Bea Wolf

# Bea Wolf

## Abstract

Bea Wolf is a 2023 graphic novel written by Zach Weinersmith and illustrated by Boulet, retelling the story of Beowulf with modern suburban children. It was published by First Second Books.

## Synopsis

In a land of children known for their feats of fun, the tree house Treeheart is besieged by the middle-aged Mr. Grindle, whose touch can bring a fate worse than death: adolescence and adulthood. To face this foe comes a child warrior: Bea Wolf.

## Reception

Bea Wolf was a finalist for the 2024 Hugo Award for Best Graphic Story.

School Library Journal called it "unconventional", "(l)ofty in its ambitions and artistic renderings," and "strangely perfect in its perfect strangeness", lauding Boulet's "intense linework and incredible shading" and emphasizing that the text is "meant to be read out loud". The Bulletin of the Center for Children's Books praised it as "magnificent" and "a wild embrace of absurdity and wit with exaggerated language used for maximum impact", whose "illustrations are no less epic than the story" and "invite careful examination".

Kirkus Reviews considered that, despite its "slapdash magical realism," the book is "an unabashedly joyful ode to the freedom of the child's mind" and "wonderfully weird". Publishers Weekly commended it as "lovingly crafted", "truly fresh inventive", and "a joyously lyric, rapid-fire epic that honors the original's intricate linguistic constructions," noting its "racially diverse cast of fierce, distinctively rendered children."

In The New York Times, Sarah Boxer was more critical, assessing the characters as having goals that "are tediously uniform: sweets, toys and staying up late," the plot as "long (and) confusing", and the art as "sometimes funny (but) mostly chaotic." Boxer particularly faulted the story's climax — rather than beheading Mr. Grindle, Bea Wolf reverts him to infancy — as being in violation of the story's internal logic, arguing that if being made into an adult is a punishment, then being made into an infant would be a reward.

## Sequels

Weinersmith plans to produce at least one sequel, which would be about Grendel's mother and the dragon.


# List of Minnesota Vikings starting quarterbacks

## Abstract

The Minnesota Vikings are a professional American football team based in Minneapolis. They are members of the North Division of the National Football Conference (NFC) in the National Football League (NFL). A franchise was granted to Minneapolis businessmen Bill Boyer, H. P. Skoglund and Max Winter in 1959 as a member of the American Football League (AFL). The ownership forfeited their AFL membership in January 1960 and received the National Football League's 14th franchise on January 28, 1960 that started play in 1961.

The Vikings have had 39 starting quarterbacks in the history of their franchise; they had never had more than three starting quarterbacks in one season until 2023. The Vikings' past starting quarterbacks include Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees Fran Tarkenton, Brett Favre and Warren Moon. The team's first starting quarterback was George Shaw; he was replaced by Tarkenton in the franchise's first game, and the future Hall of Famer retained the starting role for most of the remainder of the season. Kirk Cousins was Minnesota's most recent starting quarterback, from 2018, until being signed by the Atlanta Falcons in 2024.

## History

The Vikings' starting quarterback for the first game of their inaugural season against the Chicago Bears was George Shaw. However, he was replaced by Fran Tarkenton early on, who passed for four touchdowns in the game and rushed for one more. Tarkenton went on to start in 10 of the Vikings' 14 regular season matches that year. He played for the Vikings until 1967, when he was traded to the New York Giants, and Joe Kapp took his place as the Vikings' starting quarterback. Kapp led the Vikings to their first playoff appearance in 1968, but he was traded to the Boston Patriots in 1970 and Gary Cuozzo stepped up to replace him. Cuozzo remained in the position for two seasons, moving to the St. Louis Cardinals in 1972.

Tarkenton returned for another seven-year spell as the Vikings' starting quarterback in 1972, continuing until his retirement in 1978, at which point Tommy Kramer was promoted from the second string in his second season with the franchise. Kramer was injured for most of the 1983 season, so Steve Dils served as the starting quarterback for most of the season, before Kramer reclaimed the position in 1984. For the 1987 season, Kramer shared quarterback duties with Wade Wilson, before Wilson took over on a permanent basis from 1988. Wilson was replaced by the emerging Rich Gannon in 1990, but Gannon was released after the 1992 season and veteran Jim McMahon took over for the 1993 season until the arrival of Warren Moon in 1994.

Moon retained the starting quarterback spot for two seasons, but suffered a broken collarbone halfway through his third season with the Vikings and was replaced by Brad Johnson for the remainder of the season. The Vikings had three starting quarterbacks in the following three seasons – Johnson (1997), Randall Cunningham (1998) and Jeff George (1999) – before Daunte Culpepper began a six-year spell in his second year in the NFL in 2000. He suffered a serious knee injury during the 2005 season, and Johnson took over in the position again, having re-signed the previous summer after seven years away from the franchise. Culpepper then joined the Miami Dolphins in 2006, giving Johnson another full year as starting quarterback, only to be replaced by sophomore Tarvaris Jackson in 2007. The 2008 season commenced with Jackson starting at quarterback, but he was replaced after two games by Gus Frerotte, who was returning to the Vikings from the St. Louis Rams after having been traded to the Miami Dolphins in 2005. Jackson regained the job for the final three games and led the Vikings to their first divisional title since 2000, and their first NFC North title.

In 2009, the Vikings recruited veteran quarterback Brett Favre out of retirement to be their new starting quarterback. In Week 13 of the 2010 season, Favre suffered a chest injury that ended his NFL-record streak of consecutive starts at 297 (321 including postseason games), and Tarvaris Jackson reclaimed the starting spot for Week 14. However, Jackson was injured himself in Week 15, giving rookie Joe Webb a chance to stake a claim for the position. He was unable to hold onto the position as Donovan McNabb was signed as a free agent to replace Favre, who retired at the end of the 2010 season. After going 1–5 through the first six games of 2011, though, McNabb was replaced by first-round draft pick Christian Ponder, who retained the starting position for the remainder of the season and for the whole of 2012. However, he was plagued by indifferent form and the Vikings signed Matt Cassel – recently released by the Kansas City Chiefs. When Ponder suffered an injury early in the 2013 season, Cassel was given his first start for the Vikings in week 4 in the NFL International Series game against the Pittsburgh Steelers at Wembley Stadium, London. He started the following game, but was replaced in week 7 by Josh Freeman, recently signed after his release by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. However, he was injured during the game and did not make another start for the Vikings, allowing Ponder to reclaim the starting role. Cassel then returned as the starter in week 14, and retained the role for the rest of the season and into 2014. After three games, he was placed on injured reserve and first-round draft pick Teddy Bridgewater took over for the week 4 game against the Atlanta Falcons. Bridgewater himself was injured late in the game, allowing Ponder the chance to come back in for the following week, but the rookie soon returned and has held the starting berth until suffering a knee injury in practice during the 2016 preseason. Shaun Hill started the season opener and Sam Bradford took over in week 2. Ahead of the 2018 season, the Vikings signed free agent quarterback Kirk Cousins from the Washington Redskins on a three-year, fully guaranteed $84 million contract. He started 31 consecutive regular season games to start his Vikings career before sitting out the final game of 2019 with the team's playoff berth already secured; Sean Mannion started in his place.

