Machiavellianism (psychology)

# Machiavellianism (psychology)

## Abstract

In the field of personality psychology, Machiavellianism (sometimes abbreviated as MACH) is the name of a personality trait construct characterized by interpersonal manipulation, indifference to morality, lack of empathy, and a calculated focus on self-interest. Psychologists Richard Christie and Florence L. Geis named the construct after Niccolò Machiavelli, as they used truncated and edited statements similar to his writing style to study variations in human behaviors. Their Mach IV test, a 20-question, Likert-scale personality survey, became the standard self-assessment tool and scale of the Machiavellianism construct. Those who score high on the scale (High Machs) are more likely to have a high level of manipulativeness, deceitfulness and a cynical, unemotional temperament. Though the construct is named "Machiavellianism", it does not refer to the eponymous political doctrine.

It is one of the dark triad traits, along with the subclinical versions of narcissism and psychopathy.

## Origin of the construct

### Adapting Machiavelli for psychometric use

In 1955, psychologist Richard Christie set out to study the thought processes and actions of those who manipulated others, such as political ideologues and religious extremists. He found that there was much literature on those who followed organizations and movements, but very little on those who led them. As Christie was developing a psychometric model for interpersonal manipulation, he was reminded of his encounter with Machiavelli's writings as an undergraduate, and wanted to use them in his research. In the 1960s, Christie and his colleagues would then develop a test using a selection of statements, including truncated and edited sentences that were similar to certain phrases found in Machiavelli's works such as The Prince and The Discourses on Livy as test items, naming the construct "Machiavellianism" after him. They wanted to assess whether or not those who were in agreement with the statements would behave differently than others who disagreed, specifically in regards to manipulative actions. Christie and his research partner Florence L. Geis published their results in their book, titled " Studies in Machiavellianism ", in 1970.

Christie made light of the difficulty in adapting Machiavelli's writings into a non political test, joking that his advice was "better suited for Renaissance princes" than for college undergraduates. Christie used more colloquial, everyday wording when creating the scale items, as most taking the test would have difficulties understanding the questions in their original prose. Thus Christie used test items that were "theoretically congruent with" or loosely based on Machiavelli's tone, instead of literal, direct statements from his works.

### On the name of the scale

While the construct is named "Machiavellianism", it does not refer to the political theory espoused in Machiavelli's books. Because the two concepts share the same name, they can be confused for one another, even though his political ideas are not relevant to psychology. Out of all 20 items on the MACH IV, only one item (Item 20) has a more direct relation with Machiavelli's writings, yet it is also removed from its original political context. In fact, some questions on the MACH-IV are not from Machiavelli at all. For example, two of them reference P.T. Barnum (born 1810) and voluntary euthanasia, both of which are unrelated to Machiavelli's ideas. The MACH-IV (and other Machiavellianism tests) also feature questions partially based on statements by other thinkers such as Chinese political authors, not just Machiavelli. In light of this, scholars often claim that the scale has no relation to Machiavelli outside of bearing his name. Researchers have commented that despite the name, the personality construct has nothing to do with Machiavelli's politics. Christie himself makes clear that he used sentences inspired by Machiavelli's works only as a sort of litmus test to study deceptive and manipulative behavior, and that his concern was not with Machiavelli's historical or political influence, stating specifically that:

Historians disagree as to whether Machiavelli was a cynic who wrote political satire, a patriot, or the first modern political scientist. The present concern is not with Machiavelli as an historic figure, but as the source of ideas about those who manipulate others.

Researcher and Psychology Today author Dale Hartley made this point more clear in his book, Machiavellians: Gulling The Rubes:

When psychologists refer to the terms, Machiavellian or Machiavellianism, they do not mean Machiavelli's political advice. They refer instead to the underlying personality traits of cynicism, duplicity and scheming by which master manipulators conceive and execute their agendas.

Christie stated that he chose the name "Machiavellianism" out of convienence seeing as other names such as "M scale" (M for manipulation) and "Ma scale" (which was used by the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory for hypomania) were taken. Names also considered were the "manipulator" or "operator" scale, but these terms had issues regarding behavioral validity. He also admits that by using the name "Machiavellianism", the scale would "create problems of public misunderstanding" due to the existing political meaning of the term. In a later essay, Christie even states that some have viewed the name problematic and that "the use of the word Machiavellianism to describe the content of the scales has been questioned". Indeed, recent scholars have stated that the majority of items on the scale were wrongly attributed to Machiavelli.

### Mach IV

Christie and Geis's Mach IV test, a 20-question, Likert-scale personality survey, became the standard self-report tool to measure one's level of Machiavellianism. Those who score highly on the scale are classified as high Machs, while those who score low are classified as low Machs. Using their scale, Christie and Geis conducted multiple experimental tests that showed that the interpersonal strategies and behavior of "high Machs" and "low Machs" differ. People scoring high on the scale tend to endorse manipulative statements, and behave accordingly, contrary to those who score lowly. People scoring high on the scale tend to endorse statements such as, "Never tell anyone the real reason you did something unless it is useful to do so," (No. 1) but not ones like, "Most people are basically good and kind" (No. 4), "There is no excuse for lying to someone else" (No. 7) or "Most people who get ahead in the world lead clean, moral lives" (No. 11) Their basic results have been widely replicated. Measured on the Mach IV scale, males score, on average, slightly higher on Machiavellianism than females.

The Mach IV test influenced the creation of an assessment called the Dirty Dozen, which contains 12 items, and the Short Dark Triad, composed of 27 items.

High vs Low Machiavellianism

Like all personality traits, Machiavellianism is a characteristic that exists on a spectrum or continuum. Christie and others noted that High Machs were more likely to cheat in experimental games, manipulate others around them, and were generally detached in their interactions. This was opposed to the behavior of Low Machs, who found such behaviors immoral, and refrained from them.

The higher a person is on the Machiavellianism scale, the more likely they are to deceive and exploit at the expense of someone else, engage in unprincipled behavior, and have a lack of empathetic feelings.

## Core features

In developing the construct studying manipulators, Christie theorized that they would possess the following characteristics:

1. A relative lack of affect in interpersonal relationships: Manipulators do not empathize with their victims. The more empathy one has, Christie says, the less likely one will manipulate a person to do their bidding.

2. A lack of concern for conventional morality: Christie asserts that the manipulator is not concerned with the morality of behaviors such as lying and cheating.

3. A lack of gross psychopathology: Christie states that manipulators usually have an instrumentalist view of the world, which shows a lack of psychosis or other mental impairments.

4. Low ideological commitment: Manipulators prefer to focus on getting things done pragmatically rather than focus on ideological allegiances. Christie states that while manipulators are to be found in organizations of differing ideals, they are more likely to be interested in tactics that achieve individual ends than inflexible idealistic ones.

### Five-Factor Model

Under the recently devised Five-Factor Model of Machiavellianism, three characteristics underlie the construct:

- Antagonism: manipulativeness, cynicism, selfishness, callousness, and arrogance.

- Planfulness: deliberation and orderliness.

- Agency: achievement-striving, assertiveness, self-confidence, emotional invulnerability, activity and competence.

## Causes

### Genetic and environmental

Several behavioral genetics studies on the dark triad have shown that Machiavellianism has both significantly genetic and environmental influences. Researchers have noted that while Machiavellianism is heritable to a substantial degree, it can also be influenced by the shared-environment (i.e. sibling groups) slightly more than narcissism and psychopathy. Other traits associated with machiavellianism are influenced by genetics as well, as one study notes that "The co-occurrence of alexithymia and Machiavellianism was most heavily influenced by genetic factors, and to a lesser but significant extent by non-shared environmental factors." Machiavellianism is also heavily correlated with primary psychopathy which is itself strongly heritable. A study on the "core" of dark triad traits also emphasized that the residual traits of Machiavellianism had "significant genetic components". One particular study found a gene responsible for dopamine reception was positively associated with individuals who scored high on the MACH IV, but it is unclear what specific mechanisms cause this effect. A study noted that the emotionality of Machiavellianism may also be genetically determined, with the authors stating that "it can be expected that in the case of Machiavellianism, the genetic influence may manifest itself by affecting the emotional sphere. That affective insensitivity – as McIlwain (2003) designates it--makes Machiavellians similar to psychopaths. In the study by Vernon et al (2008), genetic factors for Machiavellianism and psychopathy were correlated, which suggests that the variability of both qualities is greatly affected by the same genes. The genetically determined “cool syndrome” makes it easier for the child to use effective manipulation, leading to the development of a permanent behaviour strategy, at the same time protecting the child from internal punishments such as shame or guilt."

Studies have found a link between Machiavellianism and a blunted cortisol awaking response (CAR). A person's cortisol awaking response has been associated with a lack of affective empathy, and is highly heritable.

Environmental causes

The environmental causes (such as shared, and non-shared environment) that contribute to the development of machiavellianism were childhood maltreatment and neglect, social reinforcement of manipulative behaviors from an early age, and poor family functioning. One study even stated that "the etiology of Machiavellianism, similarly to the development of a dismissing-avoidant pattern, partly originates from childhood experiences obtained in relationships with unexpressive, less understanding, highly punitive or restrictive caregivers". In many studies, Machiavellianism has been heavily correlated with negative home atmospheres, loneliness, and adverse parental experiences. One study noted that punishment specifically led to the "emergence of deceitful and exploitative interpersonal tactics." The authors of the study concluded that these results "might give further support for the idea that Machiavellian personality traits are possible strategic responses to childhood adversities". Another study found the traits of Machiavellianism to be a response to early maladaptive schemas (EMS), essentially coping mechanisms for emotional deprivation, mistrust, abuse, and caregiver rejection. Irregular parent care, such as a mother being neglectful and a father being overprotective, has also been correlated with Machiavellianism. The hereditary influence on Machiavellianism may make it challenging to disentangle the genetic underpinnings from the effects of parental upbringing and environmental factors.

In general, Jones (2020) asserts that "there may be a myriad of reasons, including some environmental reasons, as to why someone would become cynical, habitually ignore morality, or use manipulative persuasion. There may be others who are born cynical, manipulative, and amoral. Thus, there may be differences in etiology that lead to differences in how fixed the trait is, and how it is expressed".

