History.

Ancient Rome.

Neuss was founded by the Romans in 16 BC as a military fortification ("castrum") with the current city to the north of the castrum, at the confluence of the rivers Rhine and Erft, with the name of Novaesium.  Legio XVI Gallica ("Gallic 16th Legion") of the Roman army was stationed here in 43-70 AD. It was disbanded after surrendering during the Batavian rebellion (AD 70).  Later a civil settlement was founded in the area of today's centre of the town during the 1st century AD. Novaesium, together with Trier ("Augusta Treverorum"), is one of the three oldest Roman settlements in Germany.

Middle Ages.

Neuss grew during the Middle Ages because of its prime location on several routes, by the crossing of the great Rhine valley, and with its harbour and ferry. During the 10th century, the remains of the martyr and tribune Saint Quirinus, not to be confused with the Roman god Quirinus, had been relocated to Neuss. This resulted in pilgrimage to the shrine of St. Quirinus even from countries beyond the borders of the Holy Roman Empire. Neuss was first documented as a town in 1138.  One of the main events in the town's history is the siege of the town in 1474–75 by Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, that lasted for nearly a year. The citizens of Neuss withstood the siege and were therefore rewarded by the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III. The town was granted the right to mint its own coins and to carry the imperial coat of arms, the imperial eagle and the crown, in the town's own coat of arms. Neuss became a member of the Hanseatic League, although it was never accepted by the other members of the League.

Early modernity.

In 1586, more than two-thirds of the city was destroyed by fire, and several wars during the reign of King Louis XIV of France resulted in worsening finances for Neuss. Its importance as a place for trading declined rapidly, and from the mid-17th century onwards, Neuss became a place only important for its agriculture.  Until the late 18th century, Neuss belonged to the Electorate of Cologne. From 1794 to 1814, Neuss was part of France during the reign of Napoleon. In 1815 after the Napoleonic Wars, Neuss became part of the Kingdom of Prussia, and was reorganized as a district with the municipalities of Neuss, Dormagen, Nettesheim, Nievenheim, Rommerskirchen and Zons. The town had a population of 6,333 at that time. It was part of the Prussian Province of Jülich-Cleves-Berg (1815–22) and its successor, the Rhine Province (1822–1946).

19th century – present.

Neuss regained its economic power in the 19th century, with expansion of the harbour in 1835, and increasing industrial activity. The city's boundaries were expanded in 1881. Neuss became part of the new state of North Rhine-Westphalia in 1946.  In 1968 the spelling of the name was changed from "Neuß" to "Neuss". In 1975 the town of Neuss and the district of Grevenbroich were joined to form the district of Rhein-Kreis Neuss with a population of 440,000 and its seat of government in Neuss. Neuss is also home to Toshiba's European headquarters.

Sports.

One sports club is Neusser Schlittschuh-Klub. Their sections are figure skating, ice stock sport and, as the only club in Germany, bandy. With the lack of a large ice surface, the variety rink bandy is practiced. There are also two football clubs in the city of Neuss, VfR Neuss Football Club, and DJK Novesia Neuss. There is also a fieldhockey club, HTC Schwarz-Weiss Neuss, and TC Blau-Weiss Neuss, a famous tennis club where Nadal began his career. And an American Football Club, the Neuss Frogs. Besides Neuss owns an all-weather racecourse called "Galopprennbahn Neuss".

Neuss (; spelled "Neuß" until 1968; Limburgish: "Nüss"; Latin: "Novaesium") is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is located on the west bank of the Rhine opposite Düsseldorf. Neuss is the largest city within the Rhein-Kreis Neuss district. It is primarily known for its historic Roman sites, as well as the annual Neusser Bürger-Schützenfest. Neuss and Trier share the title of "Germany's oldest city"; and in 1984 Neuss celebrated the 2000th anniversary of its founding in 16 BCE.


Biography.

Beitia first broke the Spanish record in 1998, jumping 1.89 m. She raised the record progressively up to 2.02 m, the current Spanish record, which she achieved on 4 August 2007. She is the first, and thus far, only Spanish woman to have jumped higher than two metres.  Beitia's first senior international appearance was at the 2002 European Athletics Championships in Munich, where she finished 11th. At the 2003 World Championships in Paris, she also finished 11th. At the 2004 Athens Olympics she failed to reach the finals. In 2005, she won the silver medal at the 2005 European Indoor Championships in Madrid but at the world championships at Helsinki 2005 she failed to reach the finals. In 2006, she won the bronze medal at the World Indoor Athletics Championships in Moscow.  In 2009, she won the silver medal at the 2009 European Athletics Indoor Championships in Turin. At the 2009 World Championships in Athletics in Berlin, she placed fifth. In 2012, she won the gold medal at the European Championships in Helsinki and at the 2012 London Olympics she was fourth, after which she retired from competition.  After a few months, disappointed by her failure to win an olympic medal, Beitia came back from retirement. She won the gold medal at the 2013 European Athletics Indoor Championships in Gothenburg. Then she would become European champion twice more, in 2014 at Zürich and in 2016 at Amsterdam. Finally, she won gold at the 2016 Rio de Janeiro Olympic Games, with a height of 1.97m. This was the lowest winning height at the Olympics since the 1980 Summer Olympic Games, when Italian Sara Simeoni also cleared 1.97m.  Beitia ended in 12th place in the 2017 World Championships in Athletics and received the IAAF Fair Play Award for her behaviour during the competition.  She announced her retirement from competition in October 2017, following a rheumatoid arthritis process.

Political career.

In 2008, Beitia was named chair of the Regional Executive Committee of the local branch of the People's Party (PP), serving in that capacity until 2012.  In 2011, she was ninth on the closed list of the PP for the election to the Parliament of Cantabria; the PP won 20 seats and she was duly elected. During her first term, she was named First Parliamentary Secretary, presiding over committee meetings and other gatherings of leading parliamentary officials.  In the 2015 election, the PP lost its absolute majority and did not form the next government; however, she advanced her place on the list to sixth and was re-elected.  In September 2018, Beitia was appointed a member of the national PP's executive board by leader Pablo Casado, serving as Secretary of Sport.  In January 2019, the PP announced her advance on the list for the 2019 election to first place, thus becoming the party's candidate for President of Cantabria. Nevertheless, a few days after Beitia stepped down and informed Casado of her decision to "leave politics due to strictly personal and family reasons".

Ruth Beitia Vila (; born 1 April 1979) is a retired high jumper who is currently the reigning Olympic champion in the women's high jump. She was also a politician in the Partido Popular and a member of the Parliament of Cantabria.


Second World War.

Stumme fought in the First World War and stayed with the after the war. After the Nazis came to power in 1933 he was promoted to (Colonel) in 1933 and (Major-General) in 1936. Stumme became commander of 2nd Light Division, which was formed on 10 November 1938.  Stumme had achieved the rank of by the beginning of the war, and he commanded the 2nd Light Division in the Invasion of Poland in 1939. After the unit was converted into the 7th Panzer Division on 18 October 1939, he relinquished command of the 7th Panzer Division to Erwin Rommel in 1940, and was appointed as commander of XL. on 15 February 1940, which became XL Corps (motorized) in September 1940. He led this corps in the 1940 Ardennes campaign, being promoted to on 1 June 1940. Shortly thereafter he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross for bravery during the Battle of France.  Stumme was sent to Bulgaria and participated in the attacks on Yugoslavia and Greece. Stumme led the attack of the right flank of the12th Army. His two divisions drove west separately into Yugoslavia and then wheeled south, meeting at Monastir on 9 April. He then participated in the invasion of Greece. He was promoted to.  In Operation Barbarossa Stumme served under Field Marshal Fedor von Bock. Stumme commanded the capture of Mozhaisk. He then participated in (Case Blue) to lead the advance of the 6th Army with his renamed XL..  In June 1942 some German plans were captured by Soviet forces. Hitler blamed Stumme and ordered that he be court-martialled. He was relieved of command on 21 July 1942, was found guilty and was sentenced to five years imprisonment but Bock secured his release. Ulrich von Hassell called it a case of "the grotesque game of tin soldiers which Hitler plays with the generals" in his diary and commented: "Stumme, commanding general of a tank corps, was sentenced to five years' imprisonment because [of the actions of a divisional staff officer]. He was immediately pardoned, with Göring promising him a new command and is now being sent to Africa as a substitute for Rommel. An unmilitary, un-Prussian farce".  Stumme joined the in Egypt in September 1942, which was confronting the British at El Alamein. Rommel had been relieved due to illness and exhaustion. Stumme arrived on 19 September to be briefed a few days before Rommel departed. He took overall command of (combined German and Italian forces), with Ritter von Thoma replacing the wounded Walther Nehring as commander of the.

Battle of El Alamein and death.

Stumme "faithfully followed the plan left by Rommel" for responding to the expected attack. His letters to his superiors indicate he was not optimistic and agreed with Rommel that the only real prospect of success lay in keeping the enemy wrongfooted with attacks, for which he did not have the resources. Just over a month after his arrival the British began their attack on 23 October with a massive bombardment. Stumme prohibited the use of German artillery ammunition to bombard the British forward assembly areas, where the troops were vulnerable, preferring to keep his limited resources in reserve. Reinhard Stumpf called this "a grave mistake that enabled the British to form up for the attack in relative peace".  Unlike Rommel, Stumme travelled without the protection of an escort and radio car. On 24 October Stumme and Colonel Andreas Büchting, his chief signals officer, drove to the front to review the situation. On the way to the command post, the car came into the open and was attacked. Büchting was killed by a shot in the head. Stumme jumped out of the car and apparently was holding onto the side while the driver drove out of range. He was found dead along the track the next day, with no wound that could be seen. He was known to have high blood pressure and it was thought he had died of a heart attack. He was replaced as commander of with the return of Rommel, while the was commanded by Wilhelm Ritter von Thoma.

Assessments.

Stumme has been described as a "competent but pleasure-loving general", who cultivated a convivial relationship with his officers, unlike the hard-driving Rommel. One of his officers, Friedrich von Stauffenberg, said that Stumme created a "congenial" atmosphere while maintaining a "crack, well-officered division". According to Mark M. Boatner,  Rommel had suggested that Heinz Guderian should replace him in North Africa but Guderian was out of favor and his request was refused. Stumme was given the command instead and Rommel had confidence in him as a commander.

