Hominidae

# Hominidae

## Abstract

The Hominidae (/ h ɒ ˈ m ɪ n ɪ d iː /), whose members are known as the great apes or hominids (/ ˈ h ɒ m ɪ n ɪ d z /), are a taxonomic family of primates that includes eight extant species in four genera: Pongo (the Bornean, Sumatran and Tapanuli orangutan); Gorilla (the eastern and western gorilla); Pan (the chimpanzee and the bonobo); and Homo, of which only modern humans (Homo sapiens) remain.

Numerous revisions in classifying the great apes have caused the use of the term hominid to change over time. The original meaning of "hominid" referred only to humans (Homo) and their closest extinct relatives. However, by the 1990s humans and other apes were considered to be "hominids".

The earlier restrictive meaning has now been largely assumed by the term hominin, which comprises all members of the human clade after the split from the chimpanzees (Pan). The current meaning of "hominid" includes all the great apes including humans. Usage still varies, however, and some scientists and laypersons still use "hominid" in the original restrictive sense; the scholarly literature generally shows the traditional usage until the turn of the 21st century.

Within the taxon Hominidae, a number of extant and extinct genera are grouped with the humans, chimpanzees, and gorillas in the subfamily Homininae; others with orangutans in the subfamily Ponginae (see classification graphic below). The most recent common ancestor of all Hominidae lived roughly 14 million years ago, when the ancestors of the orangutans speciated from the ancestral line of the other three genera. Those ancestors of the family Hominidae had already speciated from the family Hylobatidae (the gibbons), perhaps 15 to 20 million years ago.

Due to the close genetic relationship between humans and the other great apes, certain animal rights organizations, such as the Great Ape Project, argue that nonhuman great apes are persons and should be given basic human rights. Twenty-nine countries have instituted research bans to protect great apes from any kind of scientific testing.

## Evolution

In the early Miocene, about 22 million years ago, there were many species of tree-adapted primitive catarrhines from East Africa; the variety suggests a long history of prior diversification. Fossils from 20 million years ago include fragments attributed to Victoriapithecus, the earliest Old World monkey. Among the genera thought to be in the ape lineage leading up to 13 million years ago are Proconsul, Rangwapithecus, Dendropithecus, Limnopithecus, Nacholapithecus, Equatorius, Nyanzapithecus, Afropithecus, Heliopithecus, and Kenyapithecus, all from East Africa.

At sites far distant from East Africa, the presence of other generalized non- cercopithecids, that is, non-monkey primates, of middle Miocene age— Otavipithecus from cave deposits in Namibia, and Pierolapithecus and Dryopithecus from France, Spain and Austria—is further evidence of a wide diversity of ancestral ape forms across Africa and the Mediterranean basin during the relatively warm and equable climatic regimes of the early and middle Miocene. The most recent of these far-flung Miocene apes (hominoids) is Oreopithecus, from the fossil-rich coal beds in northern Italy and dated to 9 million years ago.

Molecular evidence indicates that the lineage of gibbons (family Hylobatidae), the "lesser apes", diverged from that of the great apes some 18–12 million years ago, and that of orangutans (subfamily Ponginae) diverged from the other great apes at about 12 million years. There are no fossils that clearly document the ancestry of gibbons, which may have originated in a still-unknown South East Asian hominoid population; but fossil proto-orangutans, dated to around 10 million years ago, may be represented by Sivapithecus from India and Griphopithecus from Turkey. Species close to the last common ancestor of gorillas, chimpanzees and humans may be represented by Nakalipithecus fossils found in Kenya and Ouranopithecus fossils found in Greece. Molecular evidence suggests that between 8 and 4 million years ago, first the gorillas (genus Gorilla), and then the chimpanzees (genus Pan) split off from the line leading to humans. Human DNA is approximately 98.4% identical to that of chimpanzees when comparing single nucleotide polymorphisms (see human evolutionary genetics). The fossil record, however, of gorillas and chimpanzees is limited; both poor preservation—rain forest soils tend to be acidic and dissolve bone—and sampling bias probably contribute most to this problem.

Other hominins probably adapted to the drier environments outside the African equatorial belt; and there they encountered antelope, hyenas, elephants and other forms becoming adapted to surviving in the East African savannas, particularly the regions of the Sahel and the Serengeti. The wet equatorial belt contracted after about 8 million years ago, and there is very little fossil evidence for the divergence of the hominin lineage from that of gorillas and chimpanzees—which split was thought to have occurred around that time. The earliest fossils argued by some to belong to the human lineage are Sahelanthropus tchadensis (7 Ma) and Orrorin tugenensis (6 Ma), followed by Ardipithecus (5.5–4.4 Ma), with species Ar. kadabba and Ar. ramidus.

## Taxonomy

### Terminology

The classification of the great apes has been revised several times in the last few decades; these revisions have led to a varied use of the word "hominid" over time. The original meaning of the term referred to only humans and their closest relatives—what is now the modern meaning of the term " hominin ". The meaning of the taxon Hominidae changed gradually, leading to a modern usage of "hominid" that includes all the great apes including humans.

A number of very similar words apply to related classifications:

- A hominoid, sometimes called an ape, is a member of the superfamily Hominoidea: extant members are the gibbons (lesser apes, family Hylobatidae) and the hominids.

- A hominid is a member of the family Hominidae, the great apes: orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees and humans.

- A hominine is a member of the subfamily Homininae: gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans (excludes orangutans).

- A hominin is a member of the tribe Hominini: chimpanzees and humans.

- A homininan, following a suggestion by Wood and Richmond (2000), would be a member of the subtribe Hominina of the tribe Hominini: that is, modern humans and their closest relatives, including Australopithecina, but excluding chimpanzees.

- A human is a member of the genus Homo, of which Homo sapiens is the only extant species, and within that Homo sapiens sapiens is the only surviving subspecies.

A cladogram indicating common names (cf. more detailed cladogram below):

### Extant and fossil relatives of humans

Hominidae was originally the name given to the family of humans and their (extinct) close relatives, with the other great apes (that is, the orangutans, gorillas and chimpanzees) all being placed in a separate family, the Pongidae. However, that definition eventually made Pongidae paraphyletic because at least one great ape species (the chimpanzees) proved to be more closely related to humans than to other great apes. Most taxonomists today encourage monophyletic groups—this would require, in this case, the use of Pongidae to be restricted to just one closely related grouping. Thus, many biologists now assign Pongo (as the sub family Ponginae) to the family Hominidae. The taxonomy shown here follows the monophyletic groupings according to the modern understanding of human and great ape relationships.

Humans and close relatives including the tribes Hominini and Gorillini form the subfamily Homininae (see classification graphic below). (A few researchers go so far as to refer the chimpanzees and the gorillas to the genus Homo along with humans.) But, those fossil relatives more closely related to humans than the chimpanzees represent the especially close members of the human family, and without necessarily assigning subfamily or tribal categories.

Many extinct hominids have been studied to help understand the relationship between modern humans and the other extant hominids. Some of the extinct members of this family include Gigantopithecus, Orrorin, Ardipithecus, Kenyanthropus, and the australopithecines Australopithecus and Paranthropus.

The exact criteria for membership in the tribe Hominini under the current understanding of human origins are not clear, but the taxon generally includes those species that share more than 97% of their DNA with the modern human genome, and exhibit a capacity for language or for simple cultures beyond their 'local family' or band. The theory of mind concept—including such faculties as empathy, attribution of mental state, and even empathetic deception—is a controversial criterion; it distinguishes the adult human alone among the hominids. Humans acquire this capacity after about four years of age, whereas it has not been proven (nor has it been disproven) that gorillas or chimpanzees ever develop a theory of mind. This is also the case for some New World monkeys outside the family of great apes, as, for example, the capuchin monkeys.

However, even without the ability to test whether early members of the Hominini (such as Homo erectus, Homo neanderthalensis, or even the australopithecines) had a theory of mind, it is difficult to ignore similarities seen in their living cousins. Orangutans have shown the development of culture comparable to that of chimpanzees, and some say the orangutan may also satisfy those criteria for the theory of mind concept. These scientific debates take on political significance for advocates of great ape personhood.

## Description

The great apes are tailless primates, with the smallest living species being the bonobo at 30 to 40 kilograms (66 to 88 lb) in weight, and the largest being the eastern gorillas, with males weighing 140 to 180 kilograms (310 to 400 lb). In all great apes, the males are, on average, larger and stronger than the females, although the degree of sexual dimorphism varies greatly among species. Hominid teeth are similar to those of the Old World monkeys and gibbons, although they are especially large in gorillas. The dental formula is 2.1.2.3 2.1.2.3. Human teeth and jaws are markedly smaller for their size than those of other apes, which may be an adaptation to not only having supplanted with extensive tool use the role of jaws in hunting and fighting, but also eating cooked food since the end of the Pleistocene.

## Behavior

Although most living species are predominantly quadrupedal, they are all able to use their hands for gathering food or nesting materials, and, in some cases, for tool use. They build complex sleeping platforms, also called nests, in trees to sleep in at night, but chimpanzees and gorillas also build terrestrial nests, and gorillas can also sleep on the bare ground.

All species are omnivorous, although chimpanzees and orangutans primarily eat fruit. When gorillas run short of fruit at certain times of the year or in certain regions, they resort to eating shoots and leaves, often of bamboo, a type of grass. Gorillas have extreme adaptations for chewing and digesting such low-quality forage, but they still prefer fruit when it is available, often going miles out of their way to find especially preferred fruits. Humans, since the Neolithic Revolution, have consumed mostly cereals and other starchy foods, including increasingly highly processed foods, as well as many other domesticated plants (including fruits) and meat.

Gestation in great apes lasts 8–9 months, and results in the birth of a single offspring, or, rarely, twins. The young are born helpless, and require care for long periods of time. Compared with most other mammals, great apes have a remarkably long adolescence, not being weaned for several years, and not becoming fully mature for eight to thirteen years in most species (longer in orangutans and humans). As a result, females typically give birth only once every few years. There is no distinct breeding season.

Gorillas and chimpanzees live in family groups of around five to ten individuals, although much larger groups are sometimes noted. Chimpanzees live in larger groups that break up into smaller groups when fruit becomes less available. When small groups of female chimpanzees go off in separate directions to forage for fruit, the dominant males can no longer control them and the females often mate with other subordinate males. In contrast, groups of gorillas stay together regardless of the availability of fruit. When fruit is hard to find, they resort to eating leaves and shoots.

This fact is related to gorillas' greater sexual dimorphism relative to that of chimpanzees; that is, the difference in size between male and female gorillas is much greater than that between male and female chimpanzees. This enables gorilla males to physically dominate female gorillas more easily. In both chimpanzees and gorillas, the groups include at least one dominant male, and young males leave the group at maturity.

## Legal status

Due to the close genetic relationship between humans and the other great apes, certain animal rights organizations, such as the Great Ape Project, argue that nonhuman great apes are persons and, per the Declaration on Great Apes, should be given basic human rights. In 1999, New Zealand was the first country to ban any great ape experimentation, and now 29 countries have currently instituted a research ban to protect great apes from any kind of scientific testing.

On 25 June 2008, the Spanish parliament supported a new law that would make "keeping apes for circuses, television commercials or filming" illegal. On 8 September 2010, the European Union banned the testing of great apes.

