorted as either Eastern or Western European countries. In this case Austria, Germany and Switzerland are often placed in Western Europe, while Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia are placed in Eastern Europe.

Croatia is alternatively placed in Southeastern Europe. Additionally, Hungary and Slovenia are sometimes included in the region.

Lithuania is alternatively placed in Northeastern Europe.

### Other countries and regions

Some sources also add regions of neighbouring countries for historical reasons, or based on geographical and/or cultural reasons:

- Bosnia and Herzegovina (as a former part of the Habsburg monarchy, placed in Southern or Southeast Europe)

- Estonia (considered to have been part of 'Mitteleuropa', alternatively placed in Eastern, Northeastern or Northern Europe)

- Italy (South Tyrol, Trentino, Trieste and Gorizia, Friuli, Lombardy, and Veneto or all of Northern Italy)

- Latvia (considered to have been part of 'Mitteleuropa')

- Romania (Transylvania, along with Banat, Crișana, Maramureș, Bukovina and Muntenia along with Oltenia)

- Russia (Kaliningrad Oblast)

- Serbia (primarily Vojvodina and Northern Belgrade, alternatively placed in Southeast Europe)

- Ukraine (Transcarpathia, Galicia and Northern Bukovina)

## Geography

Geography defines Central Europe's natural borders with the neighbouring regions to the north across the Baltic Sea, namely Northern Europe (or Scandinavia), and to the south across the Alps, the Apennine peninsula (or Italy), and the Balkan peninsula across the Soča – Krka – Sava –Danube line. The borders to Western Europe and Eastern Europe are geographically less defined, and for this reason the cultural and historical boundaries migrate more easily west–east than south–north. The river Rhine, which runs south–north through Western Germany, is an exception.

Southwards, the Pannonian Plain is bounded by the rivers Sava and Danube – and their respective floodplains. The Pannonian Plain stretches over the following countries: Austria, Croatia, Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia and Slovenia, and touches borders of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Ukraine ("peri- Pannonian states").

South of the Eastern Alps (spanning Austria, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein, Slovenia and Switzerland), the Dinaric Alps extend for 650 kilometres along the coast of the Adriatic Sea (northwest-southeast), from the Julian Alps in the northwest down to the Šar-Korab massif, north–south. According to the Freie Universität Berlin, this mountain chain is classified as South Central European. The city of Trieste in this area, for example, expressly sees itself as a città mitteleuropea. This is particularly because it lies at the interface between the Latin, Slavic, Germanic, Greek and Jewish culture on the one hand and the geographical area of the Mediterranean and the Alps on the other. A geographical and cultural assignment is made.

The Central European flora region stretches from Central France (the Massif Central) to the Northern Balkans, Central Romania (Carpathians) and Southern Scandinavia.

## Demography

Central Europe is one of the continent's most populous regions. It includes countries of varied sizes, ranging from tiny Liechtenstein to Germany, the second largest European country by population. Demographic figures for countries entirely located within notion of Central Europe ("the core countries") number around 173 million people, out of which around 82 million are residents of Germany. Other populations include: Poland with around 38.5 million residents, Czech Republic at 10.5 million, Hungary at 10 million, Austria with 8.8 million, Switzerland with 8.5 million, Slovakia at 5.4 million, Croatia with 4.3 million, Lithuania with 2.9 million, Slovenia with 2.1 million and Liechtenstein at a bit less than 40,000.

If the countries which are sometimes also included in Central Europe were counted in, partially or in whole – Romania (20 million), Latvia (2 million), Estonia (1.3 million), Serbia (7.1 million) – this would contribute around an additional 30.4 million, although this figure would vary depending on whether a regional or integral approach is used. If smaller, western and eastern historical parts of Central Europe would be included in the demographic corpus, a further 20 million people of different nationalities would also be added in the overall count, surpassing a total of 200 million people.

## Economy

### Currencies

Currently, the members of the Eurozone include Austria, Croatia, Germany, Lithuania, Slovakia, and Slovenia. The Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland use their own currencies (koruna, forint, Polish złoty, respectively), but are obliged to adopt the Euro. Switzerland uses its own currency (Swiss franc), as does Serbia (dinar) and Romania (Romanian leu).

