Flat Earth

# Flat Earth

## Abstract

Flat Earth is an archaic and scientifically disproven conception of the Earth's shape as a plane or disk. Many ancient cultures subscribed to a flat-Earth cosmography, notably including ancient near eastern cosmology. The model has undergone a recent resurgence as a conspiracy theory.

The idea of a spherical Earth appeared in ancient Greek philosophy with Pythagoras (6th century BC). However, most pre-Socratics (6th–5th century BC) retained the flat-Earth model. In the early 4th century BC, Plato wrote about a spherical Earth. By about 330 BC, his former student Aristotle had provided strong empirical evidence for a spherical Earth. Knowledge of the Earth's global shape gradually began to spread beyond the Hellenistic world. By the early period of the Christian Church, the spherical view was widely held, with some notable exceptions. In contrast, ancient Chinese scholars consistently describe the Earth as flat, and this perception remained unchanged until their encounters with Jesuit missionaries in the 17th century. Traditionalist Muslim scholars have maintained that the earth is flat, though, since the 9th century, Muslim scholars tended to believe in a spherical Earth.

It is a historical myth that medieval Europeans generally thought the Earth was flat. This myth was created in the 17th century by Protestants to argue against Catholic teachings. More recently, flat earth theory has seen an increase in popularity with modern flat Earth societies, and unaffiliated individuals using social media. Despite the scientific facts and obvious effects of Earth's sphericity, pseudoscientific flat-Earth conspiracy theories persist. In a 2018 study reported on by Scientific American, only 82% of 18 to 24 year old respondents agreed with the statement "I have always believed the world is round". However, a firm belief in a flat Earth is rare, with less than 2% acceptance in all age groups.

## History

### Belief in flat Earth

#### Near East

In early Egyptian and Mesopotamian thought, the world was portrayed as a disk floating in the ocean. A similar model is found in the Homeric account from the 8th century BC in which "Okeanos, the personified body of water surrounding the circular surface of the Earth, is the begetter of all life and possibly of all gods."

The Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts of ancient Egypt show a similar cosmography; Nun (the Ocean) encircled nbwt ("dry lands" or "Islands").

The Israelites also imagined the Earth to be a disc floating on water with an arched firmament above it that separated the Earth from the heavens. The sky was a solid dome with the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars embedded in it.

#### Greece

##### Poets

Both Homer and Hesiod described a disc cosmography on the Shield of Achilles. This poetic tradition of an Earth-encircling (gaiaokhos) sea (Oceanus) and a disc also appears in Stasinus of Cyprus, Mimnermus, Aeschylus, and Apollonius Rhodius.

Homer's description of the disc cosmography on the shield of Achilles with the encircling ocean is repeated far later in Quintus Smyrnaeus ' Posthomerica (4th century AD), which continues the narration of the Trojan War.

##### Philosophers

Several pre-Socratic philosophers believed that the world was flat: Thales (c. 550 BC) according to several sources, and Leucippus (c. 440 BC) and Democritus (c. 460–370 BC) according to Aristotle.

Thales thought that the Earth floated in water like a log. It has been argued, however, that Thales actually believed in a spherical Earth. Anaximander (c. 550 BC) believed that the Earth was a short cylinder with a flat, circular top that remained stable because it was the same distance from all things. Anaximenes of Miletus believed that "the Earth is flat and rides on air; in the same way the Sun and the Moon and the other heavenly bodies, which are all fiery, ride the air because of their flatness". Xenophanes (c. 500 BC) thought that the Earth was flat, with its upper side touching the air, and the lower side extending without limit.

Belief in a flat Earth continued into the 5th century BC. Anaxagoras (c. 450 BC) agreed that the Earth was flat, and his pupil Archelaus believed that the flat Earth was depressed in the middle like a saucer, to allow for the fact that the Sun does not rise and set at the same time for everyone.

##### Historians

Hecataeus of Miletus believed that the Earth was flat and surrounded by water. Herodotus in his Histories ridiculed the belief that water encircled the world, yet most classicists agree that he still believed Earth was flat because of his descriptions of literal "ends" or "edges" of the Earth.

#### Northern Europe

The ancient Norse and Germanic peoples believed in a flat-Earth cosmography with the Earth surrounded by an ocean, with the axis mundi, a world tree (Yggdrasil), or pillar (Irminsul) in the centre. In the world-encircling ocean sat a snake called Jormungandr. The Norse creation account preserved in Gylfaginning (VIII) states that during the creation of the Earth, an impassable sea was placed around it:

And Jafnhárr said: "Of the blood, which ran and welled forth freely out of his wounds, they made the sea, when they had formed and made firm the Earth together, and laid the sea in a ring round. about her; and it may well seem a hard thing to most men to cross over it."

The late Norse Konungs skuggsjá, on the other hand, explains Earth's shape as a sphere:

If you take a lighted candle and set it in a room, you may expect it to light up the entire interior, unless something should hinder, though the room be quite large. But if you take an apple and hang it close to the flame, so near that it is heated, the apple will darken nearly half the room or even more. However, if you hang the apple near the wall, it will not get hot; the candle will light up the whole house; and the shadow on the wall where the apple hangs will be scarcely half as large as the apple itself. From this you may infer that the Earth-circle is round like a ball and not equally near the sun at every point. But where the curved surface lies nearest the sun's path, there will the greatest heat be; and some of the lands that lie continuously under the unbroken rays cannot be inhabited.

#### East Asia

In ancient China, the prevailing belief was that the Earth was flat and square, while the heavens were round, an assumption virtually unquestioned until the introduction of European astronomy in the 17th century. The English sinologist Cullen emphasizes the point that there was no concept of a round Earth in ancient Chinese astronomy:

Chinese thought on the form of the Earth remained almost unchanged from early times until the first contacts with modern science through the medium of Jesuit missionaries in the seventeenth century. While the heavens were variously described as being like an umbrella covering the Earth (the Kai Tian theory), or like a sphere surrounding it (the Hun Tian theory), or as being without substance while the heavenly bodies float freely (the Hsüan yeh theory), the Earth was at all times flat, although perhaps bulging up slightly.

The model of an egg was often used by Chinese astronomers such as Zhang Heng (78–139 AD) to describe the heavens as spherical:

The heavens are like a hen's egg and as round as a crossbow bullet; the Earth is like the yolk of the egg, and lies in the centre.

This analogy with a curved egg led some modern historians, notably Joseph Needham, to conjecture that Chinese astronomers were, after all, aware of the Earth's sphericity. The egg reference, however, was rather meant to clarify the relative position of the flat Earth to the heavens:

In a passage of Zhang Heng's cosmogony not translated by Needham, Zhang himself says: "Heaven takes its body from the Yang, so it is round and in motion. Earth takes its body from the Yin, so it is flat and quiescent". The point of the egg analogy is simply to stress that the Earth is completely enclosed by Heaven, rather than merely covered from above as the Kai Tian describes. Chinese astronomers, many of them brilliant men by any standards, continued to think in flat-Earth terms until the seventeenth century; this surprising fact might be the starting-point for a re-examination of the apparent facility with which the idea of a spherical Earth found acceptance in fifth-century BC Greece.

Further examples cited by Needham supposed to demonstrate dissenting voices from the ancient Chinese consensus actually refer without exception to the Earth being square, not to it being flat. Accordingly, the 13th-century scholar Li Ye, who argued that the movements of the round heaven would be hindered by a square Earth, did not advocate a spherical Earth, but rather that its edge should be rounded off so as to be circular. However, Needham disagrees, affirming that Li Ye believed the Earth to be spherical, similar in shape to the heavens but much smaller. This was preconceived by the 4th-century scholar Yu Xi, who argued for the infinity of outer space surrounding the Earth and that the latter could be either square or round, in accordance to the shape of the heavens. When Chinese geographers of the 17th century, influenced by European cartography and astronomy, showed the Earth as a sphere that could be circumnavigated by sailing around the globe, they did so with formulaic terminology previously used by Zhang Heng to describe the spherical shape of the Sun and Moon (i.e. that they were as round as a crossbow bullet).