Seven Vikings quarterbacks have made at least one start in their rookie season: Tarkenton in 1961, Vander Kelen in 1963, Kramer in 1977, Jackson in 2006, Webb in 2010, Ponder in 2011 and Bridgewater in 2014.

## Starting quarterbacks by season

## Statistics

Having been the franchise's starting quarterback for 13 seasons (longer than any other Vikings player), Fran Tarkenton holds the record for the most starts in a Vikings jersey, and those for the most wins and ties. He is also the franchise's leading passer in terms of numbers of attempts, completions, total yards gained and passing touchdowns, although Brett Favre has the best pass completion percentage. However, Tarkenton has also thrown the most interceptions. The record for the longest completed pass by a Vikings starting quarterback is held by Gus Frerotte, who threw a 99-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Bernard Berrian in a home game against the Chicago Bears in the 2008 season.

Tarkenton is also the franchise leader for rushing attempts and rushing yards as a quarterback, but it is Daunte Culpepper – with 72 fewer rushing yards on 10 fewer attempts than Tarkenton – who has the most rushing touchdowns. Joe Webb holds the record for the longest rush with a 65-yard run in Minnesota's 34–28 road loss to the Detroit Lions in 2011.


Jackson Katz

# Jackson Katz

## Abstract

Jackson T. Katz (born May 7, 1960) is an American educator, filmmaker, and author. He has created a gender violence prevention and education program entitled 'Mentors in Violence Prevention', which is used by U.S. military and various sporting organizations.

Katz's work centers on violence, media, and masculinities, with an added focus on media literacy. He has made several documentaries on the representation of men and women in media.

## Background

Katz is a former high school football player from Swampscott, Massachusetts. The first man to minor in women's studies at the University of Massachusetts-Amherst, Katz holds a master's degree from the Harvard Graduate School of Education, and a Ph.D. in cultural studies and education from UCLA, where he studied with Douglas Kellner. He has collaborated with Jean Kilbourne, Sut Jhally, and Byron Hurt.

## Work

From 1988 to 1998, Katz oversaw Real Men, a grass-roots organization against sexism in Boston.

Katz co-founded Mentors in Violence Prevention (MVP) in 1993 at Northeastern University 's Center for the Study of Sport in Society. MVP has been implemented by college athletic programs, professional teams (including the New England Patriots and Boston Red Sox), NASCAR, and the United States Marine Corps. The related MVP Strategies 1997, distributes gender violence prevention training materials to U.S. school districts, municipalities, human service programs, corporations, law enforcement agencies, and military services. Katz has personally lectured at many such organizations as well, and has appeared on " Good Morning America," " The Oprah Winfrey Show " and " ABC News 20/20." His consultative role ranges has ranged from the World Health Organization to The Liz Claiborne Company. In March 2000, Secretary of Defense William S. Cohen appointed him to the U.S. Secretary of Defense 's Task Force on Domestic Violence in the Military, where he served from 2000-2003.

Katz currently is a paid consultant to the U.S. Air Force bystander intervention training and also acts as director of the first global gender violence prevention program in the U.S. Marine Corps. Katz and his colleagues have also conducted trainings for the U.S. Army in Iraq, and MVP has been piloted around the world by the U.S. Navy.

## Key ideas

### Bystander approach

Katz advocates the bystander approach to gender violence and bullying prevention. Instead of focusing on women as victims and men as perpetrators of harassment, abuse or violence, the bystander approach concentrates on the role of peers in schools, groups, teams, workplaces and other social units.

In 2009, after an alleged gang rape in Richmond, California where two dozen teenagers watched and did nothing, Newsweek online reported that, "a small but growing group of educators is trying to bring what's called 'bystander education' to American schools. While sexual violence prevention programs have typically focused on the victim (discouraging women from walking alone at night, for example) or the perpetrator (reiterating the fact that no means no), the bystander approach emphasizes the role witnesses can play in either supporting or challenging violence."

Katz and his colleagues developed one of the first bystander initiatives, the mixed-gender Mentors in Violence Prevention (MVP) program, in 1993 at Northeastern University's Center for the Study of Sport in Society. “Most people think they only have two choices for intervention,” says Katz. “One is to intervene physically right at the point of attack, and the other is to do nothing. And that’s a false set of choices.” As part of the MVP program, students sit in a classroom and talk about the menu of options—from getting a group of friends together to calling 911—available to them. At the heart of the program is a set of scenarios that allow students to imagine what they might do in a variety of situations. Each scenario comes with a list of viable interventions for bystanders.

According to Newsweek, research is still needed to determine the effectiveness of bystander-awareness programs in schools, but the initial results are promising. One study found that after the Sioux City School District in Iowa implemented the MVP program, the number of freshman boys who said they could help prevent violence against women and girls increased by 50 percent.

The bystander programs that have proliferated in recent years on college and high school campuses and in the U.S. military involve both sexes and draw from various violence prevention theories and educational practices. The MVP model was influenced by basic tenets of social justice education. This approach is partly based on the premise that men's silence in the face of other men's abusive or violent behavior gives "implicit consent" to such behavior.

The MVP bystander approach frames men's abuse of women as a societal problem whose roots lie in the institutional structures and cultural practices of a male-dominated society. Thus, the MVP approach emphasizes changing social norms as the key to prevention. By challenging men to speak up and “ group dynamics in male peer culture,” this bystander model empowers men to step outside of the victim/perpetrator binary and gives men an opportunity to talk about some of the “dynamics of their interpersonal and group interaction in a safe space.”

## Mentors in Violence Prevention (MVP) Model

Katz presented the Mentors in Violence Prevention (MVP) model hoping to put the focus on men to discontinue trends of violent masculinity through creating a model that would invite men into the critical dialogue, instead of painting them as perpetrators or potential perpetrators. Katz realized that there was a frustrating lack of inclusion of men and boys in the gender violence discussion, prompting him to create an education model that was inclusive to men and boys.