### Human Development Index

In 2018, Switzerland topped the HDI list among Central European countries, also ranking No. 2 in the world. Serbia rounded out the list at No. 11 (67 world).

### Globalisation

The index of globalization in Central European countries (2016 data): Switzerland topped this list as well (#1 world).

### Prosperity Index

Legatum Prosperity Index demonstrates an average and high level of prosperity in Central Europe (2018 data). Switzerland topped the index (#4 world).

### Corruption

Most countries in Central Europe tend to score above the average in the Corruption Perceptions Index (2018 data), led by Switzerland, Germany, and Austria.

#### Rail

Central Europe contains the continent's earliest railway systems, whose greatest expansion was recorded in Austrian, Czech, German, Hungarian and Swiss territories between 1860-1870s. By the mid-19th century Berlin, Vienna, Zurich, Pest and Prague were focal points for network lines connecting industrial areas of Saxony, Silesia, Bohemia, Moravia and Lower Austria with the Baltic (Kiel, Szczecin) and Adriatic (Rijeka, Trieste). By 1913, the combined length of the railway tracks of Austria and Hungary reached 43,280 kilometres (26,890 miles). By 1936, 70% of the Swiss Federal Railway network had undergone electrification.

Rail infrastructure in Central Europe remains the densest in the world. Railway density as of 2022, with total length of lines operated (km) per 1,000 km2, from highest to lowest is Switzerland (129.2), the Czech Republic (120.7), Germany (108.8), Hungary (85.0), Slovakia (74.0), Austria (66.5), Poland (61.9), Slovenia (59.6), Serbia (49.2), Croatia (46.3) and Lithuania (29.4).

#### River transport and canals

Before the first railroads appeared in the 1840s, river transport constituted the main means of communication and trade. Earliest canals included Plauen Canal (1745), Finow Canal, and also Bega Canal (1710) which connected Timișoara to Novi Sad and Belgrade via the Danube. The most significant achievement in this regard was the facilitation of navigability on the Danube from the Black sea to Ulm in the 19th century.

The economies of Austria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland tend to demonstrate high complexity. Industrialisation reached Central Europe relatively early beginning with Germany and the Czech lands near the end of the 18th century.

The industrialization of the cities of Romania and Serbia started in the interwar period, and did not make significant progress until the post ww2 era.

#### Agriculture

Central European countries are some of the most significant food producers in the world. Germany is the world's largest hops producer with 34.27% share in 2010, 3rd largest producer of rye and barley, 5th rapeseed producer, 6th largest milk producer, and 5th largest potato producer. Poland is the world's largest triticale producer, 2nd largest producer of raspberries, currants, 3rd largest of rye, the 5th apple and buckwheat producer, and 7th largest producer of potatoes. The Czech Republic is the world's 4th largest hops producer and 8th producer of triticale. Slovenia is one of the world's leading producers of honey and the world's 6th largest hops producer. Hungary is world's 5th hops and 7th largest triticale producer. Serbia is the world's 2nd largest producer of plums and 2nd largest producer of raspberries.

#### Business

Central European business has a regional organisation, Central European Business Association (CEBA), founded in 1996 in New York as a non-profit organization dedicated to promoting business opportunities within Central Europe and supporting the advancement of professionals in America with a Central European background.

#### Tourism

Central European countries, especially Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany and Switzerland are some of the most competitive tourism destinations.

## Education

### Education performance

Student performance has varied across Central Europe, according to the Programme for International Student Assessment. In the 2012 study, countries scored medium, below or over the average scores in three fields studied.

### Higher education

#### Universities

The first university established east of France and north of the Alps was in Prague in 1348 by Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor. The Charles University was modeled upon the University of Paris and initially included the faculty of law, medicine, philosophy, and theology.

