Eumenes

# Eumenes

## Abstract

Eumenes (/ j uː ˈ m ɛ n iː z /; Greek: Εὐμένης; fl. 361–315 BC) was a Greek general, satrap, and Successor of Alexander the Great. He participated in the Wars of Alexander the Great, serving as Alexander's personal secretary and later on as a battlefield commander. Eumenes depicted himself as a lifelong loyalist of Alexander's dynasty and championed the cause of the Macedonian Argead royal house.

In the Wars of the Diadochi after Alexander's death, Eumenes initially supported the regent Perdiccas in the First Diadochi War, and later the Argead royalty in the Second Diadochi War. Despite less experience as a commander, Eumenes defeated Craterus, one of Alexander's most accomplished generals, at the Battle of the Hellespont in 321 BC. After Perdiccas' murder in 320 BC Eumenes became a public enemy of the new Post-Alexander regime under Antipater and Antigonus. In 319 BC he was defeated by Antigonus at the Battle of Orkynia and confined to Nora.

Eumenes escaped and then allied with Polyperchon and Olympias, Alexander's mother, against Cassander and Antigonus. From 318 BC onward he led a hard-fought campaign against Antigonus, defeating him at the Battle of Paraitakene, then being indecisively defeated later at the Battle of Gabiene. Afterward, Eumenes was betrayed by his soldiers (the Silver Shields) and given over to Antigonus. Antigonus executed him in the winter of 316–315 BC.

The Greek biographer and essayist Plutarch chose Eumenes as the focus of one of his biographies in Parallel Lives, where he was paired with Quintus Sertorius, the rebel Roman general who led a revolt against Rome in the 70s BC.

## Early career

Eumenes was a native of Cardia in the Thracian Chersonese. His father, a prominent citizen of Cardia, was named Hieronymus. Hieronymus cultivated a friendship with Philip II of Macedon which eventually led Eumenes to be employed as a private royal secretary (grammateus) by Philip, probably in 342 BC. He may have sought refuge in Macedonia because of the tyrant Hecataeus of Cardia's enmity toward his family.

Eumenes also impressed Alexander's mother, Olympias, who later called him "the most faithful of my friends". Despite the position of secretary being looked down on by Macedonians, Eumenes held significant authority in the office, as he oversaw all written communications and maintained a close relationship with the king.

Eumenes served as hetairoi (companion and cavalry captain) and royal secretary under both Philip and Philip's successor, Alexander the Great. After Philip's death (336 BC) Eumenes remained loyal to Alexander and Olympias and accompanied Alexander into Asia, but for most of his reign served as royal secretary. Eumenes did not get along with Hephaestion, Alexander's closest companion, repeatedly arguing with him over "trivial matters". Plutarch also reports an anecdote of Eumenes hiding money from Alexander.

After Alexander's victory at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC, Eumenes began performing military and diplomatic missions, such as his pronouncement to Sangala in 326. He may have played a larger part in Alexander's eastern campaign, especially in India, than the surviving accounts say. Eumenes was promoted to leader of the companion cavalry (hipparch), formerly held by Perdiccas following Hephaestion's death in late 324 BC. Eumenes also participated in the Marriages at Susa in 324 BC with the other hetairoi. Eumenes wed Artonis, daughter of Persian satrap Artabazus II and sister of Pharnabazus III, Persian satrap of Phrygia. This was a high honour as Artonis' sister was Barsine, a mistress of Alexander.

Eumenes is recorded as an author of the Ephemerides, a chronicle of Alexander the Great's activities leading up to his illness and death.

### After the death of Alexander the Great

After Alexander's death in 323 BC, Eumenes was left without much standing, since his position depended closely on the king. Alexander had left no apparent heir. When Alexander's leading officers (somatophylakes and others) and a mass of infantry were debating whether one of the living Argeads should ascend or a regency should be installed for Alexander's unborn child (Alexander IV), Eumenes was present alongside the officers but did not speak. When the officers fled Babylon in the ensuing riot of the infantry, Eumenes remained in the city to make Meleager (the leader of the disgruntled infantry) come to an agreement with the officers.

Eumenes used his Cardian heritage to argue he had no personal motivation in the "Macedonian" struggle. The infantry were willing to listen to Eumenes because of his close association with Alexander. The officers eventually subdued Meleager and regained control over Babylon by announcing a joint kingship between Philip III Arrhidaeus and, when he was born, Alexander IV. Perdiccas became regent, effective ruler of the vast Asian section of Alexander's Empire, and Eumenes served as his advisor. Eumenes procured Alexander's "Last Plans" and gave them to Perdiccas, who read them out before the soldiers before rejecting them.

## Satrap of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia (323–319 BC)

Alexander's Empire was split in the Partition of Babylon (323 BC), where Cappadocia and Paphlagonia were assigned to Eumenes, but they were not yet subdued. The Achaemenid satrap and king Ariarathes still held Cappadocia, and the Paphlagonian tribes had renounced allegiance to the Macedonian government. Eumenes thus had to subdue these forces to actually attain his satrapy. Perdiccas used his authority as regent of the joint kings to order Leonnatus, satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, and Antigonus, satrap of Phrygia, Pamphylia and Lycia, to aid Eumenes in securing his satrapy. Eumenes left Babylon in the late summer of 323 BC.

Eumenes was probably given 5000 talents of gold from Perdiccas for the reconquest of Cappadocia. Leonnatus accompanied him, but Antigonus ignored Perdiccas' order. Eumenes arrived in Cappadocia and began to hire mercenaries. Leonnatus, however, was requested by Hecataeus of Cardia to march west to relieve Antipater who was besieged at Lamia as part of the Lamian War. Leonnatus agreed to go west, as he had received letters from Cleopatra of Macedon (daughter of Olympias, sister of Alexander the Great) asking him to marry her and become king of Macedon.

Leonnatus attempted to induce Eumenes to reconcile with Hecataeus and accompany him to Macedon to share in his far-reaching designs. Eumenes refused, fearing Antipater would murder him if he returned, and felt " to abandon his standing with Perdiccas for a mad and dangerous dash to Macedonia". He told Leonnatus he would give his answer later, then fled back to Perdiccas early in 322 BC, telling the regent of Leonnatus' plans. For this, Perdiccas elevated Eumenes to the ruling council of the Empire.

Eumenes joined Perdiccas, who installed him in Cappadocia by defeating and killing Ariarathes in the summer of 322. Eumenes reorganized his satrapy and appointed his supporters to prominent positions. The two generals traveled to Cilicia by autumn. Eumenes then returned to Cappadocia to aid Neoptolemus (satrap of Armenia) in his efforts to subdue the Satrapy of Armenia. Neoptolemus' soldiers, disgruntled with authority, refused to listen to Eumenes just as they had refused Neoptolemus. Eumenes subdued them by raising 6300 cavalry from Cappadocia, and made his satrapy peaceful and loyal by giving the Cappadocians monetary concessions. Eumenes probably successfully campaigned in Armenia throughout 322 and 321 BC.

### The arrival of Cleopatra and war

In the spring of 321 BC, Nicaea (daughter of Antipater) and Cleopatra of Macedon both came to Perdiccas and offered themselves as his bride. Eumenes may have played a role in Cleopatra's arrival; when she arrived, he championed her proposal over that of Nicaea. Eumenes' advice carried weight as the common soldiers respected him after his pacifying of Armenia.

Perdiccas married Nicaea, but when his control over Philip III was challenged by Eurydice, he sent Eumenes to Cleopatra to reopen negotiations for marriage. Antigonus fled to Macedonia, and informed Antipater of Perdiccas' intentions to divorce his daughter Nicaea and marry Cleopatra. Craterus and Antipater, having subdued most of Greece in the Lamian War, were infuriated by Antigonus' news. They suspended their plans for more campaigns in Greece and prepared to pass into Asia and depose Perdiccas.

#### Asia Minor and the Hellespont

Perdiccas and his government decided to attack Egypt, as Ptolemy had, through the help of a Perdiccan officer, obtained Alexander the Great's funeral carriage. Eumenes, in turn, was given supreme command (as autokrator) in Asia Minor to beat back Antipater and Craterus who were mustering armies in Greece.

Eumenes marched to the Hellespont, following orders to defend it, and spoke to Cleopatra again at Sardis, who this time refused to marry Perdiccas, uncertain of who would win in the war to come. Antigonus, who sailed over with a fleet and landed in western Asia Minor, succeeded in winning over many satraps and cities (Asander of Caria, Menander of Lydia, among others). Eumenes narrowly escaped capture in Sardis thanks to Cleopatra's warning. Eumenes then retreated inland as Cleitus the White defected with his fleet (allowing Craterus and Antipater to cross), and Perdiccas, hearing of these disasters, ordered Neoptolemus and Alcetas to obey him. Both of these Macedonian officers resented Eumenes, and refused to do so.

Eumenes received messages from Craterus and Antipater once they had reached Asia Minor, promising to retain him in his satrapy if he joined them. Craterus wanted to reconcile Eumenes with Antipater, while Eumenes wanted to reconcile Craterus with Perdiccas; negotiations failed however, as Eumenes stayed loyal to Perdiccas, and Craterus to Antipater. Eumenes then discovered Neoptolemus was planning to defect to Craterus and Antipater, and defeated him in battle in Phrygia, recruiting much of his army. Neoptolemus fled to Craterus and Antipater with 300 horsemen, and convinced them to march: soon after, Craterus took the majority of the Macedonian army to confront Eumenes.

Despite possessing far lower quality infantry than Craterus, Eumenes accepted the offer of battle, believing in his superior cavalry, beginning the Battle of the Hellespont. Eumenes concealed Craterus' name from his soldiers, knowing his popularity would sway their loyalty, instead claiming the Asian warlord "Pigres" had joined Neoptolemus and was marching against them. Eumenes also proclaimed he had received a dream that his army would be victorious. During the battle, Eumenes prevented any Macedonians from recognizing the popular Craterus through his troop placement and tactics, and as a result Craterus was killed, his flank overran by Eumenes' Cappadocian cavalry. Eumenes, leading the left flank, killed Neoptolemus in single combat, then induced the enemy infantry to surrender, winning a "stunning victory".