As noted in the book Huainanzi, in the 2nd century BC, Chinese astronomers effectively inverted Eratosthenes ' calculation of the curvature of the Earth to calculate the height of the Sun above the Earth. By assuming the Earth was flat, they arrived at a distance of 100 000 li (approximately 200 000 km). The Zhoubi Suanjing also discusses how to determine the distance of the Sun by measuring the length of noontime shadows at different latitudes, a method similar to Eratosthenes' measurement of the circumference of the Earth, but the Zhoubi Suanjing assumes that the Earth is flat.

### Alternate or mixed theories

#### Greece: spherical Earth

Pythagoras in the 6th century BC and Parmenides in the 5th century BC stated that the Earth is spherical, and this view spread rapidly in the Greek world. Around 330 BC, Aristotle maintained on the basis of physical theory and observational evidence that the Earth was spherical, and reported an estimate of its circumference. The Earth's circumference was first determined around 240 BC by Eratosthenes. By the 2nd century AD, Ptolemy had derived his maps from a globe and developed the system of latitude, longitude, and climes. His Almagest was written in Greek and only translated into Latin in the 11th century from Arabic translations.

Lucretius (1st century BC) opposed the concept of a spherical Earth, because he considered that an infinite universe had no center towards which heavy bodies would tend. Thus, he thought the idea of animals walking around topsy-turvy under the Earth was absurd. By the 1st century AD, Pliny the Elder was in a position to say that everyone agreed on the spherical shape of Earth, though disputes continued regarding the nature of the antipodes, and how it is possible to keep the ocean in a curved shape.

#### South Asia

The Vedic texts depict the cosmos in many ways. One of the earliest Indian cosmological texts pictures the Earth as one of a stack of flat disks.

In the Vedic texts, Dyaus (heaven) and Prithvi (Earth) are compared to wheels on an axle, yielding a flat model. They are also described as bowls or leather bags, yielding a concave model. According to Macdonell: "the conception of the Earth being a disc surrounded by an ocean does not appear in the Samhitas. But it was naturally regarded as circular, being compared with a wheel (10.89) and expressly called circular (parimandala) in the Shatapatha Brahmana."

By about the 5th century AD, the siddhanta astronomy texts of South Asia, particularly of Aryabhata, assume a spherical Earth as they develop mathematical methods for quantitative astronomy for calendar and time keeping.

The medieval Indian texts called the Puranas describe the Earth as a flat-bottomed, circular disk with concentric oceans and continents. This general scheme is present not only in the Hindu cosmologies, but also in Buddhist and Jain cosmologies of South Asia. However, some Puranas include other models. The fifth canto of the Bhagavata Purana, for example, includes sections that describe the Earth both as flat and spherical.

#### Early Christian Church

During the early period of the Christian Church, the spherical view continued to be widely held, with some notable exceptions. Athenagoras, an eastern Christian writing around the year 175 AD, said that the Earth was spherical. Methodius (c. 290 AD), an eastern Christian writing against "the theory of the Chaldeans and the Egyptians" said: "Let us first lay bare... the theory of the Chaldeans and the Egyptians. They say that the circumference of the universe is likened to the turnings of a well-rounded globe, the Earth being a central point. They say that since its outline is spherical,... the Earth should be the center of the universe, around which the heaven is whirling." Lactantius, a western Christian writer and advisor to the first Christian Roman Emperor, Constantine, writing sometime between 304 and 313 AD, ridiculed the notion of antipodes and the philosophers who fancied that "the universe is round like a ball. They also thought that heaven revolves in accordance with the motion of the heavenly bodies.... For that reason, they constructed brass globes, as though after the figure of the universe." Arnobius, another eastern Christian writing sometime around 305 AD, described the round Earth: "In the first place, indeed, the world itself is neither right nor left. It has neither upper nor lower regions, nor front nor back. For whatever is round and bounded on every side by the circumference of a solid sphere, has no beginning or end..."

The influential theologian and philosopher Saint Augustine, one of the four Great Church Fathers of the Western Church, similarly objected to the "fable" of antipodes:

But as to the fable that there are Antipodes, that is to say, men on the opposite side of the Earth, where the sun rises when it sets to us, men who walk with their feet opposite ours that is on no ground credible. And, indeed, it is not affirmed that this has been learned by historical knowledge, but by scientific conjecture, on the ground that the Earth is suspended within the concavity of the sky, and that it has as much room on the one side of it as on the other: hence they say that the part that is beneath must also be inhabited. But they do not remark that, although it be supposed or scientifically demonstrated that the world is of a round and spherical form, yet it does not follow that the other side of the Earth is bare of water; nor even, though it be bare, does it immediately follow that it is peopled. For Scripture, which proves the truth of its historical statements by the accomplishment of its prophecies, gives no false information; and it is too absurd to say, that some men might have taken ship and traversed the whole wide ocean, and crossed from this side of the world to the other, and that thus even the inhabitants of that distant region are descended from that one first man.

Some historians do not view Augustine's scriptural commentaries as endorsing any particular cosmological model, endorsing instead the view that Augustine shared the common view of his contemporaries that the Earth is spherical, in line with his endorsement of science in De Genesi ad litteram. C. P. E. Nothaft, responding to writers like Leo Ferrari who described Augustine as endorsing a flat Earth, says that "...other recent writers on the subject treat Augustine’s acceptance of the earth’s spherical shape as a well-established fact".

Diodorus of Tarsus, a leading figure in the School of Antioch and mentor of John Chrysostom, may have argued for a flat Earth; however, Diodorus' opinion on the matter is known only from a later criticism. Chrysostom, one of the four Great Church Fathers of the Eastern Church and Archbishop of Constantinople, explicitly espoused the idea, based on scripture, that the Earth floats miraculously on the water beneath the firmament.

Christian Topography (547) by the Alexandrian monk Cosmas Indicopleustes, who had traveled as far as Sri Lanka and the source of the Blue Nile, is now widely considered the most valuable geographical document of the early medieval age, although it received relatively little attention from contemporaries. In it, the author repeatedly expounds the doctrine that the universe consists of only two places, the Earth below the firmament and heaven above it. Carefully drawing on arguments from scripture, he describes the Earth as a rectangle, 400 days' journey long by 200 wide, surrounded by four oceans and enclosed by four massive walls which support the firmament. The spherical Earth theory is contemptuously dismissed as "pagan".

Severian, Bishop of Gabala (d. 408), wrote that the Earth is flat and the Sun does not pass under it in the night, but "travels through the northern parts as if hidden by a wall". Basil of Caesarea (329–379) argued that the matter was theologically irrelevant.

#### Europe: Early Middle Ages

Early medieval Christian writers felt little urge to assume flatness of the Earth, though they had fuzzy impressions of the writings of Ptolemy and Aristotle, relying more on Pliny.

With the end of the Western Roman Empire, Western Europe entered the Middle Ages with great difficulties that affected the continent's intellectual production. Most scientific treatises of classical antiquity (in Greek) were unavailable, leaving only simplified summaries and compilations. In contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire did not fall, and it preserved the learning. Still, many textbooks of the Early Middle Ages supported the sphericity of the Earth in the western part of Europe.