## Conservation

The following table lists the estimated number of great ape individuals living outside zoos.

## Phylogeny

Below is a cladogram with extinct species. It is indicated approximately how many million years ago (Mya) the clades diverged into newer clades.

### Extant

There are eight living species of great ape which are classified in four genera. The following classification is commonly accepted:

- Family Hominidae: humans and other great apes; extinct genera and species excluded Subfamily Ponginae Tribe Pongini Genus Pongo Bornean orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus Northwest Bornean orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus Northeast Bornean orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus morio Central Bornean orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii Sumatran orangutan, Pongo abelii Tapanuli orangutan, Pongo tapanuliensis Subfamily Homininae Tribe Gorillini Genus Gorilla Western gorilla, Gorilla gorilla Western lowland gorilla, Gorilla gorilla gorilla Cross River gorilla, Gorilla gorilla diehli Eastern gorilla, Gorilla beringei Mountain gorilla, Gorilla beringei beringei Eastern lowland gorilla, Gorilla beringei graueri Tribe Hominini Subtribe Panina Genus Pan Chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes Central chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes troglodytes Western chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes verus Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes ellioti Eastern chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii Bonobo, Pan paniscus Subtribe Hominina Genus Homo Human, Homo sapiens Anatomically modern human, Homo sapiens sapiens

- Subfamily Ponginae Tribe Pongini Genus Pongo Bornean orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus Northwest Bornean orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus Northeast Bornean orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus morio Central Bornean orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii Sumatran orangutan, Pongo abelii Tapanuli orangutan, Pongo tapanuliensis

- Tribe Pongini Genus Pongo Bornean orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus Northwest Bornean orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus Northeast Bornean orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus morio Central Bornean orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii Sumatran orangutan, Pongo abelii Tapanuli orangutan, Pongo tapanuliensis

- Genus Pongo Bornean orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus Northwest Bornean orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus Northeast Bornean orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus morio Central Bornean orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii Sumatran orangutan, Pongo abelii Tapanuli orangutan, Pongo tapanuliensis

- Bornean orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus Northwest Bornean orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus Northeast Bornean orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus morio Central Bornean orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii

- Northwest Bornean orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus

- Northeast Bornean orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus morio

- Central Bornean orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii

- Sumatran orangutan, Pongo abelii

- Tapanuli orangutan, Pongo tapanuliensis

- Subfamily Homininae Tribe Gorillini Genus Gorilla Western gorilla, Gorilla gorilla Western lowland gorilla, Gorilla gorilla gorilla Cross River gorilla, Gorilla gorilla diehli Eastern gorilla, Gorilla beringei Mountain gorilla, Gorilla beringei beringei Eastern lowland gorilla, Gorilla beringei graueri Tribe Hominini Subtribe Panina Genus Pan Chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes Central chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes troglodytes Western chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes verus Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes ellioti Eastern chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii Bonobo, Pan paniscus Subtribe Hominina Genus Homo Human, Homo sapiens Anatomically modern human, Homo sapiens sapiens

- Tribe Gorillini Genus Gorilla Western gorilla, Gorilla gorilla Western lowland gorilla, Gorilla gorilla gorilla Cross River gorilla, Gorilla gorilla diehli Eastern gorilla, Gorilla beringei Mountain gorilla, Gorilla beringei beringei Eastern lowland gorilla, Gorilla beringei graueri

- Genus Gorilla Western gorilla, Gorilla gorilla Western lowland gorilla, Gorilla gorilla gorilla Cross River gorilla, Gorilla gorilla diehli Eastern gorilla, Gorilla beringei Mountain gorilla, Gorilla beringei beringei Eastern lowland gorilla, Gorilla beringei graueri

- Western gorilla, Gorilla gorilla Western lowland gorilla, Gorilla gorilla gorilla Cross River gorilla, Gorilla gorilla diehli

- Western lowland gorilla, Gorilla gorilla gorilla

- Cross River gorilla, Gorilla gorilla diehli

- Eastern gorilla, Gorilla beringei Mountain gorilla, Gorilla beringei beringei Eastern lowland gorilla, Gorilla beringei graueri

- Mountain gorilla, Gorilla beringei beringei

- Eastern lowland gorilla, Gorilla beringei graueri

- Tribe Hominini Subtribe Panina Genus Pan Chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes Central chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes troglodytes Western chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes verus Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes ellioti Eastern chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii Bonobo, Pan paniscus Subtribe Hominina Genus Homo Human, Homo sapiens Anatomically modern human, Homo sapiens sapiens

- Subtribe Panina Genus Pan Chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes Central chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes troglodytes Western chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes verus Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes ellioti Eastern chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii Bonobo, Pan paniscus

- Genus Pan Chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes Central chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes troglodytes Western chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes verus Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes ellioti Eastern chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii Bonobo, Pan paniscus

- Chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes Central chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes troglodytes Western chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes verus Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes ellioti Eastern chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii

- Central chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes troglodytes

- Western chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes verus

- Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes ellioti

- Eastern chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii

- Bonobo, Pan paniscus

- Subtribe Hominina Genus Homo Human, Homo sapiens Anatomically modern human, Homo sapiens sapiens

- Genus Homo Human, Homo sapiens Anatomically modern human, Homo sapiens sapiens

- Human, Homo sapiens Anatomically modern human, Homo sapiens sapiens

- Anatomically modern human, Homo sapiens sapiens

### Fossil

In addition to the extant species and subspecies, archaeologists, paleontologists, and anthropologists have discovered and classified numerous extinct great ape species as below, based on the taxonomy shown.

Family Hominidae

- Subfamily Ponginae Tribe Lufengpithecini † Lufengpithecus Lufengpithecus lufengensis Lufengpithecus keiyuanensis Lufengpithecus hudienensis Meganthropus Meganthropus palaeojavanicus Tribe Sivapithecini † Ankarapithecus Ankarapithecus meteai Sivapithecus Sivapithecus brevirostris Sivapithecus punjabicus Sivapithecus parvada Sivapithecus sivalensis Sivapithecus indicus Gigantopithecus Gigantopithecus bilaspurensis Gigantopithecus blacki Gigantopithecus giganteus Tribe Pongini Khoratpithecus † Khoratpithecus ayeyarwadyensis Khoratpithecus piriyai Khoratpithecus chiangmuanensis Pongo (orangutans) Pongo hooijeri †

- Tribe Lufengpithecini † Lufengpithecus Lufengpithecus lufengensis Lufengpithecus keiyuanensis Lufengpithecus hudienensis Meganthropus Meganthropus palaeojavanicus

- Lufengpithecus Lufengpithecus lufengensis Lufengpithecus keiyuanensis Lufengpithecus hudienensis

- Lufengpithecus lufengensis

- Lufengpithecus keiyuanensis

- Lufengpithecus hudienensis

- Meganthropus Meganthropus palaeojavanicus

- Meganthropus palaeojavanicus

- Tribe Sivapithecini † Ankarapithecus Ankarapithecus meteai Sivapithecus Sivapithecus brevirostris Sivapithecus punjabicus Sivapithecus parvada Sivapithecus sivalensis Sivapithecus indicus Gigantopithecus Gigantopithecus bilaspurensis Gigantopithecus blacki Gigantopithecus giganteus

- Ankarapithecus Ankarapithecus meteai

- Ankarapithecus meteai

- Sivapithecus Sivapithecus brevirostris Sivapithecus punjabicus Sivapithecus parvada Sivapithecus sivalensis Sivapithecus indicus

- Sivapithecus brevirostris

- Sivapithecus punjabicus

- Sivapithecus parvada

- Sivapithecus sivalensis

- Sivapithecus indicus

- Gigantopithecus Gigantopithecus bilaspurensis Gigantopithecus blacki Gigantopithecus giganteus

- Gigantopithecus bilaspurensis

- Gigantopithecus blacki

- Gigantopithecus giganteus

- Tribe Pongini Khoratpithecus † Khoratpithecus ayeyarwadyensis Khoratpithecus piriyai Khoratpithecus chiangmuanensis Pongo (orangutans) Pongo hooijeri †

- Khoratpithecus † Khoratpithecus ayeyarwadyensis Khoratpithecus piriyai Khoratpithecus chiangmuanensis

- Khoratpithecus ayeyarwadyensis

- Khoratpithecus piriyai

- Khoratpithecus chiangmuanensis

- Pongo (orangutans) Pongo hooijeri †

- Pongo hooijeri †

- Subfamily Homininae Tribe Dryopithecini † Kenyapithecus (placement disputed) Kenyapithecus wickeri Danuvius Danuvius guggenmosi Pierolapithecus (placement disputed) Pierolapithecus catalaunicus Ouranopithecus Ouranopithecus macedoniensis Otavipithecus Otavipithecus namibiensis Morotopithecus (placement disputed) Morotopithecus bishopi Oreopithecus (placement disputed) Oreopithecus bambolii Nakalipithecus Nakalipithecus nakayamai Anoiapithecus Anoiapithecus brevirostris Hispanopithecus (placement disputed) Hispanopithecus laietanus Hispanopithecus crusafonti Dryopithecus Dryopithecus fontani Rudapithecus (placement disputed) Rudapithecus hungaricus Samburupithecus Samburupithecus kiptalami Graecopithecus † Graecopithecus freybergi Tribe Gorillini Chororapithecus † (placement debated) Chororapithecus abyssinicus Tribe Hominini Subtribe Panina Subtribe Hominina Sahelanthropus † Sahelanthropus tchadensis Orrorin † Orrorin tugenensis Orrorin praegens Ardipithecus † Ardipithecus ramidus Ardipithecus kadabba Kenyanthropus † Kenyanthropus platyops Australopithecus † Australopithecus bahrelghazali Australopithecus anamensis Australopithecus afarensis Australopithecus africanus Australopithecus garhi Australopithecus sediba Australopithecus deyiremeda Paranthropus † Paranthropus aethiopicus Paranthropus robustus Paranthropus boisei Homo – close relatives of modern humans Homo gautengensis † (probable H. habilis specimens) Homo rudolfensis † (membership in Homo uncertain) Homo habilis † (membership in Homo uncertain) Homo naledi † (membership in Homo uncertain) Dmanisi Man, Homo georgicus † (probable early subspecies of Homo erectus) Homo ergaster † (African Homo erectus) Homo erectus † Homo erectus bilzingslebenensis † Java Man, Homo erectus erectus † Lantian Man, Homo erectus lantianensis † Nanjing Man, Homo erectus nankinensis † Peking Man, Homo erectus pekinensis † Solo Man, Homo erectus soloensis † (possible separate species) Tautavel Man, Homo erectus tautavelensis † Yuanmou Man, Homo erectus yuanmouensis † Flores Man or Hobbit, Homo floresiensis † (membership in Homo uncertain) Homo luzonensis † (membership in Homo uncertain) Homo antecessor † Homo heidelbergensis † Homo cepranensis † (probable H. heidelbergensis specimens) Homo helmei † (probable early H. sapiens specimens) Homo tsaichangensis † (thought by some to be a subspecies of H. erectus or a Denisovan; unlikely to be separate species) Denisovans (scientific name not yet assigned) † Neanderthal, Homo neanderthalensis † Homo rhodesiensis † (probable late H. heidelbergensis specimens) Modern human, Homo sapiens (sometimes called Homo sapiens sapiens) Homo sapiens idaltu † Archaic Homo sapiens †