The victory brought Eumenes the enmity of some of his men due to his foreign heritage. He attempted to compel Craterus' infantry phalanx to desert to him, but failed and the infantry hastily marched south to link up with Antipater. News of Eumenes' victory, which might have restored Perdiccas' authority, reached Egypt only one day after Perdiccas was assassinated by his men in a mutiny (320 BC).

### After the death of Perdiccas and Triparadisus

After the murder of Perdiccas in Egypt, the Macedonian generals condemned Eumenes (and the other Perdiccans) to death at the Conference at Triparadisus, with Antipater assigning Antigonus as his chief executioner. Eumenes' province of Cappadocia was officially transferred to Nicanor, and Antigonus was given a large army to destroy the remaining Perdiccans in Asia. Eumenes was now in "far worse circumstances than he had been at Alexander's death" as he was an outlaw and being actively hunted, but he had an experienced, loyal army and prepared for the coming conflict with Antigonus.

Following Triparadisus, Antigonus placed a bounty on the Greek general's head of 100 talents of gold. News of this came immediately after Eumenes' financial rewards, so his officers and men were outraged and redoubled their efforts to protect their leader, assigning a large bodyguard of 1000 men to protect him at all times. He was also given the privilege of granting purple hats and cloaks to his soldiers, an honour usually only allowed for a Macedonian king. Eumenes further consolidated loyalty by arguing to his men that the joint kings had been taken by traitors to the Macedonian throne and that, in effect, he and his army were still loyalists to the Argead house.

Eumenes first travelled to Mount Ida where there was a royal stable, and took a large number of horses to replenish his Cappadocian cavalry. He took the time to file an account with the overseers of the stables despite his outlaw status. Upon hearing this, Antipater was greatly amused, however, it is clear that Eumenes made this move to show that he was acting under the law and in the service of the Argead House.

Eumenes marched to the Hellespont, where he quartered his army and plundered the locals who refused to pay his soldiers. He "continued to demonstrate his prowess as a military commander," attacking Hellespontine Phrygia and Phrygia itself while Antigonus and Antipater were present (on their return trip to Macedonia). Since he would be facing a force superior in infantry, Eumenes decided to position himself in the plains of Sardis of Lydia where his advantage in cavalry would be decisive. To further guarantee the loyalty of subordinates, Eumenes also sold off the estates of Phrygia to them and provided military support to claim the purchased land from the, obviously, unwilling and disgruntled Phrygian property owners. This revenue was used to pay his soldiers.

He had also hoped to win the support of Cleopatra of Macedon, who was present in Sardis at the time. Cleopatra and Eumenes had been friends since childhood, however, Cleopatra was not willing to back what seemed to be a losing cause and implored Eumenes to leave the area lest she incur the wrath of Antipater. Eumenes obliged her and moved north into Phrygia to winter. Eumenes' plundering campaigns during this time were very successful, so much so that Antipater's soldiers began to become disgruntled. Eumenes spent the winter of 320/319 BC in Celaenae.

In the winter, Eumenes sent messages to the other Perdiccan leaders, including Alcetas and Attalus (Perdiccas' brother-in-law), imploring them to unite their forces against Antigonus. A conference was held with the Perdiccan leaders in Celaenae: Eumenes argued that Antipater and Antigonus were unpopular, and that a united offensive would not only prove successful but also attract many deserters. Negotiations broke down, however, as neither Eumenes nor Alcetas would serve the other, and other commanders contested the chief position. Eumenes also dealt with a defection of 3500 of his men this winter; he executed the leaders and pardoned the soldiers.

When Eumenes' Macedonian generals approached him about one of them taking overall command, Eumenes is said to have retorted that "formalities and technicalities would not protect them from death and destruction".

#### Battle of Orkynia

In 319 BC, Antigonus marched his army into Cappodocia and engaged Eumenes at the Battle of Orkynia; Eumenes accepted the battle as the ground was advantageous for cavalry. Eumenes was easily defeated due to the mid-battle desertion of a mercenary cavalry officer named Apollonides, who Antigonus had bribed. Antigonus may have also used a ruse (pretending he received reinforcements) to discourage Eumenes' men before the battle. Although defeated, Eumenes swiftly acted to chase down and execute Apollonides, which restored the faith of his men.

Eumenes was put to flight, however, having lost some 8000 men, and moved toward Armenia. Antigonus pursued Eumenes and forced him to move carefully. Following the battle, Antigonus had neglected to address the dead and had immediately set off in pursuit for Eumenes. Determined to follow tradition, Plutarch reports that Eumenes made the unexpected move of returning to the battlefield so that he could construct a proper funeral pyre for the dead. This action greatly impressed Antigonus.

#### Remainder of the campaign

The remainder of the campaign turned into a battle of manoeuvre, with Eumenes avoiding further battle with Antigonus. At one point, Eumenes was in a position to capture the baggage of Antigonus' forces. Eumenes knew that he would not be able to prevent his soldiers from plundering this loot if they found out about it and also that doing so would decrease the essential mobility of his forces. Eumenes dispatched a private message to his old friend, the general Menander, advising him to move the baggage uphill so that its capture would be impossible. Menander immediately followed this advice. Eumenes feigned disappointment to his men and moved on. Menander and the other Antigonid officers were shocked by Eumenes' warning; only Antigonus knew of his actual motives.

Eumenes was pursued by Antigonus for several weeks until the following winter. He used guerrila warfare to hold off Antigonus, but his men were deserting him. In the late spring of 319 BC, Eumenes disbanded his army, save for a small, crack force of 600 men and holed up in Nora, a strong and well-supplied fortress on the border between Cappadocia and Lycaonia. Antigonus arrived shortly after and decided to enter into negotiation with Eumenes instead of undergoing a lengthy siege.

Eumenes required Antigonus to send hostages to Nora before he was willing to come out and negotiate. Antigonus wanted to acquire Eumenes as his own officer and so first demanded that Eumenes address him as a superior officer. Eumenes refused, replying:

While I am able to wield a sword, I shall think no man greater than myself.

Despite their appointed role as enemies, Antigonus and Eumenes were actually old friends, and when they met they renewed their friendship, speaking amiably to one another. Eumenes' demands for surrender were that he retain Cappadocia as his satrapy and his status as outlaw be rescinded. Antigonus completed his siege constructions around Nora (blockading Eumenes in) and said he would ask the regent Antipater to confirm Eumenes' demands. Eumenes, overall unsatisfied after the long conference, was willing to hold out longer for a more favourable position in the imperial hierarchy. Antigonus departed with his army to confront the remaining Perdiccans, who were led by Alcetas and Attalus in Pisidia, whom he defeated.

Eumenes kept the morale of his besieged men high by mingling with them regularly, aided, apparently, by his friendly appearance. In the cramped city, he was forced to come up with novel solutions so that his men and horses remained in fighting shape including; emptying large rooms where men exercised on a set schedule, and creating a suspension device, likened to an ancient treadmill, on which horses could run.

Eumenes sent envoys under his friend and countryman Hieronymus of Cardia to Antipater to negotiate his surrender, probably in the late summer of 319 BC. Nothing came of this, however. Eumenes effectively held out for more than a year until the death of Antipater threw his opponents into disarray.

## The Second War of the Diadochi (319–315 BC)

Antipater had become regent since Triparadisus, when he acquired the joint kings from the dead Perdiccas. He had taken them to Macedonia, but after his death left the regency to his friend Polyperchon instead of his son Cassander. Cassander, therefore, allied himself with Antigonus, Lysimachus and Ptolemy as he prepared to confront Polyperchon. Following Antipater's death, Antigonus sent generous terms to Eumenes in Nora through Hieronymus of Cardia that were nearly the same as Eumenes' initial demands. Eumenes probably agreed to the terms in 318 BC, swore loyalty to Antigonus, and left Nora. Another, less probable account says that Eumenes escaped Nora by rewriting his oath of loyalty to the joint kings instead of Antigonus.

With Macedonia in disarray, Antigonus prepared to conquer outward, revolt against the joint kings, and expand his power. Polyperchon, in order to shore up his allies in the coming conflict with Cassander, had written to Olympias requesting help; Olympias, in turn, wrote to Eumenes for advice (who she had been in contact with). Eumenes told her to wait and see what would happen. Soon after, in the late summer of 318 BC, Polyperchon wrote to Eumenes himself, requesting an alliance in the name of the joint kings.

Polyperchon said Eumenes could march to Macedonia and become guardian of the kings, or stay in Asia with supreme command over the region and remain "a protector of royalty" abroad. Furthermore he promised Eumenes command over the Asian treasuries (Susa and Cyinda, which would allow Eumenes to hire many mercenaries) and the allegiance of the formidable Silver Shields, highly skilled veterans who had fought with Alexander for years, if he accepted.

Eumenes decided to accept Polyperchon's offer, either out of a wish to protect the Argead royalty and Olympias, or because of his own ambition and disinclination to be subordinate to another. Eumenes' acceptance meant the war in Asia with Antigonus would start once again.

### Campaign in Cilicia and Syria

Eumenes acted quickly to muster his army and marched into Cilicia, evading an army Antigonus sent to capture him. In Cilicia he allied with Antigenes and Teutamus, the commanders of the famous Silver Shields, the same men who had once condemned him to death after Perdiccas' murder. Eumenes was able to secure control over the unruly commanders of the Silver Shields by playing on their undying loyalty to, and superstitious awe of, Alexander. He claimed that Alexander had visited him in a dream and told him that he would be present with them at every battle. Eumenes even went so far as to set up a tent for the late conqueror complete with a throne, diadem, and scepter. This "ingenious stratagem" consolidated Eumenes' control and placated his Macedonian officers, who felt that they were listening less to a Cardian foreigner and more to the late Alexander. As a result, Eumenes' orders were followed. Furthermore, Eumenes argued that as a Greek, a Cardian, "his only concern was the defence of the royal family".