Georg Stumme (29 July 1886 – 24 October 1942) was a general in the of Nazi Germany during the Second World War who briefly commanded the Axis forces at the beginning of the Second Battle of El Alamein, and was killed during the Defence of Outpost Snipe. He had taken part in the Battle of France, the invasion of Yugoslavia and Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union. He was a recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross, the highest award in the military and paramilitary forces of Nazi Germany during the war.


Early life and family.

Maria Ferdinanda was born to Maximilian, Crown Prince of Saxony and his first wife Princess Caroline of Parma on 27 April 1796. She was their second eldest daughter. As her mother died in 1804, her father remarried in 1825 to Princess Maria Luisa Carlota of Parma, but this marriage would produce no new siblings. Her father died in 1838, having renounced his rights to the succession of Saxony in favor of his eldest son.  Maria Ferdinanda had seven siblings, most of whom married well. Her older sister was Princess Amalie, a notable composer. Her next younger brother would become Frederick Augustus II of Saxony in 1836. Her next brother was Prince Klemens, who would die at the age of 24. Her next three siblings (Maria Anna, John, and Maria Josepha Amalia) would become by birth or marriage Grand Duchess of Tuscany, King of Saxony, and Queen of Spain respectively.  In 1817, Maria Ferdinanda accompanied her younger sister Princess Maria Anna of Saxony to Florence, where she was going to marry the future Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany. The two were very close, so that Maria Anna was too scared to go without Maria Ferdinanda's company. The couple duly married. Something decidedly unexpected occurred however. Maria Ferdinanda caught the eye of Leopold's elderly father Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of Tuscany.

Marriage.

On 6 May 1821, Maria Ferdinanda was married to Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of Tuscany in Florence. She was his second wife, and he was twenty-seven years older. She was his first cousin once removed as well as a first cousin once removed of his first wife Princess Luisa of Naples. Ferdinand may have desired this second marriage because the succession was in doubt: though his only son had recently married Maria Ferdinanda’s sister Maria Anna, he was considered sickly. No children were born of this marriage.  As Maria Ferdinanda's younger sister Princess Maria Anna of Saxony was married to Ferdinand's son Leopold, Maria Ferdinanda thus became her own sister's step-mother-in-law.  Ferdinand died in 1824 in Florence, causing his son Leopold, and Leopold's wife Maria Anna, to succeed as Grand Duke and Grand Duchess of Tuscany.

Later life.

In 1859, the Tuscan royal family lost their claims to the throne during the Italian Unification. The royal family left the Palazzo Pitti in Florence for the Austrian court of Emperor Francis Joseph and Empress Elisabeth in Vienna. Maria Ferdinanda lived mainly from then on in Schlackenwerth, but was often a guest of her brother King John of Saxony in Dresden. She had an especially close relationship with her sister Amalie. Maria Ferdinanda was a bearer of the royal Order of the Noble Ladies of Maria Luisa, an order founded by Queen Maria Louisa of Spain.  Maria Ferdinanda remained a widow for forty-one years, finally dying on 3 January 1865. She was buried in the Imperial Crypt, Vienna.

Styles and titles.

Upon birth, her official title was "Her Highness Maria Ferdinande Amalia Xaveria Theresia Josepha Anna Nepomucena Aloysia Johanna Vincentia Ignatia Dominica Franziska de Paula Franziska de Chantal, Duchess in Saxony".

Princess Maria Ferdinanda of Saxony (27 April 1796 – 3 January 1865) was a daughter of Maximilian, Crown Prince of Saxony and his first wife Princess Carolina of Parma. She was by marriage Grand Duchess of Tuscany from 1821 to 1824.


Background.

During the American Revolution, the legal separation of the thirteen colonies from Great Britain in 1776 actually occurred on July 2, when the Second Continental Congress voted to approve a resolution of independence that had been proposed in June by Richard Henry Lee of Virginia declaring the United States independent from Great Britain's rule. After voting for independence, Congress turned its attention to the Declaration of Independence, a statement explaining this decision, which had been prepared by a Committee of Five, with Thomas Jefferson as its principal author. Congress debated and revised the wording of the Declaration, finally approving it two days later on July 4. A day earlier, John Adams had written to his wife Abigail:  Adams's prediction was off by two days. From the outset, Americans celebrated independence on July 4, the date shown on the much-publicized Declaration of Independence, rather than on July 2, the date the resolution of independence was approved in a closed session of Congress.  Historians have long disputed whether members of Congress signed the Declaration of Independence on July 4, even though Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and Benjamin Franklin all later wrote that they had signed it on that day. Most historians have concluded that the Declaration was signed nearly a month after its adoption, on August 2, 1776, and not on July 4 as is commonly believed.  By a remarkable coincidence, Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, the only two signatories of the Declaration of Independence later to serve as presidents of the United States, both died on the same day: July 4, 1826, which was the 50th anniversary of the Declaration, Jefferson even mentioning the fact. (Only one other signatory, Charles Carroll of Carrollton, survived them, dying in 1832.) Although not a signatory of the Declaration of Independence, James Monroe, another Founding Father who was elected as president, also died on July 4, 1831. He was the third President who died on the anniversary of independence. Calvin Coolidge, the 30th president, was born on July 4, 1872; so far he is the only U.S. president to have been born on Independence Day.

Customs.

Independence Day is a national holiday marked by patriotic displays. Similar to other summer-themed events, Independence Day celebrations often take place outdoors. According to, Independence Day is a federal holiday, so all non-essential federal institutions (such as the postal service and federal courts) are closed on that day. Many politicians make it a point on this day to appear at a public event to praise the nation's heritage, laws, history, society, and people.  Families often celebrate Independence Day by hosting or attending a picnic or barbecue; many take advantage of the day off and, in some years, a long weekend to gather with relatives or friends. Decorations ("e.g.", streamers, balloons, and clothing) are generally colored red, white, and blue, the colors of the American flag. Parades are often held in the morning, before family get-togethers, while fireworks displays occur in the evening after dark at such places as parks, fairgrounds, or town squares.  The night before the Fourth was once the focal point of celebrations, marked by raucous gatherings often incorporating bonfires as their centerpiece. In New England, towns competed to build towering pyramids, assembled from barrels and casks. They were lit at nightfall to usher in the celebration. The highest were in Salem, Massachusetts, with pyramids composed of as many as forty tiers of barrels. These made the tallest bonfires ever recorded. The custom flourished in the 19th and 20th centuries and is still practiced in some New England towns.  Independence Day fireworks are often accompanied by patriotic songs such as the national anthem, "The Star-Spangled Banner"; "God Bless America"; "America the Beautiful"; "My Country, 'Tis of Thee"; "This Land Is Your Land"; "Stars and Stripes Forever"; and, regionally, "Yankee Doodle" in northeastern states and "Dixie" in southern states. Some of the lyrics recall images of the Revolutionary War or the War of 1812. Firework shows are held in many states, and many fireworks are sold for personal use or as an alternative to a public show. Safety concerns have led some states to ban fireworks or limit the sizes and types allowed. In addition, local and regional weather conditions may dictate whether the sale or use of fireworks in an area will be allowed. Some local or regional firework sales are limited or prohibited because of dry weather or other specific concerns. On these occasions the public may be prohibited from purchasing or discharging fireworks, but professional displays (such as those at sports events) may still take place, if certain safety precautions have been taken.  A salute of one gun for each state in the United States, called a "salute to the union," is fired on Independence Day at noon by any capable military base.  New York City has the largest fireworks display in the country sponsored by Macy's, with more than 22 tons of pyrotechnics exploded in 2009. It generally holds displays in the East River. Other major displays are in Seattle on Lake Union; in San Diego over Mission Bay; in Boston on the Charles River; in Philadelphia over the Philadelphia Museum of Art; in San Francisco over the San Francisco Bay; and on the National Mall in Washington, D.C.  During the annual Windsor–Detroit International Freedom Festival, Detroit, Michigan hosts one of the largest fireworks displays in North America, over the Detroit River, to celebrate Independence Day in conjunction with Windsor, Ontario's celebration of Canada Day.  The first week of July is typically one of the busiest United States travel periods of the year, as many people use what is often a three-day holiday weekend for extended vacation trips.

Criticism.

In 1852, Frederick Douglass gave a speech now called "What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July?", at a time when slavery was still legal in Southern states, and free African-Americans elsewhere still faced discrimination and brutality. Douglass found the celebration of "justice, liberty, prosperity and independence" offensive to enslaved people who had none of those things. The Declaration of Independence famously asserts that "all men are created equal, but commentator Arielle Gray recommends that those celebrating the holiday consider how the freedom promised by the phrase "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness" was not granted to African Americans denied citizenship and equal protection before the Fourteen Amendment, immigrants denied admission under the Chinese Exclusion Act, Japanese Americans interned during World War II, and children detained under the Trump administration family separation policy.

Other countries.

The Philippines celebrates July 4 as its Republic Day to commemorate that day in 1946 when it ceased to be a U.S. territory and the United States officially recognized Philippine Independence. July 4 was intentionally chosen by the United States because it corresponds to its Independence Day, and this day was observed in the Philippines as Independence Day until 1962. In 1964, the name of the July 4 holiday was changed to Republic Day. Rebild National Park in Denmark is said to hold the largest July 4 celebrations outside of the United States.

Independence Day (colloquially the Fourth of July or July 4th) is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the Declaration of Independence of the United States, on July 4, 1776. The Continental Congress declared that the thirteen American colonies were no longer subject (and subordinate) to the monarch of Britain, King George III, and were now united, free, and independent states. The Congress had voted to declare independence two days earlier, on July 2, but it was not declared until July 4.


Cultivation and use.

There are over 120 species of "Coffea", which is grown from seed. The two most popular are "Coffea arabica" (commonly known simply as "Arabica"), which accounts for 60–80% of the world's coffee production, and "Coffea canephora" (known as "Robusta"), which accounts for about 20–40%. " C. arabica" is preferred for its sweeter taste, while "C. canephora" has a higher caffeine content. "C. arabica" has its origins in the highlands of Ethiopia and the Boma Plateau of Sudan, and was the result of a hybrid between "C. canephora" and "C. eugenoides".  The trees produce edible red or purple fruits, known sometimes erroneously as "cherries", which are described either as epigynous berries or as indehiscent drupes. These contain two seeds, called "coffee beans", though they are not true beans. In about 5–10% of any crop of coffee fruits, only a single bean is found. Called a peaberry, it is smaller and rounder than a normal coffee bean.  When grown in the tropics, coffee is a vigorous bush or small tree that usually grows to a height of. Most commonly cultivated coffee species grow best at high elevations, but do not tolerate freezing temperatures.  The tree of "Coffea arabica" will grow fruits after three to five years, producing for an average of 50 to 60 years, although up to 100 is possible. The white flowers are highly scented. The fruit takes about 9 months to ripen.