- Tribe Dryopithecini † Kenyapithecus (placement disputed) Kenyapithecus wickeri Danuvius Danuvius guggenmosi Pierolapithecus (placement disputed) Pierolapithecus catalaunicus Ouranopithecus Ouranopithecus macedoniensis Otavipithecus Otavipithecus namibiensis Morotopithecus (placement disputed) Morotopithecus bishopi Oreopithecus (placement disputed) Oreopithecus bambolii Nakalipithecus Nakalipithecus nakayamai Anoiapithecus Anoiapithecus brevirostris Hispanopithecus (placement disputed) Hispanopithecus laietanus Hispanopithecus crusafonti Dryopithecus Dryopithecus fontani Rudapithecus (placement disputed) Rudapithecus hungaricus Samburupithecus Samburupithecus kiptalami Graecopithecus † Graecopithecus freybergi

- Kenyapithecus (placement disputed) Kenyapithecus wickeri

- Kenyapithecus wickeri

- Danuvius Danuvius guggenmosi

- Danuvius guggenmosi

- Pierolapithecus (placement disputed) Pierolapithecus catalaunicus

- Pierolapithecus catalaunicus

- Ouranopithecus Ouranopithecus macedoniensis

- Ouranopithecus macedoniensis

- Otavipithecus Otavipithecus namibiensis

- Otavipithecus namibiensis

- Morotopithecus (placement disputed) Morotopithecus bishopi

- Morotopithecus bishopi

- Oreopithecus (placement disputed) Oreopithecus bambolii

- Oreopithecus bambolii

- Nakalipithecus Nakalipithecus nakayamai

- Nakalipithecus nakayamai

- Anoiapithecus Anoiapithecus brevirostris

- Anoiapithecus brevirostris

- Hispanopithecus (placement disputed) Hispanopithecus laietanus Hispanopithecus crusafonti

- Hispanopithecus laietanus

- Hispanopithecus crusafonti

- Dryopithecus Dryopithecus fontani

- Dryopithecus fontani

- Rudapithecus (placement disputed) Rudapithecus hungaricus

- Rudapithecus hungaricus

- Samburupithecus Samburupithecus kiptalami

- Samburupithecus kiptalami

- Graecopithecus † Graecopithecus freybergi

- Graecopithecus freybergi

- Tribe Gorillini Chororapithecus † (placement debated) Chororapithecus abyssinicus

- Chororapithecus † (placement debated) Chororapithecus abyssinicus

- Chororapithecus abyssinicus

- Tribe Hominini Subtribe Panina Subtribe Hominina Sahelanthropus † Sahelanthropus tchadensis Orrorin † Orrorin tugenensis Orrorin praegens Ardipithecus † Ardipithecus ramidus Ardipithecus kadabba Kenyanthropus † Kenyanthropus platyops Australopithecus † Australopithecus bahrelghazali Australopithecus anamensis Australopithecus afarensis Australopithecus africanus Australopithecus garhi Australopithecus sediba Australopithecus deyiremeda Paranthropus † Paranthropus aethiopicus Paranthropus robustus Paranthropus boisei Homo – close relatives of modern humans Homo gautengensis † (probable H. habilis specimens) Homo rudolfensis † (membership in Homo uncertain) Homo habilis † (membership in Homo uncertain) Homo naledi † (membership in Homo uncertain) Dmanisi Man, Homo georgicus † (probable early subspecies of Homo erectus) Homo ergaster † (African Homo erectus) Homo erectus † Homo erectus bilzingslebenensis † Java Man, Homo erectus erectus † Lantian Man, Homo erectus lantianensis † Nanjing Man, Homo erectus nankinensis † Peking Man, Homo erectus pekinensis † Solo Man, Homo erectus soloensis † (possible separate species) Tautavel Man, Homo erectus tautavelensis † Yuanmou Man, Homo erectus yuanmouensis † Flores Man or Hobbit, Homo floresiensis † (membership in Homo uncertain) Homo luzonensis † (membership in Homo uncertain) Homo antecessor † Homo heidelbergensis † Homo cepranensis † (probable H. heidelbergensis specimens) Homo helmei † (probable early H. sapiens specimens) Homo tsaichangensis † (thought by some to be a subspecies of H. erectus or a Denisovan; unlikely to be separate species) Denisovans (scientific name not yet assigned) † Neanderthal, Homo neanderthalensis † Homo rhodesiensis † (probable late H. heidelbergensis specimens) Modern human, Homo sapiens (sometimes called Homo sapiens sapiens) Homo sapiens idaltu † Archaic Homo sapiens †

- Subtribe Panina

- Subtribe Hominina Sahelanthropus † Sahelanthropus tchadensis Orrorin † Orrorin tugenensis Orrorin praegens Ardipithecus † Ardipithecus ramidus Ardipithecus kadabba Kenyanthropus † Kenyanthropus platyops Australopithecus † Australopithecus bahrelghazali Australopithecus anamensis Australopithecus afarensis Australopithecus africanus Australopithecus garhi Australopithecus sediba Australopithecus deyiremeda Paranthropus † Paranthropus aethiopicus Paranthropus robustus Paranthropus boisei Homo – close relatives of modern humans Homo gautengensis † (probable H. habilis specimens) Homo rudolfensis † (membership in Homo uncertain) Homo habilis † (membership in Homo uncertain) Homo naledi † (membership in Homo uncertain) Dmanisi Man, Homo georgicus † (probable early subspecies of Homo erectus) Homo ergaster † (African Homo erectus) Homo erectus † Homo erectus bilzingslebenensis † Java Man, Homo erectus erectus † Lantian Man, Homo erectus lantianensis † Nanjing Man, Homo erectus nankinensis † Peking Man, Homo erectus pekinensis † Solo Man, Homo erectus soloensis † (possible separate species) Tautavel Man, Homo erectus tautavelensis † Yuanmou Man, Homo erectus yuanmouensis † Flores Man or Hobbit, Homo floresiensis † (membership in Homo uncertain) Homo luzonensis † (membership in Homo uncertain) Homo antecessor † Homo heidelbergensis † Homo cepranensis † (probable H. heidelbergensis specimens) Homo helmei † (probable early H. sapiens specimens) Homo tsaichangensis † (thought by some to be a subspecies of H. erectus or a Denisovan; unlikely to be separate species) Denisovans (scientific name not yet assigned) † Neanderthal, Homo neanderthalensis † Homo rhodesiensis † (probable late H. heidelbergensis specimens) Modern human, Homo sapiens (sometimes called Homo sapiens sapiens) Homo sapiens idaltu † Archaic Homo sapiens †

- Sahelanthropus † Sahelanthropus tchadensis

- Sahelanthropus tchadensis

- Orrorin † Orrorin tugenensis Orrorin praegens

- Orrorin tugenensis

- Orrorin praegens

- Ardipithecus † Ardipithecus ramidus Ardipithecus kadabba

- Ardipithecus ramidus

- Ardipithecus kadabba

- Kenyanthropus † Kenyanthropus platyops

- Kenyanthropus platyops

- Australopithecus † Australopithecus bahrelghazali Australopithecus anamensis Australopithecus afarensis Australopithecus africanus Australopithecus garhi Australopithecus sediba Australopithecus deyiremeda

- Australopithecus bahrelghazali

- Australopithecus anamensis

- Australopithecus afarensis

- Australopithecus africanus

- Australopithecus garhi

- Australopithecus sediba

- Australopithecus deyiremeda

- Paranthropus † Paranthropus aethiopicus Paranthropus robustus Paranthropus boisei

- Paranthropus aethiopicus

- Paranthropus robustus

- Paranthropus boisei

- Homo – close relatives of modern humans Homo gautengensis † (probable H. habilis specimens) Homo rudolfensis † (membership in Homo uncertain) Homo habilis † (membership in Homo uncertain) Homo naledi † (membership in Homo uncertain) Dmanisi Man, Homo georgicus † (probable early subspecies of Homo erectus) Homo ergaster † (African Homo erectus) Homo erectus † Homo erectus bilzingslebenensis † Java Man, Homo erectus erectus † Lantian Man, Homo erectus lantianensis † Nanjing Man, Homo erectus nankinensis † Peking Man, Homo erectus pekinensis † Solo Man, Homo erectus soloensis † (possible separate species) Tautavel Man, Homo erectus tautavelensis † Yuanmou Man, Homo erectus yuanmouensis † Flores Man or Hobbit, Homo floresiensis † (membership in Homo uncertain) Homo luzonensis † (membership in Homo uncertain) Homo antecessor † Homo heidelbergensis † Homo cepranensis † (probable H. heidelbergensis specimens) Homo helmei † (probable early H. sapiens specimens) Homo tsaichangensis † (thought by some to be a subspecies of H. erectus or a Denisovan; unlikely to be separate species) Denisovans (scientific name not yet assigned) † Neanderthal, Homo neanderthalensis † Homo rhodesiensis † (probable late H. heidelbergensis specimens) Modern human, Homo sapiens (sometimes called Homo sapiens sapiens) Homo sapiens idaltu † Archaic Homo sapiens †

- Homo gautengensis † (probable H. habilis specimens)

- Homo rudolfensis † (membership in Homo uncertain)

- Homo habilis † (membership in Homo uncertain)

- Homo naledi † (membership in Homo uncertain)

- Dmanisi Man, Homo georgicus † (probable early subspecies of Homo erectus)

- Homo ergaster † (African Homo erectus)

- Homo erectus † Homo erectus bilzingslebenensis † Java Man, Homo erectus erectus † Lantian Man, Homo erectus lantianensis † Nanjing Man, Homo erectus nankinensis † Peking Man, Homo erectus pekinensis † Solo Man, Homo erectus soloensis † (possible separate species) Tautavel Man, Homo erectus tautavelensis † Yuanmou Man, Homo erectus yuanmouensis †

- Homo erectus bilzingslebenensis †

- Java Man, Homo erectus erectus †

- Lantian Man, Homo erectus lantianensis †

- Nanjing Man, Homo erectus nankinensis †

- Peking Man, Homo erectus pekinensis †

- Solo Man, Homo erectus soloensis † (possible separate species)

- Tautavel Man, Homo erectus tautavelensis †

- Yuanmou Man, Homo erectus yuanmouensis †

- Flores Man or Hobbit, Homo floresiensis † (membership in Homo uncertain)

- Homo luzonensis † (membership in Homo uncertain)

- Homo antecessor †

- Homo heidelbergensis †

- Homo cepranensis † (probable H. heidelbergensis specimens)

- Homo helmei † (probable early H. sapiens specimens)

- Homo tsaichangensis † (thought by some to be a subspecies of H. erectus or a Denisovan; unlikely to be separate species)

- Denisovans (scientific name not yet assigned) †

- Neanderthal, Homo neanderthalensis †

- Homo rhodesiensis † (probable late H. heidelbergensis specimens)

- Modern human, Homo sapiens (sometimes called Homo sapiens sapiens) Homo sapiens idaltu † Archaic Homo sapiens †

- Homo sapiens idaltu †

- Archaic Homo sapiens †


Nanjing Communication College

# Nanjing Communication College

## Abstract

Nanjing Communication College (南京传媒学院) is a private undergraduate college in Nanjing, Jiangsu, China. It is currently owned and operated by the private Huaxia Group Holdings Limited Company (华夏集团控股有限公司).