### Machiavellianism in children

Ever since the creation of the construct in the 1960s, there has been extensive research on Machiavellianism in young children and adolescents, via a measure dubbed the "Kiddie Mach" test. The first study was done in 1966 as a part of Dorothea Braginsky's doctoral dissertation, with the subjects being as young as 10 years old. Studies have shown that traits of Machiavellianism and other dark triad traits were already present in preschool children, and more pronounced in adolescents aged 11–17. There have been studies to measure Machiavellianism in 6 year olds using adult informants to analyze the child's behavior. Deceptive behaviors by children even as young as 3 were also investigated heavily. Peer reports suggest that children higher in Machiavellianism exhibit behaviors such as using both prosocial and coercive strategies based on how much is to be gained in a situation, and they tend to manipulate indirectly. Children who score highly on the Machiavellianism scale tend to be more successful in manipulation, do it more frequently, and are judged as better at manipulation than those who score lower. Parental levels of Machiavellianism seem to have a slight effect on the child's own level. Machiavellianism levels in fathers was positively correlated with the Machiavellianism levels of their children, but the mother's level had no significant effect. One study concluded that "parental Machiavellianism is a predictor and perhaps a cause of children's Machiavellian beliefs and their manipulative success". Machiavellianism is also correlated with childhood aggression, especially concerning the control of social hierarchies. One study found a trend upwards with respect to Machiavellianism from late childhood to adolescence, when levels of Machiavellianism are thought to peak. From adolescence throughout adulthood there is a significant and steady downward trend with regard to levels of Machiavellianism, until the age of 65 where an overall lifetime minimum is reached.

Peer ratings of children high on Machiavellianism are inconsistent, with some researchers reporting that juvenile High Machs are rated as popular, and some reporting that they are less well liked by peers. A study involving Greek children ages 8–12 noted that the children highest in Machiavellianism showed aggressive tendencies and were more likely to bully others, though the tactics varied by gender.

## Dark triad

In 1998, John McHoskey, William Worzel, and Christopher Szyarto proposed that narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy are more or less interchangeable in normal samples. Delroy L. Paulhus and McHoskey debated these perspectives at an American Psychological Association conference, inspiring a body of research that continues to grow in the published literature. Delroy Paulhus and Kevin Williams found enough differences between the traits to suggest that they were distinct despite their similarities, thus the concept of a "triad" of offensive personality traits was conceptualized. There has been research on Machiavellianism using various dark triad measures, including the Short Dark Triad (SD3), and the Dark Triad Dirty Dozen test.

### Psychopathy

Many psychologists consider Machiavellianism to be essentially indistinguishable from psychopathy, as they both share manipulative tendencies, disregard for morality, and cold callousness as their primary attributes. There is an immense and ongoing debate amongst researchers as to whether or not Machiavellianism and psychopathy should be treated as the same construct, or at least view Machiavellianism as a trait of psychopathy. When tested, High Machs scored consistently high on measures of psychopathy, more than Low Machs. Primary psychopaths also scored higher on the Machiavellianism scale than secondary psychopaths. According to John McHoskey, the MACH-IV test is merely "a global measure of psychopathy in noninstitutionalized populations", and that this is a result of the disconnect between clinical and personality psychology. Many have stated that the Machiavellianism scale measures nothing more than "successful" psychopathy, or psychopathy without the extreme clinical characteristics. Even compared to other "dark" traits, research has shown that Psychopathy correlates with Machiavellianism far more than it correlates with narcissism. Some authors have stated that Machiavellianism and psychopathy represent the issue of a jangle fallacy, as both constructs are named differently yet describe the same concept. A recent paper published in 2022 stated that Machiavellianism "is theoretically distinct from psychopathy, but empirically they are nearly indistinguishable". Beverly Fehr even suggested that psychopaths may be simply "High Machs who have had run up against the law". Robert Hare, author of the Psychopathy Checklist, stated that Machiavellianism is more closely related to PCL Factor 1, affective detachment, than to Factor 2, an antisocial lifestyle. According to Christopher Patrick, high Psychopathy Checklist scores correlated with much higher Machiavellianism scores, as well as higher scores on boldness and aggressiveness.

Researchers note that Machiavellianism is well represented in every measure of psychopathy, such as the Factor 1 characteristics on the Psychopathy Checklist, more specifically traits such as "conning/manipulative", "pathological lying,” "callous/lack of empathy", and “glibness/superficial charm”. Donald Lynam and others noted that Machiavellianism is also represented in the "Interpersonal Manipulation" factor in Hare’s Self-Report Psychopathy Scale-III and in the "Manipulation" scale in the Elemental Psychopathy Assessment. The researchers state that "ultimately, measures of psychopathy and MACH appear to be measuring the same construct, and MACH assessments fail to capture the construct as articulated in theoretical descriptions". Michael Levenson, author of the Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale disagreed with the notion of distinguishing machiavellianism from psychopathy, stating that it "does not accord" with empirical research which shows Machiavellianism being heavily related to primary psychopathy. Machiavellianism has a strong relationship with both primary and secondary psychopathy on Levenson's self report test. In experiments High Machs also scored highly on the Psychopathic Deviate subscale on the MMPI. On the Psychopathic Personality Inventory, created by Scott Lilienfeld and Brian Andrews, there is even a subscale similarly named "Machiavellian Egocentricity". The subscale is said to assess a "ruthless and self centered willingness to exploit others". Machiavellianism and psychopathy have both been negatively correlated with the recognition of facial emotions, with one study stating that "if the ability to recognise facial expressions is exclusively an affective empathy task, it indeed accounts for the facial recognition deficits found in primary psychopathy and Machiavellianism." High scores on the Triarchic Psychopathy Measure questionnaire strongly correlated with Machiavellianism.

Machiavellianism and psychopathy overlap so heavily that researchers have proposed merging the two traits into each other, preferably Machiavellianism as a facet of psychopathy. There have been attempts to combine Machiavellianism and psychopathy into one construct, such as the creation of a "Dark Dyad" as opposed to a "Dark Triad", with the exclusion of narcissism.

A recent study done on criminal psychopaths noted that Machiavellianism showed the strongest association with the affective aspect of psychopathy.

#### Difference between constructs:Impulse control

Many other psychologists state that while Machiavellianism and psychopathy overlap heavily, there is much evidence to suggest that they are distinct personality constructs. Psychologists who stress the differences between Machiavellianism and psychopathy state that, in total contrast to high Machs, psychopaths are impulsive, tend to be reckless, and lack long term planning skills. Delroy Paulhus and others have stated that this difference between the two traits is often underappreciated. Scholars also note that those high on Machiavellianism can delay gratification, and have more sensitivity to punishment and awareness of consequences than psychopaths. Though both traits have a heritable basis, Machiavellianism is more influenced by the environment than psychopathy. High Machs have been described as "master manipulators" and far better at manipulation than psychopaths and narcissists.

Daniel Jones notes that even though both psychopaths and High Machs share a manipulative and callous nature, the difference between Machiavellianism and psychopathy lies in the type of manipulation employed by the two constructs. Machiavellianism is marked by calculated planning, and manipulating only when something is to be gained, while psychopathy is marked by rashness, and manipulating regardless of situation. O'Boyle and others found however that the notion that Machiavellianism is marked by cautiousness does not match empirical research which shows that it can be correlated with reckless behavior in certain situations.

### Narcissism

Individuals high in Machiavellianism and narcissism both manipulate to improve their reputations, and how they appear to others. Individuals high in the two traits do this as a form of self aggrandizement to help their chances of success in a given situation. Machiavellianism scores were positively associated with aspects of narcissism such as entitlement and exploitativeness, and inversely associated with adaptive narcissistic tendencies, like self-sufficiency. Studies have also shown that those higher on Machiavellianism are more realistic about their character, while narcissists are less realistic about theirs. Compared to High Machs, narcissists are less malevolent and show a more socially positive personality. They also have higher levels of self-rated happiness.

Machiavellianism and narcissism both share a lack of empathy and a focus on self-interest, though the two traits differ in how they manifest in people, and what their motivations are. High Machs have tendencies to be driven by personal gain, whereas narcissists are driven by a need for validation and admiration. Opposed to those high on narcissism, High Machs tend to be more strategic and calculating in their interpersonal interactions, while narcissists may be more impulsive and attention-seeking.

In terms of social relationships, High Machs are more likely to be more exploitative towards others, while narcissists may be more likely to seek out relationships that serve to bolster their self-esteem and provide them with the admiration they desire.

Compared to subclinical narcissists, High Machs exhibit a greater lack of empathy, because of the emotional deficiencies inherent within Machiavellianism.

### White collar crime

Research has shown that individuals high in Machiavellianism may be more willing to engage in white collar crimes. Psychologist Daniel Jones has stated that "individuals higher on Machiavellianism are well suited for crimes in the financial world, especially crimes that skirt the legal system". Delroy Paulhus has stated that Machiavellianism is the main trait for white collar criminals and con artists, and not psychopathy, stating that:

Although direct research on this topic is difficult, it seems clear that malevolent stockbrokers such as Bernie Madoff do not qualify as psychopaths: They are corporate Machiavellians who use deliberate, strategic procedures for exploiting others. A genuine psychopath, even at the subclinical level, lacks the self-control to orchestrate the schemes of a shrewd stockbroker.

In a research paper, Daniel Jones and others stated that a person high on Machiavellianism would also be possibly drawn to cybercrime, noting that "although we did not directly assess crimes, we did find patterns of system infiltration that were different among the three traits, with Machiavellianism being associated with the stealthiest approach among the three traits." They also stated that Machiavellianism would only be associated with crime if the "benefits outweighed the risks". They went on to clarify that this is opposed to individuals high in psychopathy, whom are prone to crime regardless of the situation.

### Other "dark" groupings

Machiavellianism has been featured in many other groupings of dark traits, such as the dark tetrad, which adds sadism to the dark triad traits.