Ecology.

The caffeine in coffee "beans" serves as a toxic substance protecting the seeds of the plant, a form of natural plant defense against herbivory. Caffeine simultaneously attracts pollinators, specifically honeybees, by creating an olfactory memory that signals bees to return to the plant's flowers. Not all "Coffea" species contain caffeine, in fact the earliest species either had little to no caffeine content. Caffeine has evolved independently in multiple lineages of "Coffea" in Africa, perhaps in response to high pest predation in the humid environments of West-Central Africa. Caffeine has also evolved independently in the more distantly related genera "Theobroma" (cacao) and "Camellia" (tea). This suggests that caffeine production is an adaptive trait in coffee and plant evolution. Fruits and leaves also contain caffeine, and can be used to make a tea. (See: Coffee cherry tea and Coffee-leaf tea) The fruit is also used in many brands of soft drink as well as pre-packaged teas.  Several insect pests affect coffee production, including the coffee borer beetle ("Hypothenemus hampei") and the coffee leafminer ("Leucoptera caffeina").  Coffee is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species, "Dalcera abrasa", turnip moth and some members of the genus "Endoclita", including "E. damor" and "E. malabaricus".

Research.

New species of "Coffea" are still being identified in the 2000s. In 2008 and 2009, researchers from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew named seven from the mountains of northern Madagascar, including "C. ambongensis", "C. boinensis", "C. labatii", "C. pterocarpa", "C. bissetiae," and "C. namorokensis."  In 2008, two new species were discovered in Cameroon. "Coffea charrieriana", which is caffeine-free, and "Coffea anthonyi". By crossing the new species with other known coffees, two new features might be introduced to cultivated coffee plants: beans without caffeine and self-pollination.  In 2011, "Coffea" absorbed the twenty species of the former genus "Psilanthus" due to the morphological and genetic similarities between the two genera. Historically, the two have been considered distinct genera due to differences in the length of the corolla tube and the anther arrangement: "Coffea" with a short corolla tube and exserted style and anthers; "Psilanthus" with a long corolla tube and included anthers. However, these characteristics were not present in all species of either respective genus, making the two genera overwhelmingly similar in both morphology and genetic sequence. This transfer expanded "Coffea" from 104 species to 124, and extended its native distribution to tropical Asia and Australasia.  In 2014, the coffee genome was published, with more than 25,000 genes identified. This revealed that coffee plants make caffeine using a different set of genes from those found in tea, cacao and other such plants.  In 2017, a robust and almost fully resolved phylogeny of the entire genus was published. In addition to resolving the relationships of "Coffea" species, this study's results suggest Africa or Asia as the likely ancestral origin of Coffea and point to several independent radiations across Africa, Asia, and the Western Indian Ocean Islands.

Coffea is a genus of flowering plants in the family Rubiaceae. "Coffea" species are shrubs or small trees native to tropical and southern Africa and tropical Asia. The seeds of some species, called coffee beans, are used to flavor various beverages and products. The fruits, like the seeds, contain a large amount of caffeine, and have a distinct sweet taste and are often juiced. The plant ranks as one of the world's most valuable and widely traded commodity crops and is an important export product of several countries, including those in Central and South America, the Caribbean and Africa.


Role and function.

The Council of Five Hundred was established under the Constitution of Year III which was adopted by a referendum on 24 September 1795, and constituted after the first elections which were held from 12–21 October 1795. Voting rights were restricted to citizens owning property bringing in income equal to 150 days of work. Each member elected had to be at least 30 years old, meet residency qualifications and pay taxes. To prevent them coming under the pressure of the sans-culottes and the Paris mob, the constitution allowed the Council of the Five Hundred to meet in closed session. A third of them would be replaced annually.  Besides functioning as a legislative body, the Council of Five Hundred proposed the list out of which the Ancients chose five Directors, who jointly held executive power. The Council of Five Hundred had their own distinctive official uniform, with robes, cape and hat, just as did the Council of Ancients and the Directors. Under the Thermidorean constitution, as Boissy d'Anglas put it, the Council of Five Hundred was to be the imagination of the Republic, and the Council of Ancients its reason.

Elections of 1797.

In the elections of April 1797, there were a number of voting irregularities a very low turnout, resulting in a strong showing for Royalist tendencies. A number of the newly elected deputies formed the Club de Clichy in the Council. Jean-Charles Pichegru, widely assumed to be a monarchist, was elected President of the Council of Five Hundred. After documentation of Pichegru's treasonous activities was supplied by Napoleon Bonaparte, the Directors accused the entire body of plotting against the Revolution and moved quickly to annul the elections and arrest the royalists in what was known as the Coup of 18 Fructidor.  To support the coup, General Lazare Hoche, then commander of the Army of Sambre-et-Meuse, arrived in the capital with his troops, while Napoleon sent an army under Pierre Augereau. Deputies were arrested and 53 were exiled to Cayenne in French Guiana. Since death from tropical disease was likely, it was referred to as the "dry guillotine". The 42 opposition newspapers were closed. The chambers were purged, and elections were partly cancelled.

Elections of 1798.

The elections of April 1798 were heavily manipulated. The Council of the Five Hundred passed a law on 8 May barring 106 recently elected deputies from taking their seats, all of whom were of a left-wing persuasion. Elections in 48 departments were annulled. Nevertheless, left-wing opinion grew in strength in the Council in 1799, and on 18 June 1799, the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Ancients forced the resignations of the most anti-Jacobin Directors, Merlin de Douai, La Révellière-Lépeaux and Treilhard in the co-called 'Coup of 30 Prairial VII'.

Coup of 18th Brumaire Year VIII.

In October 1799 Napoleon's brother Lucien Bonaparte was appointed President of the Council of Five Hundred. Soon afterwards, in the coup of 18 Brumaire, Napoleon led a group of grenadiers who drove the Council from its chambers and installed him as leader of France as its First Consul. This ended the Council of Five Hundred, the Council of Ancients and the Directory.

The Council of Five Hundred (Conseil des Cinq-Cents), or simply the Five Hundred, was the lower house of the legislature of France under the Constitution of the Year III. It existed during the period commonly known (from the name of the executive branch during this time) as the Directory ("Directoire"), from 26 October 1795 until 9 November 1799: roughly the second half of the period generally referred to as the French Revolution.


Biography.

Born David Rozenson in Smarhon’ (now in Grodno Region, Belarus), Vilnius in the Russian Empire, Raziel immigrated with his family in 1914 at the age of three to Ottoman Palestine, when his father was invited to teach at Tachkemoni, a religious school in Tel Aviv. During World War I, the family was exiled to Egypt by the Turks due to their Russian citizenship. They returned to Mandatory Palestine in 1923.  In 1928, Raziel completed studies at the Tachkemoni high school, and studied for several years at Yeshivat Mercaz HaRav in Jerusalem. He was regular study partner with Rabbi Zvi Yehuda Kook, son and ideological successor to the Rosh Yeshiva and Chief Rabbi of Israel, Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook.  When the 1929 Hebron massacre broke out, he joined the Haganah in Jerusalem, where he was studying philosophy and mathematics at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. When the Irgun was established, he was one of its first members, and displayed outstanding military skills.  In 1937 he was appointed by the Irgun as the first Commander of Jerusalem District and a year later, "Commander in Chief" of the Irgun. His term as leader was especially marked by violence against Arabs, including a sequence of marketplace bombings. Most of those attacks were in response to Arab violence. Raziel worked with Avraham Stern and Efraim Ilin.  On 17 May 1941 he was sent, with three of his comrades, including Ya'akov Meridor, to Iraq on behalf of the British army to help defeat the Rashid Ali al-Gaylani pro-Axis revolt in the Anglo-Iraqi War. On 20 May a Luftwaffe plane strafed the car in which he was travelling near Habbaniyah, killing him and a British officer. Meridor returned to Palestine and took over command of the Irgun.  In 1955 his remains were exhumed and transferred to Cyprus, and again in 1961 to Jerusalem's Mount Herzl military cemetery. His sister, Esther Raziel-Naor, was later a member of the Knesset for Herut, the party founded by Irgun leader Menachem Begin.

Commemoration.

Ramat Raziel, a moshav in the Judaean Mountains, is named after Raziel, as well as many streets in Israel bearing his name in commemoration. The Israel postal service issued a stamp in his honor. There is a high-school in Herzliya named after him.

David Raziel (; 19 November 1910 – 20 May 1941) was a leader of the Zionist underground in British Mandatory Palestine and one of the founders of the Irgun.


Identity.