Eumenes used the royal treasury at Cyinda to recruit an army of mercenaries to add to his own troops, a process that took several months but built up a sizeable army. Propaganda attempts by Ptolemy to subvert supporters of Eumenes in Asia, military and political, failed uniformly. Antigonus attempted this as well and successfully convinced Teutamus (one of two commanders of the Silver Shields) but Antigenes, the other, stayed loyal to Eumenes, ironically because of his foreign heritage. Eumenes emerged from Antigonus' propaganda campaign with a generally greater authority among his Macedonian troops.

In the winter of 318/317 BC, Eumenes left Cilicia and marched into Syria and Phoenicia, and began to raise a naval force on behalf of Polyperchon to sail to the Aegean Sea. Ptolemy, who had recently conquered the area, did not stop him. When it was ready in early the August of 317 BC, Eumenes sent the fleet west to reinforce Polyperchon, but it was met by Antigonus's fleet off the coast of Cilicia, and the fleet changed sides. Meanwhile, Antigonus had settled his affairs in Asia Minor and marched east to take out Eumenes before he could do further damage.

Eumenes, now knowing Antigonus was coming and that he could not help Polyperchon in Macedonia, marched out of Phoenicia in late August/early September, eastward through Syria into Mesopotamia, with the idea of gathering support in the upper satrapies, where there was currently conflict.

### Campaign in the Upper Satrapies

Eumenes gained the support of Amphimachus, the satrap of Mesopotamia, then marched his army into Northern Babylonia. During the march he negotiated with Seleucus, the satrap of Babylonia, and Peithon, the satrap of Media, seeking their help against Antigonus. Seleucus replied that he would not obey someone condemned to death, and Peithon was similarly unwilling. Eumenes wintered north of Babylon in 317/316 BC, during which time he sent the letters he had gotten from Polyperchon to satraps of the upper satrapies. These letters ordered the satraps, in the kings' names, to join him with all their forces. The upper satraps had already united their armies under the leadership of Peucestas, satrap of Persis, to combat the expansionism of Peithon and were willing to join Eumenes.

Eumenes left his winter quarters early in the spring of 316 BC and marched on Susa, a major royal treasury, in Susiana. Seleucus and Peithon attempted to subvert the Silver Shields while Eumenes was in Babylonia, and when they failed flooded his camp. Eumenes drained the land and escaped, and Seleucus, unable to oppose him, signed a truce for his passage.

In Susiana, Eumenes joined the already assembled army of the upper satraps. With this combined army Eumenes' could confidently match Antigonus. Peucestas, however, argued that he deserved the high command due to his high standing and large army. Eumenes' problem of divided command was exacerbated by Peucestas and his companions, but they were again placated by Eumenes' Tent of Alexander, where communal meetings would be held to direct the war against Antigonus. In late May, Eumenes reached Susa and extensively paid and rested his troops, while also paying Eudamus for the support of his war elephant corps. When Antigonus arrived in Susiana, Eumenes ordered the treasurer Xenophilus of Susa not to give anything to Antigonus.

Eumenes then marched southeastwards into Persia, where he picked up additional reinforcements. He crossed the Pasitigris, where he planned to ambush Antigonus, knowing he would be crossing blind.

#### Battle of the river Coprates

Antigonus, meanwhile, had reached Susa and left Seleucus there to besiege the place while he himself pursued Eumenes towards the Pasitigris. Eumenes required more troops to block the entire river, and so asked Peucestas to recruit more; Peucestas initially refused to do so, resenting Eumenes, but eventually agreed. In the late July of 316 BC, Antigonus arrived at the river Coprates (a tributary of the Pasitigris) and prepared to cross. He sent an advance force ahead in boats to ensure a beachhead on the opposite side of the river. Eumenes, who had camped nearby and placed scouts across the breadth of the river to alert him, soon heard that Antigonus had sent over men and quickly rode over with an army.

Eumenes waited until the army was mid-crossing, and then surprised Antigonus' soldiers, easily routing them, capturing 4000 men while killing some 6000 others. Antigonus, whose soldiers were already struggling with the harsh temperatures, was faced with disaster. Effectively unable to cross with Eumenes' presence and victory, Antigonus abandoned the idea and turned back northward, moving up into Media and Badace, then to Ecbatana through a damaging forced march to rest his men.

This move, "a sign of just how desperate Antigonus was after this first defeat", left open a route west, to Asia Minor, for Eumenes. Eumenes and his staff wanted to march westward, cut Antigonus's supply lines and secure Asia Minor. If Eumenes had been able to move, Antigonus and his ally Cassander's position would have been greatly damaged, but the satraps, including Peucestas, refused to abandon their satrapies. Knowing that if he split his army off from the satraps it would be no match for Antigonus' superior force, Eumenes relented to the their demands and remained in the east.

#### Stay in Persis

Following the Coprates, Eumenes marched southeast towards Persepolis over 24 days. As they were in Peucestas' home territory, the satrap hosted an enormous banquet and feast for all of Eumenes' army, successfully increasing his own popularity and further contesting Eumenes position as supreme commander. Eumenes, unwilling to confront the challenge to his authority openly, forged a letter reporting news from the west and had it widely circulated in his camp. Supposedly from the satrap of Armenia Orontes, the letter said that Olympias and Alexander IV had conquered Macedon, killed Cassander, and that Polyperchon was en route to Asia with a great army.

The forged letter was believed because Eumenes had composed it in Aramaic, the common language of the Persian Empire, and Orontes was a friend of Peucestas. This "clever trick" greatly bolstered Eumenes' position as royal general and reasserted his supreme command. Eumenes then acted against Peucestas' allies, summoning the satrap of Arachosia Sibyrtius to a show trial after seizing his baggage train, making him flee. To further assure the loyalty of his subordinates, Eumenes took large loans (400 talents total) from them "in the name of the kings, thus binding them to him as anxious creditors ".

Eumenes departed Persis and set out toward Antigonus when he heard Antigonus had left Ecbatana and was marching through Media. Eumenes wanted to battle Antigonus while his army had high morale, but while entertaining his troops became sick. Eumenes halted the march as his soldiers lost morale, as they regarded Eumenes as their greatest commander. He slightly recovered, but was compelled to give over supreme command to Peucestas and Antigenes to lead the army north while Eumenes himself convalesced, being carried in a litter. Antigonus hastened to battle Eumenes' army while Eumenes was ill. Eumenes recovered, however, and when the armies were within a day or so of each other resumed overall command to meet Antigonus.

#### Battle of Paraitakene

In the late October or early November of 316 BC, the two armies met in southern Media, beginning the Battle of Paraitakene. For five days Eumenes and Antigonus skirmished but did not engage in battle. Antigonus, on the fifth day, again attempted to subvert the Silver Shields, who again refused; Eumenes praised them for their loyalty. Eumenes then learned from deserters that Antigonus was planning to break camp and move away, and guessed Antigonus wanted to relocate to the region of Gabiene. In response to this, Eumenes bribed mercenaries to pretend to defect to Antigonus and report that he planned to attack Antigonus' camp at night. Antigonus believed the mercenaries and delayed his march, preparing for battle, while Eumenes split his army and set out immediately, gaining a six to seven hour head start on Antigonus to Gabiene.

Antigonus learned he had been deceived and force marched to pursue Eumenes. He caught up to Eumenes by riding hastily with his cavalry, and forced Eumenes to array for battle by concealing the fact that the rest of his army had not caught up yet. After Antigonus had assembled his army, he engaged Eumenes.

Eumenes positioned his elite troops on his right flank, including the Silver Shields, and led the elite cavalry himself. He placed his war elephants and light infantry in a screen ahead of his heavy infantry. The formation was defensive as Eumenes did not want to attack Antigonus uphill. Peithon, sent by Antigonus against Eumenes' right cavalry, succeeded initially in confining them. In response Eumenes transferred troops to enlarge the flank and beat back Peithon, who fled; meanwhile Eumenes' Silver Shields were sharply victorious, routing the enemy phalanx. Antigonus, though now facing "annihilation", ignored advice to retreat and, observing a gap in the line between Eumenes' phalanx and his left flank cavalry, charged and routed them; Eumenes called back his victorious right flank in response.

Though both generals reformed their armies and prepared to continue the battle, it was approaching night and the armies were too tired and hungry to proceed. Eumenes wanted to stay at the battlefield and bury the dead, thus allowing him to claim victory, but his troops wanted to return to their baggage train; fearing that a refusal would give his rivals for supreme command more power, Eumenes marched away. "Antigonus, however, had no such fears", and he was able to regain the battlefield and bury the dead, while proclaiming victory.

Antigonus, whose casualties were more numerous, detained Eumenes' herald to finish burning his dead and obscure their amount. He then force marched his demoralized army to safety the next night. Eumenes returned to the battlefield and buried his own dead lavishly. He then settled into Gabiene while Antigonus, indecisively defeated, reached and rested in Media.

#### Interim to Gabiene

During the winter of 316–315 BC, Eumenes' army camp was very widely spread, either because of insubordination or lack of supplies. He had stationed sentries on the roads, but not along the freezing desert routes into Gabiene (Dasht-i Kavir, south east of Isfahan). Antigonus, learning of this, planned to march through the desert and surprise attack Eumenes, but he was observed by some locals who reported it to his opponents.

The satraps were alarmed by this, as Antigonus was four days away and it would take at least six days to assemble their army. Peucestas advised tactical retreat and withdrew his portion of the army to a remote area of Gabiene. Eumenes, however, successfully persuaded the satraps to remain by pointing out their troops would be well-rested while Antigonus' would be tired from traversing the desert, and told them of a plan which would give them enough time to assemble the whole army.