#### Central European University

In 1991, Ernest Gellner proposed the establishment of a truly Central European institution of higher learning in Prague (1991–1995). Eventually, the Central European University (CEU) project was taken on and financially supported by the Hungarian philanthropist George Soros, who had provided an endowment of US$880 million, making the university one of the wealthiest in Europe. Over its 30-year history CEU has become one of the most internationally diverse and recognisable universities in the world. For example, as of 2019, 1217 students were enrolled in the university, of which 962 were international students, making the student body the fourth most international in the world. CEU offers highly selective programs with a student to faculty ratio of 7:1. In 2021, the admission rate into its programs was 13%. CEU has thus become a leading global university in Europe promoting a distinctively Central European perspective while emphasizing academic rigor, applied research, and academic honesty and integrity. CEU is a founding member of CIVICCA, a group of prestigious European higher education institutions in the social sciences, humanities, business management and public policy, such as Sciences Po (France), The London School of Economics and Political Science (UK), Bocconi University (Italy) and the Stockholm School of Economics (Sweden). In 2019, Central European University leadership announced their preparatory work on moving CEU to Vienna due to legal constraints against academic freedom in Hungary.

## Culture and society

### Research

Research centres of Central European literature include Harvard University (Cambridge, MA), Purdue University, and Central European Studies Programme (CESP), Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic.

### Religion

Central European countries are mostly Catholic (Austria, Croatia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia) or historically both Catholic and Protestant (the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary and Switzerland). Large Protestant groups include Lutheran, Calvinist, and the Unity of the Brethren affiliates. Significant populations of Eastern Catholicism and Old Catholicism are also prevalent throughout Central Europe. Orthodox Christianity is a minority denomination observed to varying extents across Central Europe.

Central Europe has been the center of the Protestant movement for centuries, with the majority of Protestants suppressed and annihilated during the Counterreformation.

Historically, people in Bohemia in today's Czech Republic were some of the first Protestants in Europe. As a result of the Thirty Years' War following the Bohemian Revolt, many Czechs were either killed, executed (see for Old Town Square execution), forcibly turned into Roman Catholics, or emigrated to Scandinavia and the Low Countries. In the aftermath of the Thirty Years' War, the number of inhabitants in the Kingdom of Bohemia decreased from three million to only 800,000 due to multiple factors, including devastating ongoing battles such as the significant Battle of White Mountain and the Battle of Prague (1648). However, in recent years, most Czechs report as overwhelmingly non-religious, with some describing themselves as Catholic (10.3%).

Before the Holocaust (1941–45), there was also a sizeable Ashkenazi Jewish community in the region, numbering approximately 16.7 million people. Poland, Lithuania and Hungary had the largest Jewish populations in Europe as a percentage of their total populations, with Jews constituting 9.5% of the Polish population in 1933.

Certain countries in Central Europe, particularly the Czech Republic, Germany and Switzerland have sizeable atheist and non-religious populations. In 2021, 48% of the Czech population declared that they had no religion. In 2022, 43.8% of the German population declared that they had no religion. Meanwhile, 33.5% of the Swiss population stated that they were not affiliated with any religion.

### Cuisine

Central European cuisine has evolved over centuries due to social and political change and is generally diverse. However, the national cuisines of western Central Europe share notable similarities, as do the cuisines of eastern Central Europe. Sausages, salamis and cheeses are popular in most of Central Europe, with the earliest evidence of cheesemaking in the archaeological record dates back to 5,500 BCE (Kuyavia region, Poland). Other popular food items in Central Europe include soups, stews, pickled and fermented vegetables. Schnitzel, goulash and cabbage rolls are popular in the region.

Another common feature among Central European cuisines, particularly Austrian, Croatian, Lithuanian, Slovenian and Swiss cuisine, is the use of wild ingredients in traditional dishes, spanning from wild herbs to mushrooms and berries. Beer consumption is also prominent in parts of Central Europe, where the Czech Republic has the highest beer consumption per capita globally, followed by Austria, with Germany coming 4th. The cuisines of Central European countries that are included in broader definitions of Eastern Europe share similarities and traditions with other Eastern European cuisines. This is particularly evident in the cuisines of Lithuania and Poland, which feature dishes like borscht, pierogi and sour rye soup.

### Human rights

Generally, the countries in the region have been progressive on the issue of human rights: death penalty is illegal in all of them, corporal punishment is outlawed in most of them and people of both genders can vote in elections. However, Central European countries are divided on the subject of same-sex marriage and abortion. Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, and Poland also have a history of participation in the CIA's extraordinary rendition and detention program, according to the Open Society Foundations.