Europe's view of the shape of the Earth in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages may be best expressed by the writings of early Christian scholars:

Bishop Isidore of Seville (560–636) taught in his widely read encyclopedia, the Etymologies, diverse views such as that the Earth "resembles a wheel" resembling Anaximander in language and the map that he provided. This was widely interpreted as referring to a disc-shaped Earth. An illustration from Isidore's De Natura Rerum shows the five zones of the Earth as adjacent circles. Some have concluded that he thought the Arctic and Antarctic zones were adjacent to each other. He did not admit the possibility of antipodes, which he took to mean people dwelling on the opposite side of the Earth, considering them legendary and noting that there was no evidence for their existence. Isidore's T and O map, which was seen as representing a small part of a spherical Earth, continued to be used by authors through the Middle Ages, e.g. the 9th-century bishop Rabanus Maurus, who compared the habitable part of the northern hemisphere (Aristotle 's northern temperate clime) with a wheel. At the same time, Isidore's works also gave the views of sphericity, for example, in chapter 28 of De Natura Rerum, Isidore claims that the Sun orbits the Earth and illuminates the other side when it is night on this side. See French translation of De Natura Rerum. In his other work Etymologies, there are also affirmations that the sphere of the sky has Earth in its center and the sky being equally distant on all sides. Other researchers have argued these points as well. "The work remained unsurpassed until the thirteenth century and was regarded as the summit of all knowledge. It became an essential part of European medieval culture. Soon after the invention of typography it appeared many times in print." However, "The Scholastics – later medieval philosophers, theologians, and scientists – were helped by the Arabic translators and commentaries, but they hardly needed to struggle against a flat-Earth legacy from the early middle ages (500–1050). Early medieval writers often had fuzzy and imprecise impressions of both Ptolemy and Aristotle and relied more on Pliny, but they felt (with one exception), little urge to assume flatness."

St Vergilius of Salzburg (c. 700–784), in the middle of the 8th century, discussed or taught some geographical or cosmographical ideas that St Boniface found sufficiently objectionable that he complained about them to Pope Zachary. The only surviving record of the incident is contained in Zachary's reply, dated 748, where he wrote:

As for the perverse and sinful doctrine which he (Virgil) against God and his own soul has uttered – if it shall be clearly established that he professes belief in another world and other men existing beneath the Earth, or in (another) sun and moon there, thou art to hold a council, deprive him of his sacerdotal rank, and expel him from the Church.

Some authorities have suggested that the sphericity of the Earth was among the aspects of Vergilius's teachings that Boniface and Zachary considered objectionable. Others have considered this unlikely, and take the wording of Zachary's response to indicate at most an objection to belief in the existence of humans living in the antipodes. In any case, there is no record of any further action having been taken against Vergilius. He was later appointed bishop of Salzburg and was canonised in the 13th century.

A possible non-literary but graphic indication that people in the Middle Ages believed that the Earth (or perhaps the world) was a sphere is the use of the orb (globus cruciger) in the regalia of many kingdoms and of the Holy Roman Empire. It is attested from the time of the Christian late-Roman emperor Theodosius II (423) throughout the Middle Ages; the Reichsapfel was used in 1191 at the coronation of emperor Henry VI. However the word orbis means "circle", and there is no record of a globe as a representation of the Earth since ancient times in the west until that of Martin Behaim in 1492. Additionally it could well be a representation of the entire "world" or cosmos.

A recent study of medieval concepts of the sphericity of the Earth noted that "since the eighth century, no cosmographer worthy of note has called into question the sphericity of the Earth". However, the work of these intellectuals may not have had significant influence on public opinion, and it is difficult to tell what the wider population may have thought of the shape of the Earth if they considered the question at all.

#### Europe: High and Late Middle Ages

Hermann of Reichenau (1013–1054) was among the earliest Christian scholars to estimate the circumference of Earth with Eratosthenes ' method. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), the most widely taught theologian of the Middle Ages, believed in a spherical Earth and took for granted that his readers also knew the Earth is round. Lectures in the medieval universities commonly advanced evidence in favor of the idea that the Earth was a sphere.

Jill Tattersall shows that in many vernacular works in 12th- and 13th-century French texts the Earth was considered "round like a table" rather than "round like an apple". She writes, "n virtually all the examples quoted... from epics and from non-'historical' romances (that is, works of a less learned character) the actual form of words used suggests strongly a circle rather than a sphere", though she notes that even in these works the language is ambiguous.

Portuguese navigation down and around the coast of Africa in the latter half of the 1400s gave wide-scale observational evidence for Earth's sphericity. In these explorations, the Sun's position moved more northward the further south the explorers travelled. Its position directly overhead at noon gave evidence for crossing the equator. These apparent solar motions in detail were more consistent with north–south curvature and a distant Sun, than with any flat-Earth explanation. The ultimate demonstration came when Ferdinand Magellan's expedition completed the first global circumnavigation in 1521. Antonio Pigafetta, one of the few survivors of the voyage, recorded the loss of a day in the course of the voyage, giving evidence for east–west curvature.

#### Middle East: Islamic scholars

Prior to the introduction of Greek cosmology into the Islamic world, Muslims tended to view the Earth as flat, and Muslim traditionalists who rejected Greek philosophy continued to hold to this view later on while various theologians held opposing opinions. Beginning in the 10th century onwards, some Muslim traditionalists began to adopt the notion of a spherical Earth with the influence of Greek and Ptolemaic cosmology.

The Abbasid Caliphate saw a great flowering of astronomy and mathematics in the 9th century AD. Muslim scholars tended to believe in a spherical Earth from this period.

In Quranic cosmology, the Earth (al-arḍ) was "spread out." Whether or not this implies a flat earth was debated by Muslims. Some modern historians believe the Quran saw the world as flat. On the other hand, the 12th-century commentary, the Tafsir al-Kabir (al-Razi) by Fakhr al-Din al-Razi argues that though this verse does describe a flat surface, it is limited in its application to local regions of the Earth which are roughly flat as opposed to the Earth as a whole. Others who would support a ball-shaped Earth included Ibn Hazm.

#### Ming Dynasty in China

A spherical terrestrial globe was introduced to Yuan-era Khanbaliq (i.e. Beijing) in 1267 by the Persian astronomer Jamal ad-Din, but it is not known to have made an impact on the traditional Chinese conception of the shape of the Earth. As late as 1595, an early Jesuit missionary to China, Matteo Ricci, recorded that the Ming-dynasty Chinese say: "The Earth is flat and square, and the sky is a round canopy; they did not succeed in conceiving the possibility of the antipodes."

In the 17th century, the idea of a spherical Earth spread in China due to the influence of the Jesuits, who held high positions as astronomers at the imperial court. Matteo Ricci, in collaboration with Chinese cartographers and translator Li Zhizao, published the Kunyu Wanguo Quantu in 1602, the first Chinese world map based on European discoveries. The astronomical and geographical treatise Gezhicao (格致草) written in 1648 by Xiong Mingyu (熊明遇) explained that the Earth was spherical, not flat or square, and could be circumnavigated.

### Myth of flat-Earth prevalence

In the 19th century, a historical myth arose which held that the predominant cosmological doctrine during the Middle Ages was that the Earth was flat. An early proponent of this myth was the American writer Washington Irving, who maintained that Christopher Columbus had to overcome the opposition of churchmen to gain sponsorship for his voyage of exploration. Later significant advocates of this view were John William Draper and Andrew Dickson White, who used it as a major element in their advocacy of the thesis that there was a long-lasting and essential conflict between science and religion. Some studies of the historical connections between science and religion have demonstrated that theories of their mutual antagonism ignore examples of their mutual support.

Subsequent studies of medieval science have shown that most scholars in the Middle Ages, including those read by Christopher Columbus, maintained that the Earth was spherical.

## Modern flat Earth beliefs

In the modern era, the pseudoscientific belief in a flat Earth originated with the English writer Samuel Rowbotham with the 1849 pamphlet Zetetic Astronomy. Lady Elizabeth Blount established the Universal Zetetic Society in 1893, which published journals. In 1956, Samuel Shenton set up the International Flat Earth Research Society, better known as the "Flat Earth Society" from Dover, England, as a direct descendant of the Universal Zetetic Society.

In the Internet era, the availability of communications technology and social media like YouTube, Facebook and Twitter have made it easy for individuals, famous or not, to spread disinformation and attract others to erroneous ideas, including that of the flat Earth.

Modern believers in a flat Earth face overwhelming publicly accessible evidence of Earth's sphericity. They also need to explain why governments, media outlets, schools, scientists, surveyors, airlines and other organizations accept that the world is spherical. To satisfy these tensions and maintain their beliefs, they generally embrace some form of conspiracy theory. In addition, believers tend to not trust observations they have not made themselves, and often distrust, disagree with or accuse each other of being in league with conspiracies.