The original MVP model was created as workshops for all-male student athletes; Katz hoped that by working with male student athletes, they could help to stop the spread of ‘rape-supportive’ and ‘battering-supportive’ attitudes by speaking out against the masculine binary that supports gender violence. (Recon, 166) Katz says his initial focus on working with student-athletes stems from the “apathy, defensiveness—and sometimes outright hostility—of male athletic directors, coaches, and student-athletes...men and young men in the…athletic subculture…typically occupy a privileged position in school culture, and particularly in male peer culture.” This is a step towards the bystander approach. By working with boys who typically represented the popular part of school culture, Katz was hoping that these boys would then influence the people around them and in their schools in similar manners. It was important for Katz to ensure that MVP considers male student-athletes as potential mentors for younger kids, able of providing male leadership necessary to stop gender abuse.

Katz's model generally revolves around simulation and role-playing, as well as large discussion-based group meetings both consisting same-sex and different-sex students. As a part of his college initiative, his MVP model involves “holding three 90-minute sessions each year with each participating college team. A fourth session is scheduled for those student-athletes who wish to be trained further for work with younger students in middle and high school.” These workshops are designed to provide spaces for boys to discuss with each other the concept of masculinity and its definition, as well as its relation to gender abuse and violence. Additionally, Katz recognizes the role of those in positions of authority in schools and athletic teams. As his program has grown and evolved, he has included training of selected male and professional staff working in all sectors of schools and colleges.) In this, he is hoping that the top-down approach will provide role models for young and impressionable students and athletes who are looking for good representation. If these school leaders are able to use their positions of authority as positions of good influence, it will perhaps encourage a change in paradigm that will affect all of those in the school or community.

The MVP model originally focused on just male student-athletes. Since, the MVP model has expanded its target audience and educational group to “boys and girls, men and women, working together and in single-sex formats…by the mid-1990s MVP had moved from a near-exclusive focus on the athletic world to general populations of high school and college students, and other institutional settings.” This expansion means that the dialogue around gender abuse and gender binaries is spreading throughout schools across the nation. More frank and honest talk about gender abuse will not only remove many of the stigmas from those who are abused, but will also encourage students to act out and speak out in defense of themselves and each other.

### Media literacy and masculinities

In his writings, public lectures, and films, Katz argues that gendered understandings and behavior in every arena from interpersonal relationships to the workplace and even politics are influenced by media and popular culture. Focusing on normative portrayals of men in advertising, television, Hollywood films, the entertainment industries, sports, and politics, Katz calls for an examination of "the poses we strike and the images of masculinity that proliferate in media culture" as a way to "illuminate... what's going on in individual men's lives, and in our culture as a whole."

Katz further maintains that in spite of variability due to such categories as class, race and ethnicity, "violence in America is overwhelmingly a gendered phenomenon," shaped by "cultural codes and ideals of masculinity and manhood." He argues that "masculinity" and "femininity" are socially constructed categories, and thus the "disturbing equation of masculinity with pathological control and violence" that currently exists in America is not genetically predetermined and can be changed. In the "Tough Guise" study guide, co-written with the video producer Jeremy Earp of the Media Education Foundation, Katz underscores his motivation for promoting media literacy: "By looking critically at how institutions – from media outlets to political institutions to our schools – often play a role in reinforcing constricted, regressive notions of manhood that maintain an unacceptably violent status quo, we might begin to clear some space for individuals, male and female, to live freer lives."

### Presidential masculinities

Katz's work on images of masculinity in media extends to his examination of "a crucial but barely explored topic of cultural studies analysis: the role of media culture in the construction of presidential masculinity." Katz posits that "media have become the single most important source of political information and persuasion," and that "education for democracy in this era requires citizens to be media literate."

According to Katz, part of being politically media literate means understanding how gender functions as a sub-textual force in presidential politics. He asks questions such as "how does the perceived 'manliness' or 'toughness' of political candidates affect their electoral success? To what degree is the gender gap in presidential politics affected by men's gendered identities and sense of themselves as men, which itself is reinforced by media discourses and portrayals? How does paid political advertising on television – by far the biggest expenditure of funds in presidential campaigns – shape voters' perceptions of the relative 'manliness' of candidates? What are the similarities and differences between how women and men ascertain whether male political figures measure up to the 'masculine ideal' that is circulating in media culture at a given historical moment? Which mediated (white) masculine styles or archetypes have been politically successful over the past fifty years, and why?"

In an article about the Barack Obama - Hillary Clinton race for the Democratic presidential nomination in 2008, Katz responded to pundits and other political observers who decried the media focus on race and gender when other crucial issues loomed. "Presidential elections are always about race and gender. The reason people are talking about them now is that a black man and a (white) woman are serious contenders for a major party nomination. Their success is making visible what historically has been hidden in plain sight."

"Campaigns for the U.S. presidency in the era of mass media," he wrote, "always turn on the personality and style of candidates, their skills at televisual performance, their race and gender, and how all of these interact with questions of national identity at a given historical moment. The biggest difference this time is that the Democratic nominee will not embody and hence reinforce the dominant position of white masculinity in the race/gender system."

Katz further maintained that, "Presidential contests until now have been contests between men. Men were the gender that mattered. No matter how qualified by intelligence, leadership ability or experience, women were not seriously considered for the top job in government, and everyone knew it. Their gender prevented people from seeing them as 'presidential.' If there is one thing that truly represents 'change' in this historic election season it is the change in what it means to appear 'presidential.' In the past, whether a candidate was a Republican or Democrat, conservative, centrist or liberal, their race and gender were predetermined. They were inevitably – and invariably – white and a man.”

For Katz, violence also plays an important role in shaping political discourse and in the voters' choice of whom to support for president. "How much of the white male vote is determined by impressions about the relative 'manliness' or 'toughness' of candidates or political parties hasn’t been quantified," Katz writes. "But there is no doubt that for several decades violence—both our individual and collective vulnerability to it, and questions about when and how to use the violent power of the state to protect the 'national interest' — has been an ominous and omnipresent factor in numerous foreign policy and domestic political issues (e.g. the Cold War, Vietnam, the 'War on Terror,' and the invasion of Iraq, as well as gun control, and executive, legislative and judicial responses to violent crime)."

In several articles, Katz analyzes and comments on "the pervasive use of sports metaphors in presidential discourse and how the language of sport functions to construct a masculine ideal for leadership at the heights of political power." He points out that "the two most 'metaphorically influential' sports in presidential campaign rhetoric are boxing and football... not coincidentally, both are violent sports that attract a disproportionate percentage of male participants and fans."

"The frequent use of boxing and football metaphors in political discourse did not cause violence to become an important force in our politics, but this usage is one measure of how presidential campaigns in the mass media era are less about policy differences and complex political agendas than they are about the selling of a certain kind of executive masculinity, embodied until the historic 2008 election in a particular white man whom the public comes to know largely through television and other technologies of mass communication."