### Literature

Regional writing tradition revolves around the turbulent history of the region, as well as its cultural diversity. Its existence is sometimes challenged. Specific courses on Central European literature are taught at Stanford University, Harvard University and Jagiellonian University as well as cultural magazines dedicated to regional literature. Angelus Central European Literature Award is an award worth 150,000.00 PLN (about $50,000 or £30,000) for writers originating from the region. Likewise, the Vilenica International Literary Prize is awarded to a Central European author for "outstanding achievements in the field of literature and essay writing".

### Sport

There is a number of Central European Sport events and leagues. They include:

- Central European Tour Miskolc GP (Hungary)*

- Central European Tour Budapest GP (Hungary)

- 2008 Central Europe Rally (Romania and Hungary)*

- 2023 Central Europe Rally (Germany, Austria and Czech Republic)

- Central European Football League (Austria, Croatia, Hungary, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and Turkey)

- Central European International Cup (Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Switzerland and Yugoslavia; 1927–1960)

- Central Europe Throwdown*

Football is one of the most popular sports. Countries of Central Europe hosted several major competitions. Germany hosted two FIFA World Cups (1974 and 2006) and the UEFA Euro 1988. Yugoslavia hosted the UEFA Euro 1976 before the competition expanded to 8 teams. Recently, the 2008 and 2012 UEFA European Championships were held in Austria & Switzerland and Poland & Ukraine respectively. The UEFA Euro 2024 will be hosted by Germany.

## Politics

### Organisations

Central Europe is a birthplace of regional political organisations:

- Central European Defence Cooperation

- Central European Free Trade Agreement

- Central European Initiative

- Centrope

- Middleeuropean Initiative

- Three Seas Initiative

- Visegrád Group

### Democracy Index

Central Europe is a home to some of world's oldest democracies. However, most of them have been impacted by totalitarianism, particularly Fascism and Nazism. Germany and Italy occupied all Central European countries, except Switzerland. In all occupied countries, the Axis powers suspended democracy and installed puppet regimes loyal to the occupation forces. Also, they forced conquered countries to apply racial laws and formed military forces for helping German and Italian struggle against Communists. After World War II, almost the whole of Central Europe (the Eastern and Middle part) had been transformed into communist states, most of which had been occupied and later allied with the Soviet Union, often against their will through forged referendum (e.g., Polish people's referendum in 1946) or force (northeast Germany, Poland, Hungary et alia). Nevertheless, these experiences have been dealt in most of them. Most of Central European countries score very highly in the Democracy Index.

### Global Peace Index

In spite of its turbulent history, Central Europe is currently one of world's safest regions. Most Central European countries are in top 20%.

## Central European Time

The time zone is a standard time which is 1 hour ahead of Coordinated Universal Time. Countries using CET include:

- Albania

- Andorra

- Austria

- Belgium

- Bosnia and Herzegovina

- Croatia

- Czech Republic

- Denmark

- France

- Germany

- Hungary

- Italy

- Luxembourg

- Monaco

- Montenegro

- Netherlands

- North Macedonia

- Norway

- Poland

- San Marino

- Slovakia

- Slovenia

- Serbia

- Sweden

- Switzerland

- Vatican City

## In popular culture

Central Europe is mentioned in the 35th episode of Lovejoy, entitled "The Prague Sun", filmed in 1992. While walking over the well-regarded and renowned Charles Bridge in Prague, the main character, Lovejoy, says: "I've never been to Prague before. Well, it is one of the great unspoiled cities in Central Europe. Notice: I said: 'Central', not 'Eastern'! The Czechs are a bit funny about that, they think of Eastern Europeans as turnip heads."

Wes Anderson 's Oscar-winning film The Grand Budapest Hotel depicts a fictional grand hotel located somewhere in Central Europe which is in actuality modeled on the Grandhotel Pupp in Karlovy Vary in the Czech Republic. The film is a celebration of the 1920s and 1930s Central Europe with its artistic splendor and societal sensibilities.

## General and cited references

- Shared Pasts in Central and Southeast Europe, 17th–21st Centuries. Eds. G. Demeter, P. Peykovska. 2015


# Special Operations Unit (North Macedonia)

## Abstract

The Special Anti-terrorist Unit is a police unit from North Macedonia. It's one of the prestigious divisions in the Police of North Macedonia.