After the conference Eumenes had his troops light numerous fires in the mountains bordering the desert every day. This made it appear as though Eumenes' entire camp was on the desert border, and Antigonus, observing this, delayed his march to rest his men for what he assumed would be another pitched battle against Eumenes' whole army.

Through this strategy Eumenes was able to delay battle and assemble his scattered army, though Antigonus did eventually learn the truth behind the fires. Eumenes success in preventing this attack raised his position and led many of the soldiers to ask him to lead them alone. Antigonus, however, was able to attack Eudamus and his elephant corps (they had been slow in leaving camp) and successfully killed many cavalry before being driven off by reinforcements sent by Eumenes.

As the forces assembled Antigenes, Teutamus, and other prominent members of Eumenes' army began plotting to kill Eumenes after Antigonus was defeated. Eudamus learned of the conspiracy and warned Eumenes, who thought of fleeing but chose not to. Eumenes, who "was not a coward and obviously an individual confident in his own ability", may have believed that the battle was worth fighting, despite the risks, because of the possibilities if he was victorious. Eumenes destroyed his correspondence, wrote his will, and prepared for the coming battle.

#### Battle of Gabiene

A few days later both armies drew up for battle, beginning the Battle of Gabiene. In the battle, Eumenes placed himself with his elite troops on the left flank in order to face Antigonus himself, who had positioned himself on his right flank. Again, Eumenes screened his cavalry with elephants and light infantry skirmishers. Eumenes' strategy focused on his phalanx and the Silver Shields; he ordered Philip (satrap of Bactria, leading the weaker right Eumenid flank), one of his loyal supporters, not to engage the enemy. Eumenes had placed Peucestas and the other satrapal cavalry on his own flank, perhaps to ensure they followed his orders.

Antigenes sent a single horseman to the enemy phalanx who was to face the Silver Shields; the horseman shouted that " are sinning against your fathers, you degenerates, the men who conquered the world with Philip and Alexander!" This pronouncement apparently demoralized Antigonus' infantry, and was met with a cheer from Eumenes' troops; Eumenes then sounded the charge and his army marched forward.

As the battle began, Antigonus, noticing that the movement of the troops kicked up clouds of dust that obscured sight, sent a sizeable cavalry contingent behind Eumenes' army to seize his baggage camp, and successfully did so without Eumenes noticing. After the war elephants engaged one another, Eumenes' cavalry met the cavalry of Antigonus, which was led by Antigonus' son Demetrius.

Eumenes' left cavalry was defeated due to the sudden retreat of Peucestas and the satrapal horsemen, which led to panic and another 1500 cavalry retreating with him. This cavalry defeat was disastrous for Eumenes. He continued to struggle against Antigonus, leading his cavalry forward in a charge in an attempt to meet and kill Antigonus in single combat, but failing due to his inferior number of horsemen. Facing heavy losses and being vastly outnumbered, Eumenes eventually gave way and rode over to his right flank.

The Silver Shields, however, were again victorious, routing Antigonus' phalanx and inflicting mass casualties. Eumenes, noting that the enemy phalanx had been destroyed, attempted to regather his cavalry on the right flank for a final push. He had heard his baggage had been captured, but believed that if his united cavalry joined the Silver Shields a renewed offensive would not only reclaim the lost baggage, but rout Antigonus' army and claim their baggage as well. Peucestas and the satraps refused Eumenes' orders, withdrawing further away as night approached.

Antigonus then unsuccessfully attacked the Silver Shields, who were able to retreat by forming a square and marching off of the battlefield. He prevented Eumenes' cavalry from linking up with the Silver Shields, and Eumenes was forced to withdraw.

### Betrayal and Death

The Battle of Gabiene was effectively as indecisive as the previous battle at Parataikene. Although Eumenes had inflicted significantly greater casualties, he lost control of his army's baggage; in addition to all the loot of the Silver Shields (treasure accumulated over 30 years of successful warfare including gold, silver, gems and other booty), the soldiers' women and children were taken as well.

Eumenes arrived at camp following the battle after the Silver Shields and satraps did, and a conference was held in the late evening. The satraps wished to retreat, but Eumenes wanted to battle again the next day, citing the fact that the cavalry were not greatly diminished and the Silver Shields' victory in the centre. Eumenes had reason to be optimistic about another engagement, but the Silver Shields themselves, though they blamed Peucestas for the inconclusive result of the battle, wished to get their baggage back and refused both options. The conference ended without a decision.

Teutamus, one of their commanders, then sent the request to Antigonus to trade for a return of the baggage; Antigonus responded that they give him Eumenes in return, and the Silver Shields agreed, arresting Eumenes and leading him to Antigonus. Anson believes Eumenes, though he knew of the plot against his life, believed his skills as a commander would "obviously" be necessary for another battle against Antigonus and was thus taken off guard when actually arraigned.

Eumenes, during his seizure, requested and was given permission to talk to the assembled army. According to Plutarch, Eumenes said:

What trophy, you vilest of all the Macedonians! what trophy could Antigonus have wished to raise over you, more than this which you yourselves are raising, by delivering up your general bound? Was it not base enough to acknowledge yourselves beaten, though you had the upper hand, merely for the sake of your baggage, as if victory dwelt among your possessions, and not upon the points of your swords; but you must also send your general as a ransom for that baggage? For my part, though thus led, I am not conquered; I have beaten the enemy, and am ruined by my fellow-soldiers. But I conjure you by Zeus, the god of armies, and the awful deities who preside over oaths, to kill me here with your own hands. If my life be taken by another, the deed will be still yours. Nor will Antigonus complain, if you take the work out of his hands; for he wants not Eumenes alive, but Eumenes dead. If you choose not to be the immediate instruments, loose but one of my hands, and that shall do my business. If you will not trust me with a sword, throw me, bound as I am, to wild beasts. If you comply with this last request, I acquit you of all guilt with respect to me, and declare you have behaved to your general like the best and most honest of men.

This speech apparently garnered sympathy from most of the army, but the Silver Shields, unconvinced, continued to lead Eumenes on, and they were able to do so without challenge. The war was thus at an end. Eumenes was given to Antigonus, who placed him under guard and held councils to decide his fate that lasted several days.

Plutarch and Nepos write that Eumenes grew confused why Antigonus did not kill him or set him free; when his jailkeeper replied that if Eumenes wanted death he should have died in battle, Eumenes is said to have retorted that he had not died in battle because he had never encountered an opponent stronger than himself.

Antigonus, supported by his son Demetrius and Nearchus the Cretan, was disinclined to kill Eumenes, but most of the council and his soldiers demanded his execution and so it was decided. Antigonus starved Eumenes for three days but finally sent an executioner to strangle him when he had to move camp. Eumenes' body was given to his friends to be burnt with honour, and his ashes were conveyed in a silver urn to his wife and children.

## Legacy

### Generalship

Despite Eumenes' undeniable skills as a general, he never commanded the full allegiance of the Macedonian officers in his army and died as a result. Eumenes was disliked by many of his Macedonian companions—certainly for his successes and supposedly for his non- Macedonian (in the tribal sense) background and prior office as Royal Secretary.

Eumenes is broadly seen as an excellent commander, skilled in both tactics and strategy and Antigonus' only military equal, who did his utmost to maintain the unity of Alexander's empire in Asia. He was also an "adept propagandist", who used diplomacy and ruse to his advantage wherever possible. Eumenes' efforts were repeatedly frustrated by issues of divided command and disloyal subordinates: his "most serious problem" which were handicaps many of his enemies, notably Antigonus, did not have to struggle with. Anson considers it "remarkable" that Eumenes came so close to defeating Antigonus, ultimately only losing through betrayal, given Antigonus' notable skill as a general and the repeated issues Eumenes dealt with.

### Impact on the Age

Eumenes' defeat is seen as spelling the end for the Argead loyalists and, effectively, the Argead monarchy, leaving Alexander's Empire "in the hands of men who owed no loyalty except to themselves". Bosworth believes Eumenes' duel with Antigonus "did more than anything to define the shape of the Hellenistic world ".

Romm writes that Eumenes "was the last general in the field with the ability, and will, to defend ", and that "through sheer talent Eumenes had risen through the ranks; despite his Greek origins, he had come desperately close to gaining supreme power". Eumenes has been seen as a tragic figure, a man who seemingly tried to do the right thing but was overcome by a more ruthless enemy and the treachery of his own soldiers; in essence, that he failed not due to any lack of ability, but from "ill luck, bad alliances, and one very capable opponent."

Historie is a historical fiction manga series that tells the life story of Eumenes.


Iago (Aladdin)

# Iago (Aladdin)

## Abstract

Iago is a fictional character who appears in Walt Disney Pictures ' animated film Aladdin (1992), the direct-to-video sequels The Return of Jafar (1994), Aladdin and the King of Thieves (1996), and the television series. An anthropomorphic red-plumed talking parrot, he was voiced by Gilbert Gottfried in all animated appearances until his death in 2022. He was subsequently voiced by Alan Tudyk in the live-action adaptation of Aladdin, by Barrett Leddy in the 2023 Disney+ special Lego Disney Princess: The Castle Quest, and by Piotr Michael in the 2023 crossover short Once Upon a Studio.

Iago appeared in the original film as a sidekick to the first main villain of the franchise, Jafar, functioning both as comic relief and the former secondary antagonist. He reformed for the better over the franchise's run in the sequels and television series, joining the protagonists as a hero and being a major protagonist in The Return of Jafar. His name is a homage to the villain of William Shakespeare 's Othello.

## Development

In the original story treatment by Howard Ashman, Iago (previously named Sinbad) had been originally conceived as a "British" calm and serious straight man working off Jafar, who was originally conceived as more over-the-top, comedic, and irritable, but the filmmakers later reversed their personalities in large part in order to make Jafar more threatening and when they saw Gilbert Gottfried in Beverly Hills Cop II, Gottfried was cast to provide Iago's voice.