The paper titled "The Dark Core of Personality" introduced a theoretical framework to understand various "dark traits" in personality as manifestations of a single underlying factor called the Dark Factor of Personality. This factor represents a general dispositional tendency where individuals prioritize their own utility (self-interest) at the expense of others, often justifying their actions through certain beliefs. The concept of D encapsulates all of the main "dark traits", with the addition of Spitefulness, Egoism, Moral Disengagement, Entitlement, and Self-interest. The authors of the study argued that while Machiavellianism, along with other dark traits like Narcissism and Psychopathy, has its unique features, it also shares a common core with these traits, which is encapsulated in the D factor. This means that people who score high in Machiavellianism tend to exhibit behaviors that prioritize their own benefit over others' which correlate with characteristis that align with the D factor. It is said that manipulativeness and callousness is responsible for the covariances among the dark personalities in general.

The light triad is a personality model that contrasts the dark triad, which comprises Kantianism, faith in humanity, and humanism. Kantianism was compared to Machiavellianism as it's opposite. Both Kantianism and Machiavellianism are traits which are tongue in cheek references to philosophers. The "Light Triad" and its characteristics were most strongly negatively correlated with Machiavellianism.

## DSM: Trait, not disorder

Machiavellianism has never been considered a disorder, nor has it been referenced in any version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. It has been treated as strictly a personality construct. It is primarily studied by personality psychologists, as it is a non-clinical personality style.

## Relations with other personality traits

There is immense literature concerning the relationships between Machiavellianism and other personality dimensions, such as the traits in the Big Five trait model. Machiavellianism has also been related to interpersonal aggression and hostile behavior.

### Big Five

Mach-IV scores are negatively correlated with agreeableness (r = −0.47) and conscientiousness (r = −0.34), two dimensions of the Big Five personality model (NEO-PI-R). The FFMI corrects for this by including aspects of high conscientiousness in the scale (e.g. order, deliberation). Additionally, Machiavellianism correlates more highly with the honesty-humility dimension of the six-factor HEXACO model than with any of the big five dimensions. Machiavellianism has also been located within the interpersonal circumplex, which consists of the two independent dimensions of agency and communion. Agency refers to the motivation to succeed and to individuate the self, whereas communion refers to the motivation to merge with others and to support group interests. Machiavellianism lies in the quadrant of the circumplex defined by high agency and low communion. Machiavellianism has been found to lie diagonally opposite from a circumplex construct called self-construal, a tendency to prefer communion over agency. This suggests that people high in Machiavellianism do not simply wish to achieve, they wish to do so at the expense of (or at least without regard to) others.

### Hot and cold empathy

There are two distinct types of empathy which people use to relate to each other which are referred to as hot and cold empathy. Cold empathy (or cognitive empathy) refers to the understanding of how others might react to one's actions or a certain event. Hot empathy (or emotional/affective empathy) refers to the emotional reaction others might have to the emotions of another person. Machiavellianism was consistently negatively correlated with affective empathy in nearly every study. Machiavellianism was also negatively correlated with affective resonance (feeling good when others feel good) and positively associated with affective dissonance (e.g. feeling happy when others are sad). People high in Machiavellianism tend to have a better understanding of cold empathy and do not feel hot empathy which explains why they seem cold and uncaring. Research results have also suggested that High Machs are deficient only at the level of affective empathy (sharing of emotions), whereas their cognitive empathy is intact, even high. Another study suggested that high Machs are deficient at both kinds of empathy. Studies also assert that high Machs do not feel guilt or remorse over the consequences of their manipulations. High Machs are less likely to be altruistic, and they are less likely to be concerned with the problems of others. High Machs are also less emotionally expressive and have a hard time recognizing and understanding the emotional states of others. One study proposed that High Machs have more automatic (that is, un-conscious) recognition of other's negative emotions more than low Machs, and though they don't internalize these feelings, the understanding of those emotions may in fact aid in the manipulation of others. Children who scored higher on Machiavellianism showed a lack of empathy and more delinquent behaviors compared to those who scored lower, such as a lack of guilt, lying, cheating, and truancy.

Some authors have stated that since Machiavellianism is so diametrically opposed to empathy, it should be included in empathy scales as the polar opposite. Total scores on Machiavellianism and empathy were "significantly negatively correlated".

### Unemotionality

One of the primary traits of machiavellianism is a detached, unemotional attitude and lack of affect in regards to others. Christie and Geis noted that the primary difference between high machs and low machs was the degree of emotion invested in interpersonal relations, with those scoring high having the lowest. Research has been done on the extent of the low emotionality of those who score high on the Machiavellianism scale. Doris Mcllwain noted that "Machiavellians do not inhabit the realm of emotion in the same way as others, yet they use it to manipulate others. They do not experience feelings, empathy, or morality in normative ways. yet they are consummate manipulators and deceivers precisely by playing upon these sentiments and convictions in others. Thus they induce in others the guilt they hardly feel themselves." A study done by Farah Ali and others noted that Machiavellianism seems to have emotional reactions to stimuli similar to primary psychopathy, differing only in higher levels of anxiety, which those who score highly on machiavellianism may be prone to. Machiavellianism has an unclear relation with anxiety levels, some researchers have found positive correlations, while some have found no relation at all. High Machs demonstrate reduced skills in expressing their emotions.

A recent analysis discovered that, in addition to acting for mostly self interest and profit, High Machs used significantly less words when referring to emotional involvement. They concluded that "this study confirmed previous findings that High Machs have a cool and rational character and a pro-self orientation and showed that their lack of group orientation may account for their low cooperation in social dilemmas."

Alexithymia is also considered a key trait that is correlated heavily with Machiavellianism. It is the lack of awareness of one's own emotions as well as the emotions of others. When tested, healthy alexithymic individuals have been found to obtain high Machiavellianism scores. This was not surprising to researchers, seeing as the unemotionality of Machiavellianism shows similarities to what alexithymics experience. One study examined the relationship between alexithymia and endorsement of beliefs associated with Machiavellianism amongst university students. Results showed a positive correlation between alexithymia and exploitative beliefs, suggesting those with higher levels of alexithymia were more likely to endorse the view that manipulating others is an effective strategy.

### Neuroticism/Depression

Researchers have often debated the potential links between Machiavellianism and a neurotic, anxious disposition. In a study done by psychologists Hans Eysenck, his wife Sybil, and John Allsopp, they note that they found "virtually no relationship" between Machiavellianism and neuroticism, unlike the relationships they found with Machiavellianism and Extraversion - Psychoticism respectively. However John McHoskey found links between Machiavellianism and neuroticism, along with the other personality traits popularized by Eysenck. Studies using measures of the Big Five personality traits have variously found positive or no correlation between Machiavellianism and Neuroticism.

Machiavellianism has very scant correlations with depression, and the higher one's Machiavellianism score was, the lower their depression level was. One study even noted that depressed males "were significantly less Machiavellian than were nondepressed males". They then estimate that "depression in males, then, may be of a more self-aggressive, self-destructive nature". High Machs who have higher levels of emotional intelligence scores show less depressive symptoms.

### Motivation

A 1992 review described the motivation of those high on the Machiavellianism scale as related to cold selfishness and pure instrumentality, and those high on the trait were assumed to pursue their motives (e.g. sex, achievement, sociality) in duplicitous ways. More recent research on the motivations of high Machs compared to low Machs found that they gave high priority to money, power, and competition and relatively low priority to community building, self-love, and family commitment. High Machs admitted to focusing on unmitigated achievement and winning at any cost.

The research on behaviors which high Machs engage in suggest that they are willing to achieve their goals by bending and breaking rules, cheating, and stealing. People high in Machiavellianism are able to easily switch between working with others to taking advantage of others to achieve their goals, and they are more willing to do things others see as terrible or immoral.

### Intelligence and other cognitive skills

Due to their skill at interpersonal manipulation, there has often been an assumption that high Machs possess superior intelligence, or ability to understand other people in social situations. Recent research provides some support for this assumption. However, other research has established that Machiavellianism is unrelated to IQ. Paulhus and Williams found "significant associations of psychopathy and Machiavellianism with a relatively higher nonverbal to verbal IQ score".

Studies on emotional intelligence have usually found that high Machiavellianism is associated with low emotional intelligence as assessed by both performance and questionnaire measures.

Research has examined the relationship between trait emotional intelligence (EI), Machiavellianism, and the personality trait of agreeableness. The findings of one paper revealed that while trait EI and the ability to manage others' emotions were negatively correlated with Machiavellianism, this relationship was mediated by agreeableness. Specifically, those high in trait EI tended to be low in Machiavellianism primarily because they were high in agreeableness, reflecting a cooperative and prosocial nature. One study found that Machiavellianism was negatively associated with most facets of socio-emotional intelligence (SEI), including social expressivity, social sensitivity, emotional expressivity, and emotional sensitivity. However, Machiavellianism showed no significant relationship with emotional control, which involves regulating one's own emotional displays. Machiavellianism was positively associated with emotional manipulation, the tendency to strategically influence others' emotions. Despite this association, Machiavellianism did not moderate the relationship between any facet of SEI and emotional manipulation. This suggests that while High Machs have a propensity for emotionally manipulative behavior, they may not be utilizing socio-emotional skills towards that end. The authors propose this could be due to the High Mach's externally-oriented and unemotional perspective.

Both emotional empathy and emotion recognition have been shown to have negative correlations with Machiavellianism. Additionally, research has shown that Machiavellianism is unrelated to a more advanced theory of mind, that is, the ability to anticipate what others are thinking in social situations. However, research results have suggested the contrary viewpoint that high Machiavellianism is associated with excellent theory of mind skills.

When it comes to manipulation, individuals high in Machiavellianism may, according to Bereczkei, "have certain cognitive and social skills that enable them to properly adapt to the challenges of environmental circumstances". They also are incredibly perceptive to the presence of others, and are able to feign altruism to enhance their reputation. A recent study investigated whether Machiavellianism is associated with the production of "bullshit" - inaccurate or meaningless information intended to impress, persuade or mislead. The researchers found that the manipulative aspect of Machiavellianism (Machiavellian approach) was linked to "persuasive bullshitting", aimed at gaining desired resources. The distrustful aspect (Machiavellian avoidance) was associated with "evasive bullshitting", spreading vague information to prevent disadvantages. Those high in Machiavellian avoidance were even better at distinguishing misinformation from valuable information.