## Education

Before learning from their social environment, a child's perception of their physical environment often leads to a false concept about the shape of Earth and what happens beyond the horizon. Many children think that Earth ends there and that one can fall off the edge. Education helps them gradually change their belief into a realist one of a spherical Earth.


Dragan Tadić (Serbian footballer)

# Dragan Tadić (Serbian footballer)

## Abstract

Dragan Tadić (Serbian Cyrillic: Драган Тадић; born 4 February 1977) is a Serbian football forward.


1998 FIFA World Cup Group D

# 1998 FIFA World Cup Group D

## Abstract

Nigeria won their first two games while Paraguay drew their first two games 0–0, which meant that Nigeria were certain of qualifying in first place with a game to spare. In their final game, Spain got their only victory after scoring six against Bulgaria, but were still eliminated in third place after Paraguay beat Nigeria. Thus, Spain were the only top seed not to advance to the second round, while all others topped their respective groups. On the other hand, Bulgaria could not repeat their surprise performance from the previous tournament, finishing last in the group with a single point.

## Standings

- Nigeria advanced to play Denmark (runner-up of Group C) in the round of 16.

- Paraguay advanced to play France (winner of Group C) in the round of 16.

## Matches

### Paraguay vs Bulgaria

### Spain vs Nigeria

### Nigeria vs Bulgaria

### Spain vs Paraguay

### Nigeria vs Paraguay

### Spain vs Bulgaria


The Neighborhood (TV series)

# The Neighborhood (TV series)

## Abstract

The Neighborhood is an American television sitcom created by Jim Reynolds that premiered on CBS on October 1, 2018. The series follows a white Midwestern family as they adjust to moving into a predominantly black neighborhood in Pasadena, California. It stars Max Greenfield, Cedric the Entertainer, Hank Greenspan, Sheaun McKinney, Marcel Spears, Beth Behrs, and Tichina Arnold. In January 2023, the series was renewed for a sixth season, which premiered on February 12, 2024. In April 2024, the series was renewed for a seventh season which is set to premiere on October 21, 2024.

## Premise

The Neighborhood follows Dave Johnson, the "nicest guy in the Midwest," who moves his white family into a predominantly African American neighborhood in Los Angeles, where not everyone appreciates his extreme neighborliness. That includes their new next-door neighbor Calvin Butler.

## Cast and characters

### Main

- Cedric the Entertainer as Calvin Butler, the main character. A local homeowner, he is Tina's husband and Malcolm and Marty's father. He owns an auto repair shop called Calvin's Pit Stop until selling it in season 5. In season 6, he and Marty open a repair shop called Fuse Box that specializes in electric vehicles.

- Max Greenfield as Dave Johnson, Gemma's husband and Grover's father. Dave is a friendly but awkward man who moves from Michigan to Pasadena, California. He is a professional conflict mediator, a military veteran, and a graduate of Western Michigan University in Kalamazoo, Michigan.

- Sheaun McKinney as Malcolm Butler, Calvin and Tina's older son. He was once a professional baseball player working his way through the minor leagues until an injury ended his career. He had trouble finding steady employment until Marty got him a job as a security guard at JPL in season 2. In season 4, he is hired as the hitting coach for the USC baseball team.

- Marcel Spears as Martin 'Marty' Butler, Calvin and Tina's younger son. He is a successful engineer at JPL with several nerdy hobbies and interests. Chronically unlucky in love, Marty meets a boxer named Necie in season 4 and gets engaged to her, only to have the engagement end in season 5. In season 6, he and Calvin open a repair shop called Fuse Box that specializes in electric vehicles. Marty has a one-night stand with a Fuse Box employee that results in her getting pregnant. Their daughter is born in the season 6 finale.

- Tichina Arnold as Tina Butler, Calvin's wife and Malcolm and Marty's mother. A former singer in a semi-successful pop trio, she worked the front desk at Calvin's auto shop before starting her own cupcake business. In season 5, she accepts a part-time job as a music teacher at Gemma's school.

- Beth Behrs as Gemma Johnson, Dave's wife and Grover's mother. Her new job as principal at a private school in Los Angeles is the reason for the Johnson family moving to California.

- Hank Greenspan as Grover Johnson, Dave and Gemma's son who is initially an elementary school student at Walcott Academy. In season 5, he begins middle school and turns 13 later on.

- Skye Townsend as Courtney Pridgeon (season 7; recurring season 6), Marty's friend and former co-worker who becomes pregnant with his child after a one-night stand; she gives birth to their daughter in the Season 6 finale

### Recurring

- Malik S. as Trey, Malcolm's friend; it is later revealed that his real name is Leslie

- Earthquake as Que, the owner of the barbershop that Calvin and Dave frequent

- Gary Anthony Williams as Ernie, an old friend of Calvin's who runs a neighborhood bar

- Sloan Robinson as Old Miss Kim, a grumpy neighbor who enjoys the company of younger men

- Chelsea Harris as Necie, a female boxer and Marty's girlfriend, later ex-fiancé

- Sean Larkins as Randall, the mailman

## Episodes

## Production

### Development

On September 27, 2017, it was announced that CBS had given the production, then titled Here Comes the Neighborhood, a pilot production commitment. The pilot was written by Jim Reynolds who was also set to executive produce alongside Aaron Kaplan, Dana Honor, and Wendi Trilling. Production companies involved with the pilot include Kapital Entertainment, CBS Television Studios, and Trill Television. On January 27, 2018, the production officially received a pilot order. On February 9, 2018, it was announced that James Burrows would direct the pilot.

On May 9, 2018, it was announced that CBS had given the production, now titled Welcome to the Neighborhood, a series order. A few days later, it was announced that the title of the show had been changed to The Neighborhood. A day after that, it was announced that the series would premiere in the fall of 2018 and air on Mondays at 8:00 P.M. On July 9, 2018, it was announced that the series would premiere on October 1, 2018. On October 19, 2018, it was announced that CBS had ordered an additional eight episodes of the series, bringing the first season total up to twenty-one episodes. On January 25, 2019, CBS renewed the series for a second season and premiered on September 23, 2019. On May 6, 2020, CBS renewed the series for a third season, which premiered on November 16, 2020. On February 17, 2021, CBS renewed the series for a fourth season. On April 5, 2021, Reynolds stepped down as the showrunner and executive producer after three seasons due to complaints of his "insensitive comments and other race-related issues over a period of time". On June 7, 2021, Meg DeLoatch joined the series as an executive producer and showrunner for the fourth season to replace Reynolds. The fourth season premiered on September 20, 2021. On January 24, 2022, CBS renewed the series for a fifth season. On March 26, 2022, DeLoatch exited as the showrunner. On June 8, 2022, Bill Martin and Mike Schiff were announced as the new showrunners of the series. The fifth season premiered on September 19, 2022. On January 23, 2023, CBS renewed the series for a sixth season. The sixth season premiered on February 12, 2024. On April 9, 2024, CBS renewed the series for a seventh season. The seventh season is scheduled to premiere on October 21, 2024.

### Casting

In March 2018, it was announced that Sheaun McKinney, Marcel Spears, Cedric the Entertainer, Josh Lawson, Tichina Arnold had joined the pilot's main cast. On April 4, 2018, it was reported that Dreama Walker had joined the cast in a main role. On May 15, 2018, it was announced that Max Greenfield had replaced Lawson in the role of Dave Johnson. On June 11, 2018, it was announced that Beth Behrs had replaced Walker in the role of Gemma Johnson. On October 11, 2018, it was reported that Marilu Henner had been cast in a guest starring role. On December 10, 2018, it was announced that Marla Gibbs would make a guest appearance in the series.

### Filming

The Neighborhood was filmed at Radford Studio Center in Studio City, California, but is set in Pasadena, California.

## Release

### Marketing

On May 16, 2018, CBS released the first official trailer for the series. On July 11, 2018, a short promo video for the series was released, showcasing the addition of Greenfield and Behrs, with newly filmed footage from the re-shot pilot episode. Two days later, a new full length trailer featuring Greenfield and Behrs was released.