Screenwriter Terry Rossio shared a concept behind Iago on his website Wordplay, in that Jafar transferred his emotions to his pet, allowing him to do magic without distractions. Rossio also mentioned, since Iago is too small to contain such emotions, "you end up with a feathered Gilbert Gottfried." Iago's animator Will Finn tried to incorporate some aspects of Gottfried's appearance into Iago's design, especially his trademark semi-closed eyes and the always-appearing teeth.

Gottfried has said that his voiceover career really began after voicing the character in the 1992 film.“... that has been one of those things that lives on,” he said. “That seemed to open the door for other voiceover jobs.”

Gottfried's onstage persona led to him being cast as the wise-cracking Iago. Gottfried is often referred to as "the Iago guy" and similar terms, being more known by his voice role than by name.

## Characteristics

Iago resembles a red lory, with red feathers and blue tipped wings, bluish-purple tail (which tends to get miscolored blue), and white around the eyes. He can speak fluent English and has the ability to perfectly mimic other characters' voices. He also possesses knowledge of various tricks learned from Jafar. He is easily frustrated and openly vocalizes his frustrations, and avoids direct confrontations if he can help it, but when required, he can be quite cunning and mischievous.

Iago is arrogant and also known for his notorious greed of treasure and gold, for which he will go to outlandish lengths to acquire, usually dragging along Abu to help him, but Abu's incompetence always costs him. Iago is often put in situations of deciding between saving his own tail feathers or doing the right thing. His guilt always leads him to do the latter as he lacks a moral conscience; his greed leaves him unsatisfied in usually losing some form of reward or riches, for which he always berates himself afterwards.

He (as well as maybe Jafar) is a reference to the character of the same name. In Shakespeare 's play Othello, Iago is the name of the titular protagonist's ensign; though believed to be trustworthy, all he cares about is getting himself ahead and his own wants. The play revolves around his devious scheme to find a way to get what he wants—an unpleasant surprise to everyone when he is exposed.

## Appearances

According to a piece of conversation in The Return of Jafar, Jafar had picked up Iago in Agrabah's bazaar and reared him as his accomplice-in-crime. He also mentions in the animated series of having a criminal twin brother named Othello, reference to his name's supposed origins.

### Aladdin

In the first movie, he resents living under the Sultan and Jasmine as much as his owner Jafar does, though he contrasts Jafar's dark brooding with angry, sarcastic ranting. Iago often says how he hates crackers which the Sultan always force-feeds him. The Sultan seems to not know until the end of the first film that Iago can fully comprehend and converse in human speech and is evil. In the end, Iago is dragged into Jafar's lamp with him at the end of the film and is banished to the Cave of Wonders.

Several allusions to Shakespeare's Othello are seen:

- Jafar and Iago resent living under the Sultan and Jasmine like how Shakespeare's Iago and Roderigo resent Othello. Similarly, each individual hates their opposition for different reasons and in differing manners: Jafar and Shakespeare's Iago resent being second best, and in dark brooding orchestrate most of the betrayal. Jafar's Iago and Roderigo are more vocal, contrasting dark brooding with bouts of useless complaining (in the case of Roderigo) and angry sarcastic ranting (in the case of Iago). Iago often says how he hates crackers which the Sultan always force-feeds him; and Roderigo complains about being at the short end of the stick, what with lusting for Othello's wife Desdemona, whose father Brabantio promised him for a hand in marriage.

- Similarly, each individual hates their opposition for different reasons and in differing manners: Jafar and Shakespeare's Iago resent being second best, and in dark brooding orchestrate most of the betrayal. Jafar's Iago and Roderigo are more vocal, contrasting dark brooding with bouts of useless complaining (in the case of Roderigo) and angry sarcastic ranting (in the case of Iago). Iago often says how he hates crackers which the Sultan always force-feeds him; and Roderigo complains about being at the short end of the stick, what with lusting for Othello's wife Desdemona, whose father Brabantio promised him for a hand in marriage.

- Jafar and Shakespeare's Iago resent being second best, and in dark brooding orchestrate most of the betrayal.

- Jafar's Iago and Roderigo are more vocal, contrasting dark brooding with bouts of useless complaining (in the case of Roderigo) and angry sarcastic ranting (in the case of Iago). Iago often says how he hates crackers which the Sultan always force-feeds him; and Roderigo complains about being at the short end of the stick, what with lusting for Othello's wife Desdemona, whose father Brabantio promised him for a hand in marriage.

- Neither pairing's superiors seem to know of betrayal until it is too late. Whereas Shakespeare's Iago and Roderigo never gain their wants, however, Jafar and his Iago do, albeit for a short period of time.

- Both Jafar and Shakespeare's Iago end up imprisoned for their actions, and their respective accomplices pay dearly with it. But while Shakespeare's Iago kills Roderigo before being ousted, Jafar drags his Iago into the lamp with him.

### The Return of Jafar

A year after the events of the first film, Iago manages to escape from the lamp, but refuses to free Jafar, having grown tired of being ordered around, and instead throws him into a well. After returning to Agrabah, Iago is confronted by Aladdin but inadvertently ends up saving him from Abis Mal and his henchmen. In gratitude, Aladdin takes Iago back to the palace and convinces the Sultan to give him a second chance. Iago slowly begins warming up to Aladdin, but Jafar also returns to Agrabah, having been freed by Abis Mal, and tricks Iago into conspiring with him to frame Aladdin for the Sultan's murder and have him executed while Aladdin's friends are locked in the dungeon for life, but turns against Jafar and again saves Aladdin by freeing the Genie, who saves Aladdin from being executed. In the final battle against Jafar, Iago is severely injured by one of Jafar's blasts, but manages to kick Jafar's lamp into the molten lava, destroying it and Jafar once and for all, while he is taken to safety by Aladdin. From the Sultan's wrath in return for Iago unintentionally saving him from Abis Mal, and finally risking his life to kill Jafar by pushing his lamp into molten lava. Following his heroic deed, he is accepted into the palace.

### Aladdin TV series

In the series, he provides a sarcastic, realistic, or cowardly perspective on events and is only really willing to face danger if the great reward is promised. However, he is sometimes forced to battle his conscience (despite respectively saying in The Return of Jafar that he never had one), and generally does the right thing even when he doesn't have to or could just as easily leave the city (alone) altogether: when Sadira used memory sand that somehow caused her and Jasmine to switch lives, with animals unaffected, Iago leads Abu and Rajah in finding Jasmine to restore the world to normal. Iago's common schemes involve trying to sell anything with any value (real or not), trying to steal things, and trying to treasure-hunt; he can usually convince Abu to be his partner in crime, but Abu is more likely to leave at the first sign of danger and often lacks the finesse that Iago requires. He cares a lot about Abu, though, as shown in episodes such as "Much Abu About Something".

Iago and Thundra the rain-bird had feelings for one another, despite a rocky start and him admitting his manipulative personality made appealing to others difficult; Aladdin has occasionally exploited the latter fact, since antagonists are more willing to accept Iago as being more ruthless and amoral than he actually is, though, given Iago's villainous origins and upbringings in the underworld, this is rational. Due to his time with Jafar, Iago possesses extensive knowledge of various forms of magic, not only proving useful as Genie's otherwise superior knowledge is ten thousand years out of date (it was Iago who recognized the Kingdom of the Black Sand and its former ruler the evil wizard Destane, who was even worse than Jafar in "The Citadel"), but also giving him Genie's ability to commonly reference modern things for humor, albeit without a logical excuse (one episode has him screaming in his sleep, "YOU GOT THE WRONG GUY! YOU WANT MY TWIN BROTHER, OTHELLO!", a reference to the play where his name may have come from).

As a sidekick Iago is always good for a laugh—an in-joke in the episode "When Chaos Comes Calling" has Iago running in panic after his face is turned into that of his voice actor Gilbert Gottfried ("I WANT MY BEAK BACK!"). Iago's and Genie's interactions revolve around their magical talents: in one episode Genie gives Iago his powers just for one day (though this backfires when Iago actually tries to do just one good deed by bring water to the desert), and Iago is the only one who knows that Genie once used his own magic to make himself an ice cream sundae as big as a pyramid (something that Genie dares not let the Genie Guild know about).

He favors Jasmine the most of the group, not because she trusts him, but because she is the one whose trust he has to work for.

### Aladdin and the King of Thieves

He helps out with Aladdin and Jasmine's wedding, as well as aiding Aladdin to find his estranged father Cassim, who happens to be the King of the Forty Thieves. Acting on behalf for Aladdin, Iago convinces Cassim to attend the wedding, promising that he will help him get the Hand of Midas. In the end, although the Sultan pardoned him from the sentence of life imprisonment for his complicity with the King of Thieves, Iago chooses to depart Agrabah for some time with Cassim instead of staying with Aladdin and Jasmine on the grounds that he could not handle the "lovey-dovey" stuff, though he briefly breaks down in tears while telling Cassim, implying he will miss them dearly. He also points out that Cassim's sense of thievery is more in line with his as well. He is last seen with Cassim waving farewell to the newly-wed Aladdin and Jasmine as they ride off to the night.

### Aladdin (2019)

Iago appears in the 2019 live-action Aladdin, voiced by Alan Tudyk. It marks the first time Iago is not voiced by Gilbert Gottfried, who confirmed that he was not asked to reprise the role. While his role remains the same and he still shows signs of sentience and a cynical sense of humor, he is notably less anthropomorphic than his animated counterpart as the film wanted to make Iago more realistic. This still manages to leave only a few plot-related deviations:

- He first appears during the song "Arabian Nights", where Rajah slashes at him with his claws for spying on Jasmine. He instead flies to the Cave of Wonders to be with Jafar, while laughing maliciously.