Sanakht's identity and position in the Third Dynasty is not entirely clear and remains the subject of debate. While Sanakht's existence is attested by seal fragments from mastaba K2 at Beit Khallaf and a graffito, his position as the founder of the Third Dynasty, as recorded by Manetho and the Turin Canon, has been seriously undermined by recent archaeological discoveries at Abydos. These discoveries establish that it was likely Djoser who helped bury—and thus succeed—Khasekhemwy, rather than Sanakht. This is determined from seals bearing Djoser's name found at the entrance to the latter's tomb.  Proponents of the theory that Sanakht was nonetheless the founder of the dynasty object that the presence of Djoser's seals in Khasekhemwy's tomb only shows that Djoser conducted cultural rituals in honor of this king, and does not necessarily imply that Djoser was Khasekhemwy's immediate successor. Sanakht could then have married Queen Nimaethap, with Nimaethap being the daughter of Khasekhemwy rather than his wife. Together with Sanakht, they could be the parents of Djoser. Alternatively, some have considered Sanakht to be Djoser's elder brother.  Presently, the dominant theory is that Sanakht's reign dates to the later Third Dynasty, after Djoser. Egyptologists Toby Wilkinson, Stephan Seidlmayer, Kenneth Kitchen and Rainer Stadelmann equate Sanakht with "Nebka", a name appearing in Ramesside king lists. In support of this theory is a clay seal fragment on which the lower part of a cartouche appears. In this cartouche Wilkinson, Seidlmayer and Stadelmann see traces of a "Ka"-sign, the end of the name "Nebka". Likewise, Dietrich Wildung favors equating Nebka with Sanakht, although he questions the validity of the seal as evidence given that it is too badly damaged to read the inscription within the cartouche as "Nebka" with any certainty.  John D. Degreef, Nabil Swelim and Wolfgang Helck are against equating Nebka with Sanakht. They refer to the fact that the name "Nebka" is not attested on any monument nor in any document dating to before Djoser. Instead, Nabil Swelim identifies Nebka with the Horus name Khaba. He further identifies Sanakht with a king "Mesochris" mentioned by Manetho, regarding this as a Hellenized form of the throne name of Sanakht. He dated Sanakht's reign to between the seventh and eighth king of the Third Dynasty.  Jürgen von Beckerath, Wolfgang Helck, Dietrich Wildung and Peter Kaplony proposed that Sanakht's Horus name is that of the shadowy "Horus Sa", seeing the name "Sa" as a short form of "Sanakht". From this, Wolfgang Helck holds that Sanakht's Nisut-Biti name was Weneg. King Weneg however, is widely held to have ruled during the Second Dynasty and Helck's theory has been greeted with skepticism.  Sanakht's name was once read "Hen Nekht" by Egyptologists such as Ernest Wallis Budge. Today, this reading is not in use anymore; the up-to-date reading is "Sanakht" or (seldomly) "Nakht-Sa".

Reign.

The exact duration of Sanakht's time on the throne is unknown. Unlike Djoser, few relics survive from his reign, which casts serious doubts on the traditional figure of 18 years of reign for this king, as given by both Manetho and the Turin Canon. It must be stressed that the Turin Canon and Manetho were more than one and two thousand years removed from the time of Egypt's Third Dynasty, and would be expected to contain some inaccurate or unreliable data. The Turin Canon, for instance, was transcribed on papyri that dates to the reign of the New Kingdom king, Ramesses II, who ruled Egypt from 1279-1213 BC.  Very little is known of Sanakht's activities during his reign. The presence of reliefs depicting him in the Sinai at Wadi Maghareh together with those of Djoser and Sekhemkhet suggest an important Egyptian presence there at the time of the Third Dynasty. Expeditions were launched to that location for the procurement of mineral resources, in particular turquoise.

Tomb.

The location of Sanakht's tomb is not known with certainty. It was long thought that Sanakht's tomb was the large mastaba K2 at Beit Khallaf, as excavations there yielded relief fragments bearing his name. However, some Egyptologists now regard this mastaba as the burial of a high official, prince or queen rather than that of a pharaoh, while others continue to support the first hypothesis.  In the mastaba were found the skeletal remains of a man over tall. According to Charles S. Myers, this stature was considerably taller than the average of prehistoric and later Egyptians. The specimen's skull was very large and capacious. Although his cranial index was unusually broad and almost brachycephalic, the proportions of his long bones were tropically adapted like those of most other ancient Egyptians; especially those from the predynastic period. His overall cranial features, however, were closer to those of dynastic period Egyptian skulls.  Consequently, the mastaba has been associated with an anecdote related by Manetho in which he tells of a late Second Dynasty king, called "Sesochris", who he describes as being particularly tall. The Egyptologist Wolfgang Helck proposed another hypothesis; namely, that Sanakht's tomb is an unfinished structure west of the pyramid of Djoser.  While the case of Sanakht has often appeared in the medical literature as a potential case of pituitary disease, no definitive consensus has existed for many years on whether it was acromegaly or gigantism. In 2017 palaeopathologist Francesco M. Galassi and Egyptologist Michael E. Habicht from Zurich University's Institute of Evolutionary Medicine coordinated an international team of researchers to reassess this case. Their conclusion was that the alleged remains of Sanakht are clearly the oldest known case of gigantism in the world.

Sanakht (also read as Hor-Sanakht) was an ancient Egyptian king (pharaoh) of the Third Dynasty during the Old Kingdom. His chronological position is highly uncertain, and it is also unclear under which Hellenized name the ancient historian Manetho could have listed him. Many Egyptologists connect Sanakht with the Ramesside cartouche name "Nebka". However, this remains disputed because no further royal title of that king has ever been found; either in contemporary source or later ones. There are two relief fragments depicting Sanakht originally from the Wadi Maghareh on the Sinai Peninsula.


Background.

By the end of March 1948, Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni's troops were preventing supply convoys from reaching Jerusalem. The city was besieged and the Jewish population was forced to adhere to a rationing system. On 31 March a 60 vehicle Jewish convoy was ambushed at Khulda and forced to turn back with the loss of five vehicles and 17 dead. Yishuv leader David Ben-Gurion decided to launch Nachshon in order to open up the city and provide supplies to the Jewish residents. Although initially intended as a one-shot affair, Nachshon later proved to be the first operation in the implementation of Plan Dalet.

The operation.

The operation was named after the Biblical figure Nachshon Ben Aminadav, who was the first to wade into the Red Sea when the Hebrews escaped from slavery in Egypt. The operation was commanded by Shimon Avidan.  The first orders were given on 2 April 1948. A telegraph confirming the beginning of the operation, was released on 5 April, with the operation starting that same night. It lasted until 20 April. 1,500 men from the Givati and Harel brigades took control of the road to Jerusalem, allowing three of four convoys to get to the city.  The operation was a military success. All the Arab villages that blocked the route were either taken or destroyed, and the Jewish forces were victorious in all their engagements. Nonetheless, not all the objectives of the operation were achieved, as only 1,800 tonnes of the 3,000 envisaged were transported to the town, and two months of severe rationing had to be assumed.  Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni was killed during the night of 7–8 April, in the middle of the battles taking place in Al-Qastal. The loss of the charismatic Palestinian leader 'disrupted the Arab strategy and organisation in the area of Jerusalem.' His successor, Emil Ghuri, changed tactics: instead of provoking a series of ambushes throughout the route, he had a huge road block erected at Bab-el-Oued, and Jerusalem was once again isolated as a consequence.  During Operation Nachshon the Haganah wanted to attack the strategic village of Abu Gosh but this was opposed by the Stern Gang whose local commanders were on good terms with the mukhtar.

Aftermath.

Operation Nachshon exposed the poor military organisation of the Palestinian paramilitary groups. Due to lack of logistics, particularly food and ammunition, they were incapable of maintaining engagements that were more than a few hours away from their permanent bases.  Faced with these events, the Arab Higher Committee asked Alan Cunningham to allow the return of the Mufti, the only person capable of redressing the situation. Despite obtaining permission, the Mufti did not get to Jerusalem. His declining prestige cleared the way for the expansion of the influence of the Arab Liberation Army and of Fawzi al-Qawuqji in the Jerusalem area.  Between 15 and 20 April, three convoys, totalling over 700 lorries were able to reach Jewish Jerusalem. The Arabs, however, managed to block the road immediately thereafter. Operation Nachshon was therefore followed by Operation Harel, and immediately thereafter Operation Yevusi. Further operations in the Jerusalem region, Operation Maccabi and Operation Kilshon, took place in May.

Palestinian communities captured during Operation Nachshon.

Sources:

Operation Nachshon (, "Mivtza Nahshon") was a Jewish military operation during the 1948 war. Lasting from 5–16 April 1948, its objective was to break the Siege of Jerusalem by opening the Tel-Aviv – Jerusalem road blockaded by Palestinian Arabs and to supply food and weapons to the isolated Jewish community of Jerusalem. The operation was also known as "The operation to take control of the Jerusalem road,", following which participating units later broke-off to form the Harel Brigade.


History.

This award was created by Adolf Hitler in October 1939 as a successor to the non-combatant Iron Cross which was used in earlier wars (similar medal but with a different ribbon). The award was graded in the same manner as the Iron Cross: "War Merit Cross Second Class", "War Merit Cross First Class", and "Knights Cross of the War Merit Cross". The award had two variants: "with swords" given to soldiers for exceptional service "not in direct connection with combat", and "without swords" given to civilians for meritorious service in "furtherance of the war effort". Recipients had to have the lower grade of the award before getting the next level.  The wearing of Nazi era decorations was banned in Germany after the war, as was any display of the swastika. Veterans awarded the War Merit Cross were therefore unable to wear it, either in uniform or - publicly - on civilian dress. In 1957 the Federal Republic of Germany authorised alternative 'de-nazified' replacement versions of World War II period war decorations. These could be worn both on "Bundeswehr" uniform and in civilian dress. The new version of the War Merit Cross replaced the swastika on the obverse central disc of the cross with the date "1939" (as on the reverse disc of the original version), the reverse disc being blank. The wearing of Nazi era decorations in any form continued to be banned in the German Democratic Republic until German reunification in 1990.

Criteria.

The ribbon of the War Merit Cross was in red-white-black-white-red; that was, the red and black colors being reversed from the ribbon of the World War II version of the Iron Cross. The ribbon for the War Merit Medal was similar, but with a narrow vertical red strip in the center of the black field. Soldiers who earned the War Merit Cross 2nd Class with Swords wore a small crossed-swords device on the ribbon. The War Merit Cross 1st Class was a pin-backed medal worn on the pocket of the tunic (like the Iron Cross 1st Class). The ribbon of the War Merit Cross 2nd Class could be worn like the ribbon of the Iron Cross 2nd Class (through the second buttonhole). Nonetheless combat soldiers tended to hold the War Merit Cross in low regard, referring to its wearers as being in 'Iron Cross Training'. The Knights Cross of the War Merit Cross was a neck order and worn the same way as the Knights Cross of the Iron Cross.  There was one extra grade of the War Merit Cross, which was created at the suggestion of Albert Speer: "The Knights Cross of the War Merit Cross in Gold" (), but this was never officially placed on the list of national awards as it came about in late 1944 and there was no time to officially promulgate the award before the war ended. The Knights Cross of the War Merit Cross in Gold (without swords) was awarded 'on paper' to two recipients on 20 April 1945: Franz Hahne and Karl-Otto Saur.  The Knights Cross of the War Merit Cross was considered to be ranked higher than the German Cross in silver, but below the Knights Cross of the Iron Cross. A total of 118 awards of the Knights Cross of the War Merit Cross with swords, and 137 awards without swords were awarded. Considering the relative rarity of the award compared with the grades of the Knights Cross of the Iron Cross, it took on "extra meaning" it did not necessarily deserve, as it ranked below the Knights Cross of the Iron Cross. For example, "Reichsmarschall" Hermann Göring made a concerted effort to get Hitler to award him this order, much to Hitler's annoyance. In response, Hitler outlined a series of criteria governing the awarding of this decoration and the philosophy of such awards, and directed that "prominent party comrades" were not to be awarded with the Knights Cross of the War Merit Cross (or similar decorations), and withdrew the proposed awards of this order to Gauleiter Erich Koch and Herbert Backe. Directing his comments at Göring personally, Hitler ordered that such attempts to gain this award be stopped. Also, six persons received two Knights Cross' of the War Merit Cross (each one with and without Swords): Walter Brugmann, Julius Dorpmüller, Karl-Otto Saur, Albin Sawatzki, Walter Schreiber, and Walter Rohlandt. Closely related to the War Merit Cross was the War Merit Medal (), designated on 19 August 1940 for civilians to recognize outstanding service in the war effort. It was usually awarded to those workers in factories who significantly exceeded work quotas. The War Merit Medal was awarded to Germans and non-Germans, to men and women. An estimated 4.9 million medals were awarded by the end of the war in Europe.