### Neurological studies

There have been few studies on the neural correlates of Machiavellianism. Research has shown that Machiavellianism has been correlated with changes in gray matter in the areas of the basal ganglia, left prefrontal cortex, bilaterally in the insula, and in the right hippocampus and the left parahippocampal gyrus. Researcher Tamas Bereczkei stated that the manipulation skill in High Machs is associated with neural correlates that are responsible for decision making. He also noted that behaviors associated with Machiavellianism need to "recruit more neural resources than a honest behavior, especially when manipulators face a cooperative partner as a potential victim. Machiavellians have to inhibit the norm of reciprocity and, additionally, generate an opposite response." Machiavellianism has also been linked with lesions in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Frontal dysfunction was also linked with Machiavellianism. Daniel Jones also concluded that those who score high on Machiavellianism have the "neurological structure of a strategic manipulator". The activation of the task-positive network (TPN) and the default mode network (DMN) have also been associated with a lack of genuine empathy, and also have been observed in Machiavellianism. A recent study linked regional gray matter volume in the left superior frontal gyrus to both Machiavellianism and social aggression, which is "intentional antisocial behavior directed to damage others’ social reputations or interpersonal relationships through socially manipulative tactics".

## Social relationships

The effects that one's level of Machiavellianism has on a person's socialization and interpersonal relationships, such as friendships and romantic relationships, has been studied extensively. High Machs are highly likely to ingratiate themselves within social groups via compliments and conforming their opinions to those around them. High Machs are more than likely to choose better quality friends, as they have a better time at guessing who is a good person and thus more pliable for manipulation. Machiavellianism was also correlated with withdrawal and avoidance in romantic relationships. Individuals high in all dark triad traits find it easy to end relationships, and tend to prefer short-term relationships over long term ones. Studies done on courtship showed that women higher on machiavellianism tend to go on dates not for sexual reasons but for free food, a phenomenon known as a "foodie call". Because a lack of empathy and affect with regards to others is one of the main features of Machiavellianism, individuals high on the trait tend to act in a utilitarian, self interested manner, prefer emotionally detached relationships, and are not concerned with the other person's needs. High machs report lower relationship satisfaction than those lower on the scale. Though there has been research on the potential "attractiveness" of the dark triad traits, out of all of the traits in the dark triad, Machiavellianism was the least attractive to the opposite sex. One of the studies concluded that "The third DT trait, Machiavellianism, was significantly negatively associated with being chosen and mate appeal for STR in women." Another study claimed that this was because high Machs tend to be way less extroverted than narcissists and psychopaths, and that "it is possible that individuals do not like cynical, manipulative, aggressive, remorseless, and duplicitous people such as Machiavellians and psychopaths".

Like the other dark triad traits, those high on Machiavellianism have been reportedly more willing to troll or flame others on the internet, however a 2021 study found no particularly strong connection between trolling and dark personality traits. Machiavellianism has also been correlated with a higher than average belief in conspiracy theories. Because of their emphasis on hierarchy, high scorers in Machiavellianism were also found with higher levels of prejudice, and higher social dominance orientation scores.

### Gender differences

Research has consistently shown that men score higher than women in Machiavellianism. There is evidence to suggest that Machiavellianism is represented differently in both sexes, with men being more opportunistic, self confident, and willing to take risks, while women higher in Machiavellianism are more likely to be avoidant and have anxious features. While only psychopathy was an indicator of future infidelity amongst men, both psychopathy and Machiavellianism were predictors amongst women. The findings of one research paper showed that men, but not women, high in Machiavellianism were non-impulsive and high in planning, which suggests that the apparent impulsivity of Machiavellianism may be a question of gender. Peter Jonason suggested that the reason why men score much higher than women in dark triad traits is because men require less emotional connection in order to get ahead in life.

### Cross-cultural studies

There have been many studies on how Machiavellianism is presented in people from different countries and with different cultures. Multiple studies found that in nearly all countries, men scored higher than women in Machiavellianism, and that the gender differences were notable. The populations of many other countries varied from their western counterparts in their levels of dark triad traits overall, which the authors of one study attributed to sociopolitical factors and levels of economic engagement. In another cross cultural study, Machiavellianism also showed associations with limited interactive or normative values. A study investigated the relationship between emotion recognition and dark personality traits (including Machiavellianism) across cultures. The effects were gender and culture-dependent. Among both German males and females, Machiavellianism showed strong positive associations with emotionally manipulative tactics. Some scholars noted an issue with many cross cultural studies on machiavellianism, primarily that "researchers have used measures of Machiavellianism (Mach IV) which were derived from Western concepts and which may not have similar meanings when applied to non-Western groups."

### Aggression and antisocial behavior

Machiavellianism has little association with the outright display of overt aggression. Those high in Machiavellianism tend to be more more aggressive to short term as opposed to long term partners. While Machiavellianism is associated with hostility, those high on the trait may mask it depending on the manipulation tactic used. Machiavellianism also is associated with the tuning of aggression to the benefit long term objectives, only engaging in antisocial behavior when the stakes are low and it proffers benefits, unlike psychopathy and narcissism. In a study by Delroy Paulhus and Daniel Jones, High Machs were found to refrain from cheating under risky situations, preferring to sustain their reputation for the long term than to engage in short term financial gain. The authors then state that High Machs may cheat under high risk scenarios, but only when "ego-depleted", which then makes their behavior appear similar to those of psychopaths. McHoskey found that MACH is associated with "cheating, divulging intimate sexual secrets to third parties, and both feigning love and inducing intoxication to secure sex". He also suggested that Machiavellianism is correlated with an extensive focus on financial gain, and is also correlated with antisocial behaviors such as stealing, vandalism, and cheating as opposed to prosocial actions like helping others.

## In the workplace

Machiavellianism is also studied by organizational psychologists, especially those who study manipulative behaviors in workplace settings. Workplace behaviors associated with this concept include flattery, deceit, coercion, and the abuse of others through one's position of leadership. These behaviors in the workplace are ultimately done to advance personal interests. Research has shown that one's level of Machiavellianism can be a major factor in situations where workplace manipulation is involved because this trait can have an effect on the ability for an individual to "fit" into a highly political work environment. Research has found individuals with Dark Triad traits are drawn to entrepreneurship. Certain qualities found in the Dark Triad are similar to traits needed for effective entrepreneurship, such as confidence, charisma and risk taking.

### Career choice and advancement

Individuals high in machiavellianism tend to gravitate towards particular careers, especially those that require a high degree of competitiveness needed to succeed. High Machs are ambitious enough to cut corners and use aggressive means if it is necessary to get ahead in their careers. One study found that "Machiavellianism was positively related to leadership position and career satisfaction". Individuals high in machiavellianism are especially drawn to leadership and management positions, which became an important subject in the primary literature. Sales careers also attract dark triad individuals, with one study stating that such individuals are "prevalent" in the industry. One study noted that those who possess high Machiavellianism levels "are more productive but received lower overall managerial ratings", and that "Machiavellianism may in certain circumstances, be somewhat advantageous for long-term sales performance." Machiavellianism was also associated with the use of "hard" (i.e. aggressive and hostile behavior) and "soft" (i.e. joking/kidding, offering compliments) tactics in the workforce. One's political skill in the workplace and elsewhere may even mask the behaviors and characteristics associated with machiavellianism.

It was shown that those high on Machiavellianism are more drawn to academic majors like economics, law, and politics, as opposed to the "person-oriented" majors like education, nursing, and social work that were associated with lower Machiavellianism scores.

## Scale Evaluation

### Dimensions of the MACH scale

Although there have been a myriad of proposed factor structures, two dimensions emerge most consistently within factor-analytic research which separates the views from the behaviors in Machiavellianism. Although many posit that the Mach IV scale is unable to reliably capture the two dimensions, a 10-item subset of the scale known as the "two-dimensional Mach IV" (TDM-V), reproduces the views and tactics dimensions across countries, genders, sample types, and scale category length. The "Views" dimension appears to capture the neurotic, narcissistic, pessimistic, and distrustful aspects of Machiavellianism, while the "Tactics" component captures the more unconscientious, self-serving, and deceitful behavioral aspects. More recently, in response to criticisms of the Mach-IV, researchers developed the Five-Factor Machiavellianism Inventory (FFMI), which attempts to include concepts (like being calculated and planful) that are not adequately captured by the Mach-IV.

### Construct validity and criticism

There has been debate on how valid scales of Machiavellianism are in tapping the construct. It is often stated by those critical of Machiavellianism scales that it does not actually measure the theoretical trait, but something nearly identical to psychopathy and narcissism. For example, it is often stated that Machiavellianism is marked by less impulsivity and better long term thinking as opposed to psychopathy, but some empirical research shows that even High Machs can act impulsive in certain scenarios. Lynam and others stated "we suggest that existing measures of Machiavellianism are functioning as proxy measures of psychopathy." Psychologist John Rauthmann viewed the MACH-IV as more of a measure of cynicism, and that it doesn't really capture other qualities of Machiavellianism.

Most of the research done on Machiavellianism has been done with either the Mach IV or Mach V, though the Mach V is no longer in use due to psychometric issues. Many have expressed concerns with the reliability of the Mach IV scale to capture all of the features of Machiavellianism, thus many proposals have been made in favor of other Machiavellianism scales.

John Rauthmann and others have stated that, while the MACH-IV is "a generally reliable and valid scale", it has its shortcomings. These include the response styles of the test takers, the varying factor structures, and "insufficient content and construct validity". The researchers developed their own scale instead to study Machiavellianism multidimensionally instead of unidimensionally to prevent the construct from becoming hard to study effectively. Psychologist Jason Dahling and others have created another measure of Machiavellianism, dubbed the Machiavellian Personality Scale (or MPS for short).

Daniel Jones has stated that the MACH IV, despite all of its merits, is an "outdated instrument" and "is not helping the field with precision". He ultimately states that it "should be replaced by assessments that are more precise reflections of the construct."