- He later appears in Jafar's lair in the castle dungeon. After Jafar talks to the Sultan, Iago mimics Jafar saying "remember your place", after which Jafar threatens the bird if he says it again; this is ironic, however, as Jafar hates being called second and is only mildly annoyed with Iago saying it. Iago then spots Aladdin sneaking into the palace, alerting his master with the words "Thief! Thief in the palace!".

- He has a rivalry with Abu, calling him a "dirty monkey" twice, and asking a captured Aladdin about the capuchin's whereabouts.

- He's later enlarged and piloted by Jafar in order to retrieve the lamp from Aladdin, Jasmine, and Abu; he succeeds only for a mere moment before being transformed back to a normal parrot, though he succeeds again with Jafar's help.

### In video games

#### Kingdom Hearts series

In the Kingdom Hearts video game series, Iago's Japanese voice actor in Kingdom Hearts is Akira Kamiya, and his voice actor in Kingdom Hearts II is Tōru Ōkawa. Gilbert Gottfried reprises his role in the English versions of both games.

In the video game Kingdom Hearts, he is Jafar's sidekick, having a similar role of the Aladdin film.

In Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories he makes a brief cameo appearance during the Boss battle against Jafar's genie form. During the battle, attacking Jafar has no effect. Rather, the lamp must be hit which is held up high by Iago, trying to protect his boss' lamp.

In Kingdom Hearts II, like in The Return of Jafar, Iago leaves Jafar and returns to Agrabah in a slump desperate to make amends to Aladdin and Jasmine. When he assisted Sora in the task of beating the Heartless and retrieving Jafar's lamp, he manages to gain everyone's trust. But that trust is soon shattered when Iago is tricked to help Jafar yet again in keeping Sora and the others occupied at the ruins. Despite losing faith, Iago redeems himself by intentionally getting shot by a spell that Jafar intended to shoot at Aladdin. After Jafar's defeat, Iago reveals he wants to help Aladdin out, but can't do as much as Genie and the others.

A data based version of Iago appears in Kingdom Hearts Coded playing a small role first helping Jafar steal Genie's lamp and later appearing during the battle against Jafar, playing a similar role from past games of focusing on Iago to get the lamp back. The later HD cinematic version of Kingdom Hearts Re:Coded that was created for Kingdom Hearts HD 2.5 ReMIX included some new dialogue for Iago.

#### Other video games

Iago appears as a recurring minor antagonist in the game released for the Super Nintendo. He appears in levels near the end of the game and will bombard Aladdin with chattering skulls as an attack.

He appears in the Sega Genesis game released around the same time. A bonus game for Abu also includes "Iago's cousins", who are obstacles to be avoided.

### Other appearances

Iago appears as a supporting character in the straight-to-DVD film Disney Princess Enchanted Tales: Follow Your Dreams, where he has returned to Agrabah. He performs a musical number called "Peacock Princess" with Princess Jasmine in her princess duties.

Like most characters from Disney 's animated films, Iago made recurring appearances on House of Mouse. Some of his major appearances include the episode "Thanks to Minnie", where he sings "A Parrot's Life For Me" (a parody of " A Pirate's Life for Me "), the episode "House of Magic", where he and Jafar perform a version of " Bibbidi-Bobbidi-Boo ", and the episode "Donald Wants to Fly", where he is in charge of going in search of Peter Pan after he arrived late to the club. He also appears in the series' two direct-to-video films Mickey's Magical Christmas and Mickey's House of Villains, in this last one as one of the secondary villains helping Jafar with his plan to take the control over the House of Mouse.

At Walt Disney World, along with Zazu from The Lion King, he was introduced as one of the hosts of The Enchanted Tiki Room (Under New Management) in 1998. Following a small fire in 2011, the two were removed as the attraction reverted to its earlier format as Walt Disney's Enchanted Tiki Room. Reports had described the 1998 format as "unpopular" and Iago as "annoying".

Iago also appears in the stage adaptation of the film. However, unlike his film counterpart, he is portrayed as a human, working as a personal assistant to Jafar.

Iago appears in season six of Once Upon a Time; however, this version is a non-anthropomorphic red cockatiel as opposed to a lory.

Iago appears as a secondary antagonist in the Disney+ animated special Lego Disney Princess: The Castle Quest, voiced by Barrett Leddy. This was the first time someone other than Gilbert Gottfried has voiced his character in an animated production following his passing in 2022.

Iago also appears alongside Jafar in Disney's Once Upon a Studio, this time voiced by Piotr Michael.

## Reception

In reviews for The Return of Jafar, Iago was often described as being the real star of the film: "The plot thickens when Aladdin becomes indebted to Jafar's former partner, Iago (a wisecracking parrot), for saving his life. Struggling with issues of honesty and loyalty, Iago becomes the film's focus as he grapples between standing by Aladdin or succumbing back to Jafar's evil pressures."

## In popular culture

Iago's ability of mimicking voices (e.g., Aladdin) was referenced during a sketch entitled the "Real Housewives of Disney" in an episode of Saturday Night Live.


Filipe Zau

# Filipe Zau

## Abstract

Filipe Silvino de Pina Zau (born 2 November 1950) is an Angolan educator, university researcher and lecturer, writer, composer, musician, and politician. He has been the Minister of Culture and Tourism of the Republic of Angola since 2021, as well as vice-president of the Academia Angolana de Letras since 2020.

## Biography

Zau was born in Lisbon due to the profession of his father, who was from Cabinda and who was a sailor at that time. His mother was Cape Verdean.

He concluded his bachelors' studies in education sciences in Portugal in 1971. He embarked for Luanda on 1 April 1975. While in the city, he came into contact with Portuguese musicians such as Fausto, Zeca Afonso and his wife Zélia, Vitorino Salomé, and Sérgio Godinho. He went on to play in groups such as Duo Ouro Negro and the band "Alerta Está", touring in concert. One of his contemporaries was also drummer Guilherme Inês, with whom they played in the band Zoom with José Cid.

He was named head of the Department of Resilience of the National Directory of Staff Training and Teaching of the Ministry of Education of the Angolan Republic from 1979 until 1984. He left for Brazil where he became a lecturer at the Centro Universitário de Brasília (UNICEUB). He returned to Luanda to reassume his position at the department from 1988 to 1990.

He was later named attaché to the Angolan Embassy in Portugal, working in that position from 1990 to 1996, where he assumed the coordination of the Angolan delegation for the preparation of the Portuguese Language Orthographic Agreement of 1990. During his time in Portugal, he specialized his post graduate studies in educational administration in 1994 at the Instituto Superior de Lisboa e Vale do Tejo (ISCE).

Starting in 1996, he began to dedicate himself to music, composing music, and writing, with the recording of his operetta titled "O Canto da Sereia: o Encanto", in homage to his father. He co-authored the piece with his longtime friend Filipe Mukenga. That year, he released the single "Luanda Lua e Mulher", recording "Raiva di vulcão" with Cape Verdean singer Celina Pereira, and collaborating with Mukenga on his single "Harpejos e gorgeios" in 1998. At the same time, he concluded, in 1999, his master's degree in intercultural relations at the Universidade Aberta de Portugal.

In the literature and scientific research realms, he had released literary-musical works through publishers Lusafrica, Da Banda and AUTORES.club, respectively: "Encanto de um Mar que eu Canto", in 1996, "Meu Canto à Razão e à Quimera das Circunstancias", in 2005, both poetic works, the audio book "Marítimos Africanos e um Clube com História" in 2005, and it's 2020 sequel "Marítimos".

Zau and Mukenga received the Common Ground Music Award in May 2008, during a presentation with Search for Common Ground of their collaborative CD "Angola solta a tua voz". They also collaborated with the Associação Unidos do Caxinde in "Os Nossos Reis", a song for Luanda's Carnaval celebrations in 2008. They would both collaborate on separate songs with Coréon Dú, with Coréon and Zau composing the song Ilha.

The anthem "Angola, país de futuro", prepared for the 2010 Africa Cup of Nations, was authored by Mukenga and Zau, with them being accompanied by the band Maravilha.

In 2010, he became a councilor with functions as an assessor for Education, Culture, and Sports with the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP) and a consultant with the United Nations Development Programme for the preparation for the Report of Angolan and for the accompanying of the Millennium Development Goals until 2011, becoming a member of the Chief of Staff for the presidency of Angola.

Zau went on to create classes for the Universidade Independente de Angola (UNIA), becoming, during that decade, vice-rector and the institutions rector, as well as becoming a professor at the School of Social Sciences at Agostinho Neto University (UAN). In 2020, he concluded his doctorate in education sciences at the Universidade Aberta de Portugal.

In 2021, he became a goodwill ambassador for the Portuguese language at the CPLP and was later named the Angolan Minister of Culture and Tourism.


Mississippi Braves

# Mississippi Braves

## Abstract

The Mississippi Braves, or M-Braves as they are referred to locally, was a Minor League Baseball team based in Pearl, Mississippi, a suburb of Jackson. The team was the Double-A affiliate of the Atlanta Braves and played in the Southern League. The team had been owned and operated by Diamond Baseball Holdings since December 2021. After the 2024 season, the team relocated to Columbus, Georgia, to become the Columbus Clingstones.

## History

In 2005, the Southern League 's Greenville Braves relocated to Pearl from Greenville, South Carolina, due to the poor condition of Greenville Municipal Stadium, and the failure to reach an agreement with the Greenville County council for a new ballpark.

The M-Braves' first season began on April 18, 2005 at Trustmark Park with a loss to the Montgomery Biscuits.

In conjunction with Major League Baseball 's restructuring of Minor League Baseball in 2021, the Braves were organized into the Double-A South. They won the 2021 Southern Division title with a first-place 67–44 record. They qualified for the playoffs by having the best record in the league. The Braves defeated the Montgomery Biscuits, 3–2, in the best-of-five series to win the Double-A South championship. Shea Langeliers was selected as the league's Top MLB Prospect and Dan Meyer as the Manager of the Year.