### Premiere

On September 12, 2018, the series took part in the 12th Annual PaleyFest Fall Television Previews which featured a preview screening of the series and a conversation with cast members including Cedric the Entertainer, Tichina Arnold, Max Greenfield, and Beth Behrs.

## Reception

### Critical response

The series has been met with a mixed-to-negative response from critics upon its premiere, often citing bad character writing and mishandling of the current social environment as the main factors. On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the first season holds an approval rating of 24%, with an average rating of 4.3/10 and based on 17 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads: "While the show's likable cast has potential, poor attempts at cultural commentary and weak characterizations leave The Neighborhood stuck in a creative dead end." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the season a score of 50 out of 100 based on 8 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".

### Ratings

## Home media

CBS Home Entertainment released the complete first season on DVD on August 4, 2020. The second season was released on December 1, 2020. The third season was released on July 27, 2021. The fourth season was released on July 19, 2022. The fifth season was released on July 25, 2023.

## Other appearances

Calvin and Tina appeared in the Bob Hearts Abishola episode "Compress to Impress" which aired March 14, 2022.

## Spin-off

On May 6, 2024, it was reported that the spin-off of The Neighborhood has been picked up by Paramount+ and reveals its titled Crutch introduced Tracy Morgan as the character of Francois "Frank" Crutchfield.


Kara Dansky

# Kara Dansky

## Abstract

Kara Dansky is an American women's rights activist, public speaker, writer, consultant, and gender critical feminist who advocates for protecting women and girls on the basis of sex in law and throughout society by opposing allowing biological men in spaces where women and girls are vulnerable: locker rooms, bathrooms, dressing rooms, rape crises centers and shelters for women victims of male violence. She is the president of the American chapter of the feminist organization, Women's Declaration International. From 2016 to 2020, she served on the board of the women’s rights group, Women's Liberation Front. She supports keeping safe spaces for women, which is referred to by those opposed to spaces exclusively for biological women as trans-exclusionary radical feminism or TERFs. She is an advocate for sex-based women's rights.In November 2021, she published "The Abolition of Sex: How the 'Transgender' Agenda Harms Women and Girls". She currently serves as President of the U.S. chapter of Women’s Declaration International (WDI), which seeks to promote the Declaration on Women's Sex-Based Rights. She served on the board of the Women's Liberation Front from 2016 to 2020. Dansky is also an attorney with a Juris Doctor Degree from the University of Pennsylvania Law School and a Bachelor of Arts from Johns Hopkins University, and an extensive background in criminal justice law and policy.

## Education

Dansky received a BA from Johns Hopkins University and a JD from the University of Pennsylvania Law School.

## Career

Dansky was the executive director of the Stanford Criminal Justice Center.

In 2014, Dansky authored the ACLU study War Comes Home: The Excessive Militarization of American Policing which concluded that the increasing application of military tactics and weapons by American police was unnecessarily putting civilians at risk of injury and death.

From 2016 to 2020, Dansky served on the board of the Women's Liberation Front. She has appeared on Tucker Carlson 's Fox program to discuss her views.

In 2021, Dansky authored the book The Abolition of Sex: How the 'Transgender' Agenda Harms Women and Girls.

In 2023, Dansky published The Reckoning: How the Democrats and the Left Betrayed Women and Girls.

Dansky is the current president of the American chapter of Women's Declaration International.

## Personal life

Dansky is a Shambhala International certified meditation instructor.


MP Materials

# MP Materials

## Abstract

MP Materials Corp. is an American rare-earth materials company headquartered in Las Vegas, Nevada. MP Materials owns and operates the Mountain Pass mine, the only operating rare earth mine and processing facility in the United States. The rare earth materials industry is dominated by China, which produces 60% of the world's rare earth elements and processes 90% of these materials, including imports from other countries. MP Materials focuses its production on Neodymium - Praseodymium (NdPr), a rare earth material used in high-strength permanent magnets that power the traction motors found in electric vehicles, robotics, wind turbines, drones and other advanced motion technologies. MP Materials is listed on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker symbol "MP". As of December 2021, JHL Capital Group, QVT Financial and CEO James Litinsky were the company's three largest shareholders, with about 7.7% of the company owned by Shenghe Resources, a Chinese rare earth business located in Sichuan.

## History

In 2015, Molycorp, the previous owners of the Mountain Pass mine, filed for bankruptcy. At the time, it was the only U.S. producer of rare earth elements. While in bankruptcy, Secure Natural Resources (SNR), a company owned by Molycorp's creditors, including JHL Capital Group, gained control of the mine's mineral rights. In June 2017, the Mountain Pass mine was purchased at auction for $20.5 million by a new entity called MP Mine Operations LLC (MPMO). MPMO was a consortium formed principally by JHL Capital Group, a Chicago-based investment firm led by James Litinsky, along with QVT Financial LP and Shenghe Resources. Shenghe, a Sichuan China rare earth company, held a minority, non-voting interest. At the time, Mountain Pass was in a state of "care and maintenance" and had only eight employees according to Litinsky.

Following the asset acquisitions and formation of the entities that became MP Materials, the company restarted operations at Mountain Pass. On July 15, 2020, the company announced a reverse takeover whereby MPMO and SNR would be merged with Fortress Value Acquisition Corporation to become a public company under the name MP Materials Corp. The transaction, which closed on November 17, 2020, raised $545 million. On November 18, 2020, MP Materials began trading on the New York Stock Exchange under the symbol "MP".

In December 2021, MP Materials signed a long-term agreement with General Motors to provide neodymium-iron-boron magnets for use in GM's electric vehicle motors. As part of the contract, MP Materials also agreed to provide alloy and finished magnets to GM for its electric vehicles and to open a new factory located in Fort Worth, Texas to produce the magnets.

As of December 2021, JHL Capital Group, QVT Financial, and CEO James Litinsky were the company's three largest shareholders, and about 7.7% of the company was owned by Shenghe Resources, a Chinese company. Apart from institutions, other investors own 18%.

MP Materials and Australia's Lynas held a confidential discussion regarding a potential merger which fell through on February 5, 2024. Lynas is the second largest rare earth material company outside of China.

As of 2024, CEO James Litinsky was the company's largest shareholder. Other large shareholders include Vanguard, Shenghe Resources, BlackRock and Hancock Prospecting.

In April 2024, Hancock Prospecting, an Australian mining firm owned by Gina Rinehart, disclosed a 5.3% stake in MP Materials, comprising 8.8 million shares, and a 5.8% stake in Lynas.

### Mountain Pass mine

Discovered in 1949 in San Bernardino County, California, Mountain Pass mine consists of a bastnäsite ore-body with significant concentrations of rare earth elements. The mine once supplied most of the world's rare earth elements. Mountain Pass is the only operational rare earth mining and processing facility in the United States. The expected Mountain Pass mine life is approximately 24 years.

MP Materials produced 28,000 tonnes of rare-earth oxide equivalent from Mountain Pass in 2019, and 38,500 tonnes in 2020, or more than 15% of global production. As of late 2020, Shenghe Resources was the sole purchaser of MP Material's rare earth concentrate.

MP Materials has a three-phase plan for producing and scaling its operations:

- Stage I: Mining and crushing rare earths

- Stage II: Milling and flotation

- Stage III: Roasting, leaching and cleansing

As of 2024, the company had completed stage I and had begun working on stage II. MP Materials signed a supply chain agreement with Japanese trading house Sumitomo Corporation in 2023.

## U.S. government contracts

In July 2020, the United States Department of Defense issued a preliminary contract to MP Materials intended to restore domestic heavy rare earth production and separation capabilities to the United States. In November 2020, the United States Department of Defense awarded MP Materials $9.6 million as part of a government effort to increase domestic production of rare earth materials.

On September 30, 2020, President Donald Trump issued an executive order targeting China's dominance of rare earth materials. In the executive order, he expressed concern for the heavy reliance of the US on China for 80 percent of rare earth materials. He reiterated the importance of producing and refining rare earth in the US and discussed various tariffs and government grants to rare earth material companies such as MP Materials.