Katz also comments on implications for female candidates. He writes, "One of 2008 Republican vice-presidential nominee Sarah Palin's most-quoted lines on the campaign trail in the fall of 2008 was 'The heels are on, the gloves are off,' which she typically delivered to wild cheers of approval. In coming years, when this historic campaign and those yet to come are analyzed, it will be particularly interesting to see how female and male voters respond to language where a woman throws the 'knockout punch.' Does this masculinize and thus help to make them more credible as potential commanders-in-chief? Or do women who are seen as 'too-aggressive' – even if only in a metaphorical sense – turn voters off? What are the differences between how the sexes view a woman 'throwing punches' if she's a conservative (like Palin) or a liberal feminist (like Hillary Clinton?)."

## Documentaries

Katz is the creator of educational videos for high school and college students produced and distributed through the Media Education Foundation:

- Tough Guise: Men, Violence and the Crisis in Masculinity (1999) (with Sut Jhally). The video was named one of the Top Ten Young Adult Videos for 2000 by the American Library Association.

- Wrestling with Manhood: Boys, Bullying & Battering (2002) (with Sut Jhally). The video analyzes the gender and sexual politics of professional wrestling.

- Spin the Bottle: Sex, Lies, and Alcohol (2004) (with Jean Kilbourne). The video examines media representations of gender and sexuality in beer commercials, Hollywood films and other media.

- Tough Guise 2: Violence, Manhood & American Culture The video examines toxic masculinity and masculine violence.

He is also featured in such documentaries as Byron Hurt's Hip Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes (2007), Thomas Keith's Generation M: Misogyny in Media & Culture (2008), and Jennifer Siebel Newsom 's Miss Representation (2011).

## Writings

Katz publishes articles in academic journals, anthologies, and text readers on topics such as the intersections of race and gender in the representation of masculinity, advertising, secondary educational leadership, right-wing talk radio, Mel Gibson, athletes and gender violence, media discourse about violence, masculinities and violence, presidential masculinities, and Jewish masculinity.

Katz's book, The Macho Paradox: Why Some Men Hurt Women and How All Men Can Help, (2006), ISBN 978-1-4022-0401-2 ISBN 1-4022-0401-9, was published by Sourcebooks in 2006. Another book, Man Enough? Donald Trump, Hillary Clinton, and the Politics of Presidential Masculinity was released in paperback on March 15, 2016.

Katz currently blogs for the Huffington Post.


Cheltenham Race Course railway station

# Cheltenham Race Course railway station

## Abstract

Cheltenham Race Course railway station serves Cheltenham Racecourse on the outskirts of Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, England.

On the ex- Great Western Railway Cheltenham to Stratford line, the station opened in 1912 to serve the new racecourse at Prestbury Park, home of the famous Gold Cup meeting. The platforms were later extended to accommodate trains of up to 14 carriages. The station was only opened on race days and so facilities were rudimentary, but it continued to serve racegoers until the 1976 Cheltenham Festival.

Although most of the stations on the line closed in 1960, the line itself remained open for non-stop passenger services until 1968. Special trains on racedays only served Cheltenham Racecourse station from 1971 until 1976. The line was also used as a diversionary route with no scheduled passenger services until 1976, when a freight train derailed at Winchcombe and damaged the track. The line was officially closed in the same year; the track was lifted shortly afterward.

Cheltenham Race Course is now the southern terminus of the 12-mile-long heritage Gloucestershire Warwickshire Railway, run entirely by volunteers. The line has been reopened in stages. The line trackbed itself was bought in 1984. The track from Gotherington to the racecourse was relaid in 2001. The line was reopened as a heritage railway by the Princess Royal on 7 April 2003.

The station is in a cutting fringed by Corsican pine trees. Its northern end, where it emerges from the cutting, affords views towards Cleeve Hill. The original station booking office is believed to be the only remaining example of a Swindon-built flatpack prefabricated building that was brought by train and assembled on site. It is perched at the top of the cutting, next to the A435 roadbridge and close to the main entrance of the racecourse. It has a collection of artefacts housed within it. A gentle slope gives access to the platform where there is a new station building with a canopy, toilets and waiting room. The station has two tracks, one adjacent to the platform and the other to allow locomotives to run around the train. A new signal box was opened in 2005 to control the signals and point work around the station.

Access to the station by car is only via the main racecourse entrance. There is a large free car park. A bus service runs from the Network Rail Cheltenham Spa station, through the town centre to the Racecourse Park and Ride, about 10 minutes' walk from the Gloucestershire Warwickshire Steam Railway station.

## Platform 2 reconstruction

In 2012, as part of a new Development Foundation, the GWSR launched an appeal to reconstruct Platform 2 at Cheltenham Race Course station. Reconstruction of Platform 2 was completed in 2016.


The Duchess of Langeais

# The Duchess of Langeais

## Abstract

The Duchess of Langeais is a 2007 French-Italian period drama film directed by Jacques Rivette. Its original French title is Ne touchez pas la hache ("Don't touch the axe"). It is based on the 1834 novel of the same name by Honoré de Balzac. The film stars Jeanne Balibar and Guillaume Depardieu as lovers in the 1820s, who are involved in a tormented and frustrating relationship.

## Plot

Armand de Montriveau, a general under Napoleon but of no account under the Restoration régime, has traced Antoinette de Langeais, the woman he loves, to a convent in Majorca where she has hidden herself as a nun. He asks for an interview, which is granted when Antoinette claims he is her brother. When they meet, she shrieks that he is her lover and he is hustled out.

The scene shifts back to their first meeting at a party in Paris, where she is entranced by his tales of exploits in Egypt. She encourages him to visit the town house where she lives alone, her husband being elsewhere. She even receives him in her nightdress, claiming to be ill. For she is a born coquette, delighting in her power over Armand yet always denying any bodily intimacy. As well as reminding him she is married, she also plays the religion card by reminding him that adultery would be a sin. In time he starts playing her game in return, becoming capricious and moody. With masked friends, he even abducts her and threatens to torture her, but when she seems about to give in he lets her go. He stops answering her letters, and even stops opening them. In despair, she gives him an ultimatum: to meet her or never see her again. He does not keep the rendezvous and she disappears from Paris.

The scene shifts forward to Armand and his friends who, after the rebuff in the convent, decide to storm the place in the middle of the night and abduct Antoinette. Reaching her room, they find her laid out dead.