### Application of the scale in other research

In 2002, the Machiavellianism scale of Christie and Geis was applied by behavioral game theorists Anna Gunnthorsdottir, Kevin McCabe and Vernon L. Smith in their search for explanations for the spread of observed behavior in experimental games, in particular individual choices which do not correspond to assumptions of material self-interest captured by the standard Nash equilibrium prediction. It was found that in a trust game, those with high Mach-IV scores tended to follow Homo economicus ' equilibrium strategies while those with low Mach-IV scores tended to deviate from the equilibrium, and instead made choices that reflected widely accepted moral standards and social preferences.

A study done by David Wilson and other researchers noted that while High Machs tend to defect from their groups, they are also unlikely to succeed in the long term simply by manipulating others, and that some cooperation is necessary for further success and to avoid a situation in which they are retaliated against. Wilson also noted that since those who are high in Machiavellianism often come across as charming and attractive in brief social encounters, it is unclear whether they are being deceitful or just very skilled socially. The researchers had people who scored high and low on Machiavellianism write first-person stories. Other participants then evaluated these stories. The results showed that people with low Machiavellianism tended to be more cooperative, while those with high Machiavellianism were more exploitative. Based on these stories, high Machs were generally rejected as social partners, except when their manipulative skills could be used against members of other groups.

## Sources


Cinemax

# Cinemax

## Abstract

Cinemax, also known as Max, is an American pay television network owned by Home Box Office, Inc., a subsidiary of Warner Bros. Discovery. Launched on August 1, 1980, as a "maxi-pay" service to complement the offerings of its parent network, Home Box Office (HBO), Cinemax initially focused on recent and classic films. Today, its programming primarily includes recent and classic theatrically released films, original action series, documentaries, and special behind-the-scenes features.

It operates eight 24-hour linear channels and offers a traditional subscription video-on-demand service called Cinemax On Demand. Cinemax previously provided a TV Everywhere streaming platform, Cinemax Go, which is no longer available. However, its linear channels are accessible through multichannel video programming distributors such as Apple TV, Amazon Video, and Roku.

## History

Home Box Office, Inc., owned by Time Inc. 's Time-Life Broadcasting unit, launched a movie-centered pay service called Take 2 on April 1, 1979, as a companion to HBO. However, Take 2 struggled with subscriber growth and was discontinued in February 1981. HBO then announced the launch of Cinemax, a "maxi-pay" channel designed to complement HBO and compete with other movie channels. Cinemax debuted on August 1, 1980, focusing on theatrical films with no commercials or edits for content.

Cinemax initially aired on 56 cable systems in the Eastern and Central time zones, with a West Coast feed launching on September 1, 1980. The channel transitioned to a 24-hour schedule on January 1, 1981. Cinemax offered uncut films and was marketed as a premium addition to HBO, often bundled with HBO for a discount.

In October 1983, Cinemax faced a trademark infringement lawsuit from Tulsa 23 Limited Partnership over its promotional slogan, "We Are Your Movie Star." The court ruled in favor of Tulsa 23, and Cinemax was ordered to discontinue the slogan.

As competition increased, Cinemax adjusted its programming strategy by including more adult-oriented films and launching the "Friday After Dark" late-night block in 1984. The channel also introduced original music programming and series, including Second City Television and The Max Headroom Show. In February 1988, the network premiere of Lethal Weapon became one of Cinemax's highest-rated broadcasts.

On March 4, 1989, Warner Communications announced its intent to merge with HBO's parent company, Time Inc., for $14.9 billion. Despite legal challenges from Paramount Communications, the merger was completed on January 10, 1990, creating Time Warner (later WarnerMedia, now Warner Bros. Discovery), which remains the parent company of Cinemax and HBO.

In August 1991, Cinemax, along with HBO, was among the first American pay TV services to introduce multiplexed channels. Starting in 1992, Cinemax reintroduced television series development with adult-oriented scripted series, such as Erotic Confessions, Hot Line, Passion Cove, Lingerie, and Co-Ed Confidential.

From 1992 to 1997, Cinemax featured daily movie showcases centered on specific genres, identified by pictograms. This practice ended in September 1997, with Cinemax adopting a simplified branding strategy that included "Max Hits at 8" and "Max Prime at 10."

On March 1, 1994, Cinemax, HBO, Showtime, and The Movie Channel introduced a content advisory system to inform viewers about program content. A revised system with content codes was implemented on June 10, 1994.

In 1998, Cinemax began offering "sneak preview" blocks for its multiplex channels, ActionMax and ThrillerMax. Classic films, once a staple of the Cinemax schedule, were increasingly featured on multiplex channels like 5StarMax. By the mid-2000s, the main channel's programming focused on films from the 1990s to the present.

In 2001, Cinemax began premiering select blockbuster and lesser-known films before their HBO debut. In February 2011, Cinemax shifted its focus to original programming, launching action-themed series to compete with other premium and streaming services, and to rebrand its image from being primarily known for softcore pornographic content.

Following AT&T's acquisition of Time Warner in 2018, Cinemax's focus shifted significantly. Adult programming on Cinemax and HBO's multiplexes, as well as on-demand services, nearly disappeared due to increased availability of such content online and competition from other providers.

Cinemax, maybe moreso than HBO, is responsible for being the first promoter of many major motion picture releases. A majority of hit blockbuster movies got their first behind-the-scenes featurettes on Cinemax, and would be promoted on this show, including, as the first version of this show from the mid-80s, Sudden Impact, A View to a Kill, Code of Silence, Invasion USA, The Delta Force, and as Beyond the Screen, Licence to Kill, New York Stories, National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation, The Godfather Part III, Delta Force 2, GoodFellas (which premiered on the network, not HBO, and was always on Cinemax, never HBO; ironically, The Sopranos modeled themselves after the movie, despite the movie being a Cinemax staple), The Hitman, Boyz n the Hood, Juice, Batman Returns,, Singles, Menace II Society, Fresh, Clerks, Batman Forever, New Jersey Drive, Friday, GoldenEye, The Cure, Feeling Minnesota, Ransom, Home Alone 3, and The Devil's Advocate among many others. Most of the movies mentioned in the previous sentences made their network premiere on Cinemax, not HBO. Examples in the modern day include The Virgin Suicides, the original Matrix, and the John Wick franchise.

In January 2020, WarnerMedia announced that with the upcoming launch of HBO Max, Cinemax would cease commissioning original programming but would continue as a movie-focused service through existing distributors. Cinemax's original programming, although available internationally, was not included in HBO Max. Len Amato, the executive overseeing Cinemax and HBO's film and miniseries division, left WarnerMedia on August 14, 2020, marking the end of Cinemax's original programming efforts.

On May 17, 2021, AT&T and Discovery, Inc. announced a Reverse Morris Trust agreement, wherein WarnerMedia would spin-off from AT&T and merge with Discovery for $43 billion. This merger, completed in spring 2022, resulted in the formation of Warner Bros. Discovery, led by David Zaslav. On May 23, 2023, the merged company's streaming service was rebranded as Max.

## Channels

On May 8, 1991, Home Box Office Inc. announced plans to launch multiplexed companion channels for HBO and Cinemax, offering additional programming options at no extra charge. The test launch on August 1, 1991, introduced Cinemax 2, HBO2, and HBO3 (now HBO Signature) to select TeleCable customers, providing distinct programming from their parent channels. John K. Billock, HBO’s EVP of marketing, cited subscriber dissatisfaction with program scheduling as a reason for the multiplex expansion. A November 1991 ACNielsen survey showed positive impacts from the multiplex channels, including reduced negative opinions on pricing and improved overall usage.

In February 1996, Home Box Office announced plans to expand to twelve channels, including two additional Cinemax channels and a fourth HBO channel, projected for a Spring 1997 launch. The Cinemax multiplex expanded on December 1, 1996, with the launch of Cinemax 3, and the introduction of Mountain Time Zone feeds.

The Cinemax multiplex was marketed as "MultiChannel Cinemax" in September 1994, rebranded to "MultiMax" in April 1998, and later applied to the expanded four-channel package. This included MoreMax (formerly Cinemax 2), ActionMax (formerly Cinemax 3), and the new ThrillerMax channel.

On May 17, 2001, four additional themed channels were launched: OuterMax, WMax (later MovieMax), @Max (later Max Latino), and 5StarMax. Max Latino was rebranded as Cinemáx on April 1, 2015, mirroring the flagship Cinemax schedule with Spanish-language dubs. MovieMax started as a family-oriented channel and now focuses on recent and classic movies.

### List of channels

Cinemax offers up to eight 24-hour multiplex channels, available in both standard and high definition, with regional feeds based on time zones. These channels include a subscription video-on-demand service, Cinemax on Demand. Maintenance periods, ranging from 30 minutes to two hours, occur monthly during early morning hours before the 6:00 a.m. ET/PT start of the broadcast day.

Cinemax transmits its channels on both Eastern and Pacific Time Zone schedules. The time zone-based feeds are usually packaged together, resulting in a maximum three-hour difference in local airtimes between geographic locations. The opposite-region feed serves as a timeshift channel, allowing viewers to watch programs up to three hours later or four hours earlier than their local airtime. While most providers offer only the East and West Coast feeds of the main Cinemax channel, timeshifted feeds for other multiplex channels are available on platforms like DirecTV, YouTube TV, and Hulu live TV.

### Other services

#### Cinemax HD

Cinemax HD broadcasts in 1080i resolution with Dolby Digital 5.1 sound. Cinemax provides high definition simulcast feeds for its main channel and all seven multiplex channels. Initially, from the 2008 rollout of HD simulcasts for the multiplex feeds, most pay television providers only offered the main Cinemax channel in HD, with HD availability for multiplex channels varying by market. As of 2020, most providers offer all eight Cinemax multiplex channels in HD, either on a dedicated HD channel tier or as hybrid SD/HD feeds. The flagship network switched to exclusive high definition programming on September 1, 2008.