In 2021, MP Materials received $3 million in funding from the United States Department of Energy to design and study the feasibility of a system to produce rare earth oxides and metals from coal by-products in collaboration with the University of Kentucky.

In February 2022, U.S. President Joe Biden announced at a press conference that the United States Department of Defense was investing $35 million into MP Materials as part of an effort to spur domestic rare earth production in the United States. Biden said that this move was designed to reduce America's reliance on rare earth minerals imported from other countries. The Biden administration said the federal funding is earmarked to assist the company to develop a new commercial facility for “heavy” rare earth mineral processing.

On May 24, 2024, the Biden Administration announced a 25 percent tariff on rare earth magnets from China, set to take effect in 2026. This marks the first time that critical minerals, including rare earth magnets, have been specifically included in the tariffs. Following the tariffs MP Materials put out a statement listing the tariffs. After the announcement, CEO James Litinsky attended an event with Biden at the White House.


Puffed grain

# Puffed grain

## Abstract

Puffed grains are grains that have been expanded ("puffed") through processing. They have been made for centuries with the simplest methods like popping popcorn. Modern puffed grains are often created using high temperature, pressure, or extrusion.

People eat puffed grains in many ways, but it can be as simple as puffed grain alone and with sugar or salt for taste. Commercial products such as corn flakes and Corn Pops mix many ingredients into a homogeneous batter. The batter is then formed into shapes then toasted and/or extruded. This causes them to rise, but not puff or pop. Puffed grains can be healthful if plain, but when other ingredients are mixed with them they may lose some of their health benefits.

Puffed grains are popular as breakfast cereals and in the form of rice cakes. While it is easy to recognize that cereals came from whole grains, the expansion factor for rice cakes is even greater, and the final product is somewhat more homogeneous.

## History

The oldest puffed grain was found in west-central New Mexico in 1948 and 1950. Ears of popcorn were found that were up to 4,000 years old. These pieces of puffed grain were smaller than a penny to two inches in size and can be made in a similar way to popping popcorn.

Rice has been puffed since ancient times using a technique called hot salt frying in which parboiled rice (e.g. steamed and then dried) is puffed by preheated salt.

The modern process of making puffed grains was invented by Dr. Alexander P. Anderson in 1901 in Red Wing, Minnesota. He was doing an experiment dealing with the effect of heat and pressure on corn starch granules where he put them in six glass tubes, sealed them, and put them in an oven until they changed color. When Dr. Anderson took them out and cracked them open an explosion happened; he had made the corn starch turn into a puffed, white mass.

Anderson’s invention eventually became the Popcorn cannon, also called the Chinese popcorn maker. As an antiquated way of making popcorn in Asia, the grain puffing cannon gradually began to become associated with China in the late 20th century. The device is a teardrop-shaped pressure cooking pot. Although the device was ubiquitously associated with China, the exact historical timeline of grain-puffing device in Asia remained unverifiable.

According to University of Hong Kong researcher Xiaomeng Liu and Chinese media, Anderson's invention was designed for industrial use, thus unsuitable for street vendors. The original invention was likely spread to other European countries around World War I to improve the longevity of the food under difficult conditions. In 1940s, Yoshimura Toshiko (吉村利子) heard German people were using old cannons to puff grain; thus, she designed a portable grain-puffing device called Pongashi ki (ポン菓子機) in 1944 to 1945.

The Japanese version was unrelated to the Chinese popcorn cannon because the latter appeared in China in the 1930s and photographed by Scottish missionary couple Ian and Rachel Morrison in 1938, years before Yoshimura completed her invention. It's unknown how portable popcorn cannons were introduced to China in the 1930s and the prevalence of such devices. Another photo in China showed the machine under inspection by an American officer in a military supply factory in Chongqing. As similar machines were introduced to South Korea by the United States in the 1950s, Xiaomeng Liu theorized that the portable popcorn cannon was likely invented in the United States and subsequently introduced to East Asian countries. However, there is no definitive proof available.

## Manufacture

Puffed rice can be produced using the simple but effective method of hot salt frying. Salt is heated in a pan until it is hot enough to pop rice added to it within seconds. Parboiled or dried pre-cooked rice is added to the heated contents of the pan and stirred. Puffing starts almost immediately and completes in less than a minute and the rice is scooped out by a sieve.

High pressure puffed grain is created by placing whole grains under high pressure with steam in a containment vessel. When the vessel's seal is suddenly broken, the entrained steam then flashes and bloats the endosperm of the kernel, increasing its volume to many times its original size.

Puffed rice or other grains are occasionally found as street food in China, Korea (called "ppeong twigi" 뻥튀기), and Japan (called "pon gashi" ポン菓子), where hawkers implement the puffing process using an integrated pushcart/puffer featuring a rotating steel pressure chamber heated over an open flame. The great booming sound produced by the release of pressure serves as advertising.

Manufacturing puffed grain by venting a pressure chamber is essentially a batch process. To achieve large-scale efficiencies, continuous-process equipment has been developed whereby the pre-cooked cereal is injected into a high pressure steam chamber. It then exits the steam chamber via a Venturi tube to an expansion chamber, where the puffed cereal is collected and conveyed to the next process step. These devices, generally called stream puffing machines, were perfected in the latter half of the 20th century in Switzerland and Italy, but are now available from manufacturers in China as well.

## List of puffed food

### Puffed grain foods

Snacks and food products made from puffed grain include:

- Amaranth Alegría – Mexico

- Alegría – Mexico

- Corn (maize) Cornick - Philippines Corn nut - United States Pasankalla - Bolivia Popcorn

- Cornick - Philippines

- Corn nut - United States

- Pasankalla - Bolivia

- Popcorn

- Millet Awaokoshi - Japan

- Awaokoshi - Japan

- Rice Ampaw - Philippines Bhelpuri - South Asia Muri - South Asia Puffed rice

- Ampaw - Philippines

- Bhelpuri - South Asia

- Muri - South Asia

- Puffed rice

- Other Yeot-gangjeong - Korea Maná - puffed pasta, corn, or wheat kernels from Peru Moong dal - puffed mung beans from South Asia

- Yeot-gangjeong - Korea

- Maná - puffed pasta, corn, or wheat kernels from Peru

- Moong dal - puffed mung beans from South Asia

### Puffed dough foods

- Corn puff Bamba - Israel Buffies - Palestine Cheese puffs - U.S.A. Corn Pops Kix (cereal) Rainbow Drops UK - puffed maize and rice sweets

- Bamba - Israel

- Buffies - Palestine

- Cheese puffs - U.S.A.

- Corn Pops

- Kix (cereal)

- Rainbow Drops UK - puffed maize and rice sweets

- Puffed rice cereal Rice krispies Toffee Crisp - sweet made by Nestlé

- Rice krispies

- Toffee Crisp - sweet made by Nestlé

- Puffed wheat cereal Golden Crisp, Honey Smacks USA - breakfast cereal Honey Monster Puffs UK - breakfast cereal

- Golden Crisp, Honey Smacks USA - breakfast cereal

- Honey Monster Puffs UK - breakfast cereal


Longwood, Florida

# Longwood, Florida

## Abstract

Longwood is a city in Seminole County, Florida, United States. It is part of the Orlando–Kissimmee–Sanford, Florida Metropolitan Statistical Area. The population was 15,087 at the 2020 census.

## History

With the advent of World War II, growth began to impact Longwood as military personnel flowed into the new Naval Air Station Sanford to the north and Orlando Army Air Base to the south. By the 1950s, NAS Sanford was being converted into a Master Jet Base for carrier-based heavy attack aircraft and, along with the re-designated Orlando Air Force Base and nearby Pinecastle AFB (later renamed McCoy AFB), saw even more military families renting or purchasing homes in and around Longwood. In 1959, the city had slightly over 1,000 residents and a city limit boundary that measured approximately 1-by-1-mile (1.6 by 1.6 km) square. In 1960, Longwood Elementary School was constructed and opened inside the city limits. During the 1950s and 1960s, the city also boasted its own airport, a single runway grass airstrip used mainly by private airplanes. Longwood Slade Airport was located on the west side of the city on the north side of State Road 434 until it was closed and developed into tract housing that became The Woodlands subdivision in the late 1960s, its entrance road being named Slade Drive.