## Cast

- Jeanne Balibar as Antoinette de Langeais

- Guillaume Depardieu as Armand de Montriveau

- Michel Piccoli as Vidame de Pamiers

- Bulle Ogier as Princesse de Blamont-Chauvry

- Anne Cantineau as Clara de Sérizy

- Marc Barbé as Marquis de Ronquerolles

- Thomas Durand as Henri de Marsay

- Mathias Jung as Julien

- Julie Judd as Lisette

- Nicolas Bouchaud as Maxime de Trailles

- Beppe Chierici as Alcalde

- Victoria Zinny as Mother Superior

- Barbet Schroeder as The Duke of Grandlieu

## Reception

Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reported an approval rating of 70%, based on 66 reviews, with an average score of 6.5/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "At times plodding and dialogue heavy, The Duchess of Langeais is nevertheless an intriguing and rewarding dissection of class and gender relations." At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the film received an average score of 74, based on 23 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


Robert Ardrey

# Robert Ardrey

## Abstract

Robert Ardrey (October 16, 1908 – January 14, 1980) was an American playwright, screenwriter and science writer perhaps best known for The Territorial Imperative (1966). After a Broadway and Hollywood career, he returned to his academic training in anthropology in the 1950s.

As a playwright and screenwriter Ardrey received many accolades. He was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1937, won the inaugural Sidney Howard Memorial Award in 1940, and in 1966 received an Academy Award nomination for best screenplay for his script for Khartoum. His most famous play is Thunder Rock.

Ardrey's science writing challenged models in the social sciences of his time. African Genesis (1961) and The Territorial Imperative (1966), two of his most widely read works, increased public awareness of evolutionary science. However he was criticized by scientists for having misunderstood the science and misinterpreted the evidence.

## Life

Ardrey was born in Chicago, the son of Robert Leslie Ardrey, an editor and publisher, and Marie (née Haswell). His father died in 1919 from pneumonia during the influenza epidemic and he was raised by his mother. He grew up on the South Side of Chicago and attended the nearby University of Chicago, graduating Phi Beta Kappa in 1930 as a Ph.B. While in attendance, he studied creative writing with Thornton Wilder, who would become his lifelong mentor.

His first play, Star Spangled, opened on Broadway in 1935 and lasted only a few days, but resulted in the award of a Guggenheim Fellowship. The award granted Ardrey the financial independence to focus on writing plays. Several of his subsequent plays, including Casey Jones, How to Get Tough About It, and his most famous play, Thunder Rock, were produced on Broadway.

In 1938 he moved to Hollywood to work as a screenwriter for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, where he would eventually become MGM's highest paid writer. There he wrote many screenplays, including those for adaptations such as The Three Musketeers (1948, with Gene Kelly), Madame Bovary (1949), The Secret Garden (1949), and The Wonderful Country (1959, with Robert Mitchum; The Wonderful Country also had a cameo from famed Negro leagues pitcher Satchel Paige). He also wrote original screenplays, including the screenplay for Khartoum (1966, directed by Basil Dearden, starring Charlton Heston and Laurence Olivier) for which he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Writing, Story, and Screenplay.

During the 1950s Ardrey became increasingly disenchanted with Hollywood and what he saw as the growing role money had started to play in creative decisions. At the same time and largely by accident, he renewed his interest in human origins and human behavior, which he had studied at the University of Chicago. In the summer of 1956 he moved with his wife and two sons to Geneva. He spent the following years traveling in Southern and Eastern Africa, conducting research for what was to become his first book on the subject, African Genesis (1961), ultimately an international bestseller. Subsequently, he went on to write a total of four books in his widely read Nature of Man Series, including his best known book The Territorial Imperative (1966).

In October 1960 he moved with his second wife to Trastevere, Rome, where they lived for 17 years. In 1977 they moved to a small town named Kalk Bay just outside Cape Town, South Africa. He continued to publish influential works until his death on January 14, 1980, from lung cancer. His ashes, along with those of his wife, are interred in the Holy Trinity Church overlooking False Bay.

## Theater and film career

After graduating from the University of Chicago, under the continuing mentorship of Thornton Wilder, Ardrey wrote a novel, several plays, and many short stories, all of which remained unpublished. It was Wilder's rule that "A young author should not write for market until his style 'crystallized'". Wilder and Ardrey agreed that this moment came with the writing of the play Star Spangled.

Star Spangled opened on Broadway in 1935. It was a comedy that brought to life the classic struggles of an immigrant family living on the South Side of Chicago. It received largely negative reviews and lasted only a few days. However it did catch the attention of notable playwright Sidney Howard, whom Ardrey claims was instrumental in the resulting award of a Guggenheim fellowship for promise as a young playwright. The award allowed Ardrey the financial independence to remain in Chicago and focus on writing plays.

While in Chicago Ardrey wrote two more plays. The first, Casey Jones, was a play about railroad men and their love for their machines. The second, How to Get Tough About It, Ardrey describes as "A proletarian love story of pleasant dimensions." In 1938 Guthrie McClintic presented How to Get Tough About It and Elia Kazan directed Casey Jones. The plays opened ten days apart and were massive failures. In his preface to Plays of Three Decades Ardrey writes:

No author in Broadway memory had attained two such failures on a scale quite so grand on evenings quite so close together. Had they opened six months apart, none would have noticed. Coming as they did, I became a kind of upside-down white-headed boy, a figure thundering toward literary glory in reverse gear. Hollywood, incapable of resisting the colossal, bid lavishly for my services. And Samuel Goldwyn, buyer of none but the best, bought me.

Ardrey signed a contract with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and moved for the first time to Hollywood to work as a screenwriter. He worked on several projects, including Samuel Goldwyn's notorious boondoggle remake of Graustark, which was cancelled, and a western called The Cowboy and the Lady, from which he was dropped (though he later used most of the plot for his smash success Lady Takes A Chance). While in Los Angeles he would meet and work with Samuel Goldwyn, Clarence Brown, Pandro Berman, Garson Kanin, Gene Fowler, Lillian Hellman, Sidney Howard, and S.N. Behrman.

In 1938, however, he received word that his Broadway agent, Harold Freedman, had sold the film rights to his play How to Get Tough About It. Ardrey decided to use the opportunity to take time off to write a play. He travelled to Tucson where he married Helen Johnson with famed Hollywood director Garson Kanin as his best man. Following his wedding, he sent a note to Samuel Goldwyn which read: "Dear Mr. Goldwyn. I fear that I am wasting your money, and I'm sure you are wasting my time." He moved with his new wife back to the east coast and set to work, first on a minor project which he would abandon, and then on the play that would become Thunder Rock.

### Thunder Rock

Robert Ardrey wrote Thunder Rock during the period of escalation in Europe which would lead to World War II. Despairing of the growing isolationism among Americans, Ardrey became convinced that American involvement in the war was a moral necessity. However he did not intend to write a play about the conflict until he was struck by a moment of inspiration during a performance of Swan Lake, in which he conceived of "the play from beginning to end, complete with first, second, and third act curtains."