In popular culture.

In the movie "Inglourious Basterds", SS Colonel Hans Landa (Christoph Waltz) is shown wearing the Knights Cross of the War Merit Cross with Swords while in dress uniform. In the film "Enemy at the Gates", Major Konig (Ed Harris) mentions that his son was posthumously awarded the War Merit Cross. In Where Eagles Dare, Clint Eastwood, masquerading as an Alpenkorps lieutanant, is shown wearing the War Merit Cross First Class with Swords on his uniform tunic.

The War Merit Cross () was a federal decoration of Germany during World War II. By the end of the conflict it was issued in four degrees and had an equivalent civil award. A "de-Nazified" version of the War Merit Cross was reissued in 1957 by the "Bundeswehr" for its veterans.


Aims.

In its "Statement of Aims" on 8 April 1947, the scholars were worried about the dangers faced by civilization, stating the following: The group also stated that it is "difficult to imagine a society in which freedom may be effectively preserved" without the "diffused power and initiative" associated with "private property and the competitive market" and found it desirable inter alia to study the following matters:  The group "seeks to establish no meticulous and hampering orthodoxy", "conduct propaganda" or align with some party. It aims to facilitate "the exchange of views [...] to contribute to the preservation and improvement of the free society".

Name.

The MPS was created on 10 April 1947 at a conference organized by Friedrich Hayek. Originally, it was to be named the Acton-Tocqueville Society. After Frank Knight protested against naming the group after two "Roman Catholic aristocrats" and Ludwig von Mises expressed concern that the mistakes made by Acton and Tocqueville would be connected with the society, the decision was made to name it after Mont Pèlerin, the Swiss resort where it convened.

History.

In 1947, thirty-nine scholars, mostly economists with some historians and philosophers, were invited by Friedrich Hayek to meet to discuss the state and possible fate of classical liberalism, his goal being an organization which would resist interventionism and promote his conception of classical liberalism. He wanted to discuss how to combat the "state ascendancy and Marxist or Keynesian planning [that was] sweeping the globe". The first meeting took place in the Hotel du Parc in the Swiss village of Mont Pèlerin, near the city of Vevey, Switzerland. Funding for the conference came from various sources including the William Volker Fund thanks to Harold Luhnow and the Bank of England owing to the help of Alfred Suenson-Taylor. William Rappard, a Swiss academic, diplomat and founder of the Graduate Institute of International Studies, addressed the society's inaugural meeting. In his "Opening Address to a Conference at Mont Pelerin", Hayek mentioned "two men with whom I had most fully discussed the plan for this meeting both have not lived to see its realisation", namely Henry Simons (who trained Milton Friedman, a future president of the MPS, at the University of Chicago) and John Clapham, a British economic historian.  The MPS aimed to "facilitate an exchange of ideas between like-minded scholars in the hope of strengthening the principles and practice of a free society and to study the workings, virtues, and defects of market-oriented economic systems". The MPS has continued to meet regularly, the General Meeting every two years and the regional meetings annually. The current president of the MPS is Pedro Schwartz Giron. It has close ties to the network of think tanks sponsored in part by the Atlas Economic Research Foundation.

Influence.

Hayek stressed that the society was to be a scholarly community arguing against collectivism while not engaging in public relations or propaganda. The society has become part of an international think tank movement and Hayek used it as a forum to encourage members such as Antony Fisher to pursue the think tank route. Fisher has established the Institute of Economic Affairs (IEA) in London during 1955, the Manhattan Institute for Policy Research in New York City in 1977 and the Atlas Economic Research Foundation in 1981. Now known as the Atlas Network, they support a wide network of think tanks, including the Fraser Institute.  Prominent MPS members who advanced to policy positions included the late Chancellor Ludwig Erhard of West Germany, President Luigi Einaudi of Italy, Chairman Arthur F. Burns of the Federal Reserve Board and Secretary of State George Shultz. Among prominent contemporary political figures, former President Václav Klaus of the Czech Republic and acting politicians, such as Prime Minister Ranil Wickremasinghe of Sri Lanka, former Foreign Secretary Geoffrey Howe of the United Kingdom, former Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs and Minister of Defence Antonio Martino, Chilean Finance Minister Carlos Cáceres and former New Zealand Finance Minister Ruth Richardson, are all MPS members. Of 76 economic advisers on Ronald Reagan's 1980 campaign staff, 22 were MPS members.  Several leading journalists, including Pulitzer Prize-winning columnist Walter Lippmann, former radical Max Eastman (then roving editor at "Reader's Digest"), John Chamberlain (former editorial writer for "Life" magazine), Henry Hazlitt (former financial editor of "The New York Times" and columnist for "Newsweek"), John Davenport (holder of editorial posts at "Fortune" and "Barron's") and Felix Morley (Pulitzer Prize-winning editor at "The Washington Post"), have also been members. Members of the MPS have also been well represented on the Committee for the Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel.  Eight MPS members, Friedrich Hayek, Milton Friedman, George Stigler, Maurice Allais, James M. Buchanan, Ronald Coase, Gary Becker and Vernon Smith have won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. Graeme Maxton and Jørgen Randers note that it is no surprise that so many MPS members have won a Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences because the MPS helped to create that award, specifically to legitimize free-market economic thinking.  In the "2014 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report" (Think Tanks and Civil Societies Program, University of Pennsylvania), the MPS is noted as having the 9th (out of 55) "Best Think Tank Conference".  In 2018, the Swiss blockchain banking Fintech company Mt Pelerin has named itself after the Mont Pelerin Society as an hommage to the values that the organization advocates.

Past presidents.

Numerous notable economists have served as president of the MPS:

The Mont Pelerin Society (MPS) is an international neoliberal organization composed of economists, philosophers, historians, intellectuals and business leaders. The members see the MPS as an effort to interpret in modern terms the fundamental principles of economic society as expressed by classical Western economists, political scientists and philosophers. Its founders included Friedrich Hayek, Frank Knight, Karl Popper, Ludwig von Mises, George Stigler and Milton Friedman. The society advocates freedom of expression, free market economic policies and the political values of an open society. Further, the society seeks to discover ways in which free enterprise can replace many functions currently provided by government entities.


History.

With its start in September 1981, the founders of the group stole plans of the many underground passageways and tunnels for which Paris is famous. Using this information as a base,  the group of anonymous artists and citizens have since restored much of Paris's underground infrastructure, including the Pantheon clock which chimed for the first time in many years after its repair. The group is also responsible for over a dozen other projects, including those which the French government have not chosen to do or for which they lack funds.

Organisation.

The organization is divided into teams: an all-female team (the Mouse House) specializing in infiltration, a team running an internal messaging system and coded radio network, a team providing a database, a team organizing underground shows, a team doing photography, and a team (Untergunther) doing restoration.  Untergunther's membership includes architects and historians. In October 2007, they received attention for a project, assisted by professional clockmaker Jean-Baptiste Viot, to clandestinely restore the famous clock in the Panthéon. Never caught, upon completion they announced their work at a meeting with the administrator of the Panthéon, who called the police.  La Mexicaine De Perforation (The Mexican Consolidated Drilling Authority) is another subdivision of the "UX" which provides clandestine artistic events.  In September 2004, French police discovered an underground movie theatre run by La Mexicaine De Perforation. The makeshift theatre contained a movie screen, a well stocked bar, and a kitchen. Telephones and electricity were brought in from an unknown location. Movie titles ranging from 1950s classics to modern thrillers were also discovered. When the police returned for a formal investigation, all the equipment had disappeared — all that was left was a note on the floor reading, "Ne cherchez pas" ("Do not search").

Official reaction.

Parisian authorities oppose the group's actions and have started a police unit to track the group through the sewers and catacombs of Paris in an attempt to apprehend and charge its members.  Charges were brought against the four Untergunther restorers of the Pantheon clock, but at trial, after 20 minutes' deliberation, the judge ruled in their favor. One of the government's prosecutors referred to the charges as "stupid".

The UX (short for "Urban eXperiment") is an underground organization that improves hidden corners of Paris. Their work includes restoring the Pantheon clock, building a cinema – complete with a bar and a restaurant – in a section of the Paris Catacombs underneath the Trocadéro, restoring medieval crypts, and staging plays and readings in monuments after dark. The group's membership is largely secret, but its spokespeople include Lazar Kunstmann.


Construction.

"Almaz" had her first keel plate laid down at the Baltic Shipyard on 25 September 1902, in the presence of Tsar Nicholai II, Grand Duke Konstantin and King George I of Greece. She was launched on 2 July 1902, and completed in December that year.

Service history.