In December 2021, Diamond Baseball Holdings bought the Mississippi Braves from Atlanta Braves owner Liberty Media.

In 2022, the Double-A South became known as the Southern League, the name historically used by the regional circuit prior to the 2021 reorganization.

On January 9, 2024, the Braves announced that the 2024 season would be their final season in Pearl, Mississippi and they would be relocating to Columbus, Georgia for the start of the 2025 season. In September 2024, the franchise's new identity was revealed as the Columbus Clingstones.

## Championships

On September 13, 2008, the Mississippi Braves beat the Carolina Mudcats, 3–2, in the 10th inning of the decisive Game 5 of the Southern League Championship Series. This was the M-Braves first championship and the first Southern League title for Atlanta's Double-A franchise since 1997. The M-Braves' second title came in 2021 in the Double-A South.

## Television and radio

All Mississippi Braves games were televised live on MiLB.TV. Since 2023, all regular and post-season Mississippi Braves games aired on 102.1 The Box. The broadcasters were Chris Harris and Jack Sadighian. From 2009 to 2022, games aired on WYAB 103.9 FM.

## Notable players

- Blaine Boyer * (2005)

- Danny Burawa

- Román Colón (2005)

- Chuck James (2005)

- Brian McCann * (2005)

- Jay Powell * (2005)

- Martín Prado * (2005–2006)

- Gregor Blanco (2005-2006)

- Joey Devine * (2005–2007)

- Jeff Francoeur * (2005, 2008)

- Max Fried * (2017)

- Chipper Jones * (2006)

- Yunel Escobar (2006)

- Manny Acosta (2006)

- Matt Harrison (2006)

- José Ascanio * (2006–2007)

- Jarrod Saltalamacchia * (2006–2007)

- Kris Medlen (2007-2008)

- Tommy Hanson (2008)

- Matt Diaz (2008)

- Jordan Schafer (2008, 2010)

- Jason Heyward (2009)

- Freddie Freeman (2009)

- Craig Kimbrel (2009)

- Nate McLouth * (2009)

- Julio Teherán (2010)

- Mike Minor (2010, 2014)

- Arodys Vizcaíno (2011, 2015)

- Andrelton Simmons * (2012)

- Evan Gattis (2012)

- Christian Bethancourt (2012-2013)

- Philip Gosselin (2012-2013)

- Tommy La Stella (2013)

- Alex Wood (2013)

- Mallex Smith (2015)

- Brian O'Connor (2005)

- Ronald Acuna Jr. (2017)

- Michael Harris II (2022)

* Promoted directly to Atlanta.


# The Young Women's Leadership School at Rhodes High School

## Abstract

The Young Women's Leadership School at E. Washington Rhodes High School was a public secondary school for girls located at 3100 North 29th Street in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. The school was a part of the School District of Philadelphia.

## History

In September 2005 the School District of Philadelphia converted Rhodes Middle School, a coeducational middle school, into an all-female middle and high school. During that year the district established The Young Men's Leadership School at Thomas FitzSimons High School for males. The males zoned to the former FitzSimons and Rhodes zones were assigned to FitzSimons, while the females in the zones were assigned to Rhodes. After the redesign Rhodes reported a smooth transition.

In March 2012, the Philadelphia School Reform Commission voted to turn Rhodes back into a co-educational middle school. The students were reassigned to Strawberry Mansion High School. The Rhodes campus now serves as a K-8 school.

## Transportation

SEPTA serves the school with Routes 32, 48, and 60.

## Feeder patterns

Feeder elementary schools included Thomas M. Peirce Elementary School, Anna B. Pratt School, John G. Whittier School, and Richard R. Wright School. Ethel Allen School, a K-8 school, fed into Rhodes.

## School uniforms

Rhodes students were required to wear school uniforms.


Iago (Aladdin)


Stefan Mross

# Stefan Mross

## Abstract

Stefan Mross (born November 26, 1975) is a German trumpeter, singer,and television presenter. He is one of the most famous German folk musicians.

## Early life and education

Stefan Mross was born on November 26, 1975 in Traunstein, Upper Bavaria.

Mross completed his secondary education in his hometown. He took the entrance exam to the Mozarteum in Salzburg, but then concentrated on his musical career.

## Career

Since 2005, Mross has hosted the ARD (SWR) show Immer wieder sonntags live from Europa-Park in Rust. On August 10, 2014, Mross collapsed during a live broadcast of the show after eating a very hot currywurst and had to stop presenting. He was represented by Guido Cantz for the rest of the broadcast.

## Personal life

Mross was married to Stefanie Hertel from 2006 to 2012 and has a daughter with her in 2001. Three months after the couple announced their separation, Karl Moik claimed on December 6, 2011 on the ZDF show Markus Lanz that the partnership between his former Mross and Hertel had been arranged for the media.

Mross was married to production assistant Susanne Schmidt from 2013 to 2016. The marriage produced a daughter in 2013 and a son in 2015. The couple lived in Unterwössen, a municipality in the Traunstein district of Upper Bavaria, until their separation in autumn 2016.

Since December 2016, he has been in a relationship with singer Anna-Carina Woitschack, whom he met on his show Immer wieder sonntags in the summer of 2016. In the show Das Adventsfest der 100.000 Lichter he proposed to her on November 30, 2019. On June 6, 2020, the two got married live on television in the music show Schlagerlovestory.2020 with presenter Florian Silbereisen as witnesses. The couple lived in Windorf near Passau. In November 2022, they announced their separation. Mross has been in a relationship with Eva Luginger since March 2023.


2010 Monterrey Open

# 2010 Monterrey Open

## Abstract

The 2010 Monterrey Open was a tennis tournament played on outdoor hard courts. It was the second edition of the Monterrey Open and was categorized as an International tournament on the 2009 WTA Tour. It took place at the Sierra Madre Tennis Club in Monterrey, Mexico, from March 1 through March 7, 2010.

The tournament was headlined by former world no. 1 Jelena Janković, top-ranked Slovak players, Daniela Hantuchová and Dominika Cibulková, Ágnes Szávay, and Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova. Also in the field were Anabel Medina Garrigues, Aleksandra Wozniak, and 2010 Open GDF Suez finalist Lucie Šafářová.

## Finals

### Singles

Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova defeated Daniela Hantuchová, 1–6, 6–1, 6–0

- It was Pavlyuchenkova's first career singles title.

### Doubles

Iveta Benešová / Barbora Záhlavová-Strýcová defeated Anna-Lena Grönefeld / Vania King, 3–6, 6–4,

## Entrants

### Seeds

- Rankings and seedings are as of February 22, The seedings can change.

### Other entrants

The following players received wildcards into the main draw:

- Dominika Cibulková

- Daniela Hantuchová

- Jelena Janković

The following players received entry via qualifying:

- Corinna Dentoni

- Lourdes Domínguez Lino

- Olga Savchuk

- Anna Tatishvili


Yama (disambiguation)

# Yama (disambiguation)

## Abstract

Yama is the Hindu deity of death, dharma, the south direction, and the underworld.

Yama may also refer to:

- Yama (Buddhism)

- Yama in world religions

In Japanese, "Yama" (山 or やま) means " mountain ". For this reason, there are many place names with "-yama" in Japan. This word has no linguistic relationship to "Yama" in Hinduism or Buddhism.

Yama may also refer to:

## Places

- Yama, Burkina Faso

- Yama, Missouri, United States

- Yama District, Fukushima, Japan

- Yama (river), Magadan Oblast, Russia

- Yama, former name of Kingisepp, Russia

- Yama, former name of Siversk, Ukraine

- The Pit (memorial) (Belarusian: Яма Yama), a Holocaust memorial at the Minsk Ghetto, Belarus

## People

- Anup Kumar Yama (born 1984), Indian roller skate athlete

- Conrad Yama (1919–2010), American actor

- Gul Ahmmad Yama, Afghan presidential candidate

- Joam Yama (c. 1566 – 1633), Japanese Jesuit cleric

- Michael Yama (died 2020), American actor

- Mihoko Yama (born 1949), Japanese high jumper

- Peter Yama (born 1955), Papua New Guinean politician

- Vladyslav Yama (born 1982), Ukrainian dancer

- Yamamotoyama Ryūta, or Yama, Japanese sumo wrestler

- Yama, Japanese singer

## Other uses

- Yāma, one of the six heavenly worlds in Buddhism

- Yamá, a trade language used by some Native American tribes around the Gulf of Mexico

- Yamas, ethical rules in Hinduism and Yoga

- Yama (album), by Art Farmer with Joe Henderson, 1979

- Yama: The Pit, a novel by Alexander Kuprin published in installments 1909–1915

- Yama, a Linux Security Module

- Yama, a song by Armin van Buuren & Vini Vici, 2021


Ivan Angelov

# Ivan Angelov

## Abstract

Ivan Angelov (Bulgarian: Иван Ангелов; born 21 January 1979) is a Bulgarian former swimmer, who specialized in backstroke events. He is a single-time Olympian (2000), and a former Bulgarian record holder in 50, 100, and 200 m backstroke. During his sporting career, Angelov also trained for Liulin Sports Club in Sofia under his personal coaches Valentin Yordanov and Liliana Hristeva.

Angelov competed in a backstroke double at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney. He posted FINA B-standards of 57.98 (100 m backstroke) and 2:06.48 (200 m backstroke) from the Croatian Open Championships in Dubrovnik. On the second day of the Games, Angelov placed thirty-ninth in the 100 m backstroke. Swimming in heat three, he held off Yugoslavia's Milorad Čavić to earn a sixth spot by 0.22 of a second in 58.03. Three days later, in the 200 m backstroke, Angelov challenged five other swimmers in heat one, including Hong Kong's Alex Fong, who later became one of the nation's popular singers. He came up short in third place and fortieth overall at 2:07.30, more than half a second (0.50) off his entry time.