In 2004, the private Nanjing Meiya Education Investment Limited Company (南京美亚教育投资有限公司) and the Communication University of China signed a university-name licensing contract. The contract allowed the company to open a no-relation independent private undergraduate college in Nanjing under the name Communication University of China, Nanjing (中国传媒大学南广学院; lit. ' China Communication University Nan'guang College '; used from 2004 to 2020). In 2008, the Ministry of Education of China required such independent colleges to change their names. In 2020, the Jiangsu Provincial People's Government decided and renamed the college Nanjing Communication College (南京传媒学院) in Chinese. The college never had any affiliation with the Communication University of China in Beijing.


Attributed arms

# Attributed arms

## Abstract

Attributed arms are Western European coats of arms given retrospectively to persons real or fictitious who died before the start of the age of heraldry in the latter half of the 12th century. Once coats of arms were the established fashion of the ruling class, society expected a king to be armigerous. Arms were assigned to the knights of the Round Table, and then to biblical figures, to Roman and Greek heroes, and to kings and popes who had not historically borne arms. Individual authors often attributed different arms for the same person, although the arms for major figures eventually became fixed.

Notable arms attributed to biblical figures include the arms of Jesus based on the instruments of the Passion, and the shield of the Trinity. Medieval literature attributed coats of arms to the Nine Worthies, including Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, and King Arthur. Arms were given to many kings predating heraldry, including Edward the Confessor and William I of England. These attributed arms were sometimes used in practice as quarterings in the arms of their descendants.

## History

Attributed or imaginary arms appeared in literature in the middle of the 12th century, particularly in Arthurian legends. During the generation following Chrétien de Troyes, about 40 of Arthur's knights had attributed coats of arms. A second stage of development occurred during the 14th and 15th centuries when Arthurian arms expanded to include as many as 200 attributed coats of arms.

During the same centuries, rolls of arms included invented arms for kings of foreign lands. Around 1310, Jacques de Longuyon wrote the Voeux de Paon ("Vows of the Peacock"), which included a list of nine famous leaders. This list, divided into three groups of three, became known in art and literature as the Nine Worthies. Each of the Nine Worthies were given a coat of arms. King David, for instance, was assigned a gold harp as a device.

Once coats of arms were the established fashion of the ruling class, society expected a king to be armigerous. In such an era, it was "natural enough to consider that suitable armorial devices and compositions should be assigned to men of mark in earlier ages". Each author could attribute different arms for the same person, although regional styles developed, and the arms for major figures soon became fixed.

Some attributed arms were incorporated into the quarterings of their descendants' arms. The quarterings for the family of Lloyd of Stockton, for instance, include numerous arms originally attributed to Welsh chieftains from the 9th century or earlier. In a similar vein, arms were attributed to Pope Leo IX based on the later arms of his family's descendants.

In the 16th and 17th centuries, additional arms were attributed to a large number of saints, kings and popes, especially those from the 11th and 12th centuries. Pope Innocent IV (1243–1254) is the first pope whose personal coat of arms is known with certainty. By the end of the 17th century, the use of attributed arms became more restrained

The tinctures and charges attributed to an individual in the past provide insight into the history of symbolism.

## Arthurian heraldry

In the Arthurian legends, each knight of the Round Table is often accompanied by a heraldic description of a coat of arms. Although these arms could be arbitrary, some characters were traditionally associated with one coat or a few different coats. Early British sources such as the Historia Brittonum assign the Pendragon a white banner with a gold dragon which later becomes the Red Dragon of Wales.

King Arthur was assigned many different arms, but from the 13th century, he was most commonly given three gold crowns on an azure field (Loomis 1938, 38). In a 1394 manuscript depicting the Nine Worthies, Arthur is shown holding a flag with three gold crowns. The reason for the triple-crown symbol is unknown, but it was associated with other pre- Norman kings, with the seal of King Magnus Eriksson, with the relics of the Three Wise Men in Cologne (which led to the three crowns in the seal of the University of Cologne), and with the grants of Edward I of England to towns which were symbolized by three crowns in the towns' arms. The number of crowns increased to eleven, thirteen and even thirty at times.

Other arms were associated with Arthur. In a manuscript from the later 13th century, Arthur's shield has three gold leopards, a likely heraldic flattery of Edward I of England. Geoffrey of Monmouth assigned Arthur a dragon on his helmet and standard, which is possibly canting arms on Arthur's father's name, Uther Pendragon. Geoffrey also assigned Arthur a shield with an image of the Virgin Mary. An illustration of the latter by D. Endean Ivall, based on the battle flag described by Nennius (a cross and the Virgin Mary) and including the motto "King Arthur is not dead" in Cornish, can be found on the cover of W. H. Pascoe's 1979 A Cornish Armory.

Other characters in the Arthurian legends are described with coats of arms. Lancelot starts with plain white arms but later receives a shield with three bends gules signifying the strength of three men. Tristan was attributed a variety of arms. His earliest arms, a gold lion rampant on red field, are shown in a set of 13th-century tiles found in Chertsey Abbey. Thomas of Britain in the 12th century attributed these arms in what is believed to be heraldic flattery of his patron, either Richard I or Henry II, whose coats of arms contained some form of lion. In other versions the field is not red, but green. Gottfried von Strassburg attributed to Tristan a silver shield with a black boar rampant In Italy, however, he was attributed geometric patterns (argent a bend gules).

### Plain arms

The Arthurian legends contain numerous instances of red knights, black knights or green knights challenging the knights of the Round Table. In most cases, the color was chosen at random and has no symbolic significance. Such arms of one tincture create an atmosphere. Plain arms were rare in the 12th century, and were used in literature to suggest a primitive heraldry of a time long past. Geoffrey of Monmouth noted with favor that in the Arthurian age, worthy knights used arms of one color, suggesting 12th century heraldic ornamentation was partly pretence.

Plain arms may also function as a disguise for major characters. In the Chrétien de Troyes ' Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart, Lancelot bears plain red arms as a disguise. The hero of Cligès competes in a jousting tournament with plain black, green, and red arms on three successive days.

## Kings

Arms were attributed to important pre-heraldic kings. Among the best known are those assigned to the King of the Franks, who was given three toads. The three fleurs-de-lis of France supposedly derive from these.

William the Conqueror, the first Norman king of England, had a coat of arms with two lions. Richard the Lionheart used such a coat of arms with two lions on a red field, from which the three lions of the coat of arms of England derive. However, there is no proof that William's arms were not attributed to William after his death.

The earlier Saxon Kings were assigned a gold cross on a blue shield, but this did not exist until the 13th century. The arms of Saint Edward the Confessor, a blue shield charged with a gold cross and five gold birds, appears to have been suggested by heralds in the time of Henry III of England based on a coin minted in Edward's reign. These arms were later used by Richard II of England out of devotion to the saint.

Arms were attributed to the kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxon heptarchy. The Kingdom of Essex, for instance, was assigned a red shield with three notched swords (or "seaxes"). This coat was used by the counties of Essex and Middlesex until 1910, when the Middlesex County Council applied for a formal grant from the College of Arms (The Times, 1910). Middlesex was granted a red shield with three notched swords and a "Saxon Crown". The Essex County Council was granted the arms without the crown in 1932.

Even the kings of Rome were assigned arms, with Romulus, the first King of Rome, signified by the she-wolf.

Flags were also attributed. While the King of Morocco was attributed three rooks as arms, which are therefore canting arms, the whole chessboard was shown in some sources, resulting in the 14th-century checkered version of the flag of Morocco.

## Religious figures

### Jesus and Mary

Heralds could have attributed to Jesus the harp for arms inherited as a descendant of David. Nevertheless, the cross was regarded as Christ's emblem, and it was so used by the Crusaders. Sometimes the arms of Christ feature a Paschal lamb as the principal charge. By the 13th century, however, numerous indulgences had brought increased veneration for the instruments of the Passion. These instruments were described in heraldic terms and treated as personal to Christ much as a coat of arms. An early example in a seal from c. 1240 includes the Cross, nails, lance, crown of thorns, sponge and whips.

The instruments of the Passion were sometimes split between a shield and crest in the form of an achievement of arms. The Hyghalmen Roll (c. 1447 –1455) shows Christ holding an azure shield charged with Veronica's Veil proper. The heraldry continues with the 15th century jousting helmet, which is covered by the seamless robe as a form of mantling, and the Cross, scepter (of mockery) and flagellum (whip) as crest. The banner's long red schwenkel is a mark of eminence in German heraldry, but it was omitted when this image was copied into Randle Holme 's Book (c. 1464 –1480). The image on the opposing page (shown above) includes a shield quartered with the five Wounds of Christ, three jars of ointment, two rods, and the head of Judas Iscariot with a bag of money.

While Christ was associated with the images of the Passion, Mary was associated with images from the prophecy of Simeon the Righteous (Luke 2:34–35); the resulting attributed arms include a winged heart pierced with a sword and placed on a blue field. Mary is also attributed a group of white lily flowers. An example can be found on the lower part of the coat of arms of the College of Our Lady of Eton beside Windsor.

### Trinity and angels

Out of a desire to make the abstract visible, arms were also attributed to the unseen spirits. Because anthropomorphic representations of the Trinity were discouraged by the Church during the Middle Ages, the Shield of the Trinity quickly became popular. It was often used in decorating not only churches, but theological manuscripts and rolls of arms. An early example from William Peraldus ' Summa Vitiorum (c. 1260) shows a knight battling the seven deadly sins with this shield. A variation included with the shields of arms in Matthew Paris ' Chronica Majora (c. 1250 –1259) adds a cross between the center and bottom circles, accompanied by the words "v'bu caro f'm est" (verbum caro factum est, "the word was made flesh"; John 1:14).

Saint Michael the Archangel appears often in heraldic settings. In one case, the device from the shield of the Trinity is placed on a blue field and attributed to St. Michael. More usually, he is shown in armour with a red cross on a white shield, slaying the devil depicted as a dragon. These attributed arms were later transferred to Saint George.

Heraldry is also attributed to Satan, as the commanding general of the fallen angels, to identify him in the heat of battle. The Douce Apocalypse portrays him carrying a red shield with a gold fess, and three frogs (based on Revelation 16:13).


List of football clubs in Scotland

# List of football clubs in Scotland

## Abstract

This is a list of football clubs in Scotland.