#### Cinemax On Demand

Cinemax On Demand is the network’s companion subscription video-on-demand (SVOD) service, available at no extra charge to subscribers of the linear television service. Launched in 2002, it offers VOD content through select virtual MVPD services such as DirecTV Stream and Hulu, as well as on Cinemax’s dedicated OTT video channels via Apple TV Channels, Amazon Video Channels, and The Roku Channel.

#### Cinemax Go

Cinemax Go (formerly MAX Go) was a TV Everywhere streaming service for Cinemax subscribers, available as a desktop website and through apps for Apple and Google Play devices, as well as most digital media players and game consoles. Launched on September 13, 2010, it mirrored the content of Cinemax On Demand, excluding live simulcasts of the linear channels. New episodes of the network's original programming were available at the same time as their wireline release.

The service was available to subscribers of AT&T U-verse, Cox Communications, DirecTV, Dish Network, Suddenlink Communications, and Charter Communications. The MAX Go app was discontinued on April 30, 2020, and the desktop website, renamed Cinemax Go, continued until July 31, 2022. The service was phased out as Warner Bros. Discovery consolidated its streaming efforts under HBO Max, rebranded as Max on May 23, 2023.

## Programming

Cinemax schedules movies for 20-24 hours daily on its main channel and 24 hours on its multiplex channels. Since June 2000, new theatrical and original movies have premiered every Sunday at 8:00 p.m. ET/PT. First-run films typically debut 10 months to a year after their theatrical release and within six months of DVD or VOD release.

### Original programming

On August 12, 2011, Cinemax expanded into original programming with the U.S. premiere of the British action series Strike Back. The series, which had originally aired in the UK, was produced in partnership with HBO. Cinemax's second original series, Hunted, premiered on October 19, 2012, in collaboration with BBC One. This was followed by Banshee in 2013, and in 2014, Sandbox and The Knick.

In 2020, Cinemax announced it would stop commissioning original programming to focus on HBO Max. The martial arts drama Warrior was the last original series on Cinemax, with its third season moving to HBO Max in April 2021.

#### Former program blocks

- Drive-In Saturday Night – Running Saturday nights at 10:00 p.m. Eastern Time from 1984 to 1993 (competing against a similar block, "Joe Bob's Drive-In Theater" on The Movie Channel, during that period), the "Drive-In Saturday Night" block featured a broad mix of cult films and action movies.

- Cinemax Comic Relief – This film block ran in varied timeslots from 1985 to 1988, showcasing a selection of four or five different comedy films each month.

- Cinemax Comedy Experiment – Running from February 16, 1985, to 1988, the "Cinemax Comedy Experiment" was a showcase of original comedy specials that were more free-form in style (some featuring elements of the sketch comedy and improv genre) than the conventional stand-up format (such as the first special under the banner, Howie Mandel: Live at Carnegie Mall).

- Rising Star – This film block ran in varied timeslots from 1985 to 1986, showcasing feature films from up-and-coming actors.

- Cinemax Film Discovery – This film block ran in varied primetime timeslots from 1985 to 1990, showcasing feature films not previously seen on television or in wide theatrical release.

- Military Max – Running from 1985 to 1988, this showcase featured a mix of four or five different military-themed feature films (most commonly war films, although with occasional broadcasts of military-themed films of other genres).

- Cinemax Director's Chair – This film block ran in varied timeslots from 1985 to 1993, showcasing a selection of notable films from an acclaimed director.

- Beyond the Screen - This in-between bumper shows behind the scene looks of an upcoming movie or a movie that will soon be aired on Cinemax.

- Cinemax Western Roundup – Running from 1985 to 1993, this weekend block featured a mix of film westerns.

- Cinemania – This film block ran in varied timeslots from 1988 to 1993, showcasing a selection of comedic films.

- Cinemax Classic Collection – Running from 1985 to 1993, this block showcased a selection of film classics from the 1930s to the 1960s.

- Cinemax From the Heart – This film block ran in varied timeslots from 1988 to 1993, showcasing a selection of romantic comedies and dramas.

- Vanguard Cinema – This film block ran in varied timeslots from 1988 to 1993, showcasing a selection of critically acclaimed films from the United States and abroad (the block was divided into three sub-blocks: "Cinemax Documentary", featuring first-run documentary films; "New Wave Films", featuring acclaimed recent movies; and "Cinemax Imports", originally a standalone block that began in 1985, which showcased film releases from other countries).

- Max Crime Time – This film block ran in varied timeslots from 1988 to 1997, showcasing a selection of crime dramas, detective films or film noirs.

- Starring... – This film block ran in varied timeslots from 1988 to 1997, showcasing a selection of hits as well as some early films from a particular film actor throughout the month.

- Summer of 1000 Movies – "The Summer of 1000 Movies" annual film festival ran from 1992 to 2005, and ran until the mid-2000s, in which the channel ran 1,000 films (many with a similar subject) over the course of each summer without repeats.

- Max Hits at 8 – Running from 1997 to 2001, this block showcased a popular feature film each night at 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time.

- Max Prime at 10/Max Time – Debuting in 1997 under the "Max Prime" banner, this block showcased a particular choice movie of various genres each night at 10:00 p.m. Eastern Time (or on weeknights only between 1998 and 2000, as a result of the creation of the "ActionMax on Cinemax" and "ThrillerMax on Cinemax" blocks).

#### Max After Dark

Cinemax's late-night block, Max After Dark, featured softcore pornographic films and original series with TV-MA or R ratings, primarily for strong sexual content and nudity. This block, which began on May 4, 1984, as "Cinemax Friday After Dark," expanded to seven nights a week by the late 1990s. Programs included Lingerie, Life on Top, Femme Fatales, and Topless Prophet. The block was known for its lenient scheduling around mainstream films and series and was often humorously referred to as "Skinemax."

The adult content was not limited to the main Cinemax channel but also aired on multiplex channels like MoreMax, ActionMax, ThrillerMax, and OuterMax. However, channels like MovieMax and 5StarMax avoided adult programming. The block's presence, alongside other HBO channels, was partly due to the FCC’s content regulations not applying to cable networks.

By 2013, Cinemax began reducing Max After Dark content to focus more on original programming, as internet porn's prevalence made the block's content seem relatively tame compared to HBO's original series.

## International distribution

Latin America

Cinemax launched on September 5, 1993, offering classic and recent movies, television series, and miniseries. Starting June 1, 2010, it became an ad-supported basic cable channel in the region. Original series aired on HBO's premium suite in Latin America.

Asia

Cinemax began broadcasting in 1996, featuring action, comedy, science fiction, and western movies. The channel was known as Max from 2009 to 2012.

Central Europe

Launched in February 2005, Cinemax focused on festival, indie, European, and classic films. Cinemax and Cinemax 2 are available in Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and Slovakia, and expanded to certain Balkan countries in 2009. Initially a timeshift channel, Cinemax 2 started airing a distinct schedule from 2016.


Fred E. Inbau

# Fred E. Inbau

## Abstract

Fred E. Inbau (1909 to 1998) was an American lawyer and criminologist who helped develop the Reid technique of interrogation. He was director of the Scientific Crime Detection Lab. He coauthored the influential textbook Criminal Interrogation and Confessions.

Inbau was from New Orleans. After a law degree from Tulane University, he moved to Chicago. He studied at the Northwestern University School of Law and, after a few years as a trial lawyer, become a teacher there for 32 years. He was president of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences. He founded Americans for Effective Law Enforcement.


Peter Zaffino

# Peter Zaffino

## Abstract

Peter Zaffino (born 1967) is an American insurance industry executive. He is the chairman and CEO of the American International Group (AIG).

Zaffino joined AIG in August 2017 as executive vice president and global chief operating officer. He was CEO of AIG's General Insurance business, the company's core property-casualty insurance unit, from September 2017 to August 2020. On 1 January 2020, Zaffino was promoted to president of AIG and continued as global COO. On March 1, 2021, he became AIG's CEO. Later that year, Zaffino was appointed chairman of the AIG board of directors, effective January 1, 2022.

Prior to joining AIG, he was with Marsh & McLennan Companies (MMC) for 16 years. With MMC he was president and CEO of Guy Carpenter from 2008–2011, CEO of Marsh from 2011–2017, and chairman of MMC's Risk & Insurance Services segment from 2015–2017.

## Early life and education

Zaffino was born in 1967; his father was Salvatore D. Zaffino, an insurance executive who was chairman of Guy Carpenter & Company from 1999 through 2007 and prior to that was CEO of the company.

He received a BA in economics from Boston College, where he played collegiate soccer, in 1989, and an MBA in finance from New York University's Leonard N. Stern School of Business. He holds the insurance industry designations CPCU and Associate in Reinsurance designations.

## Career

### Early career

Following university, Zaffino worked steadily in the insurance and reinsurance industry, beginning at The Hartford. He held a number of senior executives roles at a portfolio company of GE Capital, which specialized in alternative risk insurance and reinsurance.

### Marsh & McLennan Companies

#### Guy Carpenter

From GE Capital Services, in 2001 Zaffino joined Guy Carpenter & Company, a global risk and reinsurance firm and a subsidiary of Marsh & McLennan Companies in New York City. From 2005 forward he successively held several senior positions at Guy Carpenter, including head of global specialty practices; managing director and eastern regional manager; and executive vice president and head of treaty operations in the United States.

In February 2008 he became Guy Carpenter's president and CEO. He streamlined the company's operations and staff, improved profitability, made acquisitions, and hired high-profile executives. In addition, Global Reinsurance says he improved Guy Carpenter's analytical tools for clients; overhauled operations in the United Kingdom and Europe; and also worked to improve sales culture and integration within the company.

#### Marsh CEO and MMC risk and insurance-services chairman

Marsh & McLennan Companies, a professional services firm that includes risk management companies Marsh and Guy Carpenter and consulting firms Mercer and Oliver Wyman Group, had appointed Zaffino as a member of its executive committee in 2008.

In April 2011 MMC appointed him president and CEO of its subsidiary Marsh, Inc., a global insurance brokerage and risk management firm. Under Zaffino, Marsh grew in part via acquisitions, and the company launched several technological products such as a mobile platform. In 2008 Marsh had launched Marsh & McLennan Agency, aimed at providing insurance for small and mid-sized companies, and Zaffino continued to expand it via acquisitions.