New economic and development opportunities were brought to the area in the 1960s and 1970s, fueled by both the military and the space industry, as newly arriving Longwood residents were employed at Martin-Marietta 's new missile plant in Orlando; Naval Air Station Sanford; Orlando Air Force Base (redesignated Naval Training Center Orlando in 1969); and McCoy Air Force Base in Orlando; as well as Cape Canaveral Air Force Station; Patrick Air Force Base; and the NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center in Brevard County. The development and opening of Walt Disney World in October 1971, along with other tourist attractions and the high technology corridor of businesses, especially those engaged in the modeling, simulation and training (MS&T) industry and associated military training systems activities near Florida Technological University (FTU), now the University of Central Florida (UCF), fueled even further growth. Short-term economic downturns caused by the closure of NAS Sanford in 1968 and McCoy AFB in 1975 were offset with other economic growth across Central Florida during the 1970s and 1980s. As a result, Longwood developed into primarily a residential community for residents working elsewhere in Seminole County or in adjacent Orange County. By 2000, the city had taken significant steps to revitalize its downtown historic district, expanded its borders through annexation and in the process gained a resident population exceeding 13,700.

## Geography

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 5.6 square miles (15 km), of which 5.3 square miles (14 km) is land and 0.3 square miles (0.78 km) (5.17%) is water.

## Economy

### Top employers

According to the city's 2020 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:

## Demographics

As of the 2020 United States census, there were 15,087 people, 5,697 households, and 3,769 families residing in the city.

As of the 2010 United States census, there were 13,657 people, 4,969 households, and 3,456 families residing in the city.

## Arts and culture

### Points of interest

- Bradlee-McIntyre House

- Lady Liberty tree

- Longwood Hotel

- Longwood Historic District

- Longwood (SunRail station)

- The Senator tree

## Education

The city of Longwood's public schools are a part of Seminole County Public Schools. Longwood contains four public elementary schools (K–5), two public middle schools (6–8), and one public high school (9–12). Two additional high schools are located outside of Longwood, but draw some students from within the city limits.

### Elementary schools (public)

- Longwood Elementary School (closed in 2011, but reopened in the 2017–2018 school year)

- Sabal Point Elementary School

- Wekiva Elementary School

- Woodlands Elementary School

### Middle schools (public)

- Greenwood Middle School (in Lake Mary)

- Milwee Middle School

- Rock Lake Middle School

- Teague Middle School (in Altamonte Springs)

### High schools (public)

- Lake Brantley High School (in Altamonte Springs)

- Lake Mary High School (in Lake Mary)

- Lyman High School

### Private Schools

- Pace Brantley Preparatory School

## Media

In 1965, the city served as a film site and backdrop, representing a fictional south Florida town adjacent to a Seminole Indian tribe reservation in the Universal Studios movie Johnny Tiger. Released in 1966, the movie starred Robert Taylor, Geraldine Brooks and Chad Everett.

## Infrastructure

### Transportation

#### Major roads

A small slice of Interstate 4 runs along the western city limits and includes a single exit for State Road 434, which bisects the city to its eastern boundary at US Highway 17/92.

- I-4 (Interstate 4)

- US 17 / US 92

- SR 434

- CR 427 (Ronald Reagan Boulevard)

#### Public transit

- Lynx

- SunRail

## Notable people

- Jared Bernhardt, wide receiver for the Atlanta Falcons

- Bishop Clint S. Brown, gospel musician and pastor

- Rusty Day. a singer with the band Cactus

- Peter Demens, co-owner first mill, built Orange Belt Railroad, co-founded St. Petersburg

- Mandy Moore, singer, songwriter, actress and voice actress

- Matt Morgan, retired wrestler who performed for both WWE and TNA Wrestling, former mayor of Longwood.

- David Richardson, first openly gay member of Florida House of Representatives

- R.C. Sproul, theologian

- Phyllis Thaxter, actress

- Logan Warmoth, shortstop in the Toronto Blue Jays organization

- Graham Zusi, a United States men's national soccer team soccer player


2024–25 EFL League One

# 2024–25 EFL League One

## Abstract

The 2024–25 EFL League One, (referred to as the Sky Bet League One for sponsorship purposes), is the 21st season of the EFL League One under its current title, and the 33rd season under its current league division format. The season began on 9 August 2024, and will end in May 2025.

## Team changes

The following teams have changed division since the 2023–24 season:

## League table

## Results

## Season statistics


Stefan Mross

# Stefan Mross

## Abstract

Stefan Mross (born November 26, 1975 in Traunstein, Upper Bavaria) is a German trumpeter, singer,and television presenter. He is one of the most famous German folk musicians.

## Career

Mross completed his secondary education in his hometown. He took the entrance exam to the Mozarteum in Salzburg, but then concentrated on his musical career.

Since 2005, Mross has hosted the ARD (SWR) show Immer wieder sonntags live from Europa-Park in Rust. On August 10, 2014, Mross collapsed during a live broadcast of the show after eating a very hot currywurst and had to stop presenting. He was represented by Guido Cantz for the rest of the broadcast.


Newton OS

# Newton OS

## Abstract

Newton OS is a discontinued operating system for the Apple Newton PDAs produced by Apple Computer, Inc. between 1993 and 1997. It was written entirely in C++ and trimmed to be low power consuming and use the available memory efficiently. Many applications were pre-installed in the ROM of the Newton (making for quick start-up) to save on RAM and flash memory storage for user applications.

## Features

Newton OS features many interface elements that the Macintosh system software didn't have at the time, such as drawers and the "poof" animation. An animation similar to this is found in Mac OS X, and parts of the Newton's handwriting recognition system have been implemented as Inkwell in Mac OS X.

- Sound responsive — Clicking menus and icons makes a sound; this feature was later introduced in Mac OS 8.

- Icons - Similar to the Macintosh Desktop metaphor, Newton OS uses icons to open applications.

- Tabbed documents — Similar to tabbed browsing in today's browsers and Apple's At Ease interface, documents titles appear in a small tab at the top right hand of the screen.

- Screen rotation — In Newton 2.0, the screen can be rotated to be used for drawing or word processing.

- File documents — Notes and Drawings can be categorized. E.g. Fun, Business, Personal, etc.

- Print documents — Documents on the Newton can be printed.

- Send documents — Documents can be sent to another Newton via Infrared technology or sent using the Internet by E-Mail, or faxed.

- Menus — Similar to menus seen in Mac OS, but menu titles are instead presented at the bottom of the screen in small rectangles, making them similar to buttons with attached "pop-up" menus.

Many features of the Newton are best appreciated in the context of the history of Pen computing.

## Software

Shortly after the Newton PDA 's release in 1993, developers were not paying much attention to the new Newton OS API and were still more interested in developing for the Macintosh and Windows platforms. It was not until two years later that developers saw a potential market available to them in creating software for Newton OS. Several programs were made by third-party developers, including software to enhance the disappointing hand writing recognition technology of Newton OS 1.x.

The basic software that came with Newton OS:

- Works — A program for drawing and word processing, with typical capabilities such as: rulers, margins, page breaks, formatting, printing, spell checking and find & replace tools.

- Notes — Used for checklists, as well as both drawing and writing in the same program either with a newton keyboard or a stylus pen.

- Dates — Calendar program where you can schedule appointments and other special events.

- Names — Program for storing extensive contacts information in a flexible format.

- Formulas — Program that offers metric conversions, currency conversions, loan and mortgage calculators, etc.

- Calculator — A basic calculator with square root, percentage, MR, M+ and M− functions additional to the basic functions found on a calculator.

- Clock — A small floating window type application, known as a desktop accessory on the Macintosh. The Newton clock also includes features for an alarm, minute timer and the date.