## Clubs in membership of the Scottish Professional Football League

### Scottish Premiership

- Aberdeen

- Celtic

- Dundee

- Heart of Midlothian

- Hibernian

- Kilmarnock

- Livingston

- Motherwell

- Rangers

- Ross County

- St Johnstone

- St Mirren

### Scottish Championship

- Arbroath

- Airdrieonians

- Ayr United

- Dunfermline Athletic

- Greenock Morton

- Inverness Caledonian Thistle

- Partick Thistle

- Queen's Park

- Raith Rovers

### Scottish League One

- Alloa Athletic

- Annan Athletic

- Cove Rangers

- Edinburgh City

- Falkirk

- Hamilton Academical

- Kelty Hearts

- Montrose

- Queen of the South

- Stirling Albion

### Scottish League Two

- Bonnyrigg Rose

- Clyde

- Dumbarton

- East Fife

- Elgin City

- Forfar Athletic

- Peterhead

- Stenhousemuir

- Stranraer

- The Spartans

## Clubs in membership of the Highland Football League

- Banks O' Dee

- Brechin City

- Brora Rangers

- Buckie Thistle

- Clachnacuddin

- Deveronvale

- Formartine United

- Forres Mechanics

- Fraserburgh

- Huntly

- Inverurie Loco Works

- Keith

- Lossiemouth

- Nairn County

- Rothes

- Strathspey Thistle

- Turriff United

- Wick Academy

## Clubs in membership of the Lowland Football League

- Albion Rovers

- Berwick Rangers (located in England)

- Bo'ness United

- Broomhill

- Caledonian Braves

- Celtic B

- Civil Service Strollers

- Cowdenbeath

- Cumbernauld Colts

- East Kilbride

- East Stirlingshire

- Edinburgh University

- Gala Fairydean Rovers

- Gretna 2008

- Heart of Midlothian B

- Linlithgow Rose

- Tranent

- University of Stirling

## Clubs in membership of the East of Scotland Football League

### Premier Division

- Broxburn Athletic

- Crossgates Primrose

- Dunbar United

- Dundonald Bluebell

- Glenrothes

- Haddington Athletic

- Hill of Beath Hawthorn

- Inverkeithing Hillfield Swifts

- Jeanfield Swifts

- Kinnoull

- Lothian Thistle Hutchison Vale

- Luncarty

- Musselburgh Athletic

- Penicuik Athletic

- Sauchie Juniors

- Tynecastle

### First Division

- Arniston Rangers

- Blackburn United

- Camelon Juniors

- Dunipace

- Heriot-Watt University

- Kirkcaldy & Dysart

- Leith Athletic

- Lochore Welfare

- Newtongrange Star

- Oakley United

- Preston Athletic

- Rosyth

- St Andrews United

- Vale of Leithen

- Whitburn

- Whitehill Welfare

### Second Division

- Armadale Thistle

- Bo'ness Athletic

- Burntisland Shipyard

- Coldstream

- Dalkeith Thistle

- Easthouses Lily Miners Welfare

- Edinburgh College

- Edinburgh South

- Edinburgh United

- Kennoway Star Hearts

- Newburgh

- Ormiston Primrose

- Peebles Rovers

- Stirling University reserves

- Thornton Hibs

- Tweedmouth Rangers (located in England)

### Third Division

- Bathgate Thistle

- Edinburgh Community

- Fauldhouse United

- Harthill Royal

- Hawick Royal Albert

- Linton Hotspur

- Livingston United

- Lochgelly Albert

- Pumpherston

- Stoneyburn

- West Calder United

## Clubs in membership of the South of Scotland Football League

- Abbey Vale

- Creetown

- Dalbeattie Star

- Lochar Thistle

- Lochmaben

- Mid-Annandale

- Newton Stewart

- Nithsdale Wanderers

- St Cuthbert Wanderers

- Stranraer Reserves

- Upper Annandale

- Wigtown & Bladnoch

## Clubs in membership of the West of Scotland Football League

### Premier Division

- Arthurlie

- Auchinleck Talbot

- Beith Juniors

- Benburb

- Clydebank

- Cumnock Juniors

- Darvel

- Gartcairn

- Glenafton Athletic

- Hurlford United

- Irvine Meadow XI

- Kirkintilloch Rob Roy

- Largs Thistle

- Pollok

- St Cadoc's

- Troon

#### First Division

- Ashfield

- Blantyre Victoria

- Cambuslang Rangers

- Drumchapel United

- Johnstone Burgh

- Kilbirnie Ladeside

- Kilwinning Rangers

- Maybole Juniors

- Neilston

- Petershill

- Renfrew

- Rutherglen Glencairn

- Shotts Bon Accord

- St Roch's

- Thorniewood United

- Whitletts Victoria

#### Second Division

- Ardrossan Winton Rovers

- Bonnyton Thistle

- Caledonian Locomotives

- Craigmark Burntonians

- Cumbernauld United

- Forth Wanderers

- Glasgow Perthshire

- Glasgow University

- Kilsyth Rangers

- Larkhall Thistle

- Maryhill

- Muirkirk Juniors

- St Anthony's

- Vale of Clyde

- Wishaw

- Yoker Athletic

#### Third Division

- Ardeer Thistle

- Bellshill Athletic

- Dalry Thistle

- Finnarte

- Girvan

- Glasgow United

- Greenock Juniors

- Irvine Victoria

- Kello Rovers

- Kilsyth Athletic

- Lanark United

- Lesmahagow Juniors

- Port Glasgow

- Threave Rovers

- Vale of Leven

- West Park United

#### Fourth Division

- BSC Glasgow

- Campbeltown Pupils

- Carluke Rovers

- Easterhouse

- East Kilbride Thistle

- Eglinton

- Giffnock

- Glenvale

- Knightswood

- Lugar Boswell Thistle

- Newmains United

- Rossvale

- Royal Albert

- Saltcoats Victoria

- St. Peter's

- Thorn Athletic

## Clubs in membership of the North Caledonian Football League

- Alness United

- Bonar Bridge

- Clachnacuddin Reserves

- Fort William

- Golspie Sutherland

- Halkirk United

- Invergordon

- Inverness Athletic

- Loch Ness

- Orkney

- St Duthus

- Thurso

## Clubs in membership of the Scottish Junior Football Association

### East Region

#### Midlands League

- Arbroath Victoria

- Blairgowrie

- Brechin Victoria

- Broughty Athletic

- Carnoustie Panmure

- Coupar Angus

- Downfield

- Dundee North End

- Dundee Violet

- Dundee St. James

- East Craigie

- Forfar United

- Forfar West End

- Letham

- Kirriemuir Thistle

- Lochee Harp

- Lochee United

- Montrose Roselea

- Scone Thistle

- Tayport

### North Region

#### Premier League

- Bridge of Don Thistle

- Buchanhaven Hearts

- Colony Park

- Culter

- Dyce

- Cove

- East End

- Ellon United

- Fraserburgh United

- Hermes

- Maud

- Nairn St Ninian

- Newmachar United

- Rothie Rovers

- Stonehaven

- Stoneywood Parkvale

- Sunnybank

#### North Championship

- Banks O' Dee Juniors

- Banchory St Ternan

- Burghead Thistle

- Cruden Bay

- Deveronside

- Dufftown

- Forres Thistle

- Glentanar

- Hall Russell United

- Islavale

- Longside

- Lossiemouth United

- New Elgin

- Whitehills

## Miscellaneous clubs at amateur level

- Colville Park (Central Scottish Amateur Football League)

- Drumchapel Amateur (Caledonian Amateur Football League)

- Dukla Pumpherston (charity and exhibition matches)

- East Kilbride YM (Caledonian Amateur Football League)

- Eyemouth United (Border Amateur Football League)

- Glasgow Harp (Caledonian Amateur Football League)

- Harestanes (Central Scottish Amateur Football League)

- Links United (Caledonian Amateur Football League)

- Oban Saints (Scottish Amateur Football League)

- Rothesay Brandane (Caledonian Amateur Football League)

- Steins Thistle (Central Scottish Amateur Football League)

- Tain Thistle (Ross-shire Welfare Football League)

- United Glasgow

## Defunct clubs

### Former Scottish Football League members

- Abercorn

- Airdrieonians (1894–2002)

- Armadale

- Ayr

- Ayr Parkhouse

- Bathgate

- Bo'ness

- Broxburn United

- Cambuslang

- Clackmannan

- Clydebank (1914–1932)

- Clydebank (1965–2002; became Airdrie United)

- Cowlairs

- Dumbarton Harp

- Dundee Wanderers

- Dykehead

- Edinburgh City (1931–1949)

- Galston

- Gretna

- Helensburgh

- Johnstone

- King's Park

- Linthouse

- Lochgelly United

- Meadowbank Thistle (became Livingston)

- Mid-Annandale

- Northern

- Port Glasgow Athletic

- Renton

- Solway Star

- St Bernard's

- Third Lanark

- Thistle

### Selected other senior clubs (including North Caledonian League)

- 23rd Renfrew RV

- Alexandra Athletic

- Blythswood

- Caledonian

- Callander

- Clydesdale

- Dennistoun

- Dumbreck

- Dumfries YMCA

- Eastern

- Edinburgh Athletic (became Leith Athletic)

- Glasgow Hibernian

- Granville

- Inverness City

- Inverness Citadel

- Inverness Thistle

- Mossend Swifts

- Muir of Ord Rovers

- Partick

- Rovers

- Selkirk

- Southern

- Stranraer Athletic

- Tarff Rovers

- Tollcross United

- Western

- Whithorn

### Selected other junior clubs

- Baillieston Juniors

- Ballingry Rovers

- Bankfoot Athletic

- Bishopmill United

- Blantyre Celtic

- Bridgeton Waverley

- Cambuslang Hibernian

- Clydebank Juniors (1899–1964)

- Cronberry Eglinton

- Duntocher Hibernian

- Fochabers

- Glenbuck Cherrypickers

- Lewis United

- Lossiemouth United

- Maryhill Hibernians

- Parkhead

- Port Glasgow Athletic Juniors

- Portgordon Victoria

- RAF Lossiemouth

- Shawfield

- Steelend Victoria

- Stonehouse Violet

- Strathclyde

## University clubs

Most universities in Scotland have football sides, as do some colleges, some compete in the BUSA Football League.

- Aberdeen University

- Edinburgh University

- Glasgow University

- Heriot-Watt University

- St Andrews University

- University of Stirling


Konstantinos Logothetopoulos

# Konstantinos Logothetopoulos

## Abstract

Konstantinos Logothetopoulos (Greek: Κωνσταντίνος Λογοθετόπουλος; 1878 – 6 July 1961) was a distinguished Greek medical doctor who became Prime Minister of Greece, directing the Greek collaborationist government during the Axis occupation of Greece during World War II.

## Early life

Logothetopoulos was born in Nafplion in 1878.

## Education and career

Logothetopoulos studied medicine in Munich and remained in the German Empire, practicing and teaching medicine until 1910, at which time he relocated to Athens. In Greece, he founded a private clinic and served in both the First Balkan War (1912–1913) and the Second Balkan War (1913) as a doctor. He was discharged in 1916, resuming private medical practice until 1922 when he was again conscripted during the Greco-Turkish War to serve in the Army Hospital of Athens.

After the end of the war in 1922, Logothetopoulos became professor of gynaecology at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. Eventually he became Dean of the University. During his tenure at the university, he taught and assisted many young doctors in their studies including future politician Grigoris Lambrakis.

When Greece capitulated to Nazi Germany after the " Battle of Greece " during World War II, Logothetopoulos, who spoke the German language fluently, had been the chairman of the Greek-German Council and was married to the niece of Field Marshal Wilhelm List, was appointed Vice President and Minister of Education in the first collaborationist government of Gen. Georgios Tsolakoglou. After Tsolakoglou was removed from office, he served as Prime Minister between 2 December 1942 and 7 April 1943, when he was replaced by Ioannis Rallis. His short tenure was marked by the start of the deportation of Greek Jewry, in which he played an ambiguous role.