In early 2015 Marsh & McLennan Companies named him chairman of MMC's Risk & Insurance Services segment, which included both Marsh and Guy Carpenter. In this capacity he led teams providing risk advice and capital solutions to companies in around 130 countries.

### AIG president and global COO

Zaffino was appointed executive vice president and global chief operating officer of AIG effective August 2017. This entailed leading the day-to-day business of all country operations, including U.S. commercial field operations and AIG's multinational organization, as well as global business services, administration, and communications. He was also responsible for expanding and profitably executing AIG's commercial and consumer strategies. Zaffino was also appointed to AIG's executive leadership team in 2017.

He was hired by AIG's new CEO Brian Duperreault, who had been CEO of Marsh & McLennan Companies from 2008 to 2012. Together with Duperreault, Zaffino develops AIG's long-term strategy and operating plan. In September 2017, Duperreault appointed Zaffino as CEO of General Insurance, in addition to his position as global COO. The General Insurance division includes commercial and personal insurance, and U.S. and international field operations. In January 2020, Zaffino assumed the additional title of president of AIG from global CEO Brian Duperreault. Zaffino retained his position as global COO. He also continued to lead the firm's General Insurance unit as CEO until August 2020, when that position transitioned to David McElroy, as Zaffino moved to focus more on enterprise-wide leadership responsibilities in his role as president and global COO.

Zaffino heads AIG 200, a multi-year, company-wide operational overhaul and modernization plan announced in 2019. The name "AIG 200" refers to the second 100 years for AIG, which was founded in 1919. Under Zaffino, the program aims to improve AIG's infrastructure, operational processes, efficiency and expense ratio. Zaffino will oversee modernizing and digitizing workflows, as well as eliminating legacy processes and manual interventions. The investments in software and services are also intended to unify operations.

### AIG president, CEO and chairman

On March 1, 2021, Zaffino succeeded Duperreault as AIG's CEO, with Duperreault becoming executive chairman of the board. In September 2021, he was appointed to lead the AIG board and succeeded Duperreault as chairman on January 1, 2022. Zaffino is credited with significant roles in restructuring at AIG and with the turnaround in its underwriting to restore the insurer to profitability, as well as with steering the company through historic insured losses from natural disasters, including Hurricane Ian ’s $450 million cost to AIG, and unique challenges resulting from the invasion of Ukraine. That November, he agreed to a further five-year term as AIG president, CEO and board chair.

## Board memberships

Zaffino is the chairman of the board of AIG and is on the board of directors of the Michael J. Fox Foundation. He was appointed to the board of the New York Police and Fire Widows' and Children's Benefit Fund in 2013 and in 2015 was the honoree at its annual gala.

## Personal life

Zaffino and his wife Kirsten have three children and are based in the New York metropolitan area.


Domjur Road railway station

# Domjur Road railway station

## Abstract

Domjur Road railway station is a railway station on Santragachi–Amta branch line of South Eastern Railway section of the Kharagpur railway division. It is situated beside Domjur-Jagadishpur Road at Baghpara, Domjur Bazar in Howrah District in the Indian state of West Bengal.

## History

Howrah to Amta narrow-gauge track was built in 1897 in British India. This route was the part of the Martin's Light Railways which was closed in 1971. Howrah–Amta new broad-gauge line, including the Bargachia–Champadanga branch line was re constructed and opened in 2002–2004.


Picasso Nelson

# Picasso Nelson

## Abstract

Picasso Nelson (born May 1, 1973) is a former American football linebacker who played two seasons in the Canadian Football League (CFL) with the BC Lions and Edmonton Eskimos. He played college football at Jackson State University and attended Hattiesburg High School in Hattiesburg, Mississippi. He was also a member of the Houston Oilers, New York Giants and Toronto Argonauts.

## College career

Nelson played for the Jackson State Tigers from 1992 to 1995. He was named the Southwest Athletic Conference defensive player of the year in 1995 after recording eight interceptions. He was also chosen for the Senior and Hula Bowl teams. He was inducted into the Jackson State University Sports Hall of Fame in 2009.

## Professional career

### Houston Oilers

Nelson was signed by the Houston Oilers on April 24, 1996 and was released by the team before the start of the 1996 season.

### New York Giants

Nelson signed with the New York Giants on March 12, 1997. He was released by the Giants on August 12, 1997.

### Toronto Argonauts

Nelson was signed by the Toronto Argonauts in March 1998. He was released by the Argonauts on June 27, 1998.

### BC Lions

Nelson signed with the BC Lions on August 24, 1998 and played in ten games for the Lions during the 1998 season. He played in one game during the 1999 season before being released by the Lions on August 1, 1999.

### Edmonton Eskimos

Nelson was signed by the Edmonton Eskimos on September 10, 1999. He was released by the Eskimos in February 2000.

## Coaching career

Nelson was later an assistant coach for the Jones County Junior College Bobcats.

## Personal life

Nelson's son, Picasso Nelson, Jr., is a former NFL cornerback who last played for the Arizona Cardinals; he played college football for the Southern Miss Golden Eagles. Nelson Jr.'s cousin, Kenny Shedd, also played in the NFL, as well as Nelson Jr's great-uncle, former Dallas Cowboy Eugene Bowen.


Branislav Atanacković

# Branislav Atanacković

## Abstract

Branislav Atanacković (Serbian Cyrillic: Бранислав Атанацковић; born 5 August 1983) is a Serbian professional footballer who plays as a left-back.

Atanacković came through the youth system of Partizan, making two appearances for the first team in the 2004–05 season. He also played on loan for numerous clubs, such as Teleoptik, Budućnost Banatski Dvor and Mačva Šabac. Eventually, Atanacković spent the majority of his career with Smederevo, making over 100 competitive appearances for the club.

## Honours

- Moldovan Super Cup: 2011


Andy Andy

# Andy Andy

## Abstract

Angel Villalona better known as Andy Andy is a Dominican musician from the Villalona family. Starting as a merenguero, he gained fame when he changed to bachata.

## Career

Andy Andy is one of the most successful Dominican artists in the world, having sold over one million records in the United States to date, and held the Number 1 sales position for more than 39 consecutive weeks. He is the first Dominican artist in Latin music history to win three Billboard Awards in a single night.

Multiple nominations: Latin Grammys, 7 nominations to Premio Lo Nuestro, Premios Casandra winner and others. He has also occupied multiple top spots on a variety of important radio charts and other preferred media showcases in the country.

He produced all seven of his bachata albums. He sang duets with important Latin international singers such as Tito "El Bambino", Milly Quezada, Angel y Khriz, Fernando Villalona, Luis Segura, LDA, Alex Matos, Bimbo and others.

His first music album, Aquí Conmigo ("Here With Me"), was released in 2002. His second album, Necesito Un Amor ("I Need A Love"), was released in 2003 with the hits Voy A Tener Que Olividarte and Necesito Un Amor. His next album, Ironia ("Irony"), was released in 2005. His hit, Que Ironia, came in three forms: bachata, reggaeton, and balada, and his second hit, A Quien Le Importa, was featured in bachata and balada.

In 2002, Andy's debut album, Aqui Conmigo was nominated as best "New Artist Tropical Salsa Air Play Track of the Year" at the Billboard Awards. In 2003, Andy's second album, Necesito un Amor, was nominated for a Latin Grammy for "Best Contemporary Tropical Album of the Year".

- 2005, Winner in Dominican Republic of the Casadra Awards as "Best Video" with "Que Ironia".

- 2006, First Dominican Artist who wins 3 Latin Billboard Awards in one single night in the history of Latin Music. Categories: Best Tropical Album "Ironia", Best Traditional Tropical Album "Ironia", and Best Tropical Song "Que Ironia".

- Honored by the Mayor of Yonkers, New York, Philip A. Amicone in 2006.

- 2006 In Mexico he was nominated for Best New Artist for the Premios Oye.

- 7 Premio Lo Nuestro nominations:

2004, One Nomination for "Best Traditional Tropical Artist" for his album Necesito Un Amor2005, Three Nominations for "Best Tropical Album", "Best Traditional Tropical Artist" and "Best Tropical Song" categories for his album "Ironia".2006, Two Nominations for Best Tropical Male Artist and Best Traditional Tropical Artist, for his concept album “My Life,”2009, Andy Andy was nominated once again for "Premio Lo Nuestro" as "Best Traditional Tropical Artist.”

- July 4, 2011, Andy Andy released his new single "Mi Alma Loca" reaching the Top 10 of the Latin Tropical Billboard.

- September 4, 2011, Andy Andy received a key to the city from Mayor Robert Romano and declared the date of September 4, 2011 as the day of Andy Andy.

- April 10, 2013, Andy Andy, Olga Tañon and Alvaro Torres were guest artists to sing in front of the National Capitol Building in Washington, DC.

## Discography

- Por Una Mujer (1997)

- Cójele el Swing (1998)

- Justo a Tiempo (2000)

- Aquí Conmigo (2002)

- Necesito Un Amor (2003)

- Ironía (2005)

- Tú Me Haces Falta (2007)

- Mi Música... Dos Tiempos (2008)

- Placer y Castigo (2009)

- El Cariño Es Como Una Flor(2012)

- Soy De Llorar (2013)

- Es Mejor Decir Adios (2014)

- Vive Tu Vida (2015)

- Yo Te Amo (2015)

- Amor Eterno Homenaje (2016)

- Un Hombre Nuevo (2017)

- Sigo Siendo El Dueńo (2017)

- Adios Amor (2018)

- Tontos y Locos (2019)

- Lazaro (2020)

- Te Imagino (2022)

- Mis Primeras Bachatas (2023)

## Compilations

- My Life (2006)

- 10 de Colección (2007)


Platanissos, Cyprus

# Platanissos, Cyprus

## Abstract

Platanissos (Greek: Πλατανισσός, Turkish: Balalan) is a village in the Famagusta District of Cyprus, located on the Karpas Peninsula. It is under the de facto control of Northern Cyprus.