"Almaz" was commissioned into the Baltic Fleet in 1903. At the start of the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), she was assigned to the Baltic Fleet, and was subsequently transferred to the Second Pacific Squadron, which transited the Suez Canal under the command of Admiral Dmitry von Fölkersam. On 28 May 1905, with most of the ships in the Russian fleet destroyed or captured at the Battle of Tsushima, "Almaz" was the only major ship to reach Vladivostok after the battle. She returned to the Baltic Fleet after the war, serving as an aviso and temporarily as an imperial yacht in 1908. In 1911, after repairs, she was transferred to the Black Sea Fleet and at the start of World War I was rebuilt as a seaplane tender in 1914, carrying four seaplanes. She was at the Battle of Cape Sarych on 5 November 1914.  However, the crew of "Almaz" revolted in early 1918, joining the Rumcherod against the authority of the Ukrainian People's Republic and supporting the Odessa Soviet Republic. The ship became the center of a “people marine military tribunal”, where many officers of the former Imperial Russian Navy were imprisoned, tortured and executed. In September 1918, while docked as Sevastopol, "Almaz" was captured by the White movement forces. In 1920 she was interned at Bizerta with the remainder of Wrangel's fleet.  On 29 October 1924, she was turned over to the Soviet Union by France, and was subsequently sold to a French firm for scrap in 1934.

Almaz (; literally "Diamond") was a 2nd-class cruiser in the Imperial Russian Navy, built by Baltic Shipyard in Saint Petersburg, Russia, as a yacht for Viceroy Yevgeni Alekseyev,


Causes.

Hypoventilation may be caused by:

Medications.

As a side effect of medicines or recreational drugs, hypoventilation may become potentially life-threatening. Many different central nervous system (CNS) depressant drugs such as ethanol, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, GHB, sedatives, and opioids produce respiratory depression when taken in large or excessive doses, or mixed with other depressants. Strong opiates (such as fentanyl, heroin, and morphine), barbiturates, and certain benzodiazepines (short acting ones and alprazolam) are known for depressing respiration. In an overdose, an individual may cease breathing entirely (go into respiratory arrest) which is rapidly fatal without treatment. Opioids, in overdose or combined with other depressants, are notorious for such fatalities.

Treatment.

Respiratory stimulants such as nikethamide were traditionally used to counteract respiratory depression from CNS depressant overdose, but offered limited effectiveness. A new respiratory stimulant drug called BIMU8 is being investigated which seems to be significantly more effective and may be useful for counteracting the respiratory depression produced by opiates and similar drugs without offsetting their therapeutic effects.  If the respiratory depression occurs from opioid overdose, usually an opioid antagonist, most likely naloxone, will be administered. This will rapidly reverse the respiratory depression unless complicated by other depressants. However an opioid antagonist may also precipitate an opioid withdrawal syndrome in chronic users. Mechanical ventilation may still be necessary during initial resuscitation.

Associated conditions.

Disorders like congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (CCHS) and ROHHAD (rapid-onset obesity, hypothalamic dysfunction, hypoventilation, with autonomic dysregulation) are recognized as conditions that are associated with hypoventilation. CCHS may be a significant factor in some cases of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), often termed "cot death" or "crib death".  The opposite condition is hyperventilation (too much ventilation), resulting in low carbon dioxide levels (hypocapnia), rather than hypercapnia.

American Pastoral is a Philip Roth novel published in 1997 concerning Seymour "Swede" Levov, a successful Jewish American businessman and former high school star athlete from Newark, New Jersey. Levov's happy and conventional upper middle class life is ruined by the domestic social and political turmoil of the 1960s during the presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson, which in the novel is described as a manifestation of the "indigenous American berserk".


History.

Between 1868 and 1880, almost 16,000 Czechs left Austria-Hungary for the Russian Empire. The reasons for their departure were the difficult living conditions in the Czech lands, and the rumors of prosperity in the Russian realm, where there was a large amount of unused agricultural land. After the collapse of the Polish January Uprising against Russian rule (Volhynia was part of Poland prior to the Second and Third Partition of Poland, carried out in 1793 and 1795, respectively), harsh reprisals against the Poles followed. The Russian government imposed taxes on Polish landed gentry or even confiscated Polish estates. The local government in the region attracted new immigrants with a number of advantages, such as the right to purchase their own land for low prices, and the establishment of manufacturing businesses. Also, they gave the migrants the right to national education, self-government and religious freedom. Immigrants were exempt for 20 years from tax, and exonerated from military duty.  The bulk of the Czechs settled in the region of Volhynia. Some villages were set up in flat meadows, while others were located near existing Ukrainian villages. Local Czech names for the villages they lived in were formed from the original name of the village, which was supplemented with the word "Czech" (eg České Noviny, Český Malín, Český Boratín, Český Straklov, etc.) Apart from agriculture, Czech immigrants began to engage in other activities, such as industry, trade and crafts. The income for most ethnic Czechs had its foundations in the engineering, breweries, mills, cement plants, etc. In their communities, schools, churches, and libraries were founded, and because of this, cultural and social life flourished. Czech immigrants have made a major contribution to increasing the economic and cultural level in the built-up areas.  Outside Volhynia, in 1905 the Czechs founded the village of Bohemka, nowadays part of the Mykolaiv Oblast.  After the outbreak of World War I, Volhynian Czechs fought as members of the Russian army in the so-called Czech League, which later became the birthplace of the Czech legions in Russia to come.

Interwar period.

After the Soviet-Polish War, which ended in 1921 with the defeat of the Red Army, Volhynia was divided. The western half was recovered by Poland, while the eastern part became part of the newly established Soviet Union. While the Czech villages on the Polish side gradually renewed and modernized, the populations of the villages in Ukraine became victims of the violent national policy of the Soviet government. They limited Czech education, culture and religion. Many lost their property, and were violently forced out of their homes by kolkhozs. Representatives mainly touched upon the Czech intelligentsia, but did not escape any component of the population. Many Volhynian Czechs were sentenced to death, or were virtually so in the gulags - which happened to many minorities at the time. In 1938, a complete ban on teaching in or about the Czech language was issued.  Volhynian Czechs were the largest group of the Czechs in interbellum Poland. One of their main centers was Kvasyliv. In the 1930s, as a result of Polish–Czechoslovak border conflicts, Czechs also experienced trouble in Poland, where anti-Czech propaganda was distributed by the government. This resulted in the demands of the Polish population to liquidate Czech education, or to withdraw land from Czech peasants.

World War II.

When the Soviet Union occupied eastern Poland in 1939, the two parts of Volhynia were reunited. However, it was occupied by Nazi Germany in 1941. In July 1942, the first Czechoslovak Independent Field Battalion was formed. In 1943, the 1st Czechoslovak Independent Brigade was established, which numbered 3,517 soldiers. Volhynian men who fought in the ranks of the Red Army, but also those who were in Soviet captivity, reported themselves to these troops. Some of them even left to fight with Czech units in Western Europe, as many escaped Polish troops did as well. The situation of Volhynian Czechs living in villages under the German occupation administration has not changed much. The Soviet republics were replaced by violence by the Ukrainian Nationalist Organization, but especially by the SS, who burned several villages and massacred the local population. On July 13, 1943, the Germans burned village of Český Malín to the ground, with people including the elderly, women and children being burned alive in the buildings. In total, there were 374 Czech citizens. In the autumn of the same year, the Nazis were murdered by another Czech village, Sergiyevka-Mikna. In March 1944 the Czechs to the resort Volyňských Rovno relocated to the First Czechoslovak Independent Brigade, which recruited former compatriots. 12,000 Volhynian Czechs entered the troops, including six hundred women. Thanks to this, the First Czechoslovak Army Corps, which had passed the battle route to Prague, became the brigade.

May 1945 and the following years.

After the liberation of Czechoslovakia, the Volhynian Czechs who were members of the Czechoslovak brigades remained. After the war, the door of re-emigration for Volhynian Czechs to Czechoslovakia opened on the basis of an interstate agreement between the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic and the Soviet Union. The first transport was welcomed in Žatec at the beginning of 1947, when Czechoslovakia began to come not only to those who lived in the USSR but also to those who returned from forced labor on the former territory of the Third Reich. In total, there were approximately 40,000 people. Most of them were settled in territories from which the Sudeten Germans had been expelled. Many Volhynian Czechs gave information about life in the Soviet Union, and warned about the setting up of kolkhozes, etc. After Czechoslovakia became a formally communist nation in 1948, Ukrainian Czech truth-sayers were persecuted. Some Volhynian Czechs remained in the Soviet Union even after the end of the Second World War. Of those who did not emigrate, a great majority were in inter-ethnic marriages - which thus did not allow them to leave. Mostly, they were women with ethnic Ukrainian husbands. Some others stayed of their own choice.  During the Soviet era, they were one of the most affected groups by the Chernobyl nuclear power plant disaster in 1986. At the end of the 1980s, ten thousand Czechs lived in Ukraine. At the beginning of the 90s Czechoslovakia invited these remaining Czechs to return to the Czech Republic, which in 1993 almost 2,000 people did, and other people came to the Czech Republic in later years. As of today, Volhynian Czechs are still migrating.  In 2014, after the revolution in Ukraine and the occupation of Crimea by Russia, some of the Volhynian Czechs from the Zhytomyr region expressed their interest in returning to their native homeland.

Czechs in Ukraine, often known as Volhynian Czechs (Czech: "Volyňští Češi"), are ethnic Czechs or their descendants settled mostly in the Volhynia region of Ukraine, in the second half of the 19th century.


Playing career.

Prior to his selection at the 1995 NHL Entry Draft, Buzek was involved in a serious car collision in 1995 after falling asleep at the wheel and colliding with a tree. He broke both his legs, nose and wrist, shattered his right kneecap, fractured his left cheekbone and cracked his forehead. After numerous operations, he had a metal plate and ten screws inserted into his left leg, a plate and seven screws inserted into right ankle, two screws in his right knee and two screws in his left wrist. The accident dropped his stock considerably as he was projected as a top 10 pick, before he was drafted in the third round by the Dallas Stars.  Buzek played three seasons with the Michigan K-Wings of the International Hockey League, during which he also appeared in four games with the Stars. Buzek joined the Atlanta Thrashers in the 1999 NHL Expansion Draft, and was named to the 2000 All-Star Game as the Thrashers' first-ever representative.  Despite his success in their inaugural season, Buzek appeared in only 14 more games with the Thrashers in the next two seasons before being traded to the Calgary Flames, along with a draft pick, in exchange for Jeff Cowan and Kurtis Foster. Buzek appeared in 76 games in a season and a half with the Flames.  Buzek returned to the Czech Republic for the 2003–04 season, playing for HC Sparta Praha. The next season, he played for HC Jihlava and then moved to HC Litvínov before moving to the Slovak Extraliga to play for HC Slovan Bratislava. On October 18, 2005, Buzek announced his retirement from hockey, citing personal reasons for his decision.