When the Wehrmacht left Greece in 1944, Logothetopoulos went with them to Nazi Germany. He lived with his wife and daughter in the small Bavarian town of Vilshofen an der Donau, where he exercised as a doctor. Eventually he was captured by the United States Army which surrendered him to Greek authorities in 1946. He was tried and convicted of collaborating with the enemy and initially sentenced to life imprisonment, but was released in 1951.

## Death

Logothetopoulos died in Athens on 6 July 1961.


Ted's Restaurant

# Ted's Restaurant

## Abstract

Ted's Restaurant is a hamburger restaurant established in 1959 that is known for its steamed cheeseburger. Its original location is in Meriden, Connecticut, in the United States. It also operates a food truck and a concession stand.

## Early years

The steamed cheeseburger, also referred to as a "steamer" or "cheeseburg", is believed to have been invented at a restaurant called "Jack's Lunch" in Middletown, Connecticut, in the 1930s. However like many restaurant food icons the origin is somewhat unclear, but despite this it is undisputed that Ted Duberek opened his namesake restaurant serving the steamed burgers in 1959 in Meriden, catering to the then significant local factory worker population. Early on, as the local factories were working around the clock, Ted's would stay open until 4:00 A.M.

## Steamed cheeseburger preparation

Instead of being fried in a pan or grilled on a grill like typical cheeseburgers, the steamed cheeseburgers at Ted's Restaurant are cooked via steaming in a stainless-steel cabinet which contains small trays that hold either an individual hamburger patty or a chunk of cheese. This method of cooking causes the fats in the meat to melt away and they are then drained from the tray once the patty is fully cooked. The end result is a moist, juicy burger which is then served by scooping the meat onto a bun and then pouring the melted cheese over the meat. The burger comes with a choice of customary toppings.

## Changes in ownership

Over the years the local factories began moving their manufacturing overseas, yet Ted's remained in business, though with shorter hours. After Ted Duberek died in the early 1970s, his son Paul Duberek took over, running the business until 2007. That year, Paul sold the business to his nephew Bill Foreman who had worked at Ted's while he attended high school and college. Bill has continued running the business with few changes and the steamed cheeseburger remains the featured menu item.

## Expansion attempt

Ted's expanded in the 2010s with the addition of two more restaurant locations in Cromwell, Connecticut and North Haven, Connecticut but by 2018 they had both been closed.

## In the media

Ted's was featured on a second-season episode of the Travel Channel 's Man v. Food in December 2009. Then in June 2013 it was featured on another Travel Channel show, Burger Land.

## "Steam Machine" food truck

Ted's operates a food truck named the "Steam Machine" and it sells steamed cheeseburgers at Bushnell Park in downtown Hartford, Connecticut, at the Xfinity Theatre amphitheatre also in Hartford, and at UConn Huskies football games at Pratt & Whitney Stadium at Rentschler Field in East Hartford, Connecticut.

## XL Center concession stand

Ted's sells steamed cheeseburgers at a concession stand located behind section 101 in the XL Center arena in Hartford, Connecticut.

## Hartford Yard Goats promotion

In August 2018 Ted's was the featured food vendor during a special promotion by the Hartford Yard Goats minor league baseball team. For one home game the Yard Goats changed their name to the "Hartford Steamed Cheeseburgers" and wore special one-off uniforms resembling the food item. Ted's sold made-to-order steamed cheeseburgers to fans at the "Hartford Neighborhood Flavors Cart" that was set up at the stadium.


Naser Aliji

# Naser Aliji

## Abstract

Naser Ismail Aliji (born 27 December 1993) is a professional footballer who plays as a left-back, and also for the Albania national team. Born in Macedonia, he played for Switzerland at youth international levels, and made his senior debut for Albania in 2015.

## Club career

### Early career

Aliji was born in Kumanovo and is of Albanian ethnicity. He lived there until he was four years old, at which time his mother moved to Baden, Switzerland together with her two other siblings, a sister and a brother, to join their father, who had been working there for many years. Aliji started his youth football aged 4 when he was sent by his brother to play with FC Baden. Aged 9, he moved to FC Aarau for one year and then he joined FC Basel in 2008. Later he played in their U-18 team and in their U21 team where he received various individual prizes as the youngster of the year.

### Basel

Aliji signed his first professional contract with FC Basel on 20 June 2013 and joined their first team. Aliji made his first team debut on 17 August as he was substituted in during the Swiss Cup first round match against BSC Old Boys. He played his first match in the starting eleven in the Swiss Cup quarter-final against Le Mont on 5 February 2014 as Basel won 6–1. One minute before half time he gave the final pass to Marco Streller for him to score the third goal of the game. On 16 March 2014 Aliji made his Swiss Super League debut and played the full 90 minutes at St. Jakob-Park in the 5–0 home win, against Aarau. At the end of the 2013–14 Super League season Aliji won the league championship with Basel. They also reached the final of the 2013–14 Swiss Cup, but were beaten 2–0 by Zürich after extra time. During the 2013–14 Champions League season Basel reached the group stage and finished the group in third position. Thus they qualified for the Europa League knockout phase where they advanced as far as the quarter-finals.

The season 2014–15 was also a successful one for Basel. Aliji scored his first goal for the team in the away game in the Stadion Brügglifeld on 19 July 2014 as Basel won 2–1 against Aarau. Despite this goal in the first match of the season and despite the fact that Basel had entered the Champions League in the group stage reaching the knockout phase on 9 December 2014 as they managed a 1–1 draw at Anfield against Liverpool, Aliji totaled just 17 appearances during the first half of the season, 5 (of 18) League, 3 (of 3) in the Cup and just 1 (of 6) in the Champions League, as well 8 further appearances in test games, mostly as substitute. Because Sousa did not rely upon Aliji and he could not make the starting eleven Basel looked for another solution. On 17 January 2015, it was announced that Aliji would be lent out to Vaduz to gain first team playing experience.

At the end of the season Basel won the championship for the sixth time in a row.

### Loan on Vaduz

In January 2015 during the Winter transfers window, Aliji was loaned out to the fellow Swiss Super League team FC Vaduz for 1 year and half. Aliji made his debut for Vaduz on 15 February 2015 in the away match against Aarau, playing the full 90 minutes of the game, which ended in a 1–0 victory. Until the end of the league season Aliji played 17 matches all as a starter and substituted off in just one occasion. Aliji won the 2014–15 Liechtenstein Cup playing two matches including the final against Triesenberg on 13 May 2015 when Vaduz won 5–0 and Aliji played the full 90-minutes.

Having won the 2014–15 Liechtenstein Cup, Vaduz gained the right to participate in the 2015–16 UEFA Europa League first qualifying round, where they were shorted to play against San Marino side La Fiorita. In the first leg, Aliji played the full 90-minutes match in a 5–0 away victory. Then Vaduz qualified in the next round beating La Fiorita 5–1 in the second leg and winning on aggregate 10–1. Vaduz finds as an opponent in the 2015–16 UEFA Europa League Second qualifying round the Estonia side Nõmme Kalju. Aliji managed to play another full 90-minutes European match in the first leg to help his team to take a 3–1 victory.

### Return to Basel

Following an injury to Adama Traoré with the Ivory Coast national team due to the absence of other left-backs, Basel used the contract rights to recall Aliji to their first team squad from the loan to Vaduz. Under trainer Urs Fischer Aliji won the Swiss Super League championship at the end of the 2015–16 Super League season for the third time. For the club it was the seventh title in a row and their 19th championship title in total.

On 1 July 2016, Basel announced that Aliji was leaving the club and would move to Germany. During his time with their first team, Aliji played a total of 64 games for Basel scoring one goal. 21 of these games were in the Swiss Super League, nine in the Swiss Cup, four in the UEFA competitions (Champions League and Europa League) and 22 were friendly games. He scored his sole goal in the domestic league.

### 1. FC Kaiserslautern

On 1 July 2016, Aliji joined 2. Bundesliga side 1. FC Kaiserslautern on a free transfer, signing a contract until June 2019.

He should have compensated for the departure of Chris Löwe on the left side of defence. Initially a regular player under coach Tayfun Korkut, Aliji was not able to convince FCK and was sorted out under Korkut's successor Norbert Meier. Because, initially, he was unable to find a new club, Aliji's contract with FCK was terminated on 31 August 2017, two years before it expired, against payment of a severance payment.

### Later years

Following this, Aliji was without a club for six months. In January 2018 he joined Italian club Virtus Entella in Serie B for six months. He later played for Dinamo București and Budapest Honvéd. He joined Voluntari in the summer of 2022.

## Personal life

In the summer of 2018 Aliji returned to Switzerland to be with his father who had a cancer diagnosis.

## International career

Despite playing for Macedonia youth national teams and Switzerland youth national teams, Aliji did not exclude the option of representing Albania at international level. On 17 December 2014, the FSHF representative for talents in Switzerland, Sokol Dauti, confirmed that Aliji had decided to represent Albania and begun the procedure to get an Albanian passport. Three of his former teammates at Basel Taulant Xhaka, Shkëlzen Gashi and Arlind Ajeti play for Albania, despite having represented Swiss youth national teams. On 5 March 2015, Aliji received Albanian citizenship alongside his teammate Ajeti, and became the first player ever from Macedonia to wear the Albania national team shirt.

Aliji received his first call-up to the Albania national team by the coach Gianni De Biasi for the UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying match against Armenia on 29 March 2015. Despite the invitation he wasn't eligible yet to play for Albania in competitive matches as he hadn't yet received the go ahead from FIFA. Then Aliji was called up again in the next match of Albania, the friendly one against France on 13 June 2015. He debuted for Albania at international level against France playing the full 90-minutes match which finished in a 1–0 crucial victory against the UEFA Euro 2016 hosts with a free-kick scored by Ergys Kaçe in the 43rd minute.

On 21 May 2016, Aliji was named in Albania's preliminary 27-man squad for UEFA Euro 2016, and in Albania's final 23-man UEFA Euro 2016 squad on 31 May.

Aliji didn't manage to play any minute of all Group A matches as Albania were eliminated by ranking in the 3rd place behind hosts France against which lost 2–0 and Switzerland against which they also lost 1–0 in the opening match and ahead of Romania by beating them 1–0 in the closing match with a goal by Armando Sadiku. Albania finished the group in the third position with three points and with a goal difference –2, and was ranked last in the third-placed teams, which eventually eliminated them.

## Career statistics

### International

## Honours

Basel

- Swiss Super League: 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16

- Swiss Cup runner-up: 2013–14

Vaduz

- Liechtenstein Cup: 2014–15

Budapest Honvéd

- Magyar Kupa: 2019–20

Individual

- FC Basel Rookies of the Year: 2011, 2013


2024 in Georgia (country)

# 2024 in Georgia (country)

## Abstract

Events in the year 2024 in Georgia.