In his autobiography, Ardrey gives the following summary of the play:

My story was that of a renowned journalist who having experienced the disillusionments of the 1930s had given up all hope of influencing man toward a better world. In his depths, he takes a job as keeper of a lonely lighthouse on a rock in Lake Michigan. On that rock, a century earlier, had been wrecked a ship carrying immigrants to the New World. It was a time of legitimate hope – he thought. And there – within this lighthouse, symbolically the shape of his mind – he recreated a little world populated by the hopeful immigrants to the New World. The play consists of the journalist-lightkeeper and the long-dead people of his own resurrection, his relations with characters existing only in his own mind. Yet in the probing of his own creations, his integrity catches up with him. They were as much escaping problems of their world as he was of his. In the end he returns to reality.

Thunder Rock, an anti-isolationist play, opened on Broadway in November, 1939 to isolationist critics and a public wary of war. It received largely negative reviews and a poor reception. In the introduction to Plays of Three Decades, Ardrey writes that it opened "to the worst reviews I have ever received. Our most eminent critic deplored a play containing so much thunder and so little rock." Despite the negative initial reception, later commentators have described the play as prescient. Though unpopular at the time, it presaged the collapse of American isolationism. It was also one of the few pieces of art to warn not only about the European, but also about the Asian threat. Albert Wertheim remarked, "Ardrey's play is remarkable in another way as well. It is one of the only—perhaps the only—play of the period to see the conflicts and dangers across the Pacific. All other pre-Pearl Harbor plays of note look exclusively across the Atlantic to Hitler, Mussolini, and Europe."

During the summer of 1940 Ardrey discovered, when he read a syndicated column from Britain, that unbeknownst to him Thunder Rock had been having a massively successful run in London. In the column Vincent Sheehan wrote that it had become so emblematic as to be "London's Chu Chin Chow of World War II." The British rights had been sold to Herbert Marshall, who had launched a production starring Michael Redgrave. The play had been so successful that the British Minister of Information, Duff Cooper, arranged to have the Treasury department fund a production at the Globe Theatre in London's West End.

The play deeply resonated with a British public under siege. Eminent theater critic Harold Hobson wrote of Thunder Rock:

"The theatre... did a great deal to keep the morale of the British people high. One intellectual play had an enormous effect in keeping alight a spirit of hope at a time when it was nearer to extinction than it had ever been, either before or after. This was Thunder Rock, by Robert Ardrey. What he accomplished for the British people at a moment of supreme despair... merits their lasting gratitude.... He, more quietly but equally effectively as Churchill, urged us never to surrender."

Following its success in London, Thunder Rock has had a lasting legacy. Later in 1940 the BBC broadcast a live radio version, and in 1946 they produced an adaption for television. In 1942, Thunder Rock was turned into a film, directed by the Boulting Brothers, also starring Michael Redgrave. (See Thunder Rock (film))

Shortly following the war, productions of Thunder Rock were quickly launched in Vienna, Prague, Budapest, and, most famously, in Allied-occupied Berlin where it was the first modern play to go up in the American zone. It continues to be commonly produced in American university theaters and productions have gone up all around the globe, including in Harare (formerly Salisbury), Zimbabwe, and Nairobi, Kenya.

### Hollywood 1939–1946

After Thunder Rock quickly closed on Broadway, Ardrey returned to Hollywood. His first official credit was the screenplay for the adaptation of Sidney Howard's Pulitzer Prize-winning play They Knew What They Wanted (1939). It was directed by Garson Kanin, starred Carole Lombard and Charles Laughton, and was shot on location in Napa Valley. In 1946, after a series of talks with RKO, Ardrey and his new agent Harold Norling Swanson negotiated the first-ever independent contract with a major Hollywood studio for him to write the screen adaptation of the A. J. Cronin novel The Green Years. The contract stipulated that Ardrey could work at his home in Brentwood – an unprecedented studio concession – and he was not to be bothered until he completed the screenplay in around six weeks. The Green Years debuted to record profits and went on to be one of the highest-grossing films of 1946.

Following these successes in Hollywood, Ardrey returned to New York to reengage the theater. There he wrote Jeb.

### Jeb

Jeb was a play about a disabled African American soldier returning to his home in the rural south after having fought in the war in the Pacific. He has lost one leg, but gained the ability to run an adding machine. Seeking out employment, he is faced with the bigotry of his countrymen. Jeb opened in New York in 1946. It received largely positive reviews (famed American theatre critic George Jean Nathan called it the best play on the topic of civil rights) and found small but enthusiastic audiences. However, due to factors including high production costs and relatively low revenues, the play had to close after a run of only one week. The critical consensus, with which Ardrey came to agree, was that Jeb was far ahead of its time.

### Hollywood 1946–1966

Following the short run of Jeb Ardrey moved back to Hollywood and signed a two-picture deal with MGM. In 1946 and '47 he wrote The Secret Garden. In 1947 he wrote the screenplay for The Three Musketeers, (which would become the second-highest-grossing film of 1948.) starring Lana Turner and Gene Kelly. This became Gene Kelly's favorite non-musical role. In 1949, Ardrey wrote the screenplay for Gustave Flaubert's classic novel Madame Bovary. The film starred Jennifer Jones with James Mason playing the role of Flaubert. The novel was originally tried for obscenity in France and Ardrey used this as a device to frame the story and allow for a commentator.

In 1947, Ardrey, amid growing persecution of Hollywood by the House Un-American Activities Committee, was elected to the board of the Screen Writers Guild and made chairman of its Political Advisory Committee. Following the founding of the Committee for the First Amendment, Ardrey flew to Washington, along with Lauren Bacall, Humphrey Bogart, Gene Kelly, Danny Kaye, and John Huston, to defend The Hollywood Ten. Later, on behalf of the Guild, Ardrey worked with Thurman Arnold to lodge a suit against the Hollywood blacklist with the Supreme Court. The suit came up for review four years later, but the Guild dropped it.

In the early '50s, partly due to its enforcement of the blacklists and partly due to the increasing role banks were playing in creative decisions, Ardrey began to feel a growing dissatisfaction with Hollywood and started to travel abroad. He travelled to Paris, Madrid, Barcelona, the Riviera, Venice, Yugoslavia, where he spent a month living in Belgrade, Greece, Istanbul, and Munich. He later described these travels as "necessary exercises" for his book African Genesis.

In 1952 Ardrey joined the presidential campaign of Democratic Senator Adlai Stevenson against the Republican nominee, Dwight D. Eisenhower, as a part of the group "Hollywood for Stevenson". The group sponsored an investigator to go to the hometown of Eisenhower's running mate, Richard Nixon, for research. While there the investigator discovered, in the high school newspaper archives, that Nixon had been known as "Tricky Dick".