## Notable domestic missions

- 2001 Albanian Insurgency

- 2007 Operation Mountain Storm

- 2008 Police action: Ash, (Bajrush clan)

- 2010 Police action: Conductor, (Frankfurt Mafia)

- 2012 Arrests after Smilkovci lake killings

- 2014 Police action: Network, (Grchec clan)

- 2014 Police action: Kalabria, (Nezim clan)

- 2014 Police action: Hammer, (Fadilj Arslani clan)

- 2015 Kumanovo shootings

## Foreign missions

### Serbia

2014 Floods in Serbia – 24 men and one Mi-17.

### Bosnia and Herzegovina

2014 Floods in Bosnia – 15 men.


Popchips

# Popchips

## Abstract

Popchips, stylized 'popchips' is an American brand of popped potato and corn products marketed as similar to potato chips. They are manufactured by processing potato starch at high pressure and temperature, in a process similar to that used for puffed rice cakes.

## History

Keith Belling is a co-founder and CEO of Popchips which was created in 2007. Belling teamed up with Patrick Turpin, and created a new popped chip. The company created a chip that utilizes potato and corn products that are cooked at a high pressure and temperature. Turpin co-founded Popchips, Inc., and serves as its President.

In November, 2015 David Ritterbush was named CEO of the company, replacing Paul Davis.

## Recognition

The company was rated by Forbes as among America's top 20 most promising companies in 2011. Forbes also reported that investors in the company included Ashton Kutcher, David Ortiz, Jillian Michaels, and Sean Combs.

## Ashton Kutcher controversy

Popchips received widespread criticism for their May 2012 video ad campaign featuring actor Ashton Kutcher. The campaign featured Kutcher as an Indian man 'looking for love' in a dating ad-style spoof. Kutcher's use of brown-face make up and a stereotypical Indian accent was deemed racially insensitive and offensive and received backlash from online viewers and members of the Indian-American community.

## Celebrities

Ashton Kutcher was the first celebrity to endorse the company, with 13 million followers on Twitter. Kutcher boosted the publicity of Popchips. In 2012, Popchips also gained another celebrity endorser, Katy Perry. Since 2012, Perry featured in advertisements and also helped to launch her own flavour of Popchips, Katy's Kettle Corn.

## Awards

Since 2007, Popchips has won the following awards:

- Best Crispy Snack for Kids - IVillage

- Best Snack - Shape (magazine)

- Best Potato Chip - Men's Health (magazine)

- Outstanding Snack - sofi Awards

- Best Chips - Real Simple (magazine)

- Best Chips Under 100 Calories - Eat This, Not That (magazine)

One of the 8 Most Addicting Foods - Yahoo! Shine

- Best Low Calorie Snack - Good Housekeeping (magazine)

- Best Chips - Slash Food

- Best Crunchy Snack - Fitness (magazine)

- #1 Potato Chip - Kiwi (magazine)

- Best Chips - Health (magazine)

## Distribution

Popchips provides its snack through a network of retail stores including Target, Safeway, and Walgreens in the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Ireland and also online.

## Products

Popchips are produced in a number of flavors in addition to the original flavor:

Potato

- Sea Salt

- Sour Cream & Onion

- Barbeque

- Sea Salt & Vinegar

- Thai Sweet Chilli

- Mature Cheddar & Onion

Potato Ridges

- Crazy Hot

- Buffalo Ranch

- Cheddar and Sour Cream

## Nutritional Information

- A share size bag of potato popchips (3 oz.) contain 120 calories per serving size (1 oz.).

- A share size bag of tortilla popchips (3.5 oz.) contain 120 calories per serving size (1 oz.).

- A share size bag of Katy's Kettle Corn popchips (3.5 oz.) contain 130 calories per serving size (1 oz.).


Dragan Ćirić

# Dragan Ćirić

## Abstract

Dragan Ćirić (Serbian Cyrillic: Драган Ћирић; born 15 September 1974) is a Serbian retired professional footballer who played as an attacking midfielder for Partizan, Barcelona, AEK Athens, and Real Valladolid. Internationally, he played for the Yugoslavia national team, earning 4 caps.