Petr Buzek (born April 26, 1977) is a Czech former ice hockey defenceman. He was drafted in the third round, 63rd overall, by the Dallas Stars in the 1995 NHL Entry Draft. After five seasons in the NHL, he returned to the Czech Extraliga in 2003 until his retirement in 2005.


Life.

George Rudolf was born in Ohlau, the third but second surviving son of Joachim Frederick of Brieg, Duke of Liegnitz-Brieg (Legnica-Brzeg) and Anna Maria of Anhalt, daughter of Joachim Ernest, Prince of Anhalt. At the death of their father in 1602, George Rudolf and his older brother John Christian were minors, and their mother, the Dowager Duchess Anna Maria, became regent. After her death in 1605, the regency was taken by the paternal aunt of the young Dukes (the only surviving sibling of the late Joachim Frederick), Elisabeth Magdalena of Brieg and her husband, Karl II of Poděbrady, Duke of Münsterberg-Oels (Ziębice-Oleśnica). In 1609 John Christian became an adult and handled the government and George Rudolf's guardianship. When in 1612 George Rudolf became of age, the brothers divided their domains, Georg Rudolf ruling over "Liegnitz" (present-day Legnica, Wołów, Złotoryja, Grodźca, Lubin, Prochowice, Wińsko, Wąsosz, Ryczeń and Rudna and from 1616 on Chojnów) and John Christian over "Brieg" (present-day Brzeg, Oława, Strzelin, Niemcza, Kluczbork and Byczyna).  Following the example of his brother, George Rudolf converted to Calvinism in 1614. During the Thirty Years' War, he was exiled for fifteen years (1633–1648) as a result of the occupation of his land by the Habsburg Imperial army, though he nominally retained the government.  George Rudolf, as a ruler, was thoroughly educated and supported the development of culture and science. In particular, he is known as the creator of the famous "Biblioteca Rudolphina". In his court were reunited prominent scholars, poets and composers such as Martin Opitz and Friedrich von Logau, who often found asylum and protection at his court. He also promoted musical education; the Duke trained in composing competitions during a stay in Frankfurt, and collected prints and manuscripts of music works. During this time, he met one of the most prominent composers of his era, Heinrich Schütz, who dedicated to George Rudolf his collection of religious songs "Cantiones sacrae". Some surviving compositions by George Rudolf were recorded by Ars Nova on the CD "Rudolphina - Legnica Treasures" under direction of the Polish musician Jacek Urbaniak.  In Dessau on 4 November 1614, George Rudolf married his first cousin Sophie Elisabeth (10 February 1589 - 9 February 1622), daughter of his maternal uncle John George I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau. His second marriage (on 25 November 1624) was to another first cousin: Elisabeth Magdalena (29 May 1599 - 4 November 1631), daughter of aforementioned Duke Karl II and George Rudolf's paternal aunt Elisabeth Magdalena of Brieg. Both marriages were childless. Twice widowed, George Rudolf remained single for the next twenty-two years, until his death at Breslau. His lands were inherited by his nephews George III, Louis IV and Christian, the three only surviving sons of the first (and only equal) marriage of his brother John Christian, who had died in 1639.

George Rudolf of Liegnitz (; ) (22 January 1595 – 14 January 1653) was duke of Liegnitz-Wohlau (present-day Legnica-Wołów) from 1602 to 1653. A humanist, patron of arts, composer and poet, he was also Upper Governor of Silesia during 1621-1628 and from 1641 onwards.


Playing career.

Amateur.

Hendricks was drafted out of high school, 131st overall, in the fourth round of the 2000 NHL Entry Draft by the Nashville Predators. He played his prep hockey at Blaine High School in Blaine, Minnesota, an integral piece of the Blaine Bengals 2000 Class AA State Championship team where they defeated the Duluth East Greyhounds 6–0 in the final. Hendricks accumulated 110 points in 43 games during his prep career, and was later named a finalist for the 2000 Mr. Hockey Award. The "St. Paul Pioneer Press" named Hendricks, along with teammates Brandon Bochenski and Matt Moore, to the second team of the All-State Boys hockey team.  Hendricks was drafted by the United States Hockey League (USHL)'s Lincoln Stars during the 2000 USHL Winter Draft, but instead began his collegiate career in the NCAA with St. Cloud State University of the Western Collegiate Hockey Association (WCHA). Hendricks commenced play for the St. Cloud State Huskies as a true freshman during the 2000–01 season. In 2002–03, Hendricks led the Huskies in goals (18) as a junior.

Professional.

Immediately after his senior year with the Huskies, Hendricks made his professional debut with the Nashville Predators' top minor league affiliate, the Milwaukee Admirals of the American Hockey League (AHL), to end the 2003–04 season. After turning down a contract offer with the Predators, Hendricks became a free agent and signed with the Florida Everblades of the ECHL.  During his time with the Everblades in the 2004–05 season, Hendricks also signed a professional try-out agreement with the AHL's Lowell Lock Monsters, appearing in 15 games. He spent the 2005–06 season with the Rochester Americans before moving onto the Hershey Bears for the 2006–07 campaign.  Hendricks enjoyed a successful season in 2006–07, helping Hershey to the Calder Cup Finals, adding 12 points in 19 playoff contests. He was then signed by the Boston Bruins to a two-year contract on the July 9, 2007. He was assigned to Boston's AHL affiliate, the Providence Bruins, where he scored a career-high 52 points in the 2007–08 season.  On June 24, 2008, Hendricks was traded by the Bruins to the Colorado Avalanche in exchange for defenseman Johnny Boychuk. The Avalanche subsequently assigned him to their AHL affiliate, the Lake Erie Monsters, for the 2008–09 season until he was recalled to Colorado on March 9, 2009. He made his NHL debut with the Avalanche the next day, on March 10, 2009, in a 3–0 loss to the Atlanta Thrashers.  For the 2009–10 season, Hendricks made the Avalanche's opening night roster out of the organization's training camp. On October 10, 2009, he scored his first career NHL goal in a 4–3 loss against Cristobal Huet of the Chicago Blackhawks. Hendricks finished his first full NHL season with nine goals and 16 points in 56 games while also earning the Avalanche's nomination for the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy, awarded annually to the "National Hockey League player who best exemplifies the qualities of, sportsmanship, and dedication to hockey."  On September 27, 2010, Hendricks signed a one-year contract with the Washington Capitals after attending the team's training camp on a try-out basis. He signed with Washington based on his desire to play under the tutelage of then-Head Coach Bruce Boudreau, with whom he had previously played for with the Hershey Bears in 2006–07. Hendricks made his 2010–11 season debut with the Capitals on October 8, 2010, in a 4–2 defeat to the Atlanta Thrashers. He notched his first point, an assist, with Washington in his third game on October 11, 2010, against the Ottawa Senators. He scored his first goal as a Capital on October 27, 2010, the eventual game-winner, against Cam Ward of the Carolina Hurricanes in a 3–0 win.  On February 23, 2011, Hendricks signed a two-year, $1.65 million contract extension with Washington. Hendricks was a Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy nominee for the second year in a row after the Capitals named him their nominee in April 2011, though he was not one of the three finalists for the award.  Unable to agree on a new contract with the Capitals, Hendricks was signed as a free agent to a four-year contract to return to the organization that originally drafted him, the Nashville Predators, on July 5, 2013.  In the 2013–14 season, Hendricks struggled to meet the expectations of his new contract with the Predators, producing just four points in 44 games at the midpoint of the season. On January 15, 2014, he was traded to the Edmonton Oilers in exchange for goaltender Devan Dubnyk. In his second season with the Oilers, in 2014–15, his first full campaign in Edmonton, Hendricks rebounded offensively with 16 points in 71 games. In adding a veteran presence to the youthful Oilers, Hendricks' work ethic was rewarded in the form of a third nomination for the Masterton Memorial Trophy.  On August 27, 2017, Hendricks signed a one-year, $700,000 contract with the Winnipeg Jets. In the 2017–18 season, Hendricks totalled 8 goals and 13 points in 60 games with the Winnipeg Jets. He ranked second amongst Winnipeg forwards in shorthanded time on ice and ranked fifth on the team in hits. He appeared in 5 playoff games with the Jets, used in a fourth-line role.  Hendricks left the Jets after one season and on July 1, 2018, he signed as a free agent with his hometown team, the Minnesota Wild, on a one-year, $700,000 contract for the 2018–19 season. Hendricks registered 2 assists in the 22 games he was dressed before he was traded back to the Winnipeg Jets at the trade deadline for a 7th round draft pick in 2020.  On June 25, 2019, Hendricks ended his 15 year playing career, accepting a position in player development for the Minnesota Wild.

International play.

At completion of the 2014–15 season with the Oilers, at the age of 33, Hendricks was selected to play in his first international tournament after earning a place on Team USA for the 2015 World Championships in Prague, Czech Republic. As a veteran presence on the American squad, he was announced as team captain on eve of the tournament. In the opening game of the Championships, on May 1, 2015, Hendricks marked his international debut against Finland by scoring two goals in a 5–1 victory. Hendricks would lead Team USA to claim top position after the round robin stage and finished the Tournament with 3 points in 10 games, to help claim a Bronze medal against host country the Czech Republic on May 17, 2015.

Personal life.

Hendricks grew up in Blaine, Minnesota, son to an American Marine and a Swedish mother. In his spare time he enjoys playing golf.  Hendricks and his wife Kimberly have twins, a boy and a girl, born November 10, 2011.

Matthew James Hendricks (born June 17, 1981) is an American former professional ice hockey left winger who played in the National Hockey League (NHL) for the Colorado Avalanche, Washington Capitals, Nashville Predators, Edmonton Oilers, Winnipeg Jets and the Minnesota Wild. He was drafted 131st overall by the Predators in 2000, though he didn't play for the organization until signing as a free agent for the 2013–14 season.


Origins.