- Book Reader — Support for displaying electronic books is built in.

## Handwriting recognition

The Newton uses the CalliGrapher word-based handwriting recognition engine developed by ParaGraph International Inc, led by former Soviet scientist Stepan Pachikov.

The earliest versions had weaknesses that resulted in bad publicity and reviews. However, with the release of Newton PDAs based upon version 2.0 of the OS, the handwriting recognition substantially improved, partially being a product of ParaGraph and an Apple-created recognizer pair: Apple's Rosetta and Mondello. Newton's handwriting recognition, particularly the print recognizer, has been considered by many reviewers, testers, and users to be the best in the industry, even 10 years after it was introduced. It was developed by Apple's Advanced Technology Group, and was described in 2012 as "the world's first genuinely usable handwriting recognition system".

The Newton can recognize hand-printed text, cursive, or a mix of the two, and can also accept free-hand "Sketches", "Shapes", and "ink text". Text can also be entered by tapping with the stylus on a small on-screen pop-up QWERTY keyboard. With "Shapes", Newton can recognize that the user was attempting to draw a circle, a line, a polygon, etc., and it cleans them up into "perfect" vector representations (with modifiable control points and defined vertices) of what the user is attempting to draw. "Shapes" and "Sketches" can be scaled or deformed once drawn. "Ink text" captures the user's free-hand writing but allows it to be treated somewhat like recognized text when manipulating for later editing purposes ("ink text" supported word wrap, could be formatted to be bold, italic, etc.). At any time a user can also direct the Newton to recognize selected "ink text" and turn it into recognized text (deferred recognition). A Newton Note document (or the notes attached to each contact in Names and each calendar event) can contain any mix of interleaved text, ink text, Shapes, and Sketches.

## NewtonScript

Newton OS runs applications written in C++, along with an interpreted, user-friendly language called NewtonScript. These applications are stored in packages.


Goodbye (Cream album)

# Goodbye (Cream album)

## Abstract

Goodbye (also called Goodbye Cream) is the fourth and final studio album by Cream, with three tracks recorded live, and three recorded in the studio. The album was released after Cream disbanded in November 1968.

## Background and recording

Just before Cream's third album, Wheels of Fire, was to be released, the group's manager Robert Stigwood announced that the group would disband after a farewell tour and a final concert at the Royal Albert Hall in November. The group started their farewell tour on 4 October 1968 in Oakland, California and 15 days later on 19 October the group performed at The Forum in Los Angeles where the three live recordings on Goodbye were recorded with Felix Pappalardi and engineers Adrian Barber and Bill Halverson. Just after their farewell tour concluded in November (and just prior to the final Royal Albert Hall show on Nov 26), Cream recorded three songs over three days at Wally Heider Studios in Los Angeles with producer Felix Pappalardi and engineer Damon Lyon-Shaw, with overdubs at IBC Studios in London a month later. Each of the three songs was penned by a different member of the band. The songs " Badge " and " Doing That Scrapyard Thing " featured Eric Clapton using a Leslie speaker, while all three recordings featured keyboard instruments played by either Jack Bruce or Felix Pappalardi. Present at the Wally Heider sessions on November 21 was George Harrison, credited on the album sleeve for contractual reasons as "L'Angelo Misterioso", who contributed rhythm guitar to "Badge", the song he co-wrote with Clapton.

In a 1969 Rolling Stone interview, producer Phil Spector told a possibly apocryphal story about how Atlantic Records head Ahmet Ertegun caused the album to happen: "Like the Cream are breakin' up, and he said, 'like man you have to do a final album for me.' They said, 'Why man, we hate each other,' or somethin' like that. Ahmet said, 'Oh no man, you have to do one more album for me. Jerry Wexler has cancer, and he’s dyin' and he wants to hear one more album from you.' So they go in, make the album and he says, 'Like man, Jerry Wexler isn’t dyin', he’s much better, he’s improved.'”

## Compiling, artwork, and packaging

The original plan for Goodbye was to make it a double album, with one disc featuring studio recordings and the other with live performances, like Wheels of Fire. With a lack of quality material on hand, however, the album was only one disc with three live recordings and three studio recordings.

The original LP release of the album was packaged in a gatefold sleeve with art direction handled by Haig Adishian. The outer sleeve featured photography by Roger Phillips with a cover design by Alan Aldridge Ink Studios featuring the group doing a showbiz soft shuffle with top hats and silver silk tails, while the inner sleeve featured an illustration of a cemetery by Roger Hane that had the song titles on tombstones. A compact disc reissue of the album for the Cream Remasters series in 1998 featured an inlay photograph and had the inner-sleeve illustration in the liner notes of the album.

## Release

Goodbye was released on 5 February 1969 by Atco Records in the United States, debuting in the Billboard chart on 15 February and a month later in Europe by Polydor Records. It debuted at No. 1 in the United Kingdom on 15 March, staying in that position for four non-consecutive weeks, and peaked at No. 2 in the United States. A single, " Badge ", was released from the album a month later and hit No. 18 on the UK charts. Interest in the now-defunct group was so intense at this point that the album's release pushed two of the group's earlier albums, Fresh Cream and Disraeli Gears, to both peak at No. 7 on the UK chart in late February 1969.

## Critical reception

The album was received well by New Musical Express, whose Nick Logan wrote an article-long review discussing each track. He praised the version of "I'm So Glad" for "being as good as they've ever done it and suffice to say the musicianship is stunning", while noting "Badge" as "compelling listening" and pinpointing "What a Bringdown" as Jack Bruce's favorite of the studio tracks. Melody Maker wrote "no drum solos on this one, but all three are in superb form". Record Mirror was slightly less enthusiastic, stating "a worthwhile souvenir though nothing superastonishing to fill us with desperate regrets it's all over", naming "What a Bringdown" as the best track and "a mild knockout". Over in America, Cashbox penned a short review which simply stated "the group has a reservation for the charts with this set, and should claim it in short order".

In a contemporary review for Rolling Stone, music critic Ray Rezos felt Cream deserved to depart with a better album. He wrote that most of the live songs sounded inferior to the original recordings and that the studio tracks were marred by the same flaw as on Wheels of Fire, namely the presence of blues playing on songs whose compositions were not blues in his opinion. Nonetheless, Goodbye was voted the 148th best rock album of all time in Paul Gambaccini 's 1978 poll of 50 prominent American and English rock critics, issued as the book Critic's Choice: Top 200 Albums.

In a retrospective review for AllMusic, senior editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine called Goodbye a work of "hard, heavy rock" and "strong moments" rather than cohesiveness, with live music that is generally better than on Wheels of Fire and a side of studio recordings that also found Cream "at something of a peak". Robert Christgau also reacted favourably to the album, citing it as his favourite record from the group. J. D. Considine was less impressed in The Rolling Stone Album Guide (1992), deeming Goodbye an incomplete record with "exquisite studio work" but mediocre live performances.

## Track listing

- Sides one and two were combined as tracks 1–6 on CD reissues.

Notes:

- recorded live at The Forum, Los Angeles, 19 October 1968.

- Original pressings of the album (as well as the single) list composer credit on "Badge" to Clapton alone.

- "Anyone for Tennis" was originally released as a non-album single, as well as by Atco on the soundtrack album to the film The Savage Seven (catalogue no. SD 33-245, 1968). The song was subsequently sometimes included on pressings of Wheels of Fire (1968) and later pressings of Goodbye by Polydor.

## Personnel

Cream

- Ginger Baker – drums (all tracks), backing vocals (1, 6), percussion (6)

- Jack Bruce – bass guitar (1–5), lead vocals (1–3, 5, 6), piano (5, 6), organ (6)

- Eric Clapton – guitars (all tracks), lead vocals (4, 6) backing vocals (1)

Additional musicians

- L'Angelo Misterioso (George Harrison) – rhythm guitar (4)

- Felix Pappalardi – piano (4), mellotron (4, 5), bass (6)

Recording

- Engineers – Bill Halverson, Adrian Barber, Damon Lyon-Shaw