Harappa

# Harappa

## Abstract

Harappa (Punjabi pronunciation:) is an archaeological site in Punjab, Pakistan, about 24 kilometres (15 miles) west of Sahiwal. The Bronze Age Harappan civilisation, now more often called the Indus Valley Civilisation, is named after the site, which takes its name from a modern village near the former course of the Ravi River, which now runs eight kilometres (five miles) to the north. The core of the Harappan civilisation extended over a large area, from Gujarat in the south, across Sindh and Rajasthan and extending into Punjab and Haryana. Numerous sites have been found outside the core area, including some as far east as Uttar Pradesh and as far west as Sutkagen-dor on the Makran coast of Balochistan, not far from Iran.

The site of the ancient city contains the ruins of a Bronze Age fortified city, which was part of the Harappan civilisation centred in Sindh and the Punjab, and then the Cemetery H culture. The city is believed to have had as many as 23,500 residents and occupied about 150 hectares (370 acres) with clay brick houses at its greatest extent during the Mature Harappan phase (2600 BCE – 1900 BCE), which is considered large for its time. Per archaeological convention of naming a previously unknown civilisation by its first excavated site, the Indus Valley Civilisation is also called the Harappan Civilisation.

The ancient city of Harappa was heavily damaged under British and French rule, when bricks from the ruins were used as track ballast in the construction of the Lahore–Multan Railway. The current village of Harappa is less than one kilometre (5 ⁄ 8 mi) from the ancient site. Although modern Harappa has a legacy railway station from the British Raj period, it is a small crossroads town of 15,000 people today. In 2005, a controversial amusement park scheme at the site was abandoned when builders unearthed many archaeological artefacts during the early stages of building work.

## History

The Harappan Civilization has its earliest roots in cultures such as that of Mehrgarh, approximately 6000 BCE. The two greatest cities, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, emerged c. 2600 BCE along the Indus River valley in Punjab and Sindh. The civilization, with a possible writing system, urban centres, drainage infrastructure and diversified social and economic system, was rediscovered in the 1920s also after excavations at Mohenjo-daro in Sindh near Larkana, and Harappan cities, in west Punjab south of Lahore. A number of other sites stretching from the Himalayan foothills in the east Punjab, India in the west, to Gujarat in the south and east, and to Pakistani Balochistan in the west have also been discovered and studied. Although the archaeological site at Harappa was damaged in 1857 when engineers constructing the Lahore - Multan railroad used brick from the Harappa ruins for track ballast, an abundance of artefacts have nevertheless been found.

Because of the reduced sea-levels, certain regions in the late Harappan period were abandoned. Towards its end, the Harappan civilization lost features such as writing and hydraulic engineering. As a result, the Ganges Valley settlement gained prominence and Ganges' cities developed.

The earliest recognisably Harappan sites date to 3500 BCE. This early phase lasts till around 2600 BCE. The civilization's mature phase lasted from 2600 BCE to 2000 BCE. This is when the great cities were at their height. Then, from around 2000 BCE, there was a steady disintegration that lasted till 1400 BCE – what is usually called Late Harappan. There is no sign that the Harappan cities were laid waste by invaders. The evidence strongly points to natural causes. A number of studies show that the area which is today the Thar Desert was once far wetter and that the climate gradually became drier.

## Culture and economy

The Indus Valley civilization was basically an urban culture sustained by surplus agricultural production and commerce, the latter including trade with Elam and Sumer in southern Mesopotamia. Both Mohenjo-daro and Harappa are generally characterised as having "differentiated living quarters, flat-roofed brick houses, and fortified administrative or religious centers." Although such similarities have given rise to arguments for the existence of a standardised system of urban layout and planning, the similarities are largely due to the presence of a semi-orthogonal type of civic layout, and a comparison of the layouts of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa shows that they are in fact, arranged in a quite dissimilar fashion.

The weights and measures of the Indus Valley Civilisation, on the other hand, were highly standardised, and conform to a set scale of gradations. Distinctive seals were used, among other applications, perhaps for the identification of property and shipment of goods. Although copper and bronze were in use, iron was not yet employed. "Cotton was woven and dyed for clothing; wheat, rice, and a variety of vegetables and fruits were cultivated; and a number of animals, including the humped bull, was domesticated," as well as " fowl for fighting ". Wheel-made pottery—some of it adorned with animal and geometric motifs—has been found in profusion at all the major Indus sites. A centralised administration for each city, though not the whole civilisation, has been inferred from the revealed cultural uniformity; however, it remains uncertain whether authority lay with a commercial oligarchy. Harappans had many trade routes along the Indus River that went as far as the Persian Gulf, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. Some of the most valuable things traded were carnelian and lapis lazuli.

What is clear is that Harappan society was not entirely peaceful, with the human skeletal remains demonstrating some of the highest rates of injury (15.5%) found in South Asian prehistory. Examinations of Harappan skeletons have often found wounds that are likely to have been inflicted in battle. Paleopathological analysis demonstrated that leprosy and tuberculosis were present at Harappa, with the highest prevalence of both disease and trauma present in the skeletons from Area G (an ossuary located south-east of the city walls). Furthermore, rates of craniofacial trauma and infection increased through time demonstrating that the civilisation collapsed amid illness and injury. The bioarchaeologists who examined the remains have suggested that the combined evidence for differences in mortuary treatment and epidemiology indicate that some individuals and communities at Harappa were excluded from access to basic resources like health and safety.

## Trade

The Harappans had traded with ancient Mesopotamia, especially Elam, among other areas. Cotton textiles and agricultural products were the primary trading objects. The Harappan merchants also had procurement colonies in Mesopotamia as well, which served as trading centres. They also traded extensively with people living in southern India, near modern-day Karnataka, to procure gold and copper from them.

## Archaeology

The excavators of the site have proposed the following chronology of Harappa's occupation:

- Ravi Aspect of the Hakra phase, c. 3300 – 2800 BCE.

- Kot Dijian (Early Harappan) phase, c. 2800 – 2600 BCE.

- Harappan Phase, c. 2600 – 1900 BCE.

- Transitional Phase, c. 1900 – 1800 BCE.

- Late Harappan Phase, c. 1800 – 1300 BCE.

Period 1 occupation was thought to be around 7 to 10 hectares, but following excavations and findings of pottery in Mound E, along with previously found Mound AB pottery, suggest Ravi/Hakra phase would have been extended, together in both mounds, to 25 hectares.

Period 2, Kot Diji phase, was extended in the same two mounds, AB and E, covering over 27 hectares.

In Period 3, Harappa phase, the settlement reached 150 hectares.

By far the most exquisite and obscure artefacts unearthed to date are the small, square steatite (soapstone) seals engraved with human or animal motifs. A large number of seals have been found at such sites as Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. Many bear pictographic inscriptions generally thought to be a form of writing or script. Despite the efforts of philologists from all parts of the world, and despite the use of modern cryptographic analysis, the signs remain undeciphered. It is also unknown if they reflect proto- Dravidian or other non- Vedic language(s). The ascribing of Indus Valley Civilisation iconography and epigraphy to historically known cultures is extremely problematic, in part due to the rather tenuous archaeological evidence for such claims, as well as the projection of modern South Asian political concerns onto the archaeological record of the area. This is especially evident in the radically varying interpretations of the Harappan material culture, as seen from both Pakistan- and India-based scholars.

In February 2006 a school teacher in the village of Sembian-Kandiyur in Tamil Nadu discovered a stone celt (tool) with an inscription estimated to be up to 3,500 years old. Indian epigraphist Iravatham Mahadevan postulated that the four signs were in the Indus script and called the find "the greatest archaeological discovery of a century in Tamil Nadu". Based on this evidence, he went on to suggest that the language used in the Indus Valley was of Dravidian origin. However, the absence of a Bronze Age in South India, contrasted with the knowledge of bronze making techniques in the Indus Valley cultures, calls into question the validity of this hypothesis.

The area of the late Harappan period consisted of the areas of the Daimabad, Maharashtra, and Badakshan regions of Afghanistan. The area covered by this civilisation would have been very large with a distance of around 2,400 kilometres (1,500 mi).

## Symbols similar to Indus script

Clay and stone tablets unearthed at Harappa, which were carbon-dated 3300–3200 BCE., contain trident-shaped and plant-like markings. "It is a big question as to if we can call what we have found true writing, but we have found symbols that have similarities to what became Indus script" said Dr. Richard Meadow of Harvard University, Director of the Harappa Archeological Research Project. These primitive symbols areplaced slightly earlier than the primitive writing of the Sumerians of Mesopotamia, dated c.3100 BCE. These markings have similarities to what later became Indus Script which has not been completely deciphered yet.


1960 Montana gubernatorial election

# 1960 Montana gubernatorial election

## Abstract

The 1960 Montana gubernatorial election took place on November 8, 1960. Incumbent governor of Montana J. Hugo Aronson, who was first elected governor in 1952 and was re-elected in 1956, declined to run for re-election. Donald Grant Nutter, a former state senator, narrowly won the Republican primary, and advanced to the general election, where he was opposed by Paul Cannon, the Lieutenant Governor of Montana and the Democratic nominee. Nutter defeated Cannon by a fairly wide margin, winning his only term as governor, as he would die just a year into his term.

## Democratic primary

### Candidates

- Paul Cannon, Lieutenant Governor of Montana

- Jack Toole, former chairman of the Montana Democratic Party

- Mike Kuchera, furniture dealer

- Willard E. Fraser, businessman

- John M. Nickey

- Merrill K. Riddick

## Republican primary

### Candidates

- Donald Grant Nutter, Chairman of the Montana Republican Party, former State Senator

- Wesley A. D'Ewart, former United States Congressman from Montana's 2nd congressional district, 1954 Republican nominee for the United States Senate

## General election