## Incumbents

- President – Salome Zourabichvili

- Prime Minister – Irakli Garibashvili (until 29 January), Irakli Kobakhidze (since 29 February)

- Chairperson of the Parliament – Shalva Papuashvili

## Events

### January

- 7 January: Annual Christmas epistle by Catholicos-Patriarch Ilia II, in which he decries global technological advancements creating "bioethical challenges", including the development of artificial intelligence. Russian forces in South Ossetia are reported to be digging military trenches in the vicinity of Gremiskhevi, a Georgian village close to the South Ossetian occupation line. An icon of Saint Matrona of Moscow featuring her in discussion with Joseph Stalin is gifted to the Holy Trinity Cathedral of Tbilisi by pro-Russian Georgian politicians, causing public protests for several days, culminating in activists throwing paint at the icon and the Patriarchate agreeing to removing the depiction of Stalin.

- Annual Christmas epistle by Catholicos-Patriarch Ilia II, in which he decries global technological advancements creating "bioethical challenges", including the development of artificial intelligence.

- Russian forces in South Ossetia are reported to be digging military trenches in the vicinity of Gremiskhevi, a Georgian village close to the South Ossetian occupation line.

- An icon of Saint Matrona of Moscow featuring her in discussion with Joseph Stalin is gifted to the Holy Trinity Cathedral of Tbilisi by pro-Russian Georgian politicians, causing public protests for several days, culminating in activists throwing paint at the icon and the Patriarchate agreeing to removing the depiction of Stalin.

- 10 January: Russia abolishes customs duties on oil and gas exports to South Ossetia.

- 11 January: the Ministry of Foreign Affairs summons Danish Ambassador Anne Toft Sørensen over an op-ed she authored in Danish press in which she called Bidzina Ivanishvili, leader of the ruling Georgian Dream party, an " oligarch ". Parliamentary Speaker Shalva Papuashvili dismisses longtime head of the National Parliamentary Library Giorgi Kekelidze and appoints Konstantine Gamsakhurdia.

- the Ministry of Foreign Affairs summons Danish Ambassador Anne Toft Sørensen over an op-ed she authored in Danish press in which she called Bidzina Ivanishvili, leader of the ruling Georgian Dream party, an " oligarch ".

- Parliamentary Speaker Shalva Papuashvili dismisses longtime head of the National Parliamentary Library Giorgi Kekelidze and appoints Konstantine Gamsakhurdia.

- 12 January: Polish Ambassador Mariusz Maszkiewicz reveals having been verbally assaulted by Georgian diplomatic officials after having called for the closure of the Stalin Museum of Gori.

- 13 January: 3,000 demonstrators protest in Tbilisi over 'desecration' of the Orthodox icon of Saint Matrona of Moscow, which featured her blessing Joseph Stalin.

- 14 January: a high-ranking delegation representing the Georgian Dream party visits China, leading to affirmations about the close ties between the Georgian government and the Chinese Communist Party.

- 15 January: a Georgian civilian is detained by Russian soldiers near the village of Akhmaji, close to the South Ossetian occupation line. the highly-covered trial of Lazare Grigoriadis, a young man arrested in March 2023 during anti-government protests, is postponed till February 26, forcing him to spend another month in pre-trial detention before a final verdict is granted.

- a Georgian civilian is detained by Russian soldiers near the village of Akhmaji, close to the South Ossetian occupation line.

- the highly-covered trial of Lazare Grigoriadis, a young man arrested in March 2023 during anti-government protests, is postponed till February 26, forcing him to spend another month in pre-trial detention before a final verdict is granted.

- 17 January: US Global Anti-Corruption Coordinator Richard Nephew visits Georgia to meet with parliamentary, judicial, domestic intelligence, and civil society leaders. The European Parliament adopts a resolution recommending EU executive bodies to adopt a more robust approach to tackling frozen conflicts, including in Georgia, underlining previous failures to ensure Russia's enforcement of the 2008 ceasefire agreement.

- US Global Anti-Corruption Coordinator Richard Nephew visits Georgia to meet with parliamentary, judicial, domestic intelligence, and civil society leaders.

- The European Parliament adopts a resolution recommending EU executive bodies to adopt a more robust approach to tackling frozen conflicts, including in Georgia, underlining previous failures to ensure Russia's enforcement of the 2008 ceasefire agreement.

- 18 January: the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment of Punishment publishes a report from a March 2023 field visit in which it highlights what it describes as "mistreatment" of the incarcerated former President Mikheil Saakashvili, leading to criticism by the Ministry of Justice. Parliamentary Speaker Papuashvili asserts that the Ukrainian and Moldovan Presidents, Volodymyr Zelenskyy and Maia Sandu respectively, as well as several members of the European Parliament "lied" when condemning the torture of Saakashvili. The Georgian Orthodox Church issues statement, saying that it will remove the icon featuring Saint Matrona of Moscow, a Russian Orthodox saint, blessing Joseph Stalin.

- the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment of Punishment publishes a report from a March 2023 field visit in which it highlights what it describes as "mistreatment" of the incarcerated former President Mikheil Saakashvili, leading to criticism by the Ministry of Justice.

- Parliamentary Speaker Papuashvili asserts that the Ukrainian and Moldovan Presidents, Volodymyr Zelenskyy and Maia Sandu respectively, as well as several members of the European Parliament "lied" when condemning the torture of Saakashvili.

- The Georgian Orthodox Church issues statement, saying that it will remove the icon featuring Saint Matrona of Moscow, a Russian Orthodox saint, blessing Joseph Stalin.

- 21 January: a fire destroys the National Art Gallery of Abkhazia in Sukhumi and more than 4,000 works. The incident causes public outcry against local authorities.

- 23 January: Police clashes with the protesters attempting to block an evication of a family in Tbilisi, sparking debate over tighter regulations for the predatory lending and the practice of evications from an only residential place. At least one journalist is injured during protests, another one arrested. Protests continue for several days as the authorities refuse to release student protesters.

- 24 January: Prime Minister Irakli Garibashvili makes four new ambassadorial appointments to reshape the diplomatic corps in the Middle East and Asia: Paata Kalandadze to China, Zaza Kandelaki to Israel, Archil Dzuliashvili to Jordan, and Noshrevan Lomtatidze to Kuwait. Georgia and Saudi Arabia sign an agreement establishing an Intergovernmental Coordination Council.

- Prime Minister Irakli Garibashvili makes four new ambassadorial appointments to reshape the diplomatic corps in the Middle East and Asia: Paata Kalandadze to China, Zaza Kandelaki to Israel, Archil Dzuliashvili to Jordan, and Noshrevan Lomtatidze to Kuwait.

- Georgia and Saudi Arabia sign an agreement establishing an Intergovernmental Coordination Council.

- 25 January: a wave of cyberattacks targets the websites of the President of Georgia and several opposition-affiliated media agencies. Georgia and Armenia sign a Declaration of Strategic Partnership during a visit by Armenian Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan to Tbilisi, a visit criticized by President Salome Zourabichvili for being held without her knowledge.

- a wave of cyberattacks targets the websites of the President of Georgia and several opposition-affiliated media agencies.

- Georgia and Armenia sign a Declaration of Strategic Partnership during a visit by Armenian Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan to Tbilisi, a visit criticized by President Salome Zourabichvili for being held without her knowledge.

- 26 January: EU Special Representative for the South Caucasus and the Crisis in Georgia Toivo Klaar is denied entry in Abkhazia for the second time in six months.

- 29 January: Irine Chikhladze, a corporate attorney, is appointed Deputy Public Defender, in charge of children's rights, gender issues, disability rights, and regional affairs. Irakli Garibashvili resigns as Prime Minister of Georgia after serving for three years, the longest-serving head of government since Georgian Dream came to power in 2012.

- Irine Chikhladze, a corporate attorney, is appointed Deputy Public Defender, in charge of children's rights, gender issues, disability rights, and regional affairs.

- Irakli Garibashvili resigns as Prime Minister of Georgia after serving for three years, the longest-serving head of government since Georgian Dream came to power in 2012.

### February

- 1 February: Irakli Kobakhidze, Chairman of Georgian Dream, is nominated as Prime Ministerial candidate, while his predecessor Irakli Gharibashvili becomes the new Chairman of GD. The new Kobakhidze cabinet replaces only the Minister of Defense, switching Juansher Burchuladze with MP Irakli Chikovani, while Burchuladze is appointed Ambassador to NATO.

- 2 February: The Georgian court sentences an activist accused of defacing the icon of Saint Matrona of Moscow, which featured her blessing Joseph Stalin, to five days in prison on petty hooliganism charges.

- 5 February: The State Security Service of Georgia announces seizing C-4 explosives reportedly bound for Russia and Tbilisi, Georgia's capital. The SSSG reports the involvement of Ukrainian politician of Georgian descent, Andrei Sharashidze, and suggests that the operation might have been part of Ukrainian efforts to draw Georgia into a war with Russia. The Council of Doctors under the Public Defender's Office reports improvement in the health of imprisoned former President Mikheil Saakashvili, though noting no progress in his psychoneurological pathologies.

- The State Security Service of Georgia announces seizing C-4 explosives reportedly bound for Russia and Tbilisi, Georgia's capital. The SSSG reports the involvement of Ukrainian politician of Georgian descent, Andrei Sharashidze, and suggests that the operation might have been part of Ukrainian efforts to draw Georgia into a war with Russia.

- The Council of Doctors under the Public Defender's Office reports improvement in the health of imprisoned former President Mikheil Saakashvili, though noting no progress in his psychoneurological pathologies.

- 6 February: President Salome Zourabichvili delivers her final annual address to Parliament, speaking about security issues and challenges to Georgian democracy and sharply criticizing the ruling Georgian Dream party.

- 6- 7 February: Poor weather conditions cause a series of landslides hit several areas in western Georgia, killing two in Adjara and nine in Nergeti village, Baghdati Municipality. A hot air balloon crashes in Kvemo Kartli, killing all three on board, including two aviators and an Imedi TV cameraman.

- 8 February: The Parliament of Georgia approves the ruling Georgian Party's chairman Irakli Kobakhidze as the country's new prime minister and his cabinet of 12 ministers, with 84 votes to 10.

- 9 February: Rustavi market shooting: Four people are killed and one is injured during a mass shooting at a market in Rustavi. The gunman is arrested.

- 12 February: New Defense Minister Irakli Chikovani is appointed Vice-Prime Minister in the Kobakhidze Cabinet.

- 13 February: Abkhaz de facto authorities drop consideration of an agreement with Russia that would have granted Russia's National Guard to "ensure public order" within Abkhazia after serious opposition from local civil society groups.

- 14 February: Deacon Giorgi Mamaladze, in prison since 2017 over an alleged attempt on the life of a high-ranking official within the Georgian Orthodox Church, is released two years before the end of his sentence after reports of his health's degradation in prison.

- 16 February: The National Bank of Georgia eases liquidity requirements for Russian citizens, lowering the share of their deposits in foreign currency that cannot be immediately withdrawn from 80% to 40%.

- 19 February: The National Democratic Institute launches its long-term election observation mission (LTO) ahead of the 2024 parliamentary election. The launch of LTOs by Western institutions had been a demand by the opposition to guarantee free elections.

- 20 February: PM Kobakhidze visits Brussels to meet with European Union and NATO leaders and co-chair the 8th session of the EU-Georgia Association Council. Parliament passes a bill abolishing the post of Deputy Chair of the Central Election Commission, an office traditionally held by the Parliamentary Opposition.