## Club career

### Early career

After starting out at local club Srem Jakovo, Belgrade -born Ćirić finished his development at Partizan, sharing teams with the likes of Savo Milošević and Albert Nađ. This trio was promoted to the senior squad in 1992–93, as they won the league in that and the following seasons under manager Ljubiša Tumbaković. Ćirić conquered a further two national championships during his first spell and was the team's captain in the 1996–97 season.

### Barcelona

In July 1997, Ćirić signed a four-year contract with Barcelona. Over the course of his career at Barcelona, he played 35 games across all competitions in his debut season. In addition into featuring in Barcelona's 1997–98 UEFA Champions League campaign, he also contributed to the team's treble conquest of La Liga, Copa del Rey and the UEFA Super Cup. Coach Louis van Gaal employed Ćirić primarily as a right-winger, although it was not his best position. After losing his spot in the lineup he was loaned to Greek side AEK Athens in a season -long move, scoring in double digits and also winning the domestic cup. Upon his return to the Camp Nou, he was sold to fellow Spaniards Real Valladolid in July 2000.

### Return to Partizan

In June 2004, Ćirić returned to Partizan, signing a three-year contract. Under coach Vladimir Vermezović, he helped the club win the national league in his comeback season with an unbeaten record. He also played in Partizan's historic 2004–05 UEFA Cup campaign, up to their elimination in the final 16 by CSKA Moscow. After that season, he retired shortly after at the age of 31.

## International career

Ćirić was capped four times for Serbia and Montenegro. He made his debut in a 4–1 friendly win against El Salvador on 12 November 1995, coming on as a substitute for Dejan Petković.

## Administrative career

In December 2014, Ćirić was named director of football at Partizan. He left the position less than two months later, citing dissatisfaction with the state of Serbian football as the main reason for his decision.

## Career statistics

## Honours

- First League of FR Yugoslavia: 1992–93, 1993–94, 1995–96, 1996–97, 2004–05

- FR Yugoslavia Cup: 1993–94

- La Liga: 1997–98, 1998–99

- Copa del Rey: 1997–98

- UEFA Super Cup: 1997

- Greek Cup: 1999–2000


Dragan Šarac

# Dragan Šarac

## Abstract

Dragan Šarac (Serbian Cyrillic: Драган Шарац; born 27 September 1975) is a Serbian football manager and former player.

## Club career

After playing for his hometown club Sloven Ruma, Šarac joined ambitious Obilić in the summer of 1995. He was a regular member of the team that became champions of FR Yugoslavia for the 1997–98 season. In the summer of 1999, Šarac moved abroad to Bulgarian side CSKA Sofia, alongside several teammates. He stayed for only a couple of months and made three appearances in the 1999–2000 UEFA Cup, before returning to Obilić.

In July 2000, Šarac moved abroad for the second time and signed with Austria Wien. He spent two seasons at the club and then left for fellow Bundesliga side Pasching. In July 2003, Šarac returned to his homeland and joined Red Star Belgrade on a two-year contract. He played regularly in his debut season and helped the team win the double. In May 2005, Šarac moved back to Austria and signed with Sturm Graz for two years.

In July 2007, Šarac returned to Serbia and signed with Vojvodina. He was released the following January, alongside Saša Drakulić, after playing futsal without permission during the winter break.

## International career

Between 1998 and 2004, Šarac was capped six times for Serbia and Montenegro (formerly known as FR Yugoslavia) at full level. He previously played for the national under-21 team.

## Managerial career

After hanging up his boots, Šarac served as assistant manager to Nenad Lalatović at numerous clubs, including Voždovac, Napredak Kruševac, Red Star Belgrade, Borac Čačak, Vojvodina (two spells), Čukarički, Radnički Niš (three spells), Al Batin, Radnički 1923, and Borac Banja Luka.

In March 2023, Šarac was appointed as Nenad Lalatović's replacement as manager of Radnički Niš.

## Honours

Obilić

- First League of FR Yugoslavia: 1997–98

Red Star Belgrade

- First League of Serbia and Montenegro: 2003–04

- Serbia and Montenegro Cup: 2003–04