## History

Since the Ottoman period the village has been almost exclusively inhabited by Turkish Cypriots, with the exception of a handful of Greek Cypriots recorded in some censuses until 1931. The village's population showed a steady increase through the 19th and early 20th centuries. 74 adult males were recorded in the Ottoman census of 1831, and the full population of the village peaked in 1946 at 445. A decline followed with villagers either migrating to cities or abroad due to the conflict that took hold of Cyprus from the 1950s onwards.

From the Bloody Christmas events of 1964 until 1974, the village was part of a Turkish Cypriot enclave remaining under the effective control of the Turkish Resistance Organisation. It was administered from the regional centre of Galateia and was home to some Turkish Cypriots who had fled the neighbouring villages due to the fighting. During the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, as Turkish forces landed near Kyrenia, the village came under attack by the Greek Cypriot National Guard, who sought to take control of the enclaves. By the evening of 21 July, the regional command in Galateia reported that Balalan was about to fall. It reportedly fell on the evening of 22 July, with the villagers seeking refuge in Galateia.

The decline of the village continued after the conflict in 1974 as well, with the youth leaving the village for job opportunities.

Historically, a defining feature of the village was the high number of lawyers and judges that came from there. The most notable of these was Mehmet Zekâ Bey, who headed the Supreme Court of Cyprus during the last years of the British rule, and ended up being elected as a judge for the European Court of Human Rights in 1961. His renown was so outsize compared to his village that at this point Balalan became known as "Horgon du Zekâ Bey", meaning "the village of Zekâ Bey" in common parlance.

## Architecture

### Mosque

The current mosque building was built in 1904 on the site of a much older Ottoman-era mosque. The marble inscription of the older mosque is still attached at the entrance, indicating a possible construction date of 1641 for the former building. In 1904, the villagers demanded funds from the Evkaf Administration to build a new mosque, as the older one was falling apart. When no funds were received, they raised money to build the mosque, enlisting a Greek Cypriot mason called Hacı Yorgi. This was then insufficient to complete the roofing of the mosque, and further funds were requested from the Evkaf Administration in 1907, to no response. Funding was later located, there were records as late as 1910 that indicate requests for help to complete the roofing. There were further repairs of the mosque conducted in 1954 and 1974.

It displays a typical Cypriot mosque layout with a rectangular plan, but is notable in that its entrance is from the east, whereas this is normally located in the north in Cyprus. This entrance door is located within a round arch. Four sharp arches carry the roof, and among them are bays, the presence of which indicate some inspiration from Orthodox churches. The minaret on the northeastern side is a later addition, having only been built in 1997-1998.

A traditional primary school (sıbyan mektebi) had been attached to the mosque in the early 20th century.


Dreyfoos School of the Arts

# Dreyfoos School of the Arts

## Abstract

Alexander W. Dreyfoos School of the Arts (DSOA) is a public high school in West Palm Beach, Florida. Formerly named the Palm Beach County School of the Arts (also known as "School of the Arts" or "SOA"), the school was renamed in recognition of a 1997 donation of $1 million by Alexander W. Dreyfoos, Jr., a West Palm Beach philanthropist. It is regularly ranked as one of the top public arts and academics schools in the country.

DSOA is administrated by the School District of Palm Beach County, which also provides most of its funding. The school receives supplementary funds for its arts and academics from the School of the Arts Foundation, Inc., a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization.

## History

Twin Lakes was founded in 1908 as Palm Beach High School; it was established one year before the founding of the county itself and is the oldest high school in the county. Originally for whites, Palm Beach High merged in the 1970–1971 school year with the black Roosevelt High School following integration, forming Twin Lakes High School.

Alexander W. Dreyfoos, at the suggestion of Dreyfoos Chairman Laurence Brandt Levine, donated the majority funding for the transformation of the campus, making the largest private contribution ever made to a public school in Florida, pledging $1,000,000 to support the Palm Beach County School of the Arts, which was subsequently renamed in his honor, the Alexander W. Dreyfoos School of the Arts (DSOA).

The Palm Beach County School of the Arts was then divided into two entities: Dreyfoos School of the Arts and the Middle School of the Arts, which later became the Bak Middle School of the Arts serving grades 6–8. MSOA remained on the Mangonia Park campus.

Dreyfoos celebrated the site's 100-Year Celebration with the "100 Years on the Hill" event.

In 2010, Burt Reynolds who graduated from the campus when it was Palm Beach High, returned to the campus for a dedication of the front drive, now used as a pick-up/drop-off for the school as "Burt Reynolds Drive."

## Accreditation

The school is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS).

DSOA is designated by the School District of Palm Beach County as a "choice" school. The District's Choice programs, formerly known as magnet schools, were part of a plan by the District in the 1980s to desegregate the county's schools without forced busing that would meet Federal requirements to attract white students to schools in predominantly African-American neighborhoods. In subsequent years, federal desegregation requirements eased. The programs became career academies under a rebranded "School Choice" program.

## Academics

Students are admitted to Dreyfoos to specialize in one art area: Communication, Dance, Digital Media, Music, Theatre, and Visual Arts. Music is sub-divided into programs in Concert Band/Jazz, Orchestra, Vocal and Piano. Students are required to take at least two art area classes per year in addition to their main academic courses and other elective classes. They may switch majors while attending, if they audition again and are accepted in the art area. Although students cannot dual major, they are permitted to take elective courses in other art areas if their schedule permits.

### Visual Arts

According to The College Board's 2007 Report to the Nation, the studio art advanced placement students at The Alexander W. Dreyfoos School of the Arts had the highest percentage of students passing the AP exam of any large high school in the world. This is the third time the school's visual art department has received this distinction, having achieved it previously in 2005 and 2006.

### Communication Arts

The Dreyfoos Speech and Debate team won #1 in the nation at the annual Bickel and Brewer NationalPolicy Forum competition, now known as the International Public Policy Forum, in New York City in 2006 and 2007.

The Collaborative Film Productions Club won 1st place in the High School Narrative category at the 2008 Ft. Lauderdale International Film Festival for the film "Wednesday".

The TV production team of 2008–2009 won the NSPA Broadcast Pacemaker award.

The TV Production team of 2009–2010 won a Broadcast Pacemaker Finalist award.

### Music

Dreyfoos Music Department was selected as one of the top ten music programs in the country by the NARAS (National Association of Arts and Science) Foundation and was declared a GRAMMY Gold Division School Grammy in the Schools. The music department at Dreyfoos includes Band, Strings, Vocal, and Keyboard majors.

In the summer of 2014, a group of Vocal students competed in the Llangollen International Music Eisteddfod in Llangollen, Wales, and placed 1st in the Senior Children's Choir category and 2nd in both the Folk and Open categories. Most recently, they were invited to the American Choral Directors Association (ACDA) National Conference to perform as Choir of Distinction.

#### Band

The Jazz Band in 1998 was a finalist in the Essentially Ellington competition. In 2008 the Wind Ensemble was selected to perform in Washington D.C. as part of the Presidential inauguration festivities. In 2012 the school's Jazz Ensemble 1 was the winner of the 2012 Jazz and Swing Preservation society's 2012 "Battle of the Bands" which invited high schools across Palm Beach County, Florida to compete. In 2016, they were the winner of the 2016 Swing Central competition in Savannah, Georgia.

### Theatre

The Dreyfoos Theatre Department received the Educational Theatre Association's Outstanding School Award, Outstanding Student Award, & Hall of Fame Teacher Award (the first time in the 74 year-history of this organization that one school received all three awards).

In 2018, a Dreyfoos Theatre senior was chosen to attend and compete in the National High School Musical Theatre Awards in New York City for her role in Dreyfoos’ production of Kiss Me, Kate. In 2019, the Dreyfoos Theatre Department became one of the first high schools in the world to perform the musical Amelié, which premiered on Broadway in 2017.

## Athletics

The school offers bowling, cross country, golf, swimming, and girls' volleyball as fall sports, cheerleading, basketball, and soccer as winter sports, and tennis, track and field, and boys' volleyball as spring sports.

## Student body

In 2022-2023, 1375 students were enrolled at Dreyfoos. 52 percent of students were minorities, and 25 percent were economically disadvantaged.

Students must reside in Palm Beach County, and show proof of that residence when they enroll and re-enroll each year. The majority of students commute to the school from around the county by District buses, by Tri-Rail to the train station across the street on Tamarind Avenue, and by car. A few students live locally and walk or bike to the campus.

The Class of 2010 collectively received over $19 million in scholarship offers.

## Rankings and recognition

Dreyfoos is considered one of the top public arts and academics schools in the country. It has a 100% Advanced Placement (AP) participation rate, and has more Advanced Placement offerings than any other school in the District. It regularly appears on national 'Top High Schools' lists at U.S. News and Newsweek, among others, as the top school in the nation for both arts and academics since 2005.

In 2008, the school's student newsmagazine, The Muse, won the National Scholastic Press Association 's prestigious Newspaper Pacemaker award, a recognition of the top student publications in the United States. This is the second time Dreyfoos has won the award, having earned it previously in 2004 to become the first school publication in Florida to do so. The Muse also won fifth place in "Best in Show" at the 2008 Fall Convention of the National Scholastic Press Association, having previously earned eighth place at the 2006 Spring Convention.

The school's literary magazine, Seeds, received the prestigious National Scholastic Press Association Magazine Pacemaker in 2009. Seeds also received fourth place in "Best in Show" at the 2007 Fall Convention of the National Scholastic Press Association.

The school's newscast, "DSOA Today", received fourth place in "Best in Show" at the 2005 Spring Convention of the National Scholastic Press Association.

The school's Theatre Department won the Southeastern Theatre Conference festival with its production of Kindertransport. Numerous other productions have received high ratings at the Florida Theatre Conference and the Florida State Thespian Festival.

## Notable alumni

- Burt Reynolds, actor

- Eric Andre, television talk show host and comedian

- Erin Krakow, actor

- Reid Ewing, actor known for starring in Modern Family

- Kara Royster, actress

- Dylan Lyons, multimedia journalist and reporter

- Franchesca Ramsey, actress

- Nadine Sierra, opera singer

- Charlie Porter, musician