- PM Kobakhidze visits Brussels to meet with European Union and NATO leaders and co-chair the 8th session of the EU-Georgia Association Council.

- Parliament passes a bill abolishing the post of Deputy Chair of the Central Election Commission, an office traditionally held by the Parliamentary Opposition.

- 21 February: Businessman Giorgi Barvenishvili becomes MP, taking the seat of newly-appointed PM Irakli Kobakhidze.

- 23 February: Liberty Bank, the private financial institution holding a state-granted monopoly on pension-guaranteed loans, agrees to reduce the interest rate for the loans of 150,000 pensioners following consultations with the Government. This comes as many fear a retiree debt crisis, with debt far outpacing retirement savings.

- 24 February: Ukraine request engineering equipment from the Georgian Government, rejected by Tbilisi. The Government halts plans to demolish the Central Republican Hospital of Tbilisi after protests by local medical staff.

- Ukraine request engineering equipment from the Georgian Government, rejected by Tbilisi.

- The Government halts plans to demolish the Central Republican Hospital of Tbilisi after protests by local medical staff.

- 26 February: China grants a visa-free regime to Georgian citizens, a sign of deepening bilateral relations since the signing of a strategic partnership in 2023. Russian anti-war activist Maks Ivantsov is denied entry political asylum and entry into Georgia.

- China grants a visa-free regime to Georgian citizens, a sign of deepening bilateral relations since the signing of a strategic partnership in 2023.

- Russian anti-war activist Maks Ivantsov is denied entry political asylum and entry into Georgia.

- 27 February: President Zourabichvili warns about Russian interference in the October parliamentary election.

- 28 February: One Georgian civilian is abducted by Russian forces in the village of Takhtisdziri, near the South Ossetian occupation line. The European Parliament adopts a report calling for the immediate release of imprisoned former President Mikheil Saakashvili.

- One Georgian civilian is abducted by Russian forces in the village of Takhtisdziri, near the South Ossetian occupation line.

- The European Parliament adopts a report calling for the immediate release of imprisoned former President Mikheil Saakashvili.

- 29 February: Abkhaz de facto authorities call on the United Nations Development Programme to either refute its cooperation with the USAID or face "a timely and adequate response". Sokhumi accuses USAID of funding pro-Georgian programs in Abkhazia.

### March

- 1 March: Health Minister Zurab Azarashvili resigns following a series of corruption scandals linked with the planned destruction of the Republican Hospital of Tbilisi. He will be replaced by MP Mikheil Sarjveladze.

- 4 March: In Elibashvili v. Georgia, the European Court of Human Rights finds Georgian law enforcement responsible for the 2016 death during a police chase of a suspect. The Court orders the Georgian Government of paying the mother of the deceased 16,000 euros.

- 5 March: President Zourabichvili vetoes the Election Code Amendment of 2024 that abolishes the position of Deputy Chairman of the Central Election Commission, a role reserved to the Opposition since 2021. The veto is overridden by Parliament on March 19. Georgian special forces take part in the Trojan Footprint military exercises, along with special forces from the US, UK, Romania, Poland, and Spain. The exercises are hosted simultaneously by Greece, Romania, and Georgia. President Guðni Th. Jóhannesson of Iceland visits Georgia, becoming the first Icelandic head of state to hold an official visit to the country.

- President Zourabichvili vetoes the Election Code Amendment of 2024 that abolishes the position of Deputy Chairman of the Central Election Commission, a role reserved to the Opposition since 2021. The veto is overridden by Parliament on March 19.

- Georgian special forces take part in the Trojan Footprint military exercises, along with special forces from the US, UK, Romania, Poland, and Spain. The exercises are hosted simultaneously by Greece, Romania, and Georgia.

- President Guðni Th. Jóhannesson of Iceland visits Georgia, becoming the first Icelandic head of state to hold an official visit to the country.

- 7 March: Opposition MP and Girchi chairman Iago Khvichia is physically assaulted by someone allegedly opposing his pro-secular views.

- 11 March: Former UNM leader Nika Melia and former Mtavari TV director Nika Gvaramia announce the creation of a new opposition political party, Ahali, meant to challenge UNM's lead of the opposition.

- 12 March: David Arakhamia, a leading figure in the Zelenskyy administration, lists three conditions to "normalize relations" between Georgia and Ukraine, including the release of former President Mikheil Saakashvili from Georgian prison, the suspension of direct flights between Georgia and Russia, and an end to Georgia's role in the evasion of sanctions by Russia.

- 18 March: Far-right and pro-Russian members of the People's Power caucus in Parliament formally launch a political party ahead of the parliamentary elections.

- 19 March: The Georgian Government increases funding for the Georgian Orthodox Church from 25 million to 60 million lari, a move largely viewed as an attempt to consolidate the Church's support for Georgian Dream ahead of the parliamentary election.

- 21 March: The Georgian delegation to the Euronest Parliamentary Assembly fails to gather enough support to introduce a resolution supporting Georgia's European integration, leading to accusations by both members of Georgian Dream and UNM in the delegation of misbehavior and incompetency. French Major General Bettina Boughani is appointed as Head of the European Union Monitoring Mission in Georgia.

- The Georgian delegation to the Euronest Parliamentary Assembly fails to gather enough support to introduce a resolution supporting Georgia's European integration, leading to accusations by both members of Georgian Dream and UNM in the delegation of misbehavior and incompetency.

- French Major General Bettina Boughani is appointed as Head of the European Union Monitoring Mission in Georgia.

- 22 March: The European Commission calls on Georgia to adopt a judicial reform including vetting sitting judges based on anti-corruption standards and using both domestic and international experts, a proposal largely rejected by Georgian Dream.

- 25 March: Georgian Dream proposes a constitutional amendment to "protect family values and minors" and to allow marriage only of "a union of a single genetic male and a single genetic female." It would prohibit " gender transition ", same-sex marriages and the adoption of children by same-sex couples.

### April

- 2 April: Georgian Dream announces plans to bring back its 2023 foreign agents bill which led to the 2023 Georgian protests. The bill would require Georgian organizations receiving more than 20% of their funding from abroad to register as “foreign agents” or face fines.

- 15 April: A brawl breaks out in Parliament during discussions on the reintroduced foreign agents bill. Georgian Dream Mamuka Mdinaradze MP is assaulted by opposition MP Aleko Elisashvili.

- 16 April: Parliament votes 78 to 25 on the draft foreign agents bill.

- 17 April: An estimated 40,000-50,000 people gather in an anti-government demonstration in front of the parliament building in Tbilisi against the foreign agents bill.

### May

- 1 May: Parliament votes in favor of the foreign agents bill on its second reading, with 83 votes to 23. Police in Tbilisi utilize a water cannon, tear gas, and stun grenades as part of a crackdown on protests against the foreign agents bill.

- Parliament votes in favor of the foreign agents bill on its second reading, with 83 votes to 23.

- Police in Tbilisi utilize a water cannon, tear gas, and stun grenades as part of a crackdown on protests against the foreign agents bill.

- 2 May: Protests occur in Batumi against the foreign agents bill.

- 14 May: Parliament votes in favor of the foreign agents bill on its third and final reading with 84 votes against 30. Riot police subsequently clash with protesters on the streets of Tbilisi following the bill's passage.

- 18 May: President Salome Zurabishvili vetoes the foreign agents bill.

- 28 May: Parliament overrides President Zurabishvili's veto of the foreign agents bill.

### June

- 3 June: Parliament speaker Shalva Papuashvili signs the foreign agents bill into law.

- 6 June: The United States Department of State sanctions several Georgian Dream politicians with travel bans for passing the "Law on Transparency of Foreign Influence", threatening further penalties if Georgia continues "anti-democratic activity".

- 9 June: 2024 South Ossetian parliamentary election: Parliamentary elections are held in the breakaway region of South Ossetia.

### July

- 2 July: An Su-25 fighter jet belonging to the Georgian Air Force crashes during a military exercise near Bolnisi, killing its pilot. Protestors march in Tbilisi, surrounding the Georgian Parliament Building in protest of the Georgian Dream party, the law on foreign agents, and in support of Georgia joining the EU.

- An Su-25 fighter jet belonging to the Georgian Air Force crashes during a military exercise near Bolnisi, killing its pilot.

- Protestors march in Tbilisi, surrounding the Georgian Parliament Building in protest of the Georgian Dream party, the law on foreign agents, and in support of Georgia joining the EU.

- 9 July: The European Union blocks Georgia's accession in the bloc and freezes 30 million euros ($32.5 million) in financial aid in response to the passage of the foreign agents law.

- 24 July: The State Security Service of Georgia announces an investigation into an alleged plot by "former high officials" to overthrow the government and assassinate Bidzina Ivanishvili, the honorary chairman of the ruling Georgian Dream party.

- July 31: The United States suspends $95 million in military aid to Georgia in response to the passage of the foreign agents law.

### August

- August 1: The foreign agents law comes into effect.

### Predicted and scheduled events

- 26 October – 2024 Georgian parliamentary election

- October – 2024 Georgian presidential election

- End of 2024 – Nationwide population census in Georgia, the third in the country's post-Soviet history following the 2002 and 2014 censes.


Teresa Carpenter

# Teresa Carpenter

## Abstract

Teresa Carpenter (born 1948) is an American author. Her awards include the Pulitzer Prize for best feature writing.

## Biography

Teresa Carpenter was born in Independence, Missouri. She lives with her husband Steven Levy in New York's Greenwich Village.

She is the author of four books: Without a Doubt (1997) (with Marcia Clark), a New York Times #1 bestseller, Missing Beauty (1988), a New York Times bestseller, and The Miss Stone Affair (2003). She is also the editor of New York Diaries 1609–2009.

Arlyne Brickman, the Mafia informant and mob moll, was the subject of Carpenter's non-fiction book Mob Girl: A Woman's Life in the Underworld (1992) published by Simon & Schuster.

Carpenter's articles have appeared in several anthologies:

- Pulitzer Prize Feature Stories, edited by David Garlock

- Profiles in Courage for our Time, edited by Caroline Kennedy

- The Village Voice Anthology, edited by Geoffrey Stokes

- Feature Writing for Newspapers and Magazines, edited by Edward Jay Friedlander and John Lee

- Excellence in Reporting, edited by Edward Jay Friedlander, Harry Marsh and Mike Masterson.

## Awards

Her articles in the Village Voice in the 1980s won the Pulitzer Prize for best feature writing, as well as two Clarion awards, the Page One award, and the Front Page award. Carpenter was awarded the 1981 Pulitzer in Feature Writing for her account of model Dorothy Stratten 's death, after it was revealed that the original winning article, "Jimmy's World", by Janet Cooke of The Washington Post, was a fabrication.


List of PlayStation 5 games

# List of PlayStation 5 games

## Abstract

This is a list of games for the PlayStation 5. Physical games are sold on Ultra HD Blu-ray and digital games can be purchased through the PlayStation Store. The PlayStation 5 is backwards compatible with all but six PlayStation 4 games. This list only includes games that are released natively for PlayStation 5. PlayStation VR2 and backwards compatible games are excluded.

There are currently 733 games on this list.