In 1954 Ardrey wrote a play about the persecution of accused communists in post- Cold War America. This play, Sing Me No Lullaby, was presented at the Phoenix Theatre in London. Brooks Atkinson, in his New York Times review, wrote:

"...the contribution has made in the last act is a clear and perceptive statement of this nameless, formless situation and an estimation of what it is doing to America... Mr. Ardrey... is a man of principle and taste. In Sing Me No Lullaby he has performed the function of a writer. He has found the words to describe something that is vague and elusive but ominous. And he has got far enough away from political recriminations to state it in terms of character and the life of the spirit."

Also in 1954 Ardrey wrote the adaptation of John Masters' novel Bhowani Junction. Due in part to the intervention of the banks financing the film, Ardrey entered into contested negotiations over rewrites. Eventually he quit and took his name off the film.

In 1958 Ardrey wrote the play Shadow of Heroes about the Hungarian Uprising of 1956. The play resulted in the release from Soviet custody of two political prisoners, Julia Rajk and her son.

Ardrey next turned his attention toward Africa. He was soon to begin his pioneering work in paleoanthropology, but he also continued his career as a screenwriter. In 1964 he wrote the first screenplay adaptation of Isak Dinesen 's novel Out of Africa. In 1966 he wrote another screenplay set in Africa, the Academy Award -nominated Khartoum.

### Khartoum

Khartoum was written and produced in 1966, directed by Basil Dearden. The film is based on historical accounts of British Gen. Charles "Chinese" Gordon 's defense of the Sudanese city of Khartoum from the forces of the Mahdist army during the Siege of Khartoum.

Khartoum starred Charlton Heston as General Gordon and Laurence Olivier as the Mahdi (Muhammad Ahmed). Heston, in his autobiography, wrote about his decision to take the role: "It's a good part, presents the challenge of doing a mystic, as well as the English thing. Also, it's a helluva good script."

The academy agreed with Heston's assessment of the script. In 1967 Khartoum earned Ardrey a nomination for the Oscar for Best Original Screenplay.

Ardrey died, aged 71, in South Africa.

## Africa

In 1955, when Ardrey was considering a trip to Africa, Max Ascoli, publisher of The Reporter, offered to buy anything that Ardrey would write there. At the same time, Ardrey renewed an acquaintance with prominent geologist Richard Foster Flint. Because of Ardrey's background in geology and paleontology, Flint arranged for Ardrey to investigate claims made by Raymond Dart about a specimen of Australopithecus africanus.

Ardrey met Dart in South Africa and examined his evidence. Particularly, Dart had amassed a sample of 5,000 fossils from the Makapan cave. Among the fossils, some bones that could be used as tools—the lower jaw bones of small gazelles, which could be used as cutting tools, and the humerus of antelope, which could be used as clubs—were overrepresented (more frequent) by a factor of ten. This led Dart to theorize that in australopithecines, as man's direct ancestors, the use of weapons evolutionarily predated the development of large brains. Ardrey wrote an article about Dart's theory for The Reporter. After receiving significant attention, it was reprinted in Science Digest and led to The Smithsonian Institution contacting Dart. The theory was later refuted but was influential at the time.

This trip would serve as the beginning of Ardrey's renewed interest in the human sciences and the initiation of his writing on paleoanthropology.

## Paleoanthropology

Ardrey spent the latter part of his life working as a science writer. (In 1969 he was also contracted by Universal to write a screenplay of Baroness Karen Blixen 's memoir Out of Africa, but it was never produced.) While this work at first appears disparate with his early career, later commentators have emphasized the continuity. In his New York Times obituary, Bayard Webster wrote, "A closer look at his dramas and his behavioral books disclose that he was writing about social conditions in both genres. One involved humans, the other concerned both humans and other animals. But the dramatic theme was the same: the difficulties humans and other animals have in dealing with each other, and the reasons for their actions."

The writing quality of Ardrey's work was widely praised. The biologist and naturalist E. O. Wilson admired The Hunting Hypothesis, commenting:

In his excellent new book Robert Ardrey continues as the lyric poet of human evolution, capturing the Homeric quality of the subject that so many scientists by and large feel but are unable to put into words. His opinions, like those in his earlier works, are controversial but more open, squarely stated, and closer to the truth than the protests of his most scandalized critics.

In his 1964 book The Analysis of Prose, William D. Templeman used African Genesis as his third lesson. The volume included analysis and questions from his students at the University of Southern California.

A.J. Jacobs, who wrote the 2004 book The Know-It-All, about reading the entire Encyclopædia Britannica, asserts that a quote in the philosophy section from African Genesis was the most profound thing he read while reading the Encyclopædia.

His work was so popular that some scientists cited it as inspiring them to enter their fields.

Ardrey wrote for popular audiences on topics in paleoanthropology, which encompasses anthropology, ethology, paleontology, zoology and human evolution. He was praised for crossing the boundaries of scientific specialism. The Observer, for instance, in its review of The Social Contract, wrote that "Robert Ardrey... leaps across the fences with which scientists nowadays surround their special subjects. He reports their findings in clear English. He attempts to relate them in a single science of Man, by which all of us may try to know ourselves."

This single "science of Man" was postulated in Ardrey's influential Nature of Man Series, which is composed of four books: African Genesis: A Personal Investigation into the Animal Origins and Nature of Man (1961), The Territorial Imperative: A Personal Inquiry Into the Animal Origins of Property and Nations (1966), The Social Contract: A Personal Inquiry into the Evolutionary Sources of Order and Disorder (1970), and The Hunting Hypothesis: A Personal Conclusion Concerning the Evolutionary Nature of Man (1976).

Along with Raymond Dart and Konrad Lorenz, Robert Ardrey became one of the three most famous proponents of the hunting hypothesis and the killer ape theory. Ardrey postulated that precursors of Australopithecus survived millions of years of drought in the Miocene and Pliocene epochs, as the savannah spread and the forests shrank, by adapting the hunting ways of carnivorous species. Changes in survival techniques and social organization gradually differentiated pre-humans from other primates. Concomitant changes in diet potentiated unique developments in the human brain.