The Romans learned from the Greeks that quinces slowly cooked with honey would "set" when cool. The "Apicius" gives a recipe for preserving whole quinces, stems and leaves attached, in a bath of honey diluted with defrutum—Roman marmalade. Preserves of quince and lemon appear—along with rose, apple, plum and pear—in the "Book of ceremonies" of the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII "".  Medieval quince preserves, which went by the French name ', produced in a clear version and a fruit pulp version, began to lose their medieval seasoning of spices in the 16th century. In the 17th century, La Varenne provided recipes for both thick and clear '.  In 1524, Henry VIII received a "box of marmalade" from Mr Hull of Exeter. As it was in a box, this was probably "", a solid quince paste from Portugal, still made and sold in southern Europe. Its Portuguese origins can be detected in the remarks in letters to Lord Lisle, from William Grett, 12 May 1534, "I have sent to your lordship a box of marmaladoo, and another unto my good lady your wife" and from Richard Lee, 14 December 1536, "He most heartily thanketh her Ladyship for her marmalado". It was a favorite treat of Anne Boleyn and her ladies in waiting.  The English recipe book of Eliza Cholmondeley, dated from 1677 and held at the Chester Record Office in the Cheshire county archivists, has one of the earliest marmalade recipes ("Marmelet of Oranges") which produced a firm, thick dark paste. The Scots are credited with developing marmalade as a spread, with Scottish recipes in the 18th century using more water to produce a less solid preserve.  The first printed recipe for orange marmalade, though without the chunks typically used now, was in Mary Kettilby's 1714 cookery book, "A Collection of above Three Hundred Receipts" (pages 78–79). Kettilby called for whole oranges, lemon juice and sugar, with the acid in the lemon juice helping to create the pectin set of marmalade, by boiling the lemon and orange juice with the pulp. Kettilby then directs: "boil the whole pretty fast 'till it will jelly" – the first known use of the word "jelly" in marmalade making. Kettilby then instructs that the mixture is then poured into glasses, covered and left until set. As the acid would create a jelly, this meant that the mixture could be pulled from the heat before it had turned to a paste, keeping the marmalade much brighter and the appearance more translucent, as in modern-day marmalade.  The Scots moved marmalade to the breakfast table, and in the 19th century the English followed the Scottish example and abandoned the eating of marmalade in the evening. Marmalade's place in British life appears in literature. James Boswell remarks that he and Samuel Johnson were offered it at breakfast in Scotland in 1773. When American writer Louisa May Alcott visited Britain in the 1800s, she described "a choice pot of marmalade and a slice of cold ham" as "essentials of English table comfort".

Etymology.

"Marmalade" first appeared in the English language in 1480, borrowed from French which, in turn, came from the Galician-Portuguese word. According to José Pedro Machado’s, the oldest known document where this Portuguese word is to be found is Gil Vicente’s play "Comédia de Rubena", written in 1521:  The extension of "marmalade" in the English language to refer to a preserve made from citrus fruits occurred in the 17th century, when citrus first began to be plentiful enough in England for the usage to become common.  Greek'sweet apple', from 'honey' + 'apple, round fruit', became Portuguese 'quince'.  In Portuguese, is a preserve made from quinces, quince cheese.  There is an apocryphal story that Mary, Queen of Scots, ate it when she had a headache, and that the name is derived from her maids' whisper of ('Mary is ill'). In reality, the word's origin has nothing to do with Mary.

International usage.

In much of Europe and Latin America, cognates for the English term "marmalade" are still used as a generic term for pulpy preserves of all fruits, whereas in Britain it refers solely to preserves typically of citrus peel, such as from grapefruit, orange or lemon. The name originated in the 16th century from Middle French and Portuguese, where applied to quince jam.

Legal definitions.

Canadian regulations.

Under the Food and Drug Regulations (C.R.C., c. 870), marmalade is a standardized food and defined as a food of jelly-like composition that consists of at least 65% water-soluble solids. The regulations permit the use of pH adjusting agents to prevent the marmalade from dehydration, antifoaming agents to prevent blemishes on surface coatings and enable efficient filling of containers, and an acid ingredient to compensate for the natural acidity of the citrus fruit used. If pectin is added, the marmalade must contain at least 27% of peel, pulp, or juice of citrus fruit. Class II preservatives may also be used.  The Canadian Food and Drug Regulations (C.R.C., c. 870) specify that pineapple or fig marmalade must be of jelly-like consistency, achieved by boiling the pulp of juice of the fruit with water, and a sweetening ingredient. Pineapple or fig marmalade should contain at least 45% of the named fruit.

European regulation.

Since 1979, the EU directive 79/693/CEE define marmalade as a jam made from citrus fruits. The directive was replaced on 20/12/2001 by the ruling 32001L0113.

Dundee marmalade.

The Scottish city of Dundee has a long association with marmalade. James Keiller and his wife Janet ran a small sweet and preserves shop in the Seagate area of Dundee. In 1797, they opened a factory to produce "Dundee Marmalade", a preserve distinguished by thick chunks of bitter Seville orange rind. The business prospered, and remains a signature marmalade producer today.  According to a Scottish legend, the creation of orange marmalade in Dundee occurred by accident. The legend tells of a ship carrying a cargo of oranges that broke down in the port, resulting in some ingenious locals making marmalade out of the cargo. However, this legend was "decisively disproved by food historians", according to a "New York Times" report.

In children's literature.

Paddington Bear is known for his liking of marmalade, particularly in sandwiches, and kept it in his briefcase wherever he went. Paddington Bear is now used on the label of the smaller peel ("shred") and clearer/milder Robertson's "Golden Shred" marmalade, in place of the previous icon, "Golliwog", which is considered racially offensive. The 2014 movie "Paddington" led to a slight increase in marmalade sales in the UK.

Marmalade is a fruit preserve made from the juice and peel of citrus fruits boiled with sugar and water. The well-known version is made from bitter orange, but it is also made from lemons, limes, grapefruits, mandarins, sweet oranges, bergamots, and other citrus fruits, or a combination.


Synopsis.

Fyodor Ivanovich is a doctor who lives with his son, Boris; his daughter, Irina; his mother; and his nephew, Mark. The film centers on Boris's girlfriend, Veronika, during World War II. The character of Veronika represents Soviet women and civil society during the aforementioned war and in its aftermath.  The call to war sounds, and the country responds with great patriotic fervor. Boris volunteers to defend his homeland from the attackers, much to Veronika's sadness. He is killed in a swamp, while saving the life of Stepan, a fellow soldier. However, he is listed as missing in action; neither Veronika nor his family learn that he has been killed.  The German blitzkrieg then begins; people take refuge in the subway system underneath the city. During one attack, Veronika's parents refuse to leave their apartment; when Veronika returns, she finds that the building has been bombed. The entire apartment is gone and there is no sign of her parents. Fyodor Ivanovich invites Veronika to live with his family. Mark, who has been pursuing Veronika, is put in charge of keeping her company to lift her spirits. He is obviously in love with her, but she continually rejects him, waiting for Boris to return. However, during one bombing raid Veronika refuses to go down to the shelter and is left alone with Mark. This scene is left ambiguous, but it is implied that Mark rapes Veronika. She is then shamed into marrying him, while the rest of the family believes that she has betrayed Boris.  The family is relocated with many other Russians to the East of the country to escape the German offensive. They live in a temporary community where Fyodor Ivanovich, Irina, and Veronika work in a military hospital. Mark spends his time partying and playing music; he and Veronika are both clearly unhappy in their marriage. One of the soldiers in the hospital becomes hysterical when he receives a letter saying that his girlfriend has left him; Fyodor Ivanovich admonishes the soldier to forget about her, since women who cannot wait for their men to return are not worth grieving. Veronika overhears the speech and becomes very upset, since she appears to be such a woman.  Distraught, Veronika brings herself to a bridge and intends to jump in front of a rapidly approaching train. Just before she falls, she turns around and sees a young boy who is on the verge of getting hit by a car. She pulls the boy off the road, to which she learns that he is missing his mother and that his name, coincidentally, is Boris. Veronika decides to informally adopt the boy, and takes him back to the communal home.  Fyodor Ivanovich discovers that Mark's deferral from conscription was not because he was considered too talented to be drafted, as he had claimed, but because he bribed an official in Fyodor Ivanovich's name. Fyodor Ivanovich suddenly realizes that Mark has betrayed not only Russia, but the family as well, and has taken advantage of Veronika. Fyodor Ivanovich confronts Mark and kicks him out of the house, while Veronika is invited to stay and is forgiven by the family for "betraying" Boris.  A soldier in Boris's platoon comes in search of Boris's family to tell them the news about his death. Veronika refuses to believe it, saying that Boris's friend Stepan, who volunteered with Boris, will know what happened to him. At the end of the war, when the soldiers return and during a large street celebration, Veronika finds Stepan and learns that Boris is indeed dead. Stepan sadly gives her a bouquet of flowers, and Veronika stumbles in tears through the celebrating crowd. After Stepan makes a rousing speech asserting that those who died in the war will never be forgotten, Veronika goes from grieving to handing out the flowers in her bouquet to the returning soldiers, while seeing again in the sky the cranes flying.

Reception and influence.

As film scholar Josephine Woll observes, the protagonist Veronika was instrumental in shaping the post-Stalinist Soviet movies by heralding more complicated, multi-dimensional celluloid heroines, as well as focusing on the impact of war on common people. It was not only Soviet audiences that accepted and sympathized with Veronika‘s story. The lead actress of "Cranes", the beautiful Tatiana Samoilova, who was frequently identified with her role, took Europe by storm. Following the film's victory at the Cannes Film Festival in 1958, where it earned the event‘s prestigious Grand Prize, the world celebrated the film‘s main protagonist, and critics hailed the production for its stunning cinematography, acting, direction, and editing. Woll notes that the French "Liberation" commentator, for example, approvingly contrasted Samoilova‘s purity and authenticity with that Western female icon, Brigitte Bardot. Samoilova even remembered receiving a watch from her East German fans during a festival there; the gift featured the inscription: "Finally we see on the Soviet screen a face, not a mask."

The Cranes Are Flying (, translit. "Letyat zhuravli") is a 1957 Soviet film about World War II. It depicts the cruelty of war and the damage suffered to the Soviet psyche as a result of World War II (known in the Soviet Union as the Great Patriotic War). It was directed at Mosfilm by the Georgian-born Soviet director Mikhail Kalatozov in 1957 and stars Aleksey Batalov and Tatiana Samoilova. It was adapted by Viktor Rozov from his play. It won the "Palme d'Or" at the 1958 Cannes Film Festival, the only Soviet film to win that award, although "The Turning Point" (1946) was one of eleven films awarded that year's Grand Prix, the predecessor of the "Palme d'Or".