The killer ape theory posits that aggression, a vital factor in hunting prey for food, was a fundamental characteristic which distinguished prehuman ancestors from other primates. Ardrey also argued that aggression was therefore an inherited evolutionary trait still present in man. He challenged the reigning blank-slate hypothesis (similarly aligned with cultural determinism). The blank-slate hypothesis was defended (and Ardrey was famously attacked) by Ashley Montagu. This debate led to popular interest in human origins. Ardrey's ideas influenced director Sam Peckinpah, to whom Strother Martin gave copies of two of Ardrey's books, as well as Arthur C. Clarke and Stanley Kubrick in the development of 2001: A Space Odyssey. More recently, according to archeology expert K. Kris Hirst, reviewing the Dawn of Humanity (2015 PBS film) documentary which describes the 2015 studies of fossils of Homo naledi, the violent behavior of apes in the "Dawn of Man" sequence of 2001 has been "proven false", since contemporary evidence suggests that they were actually vegetarians. Though some of Ardrey's theses on aggression have been disproven, his books influenced public views at the time.

These themes have also been investigated in academia by, among others:

- Konrad Lorenz: On Aggression (1966)

- University of Chicago "Man the Hunter" symposium (1966): Richard B. Lee and Irven DeVore, eds., Man the Hunter: Symposium on Man the Hunter, University of Chicago. Chicago: Aldine Publishing.

- Sherwood Washburn and Chet Lancaster: Man the Hunter (1968). (Washburn's students Lee and DeVore organised the 1966 Chicago conference.)

- Craig Stanford: The Hunting Apes: Meat Eating and the Origins of Human Behavior, Princeton University Press (2001).

- Erich Fromm: The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness (1973)

- Matt Cartmill: A View to a Death in the Morning: Hunting and Nature Through History (1996)

### Researchers

Some scientists whose research informed Robert Ardrey's ideas, several of whom Ardrey consulted while writing his four books in Africa:

- Warder Clyde Allee

- Charles Kimberlin Brain

- Robert Broom

- Helmut Karl Buechner

- Clarence Ray Carpenter

- Raymond Dart

- Henry Eliot Howard

- James Kitching

- Louis Leakey

- Eugène Marais

- Kenneth Oakley

- George Schaller

### Criticism

A 1964 review said "Much of African Genesis is pure speculation, much is bad interpretation of well-known phenomena, and more than a little of it is simply untrue."

A 1966 review by Edmund Leach said Ardrey was "a mine of scientific-sounding misinformation" and his book was "noisy and foolish".

A 1967 review by Patrick Bateson said "The arguments on which he bases his conclusions are shot through with such elementary mistakes, and his definitions are so loose, that he will surely mislead anyone who takes him seriously... Ardrey seems to be scarcely aware of the interactions involved in biological processes and to know nothing of the scientific method."

A 1970 review by Carroll Quigley said "Ardrey pretends to be a scientist, or at least a science reporter; but in this book there is no more science than there is in a comic strip... It is true that Ardrey has read a great deal about animal behavior, but he never seems to grasp what it all means, and his biases prevent him from seeing what is really there."

Around 1970, anthropologist Sherwood Washburn described Ardrey as "a popularizer of data he does not understand".

A 1970 review by C. E. S. Franks said "however well written they may be, his books are neither scientific works nor the works of a scientist. Robert Ardrey has misunderstood two of the basic concepts of the new biology, "aggression" and "territory", and has misapplied them in discussing human society".

A 1972 review by anthropologist Michael G. Kenny said "though Ardrey says on occasion that one cannot reasonably argue from animals to man, he systematically ignores his own advice" and that Ardrey "does not in general cite any clear evidence for his case" and "pays no attention at all to much material which, for good or ill, could bear on his case. The result is that he became so thoroughly muddled there was no possibility that he might have given some kind of sense to the analysis of the bio-social nature of society".

A 1972 review by David Pilbeam said Ardrey's ideas were "based upon misinterpretation of ethological studies and a total ignorance of the rich variety of human behavior documented by anthropologists".

A 1984 article said "the hard evidence for Ardrey's killer-ape hypothesis, all from Dart, is slim" and was refuted in the early 1970s by paleontologists, in particular CK Brain and Elisabeth Vrba.

A 1996 article by anthropologist Glenn E. King suggested Ardrey was a pseudoscientist. King said "when a person who is 'not a formally trained scientist' who flatly contradicts highly trained experts who have done original research" and "that person accuses scientists of avoiding 'awkward facts' that contradict their views, this is the typical rhetoric of the pseudoscientist seeking the support (and usually the money) of a gullible public". King cited Ardrey as an example of this.

A 2023 article said the disconfirmation of Ardrey's theories started arriving as early as 1966.

## Books

Fiction

- Worlds Beginning (1944) (Cited in Everett F. Bleiler 's The Checklist of Fantastic Literature, 1948.)

- The Brotherhood of Fear (1952)

- Plays of Three Decades: Thunder Rock / Jeb / Shadow of Heroes (1968) (Includes an autobiographical preface)

Nonfiction

- African Genesis: A Personal Investigation into the Animal Origins and Nature of Man (1961)

- The Territorial Imperative: A Personal Inquiry into the Animal Origins of Property and Nations (1966)

- The Social Contract: A Personal Inquiry into the Evolutionary Sources of Order and Disorder (1970)

- The Hunting Hypothesis: A Personal Conclusion Concerning the Evolutionary Nature of Man (1976)

- Aggression and Violence in Man: A Dialogue Between Dr. L.S.B. Leakey and Robert Ardrey (1971) OCLC 631758464 Online version

## Plays

- Star Spangled (1936)

- Casey Jones (1938)

- How to Get Tough About It (1938)

- Thunder Rock (1939) (filmed in 1942 in the UK, released 1944 in the US)

- God and Texas (1943)

- Jeb (1946)

- Sing Me No Lullaby (1954)

- Shadow of Heroes (1958) (produced in London as Stone and Star)

## Screenplays

- They Knew What They Wanted (1940)

- A Lady Takes a Chance (1943)

- The Green Years (1946)

- Song of Love (1947)

- The Three Musketeers (1948)

- Madame Bovary (1949)

- The Secret Garden (1949)

- The Schumann Story (1950) short film adaptation of Song of Love

- The Adventures of Quentin Durward (1955)

- The Power and the Prize (1956)

- The Wonderful Country (1959)

- Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (1962)

- Khartoum (1966) Nominated for an Academy Award for Writing Original Screenplay

- Out of Africa (1969, unproduced)

- The Animal Within (1975) documentary

## Awards and honors

- 1935: Sergel Drama Award.

- 1937: Guggenheim Fellowship.

- 1940: Sidney Howard Memorial Award.

- 1961: Theresa Helburn Memorial Award.

- 1963: Willkie Brothers Grant for Anthropology.

- Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature

## Additional resources

There are a number of university libraries that house Robert Ardrey's papers. The primary archive for the Robert Ardrey Collection is at the Howard Gotlieb Archival Research Center in the Mugar Memorial Library at Boston University. There are also additional collections of Robert Ardrey's works held at UCLA, Rutgers, and the University of Chicago.