Background.

Simon IV de Montfort was the leader of the Albigensian Crusade to destroy the Cathar heresy and incidentally to join the Languedoc to the crown of France. He invaded Toulouse and exiled its count, Raymond VI. Count Raymond sought assistance from his brother-in-law, King Peter II of Aragon, who felt threatened by de Montfort's conquests in Languedoc (which de Montfort pledged to the crown of France). He decided to cross the Pyrenees and deal with Montfort at Muret.  On 10 September, Peter's army arrived at Muret, and was joined by a Toulousian militia. He chose to position his army so their right flank was protected by the Saudrune River, and the left protected by a marsh. He left the militia to assault the walls of the city.

Armies.

Simon de Montfort led an army of 1,000–1,700 French Crusaders, including a small contingent of knights brought by his ally, the Viscount of Corbeil. Montfort had 900 cavalry, of which 260 were knights. His 300–700 infantry stayed behind at Muret to hold the town and tie down the Toulousain militia.  Peter of Aragon had brought 800 to 1,000 Aragonese cavalry, joined by a militia of 2,000–4,000 infantry from Toulouse and cavalry from the counts of Comminges and Foix. Peter's combined forces possibly numbered 2,000 cavalry and 2,000–4,000 infantry.

Battle.

Montfort led his knights and horse sergeants out of the walled town and divided his cavalry army into three lines, with his half-brother William of Barres commanding the first line and Montfort himself commanding the third for purposes of tactical command and control. King Peter had arranged his men in the same formation, with the Count of Foix commanding the first line and the King disguising himself in a borrowed suit of armor in the second line. Once deployed, Peter's army remained stationary and waited for the Crusaders' approach.  Crossing a stream, William of Barres' cavalry rode for the center of the Count of Foix's line, with the second Crusader line following him. The coalition's first line was crushed by the impetus of the charge and the Crusaders broke through to the second. At the same time, Montfort maneuvered his unit to outflank the coalition cavalry from the left and crashed into them. Confused and disorganized, the coalition cavalrymen began to retreat.  King Peter may have been killed in the initial clash or the Crusaders may have headed for his standard in the second line during the battle, seeking to kill him. According to one contemporary account, he shouted "Here is your King!", but was not heard. Knowledge of his death contributed to the rout of his army.  Montfort's first two lines pursued the defeated coalition cavalry, while Montfort himself rallied his third line and kept them in reserve in case the pursuers encountered resistance. This proved unnecessary, as the fleeing cavalrymen put up no such effort.  Montfort then returned to the besieged Muret. The militia from Toulouse renewed their assault on the city. When they saw the Crusader horsemen returning and learned that King Peter of Aragon had been killed they broke and fled their fortified camp toward the Garonne River, but were slaughtered in the rout.

Aftermath.

This would be the last major battle of the Albigensian Crusade, which did not officially end until the 1229 Treaty of Paris. In addition, with de Montfort's victory as well as the death of King Peter, the ambitions of Aragon in Languedoc were effectively ended.

At the Battle of Muret on 12 September 1213 the Crusader army of Simon IV de Montfort defeated the joined forces of Raymond VI and of Peter II of Aragon, at Muret near Toulouse.


Life.

On January 8, 1854, Yan Fu was born in what is modern day Fuzhou, Fujian Province to a respectable scholar-gentry family in the trade of Chinese medicine. In his early years, Yan Fu’s father greatly encouraged Yan Fu to obtain a high education and prepare for the Imperial examination. However, the death of his father in 1866 caused an abrupt change to these plans. A year later, Yan Fu entered the Fujian Arsenal Academy () in Fuzhou, a Western school where he studied a variety of subjects including English, arithmetic, geometry, algebra, trigonometry, physics, chemistry, astrology and navigation. This was a turning point in young Yan Fu’s life as he was able to experience first-hand contact with Western science, thus inspiring the enthusiasm that carried him through the rest of his career.  After graduating with high honors in 1871, Yan Fu went on to spend the next five years at sea. He first served aboard the training ship "Jianwei" () and later on the battle cruiser "Yangwu" (). In 1877–79 he studied at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, England. During his years there, he became acquainted with China’s first ambassador Guo Songtao, and despite their age difference and status gap developed a strong friendship. Benjamin Schwartz mentions in his biography that "they often spent whole days and nights discussing differences and similarities in Chinese and Western thought and political institutions".  His return to China, however, did not bring him the immediate success he was hoping for. Though he was unable to pass the Imperial Civil Service Examination, he was able to obtain a teaching position at the Fujian Arsenal Academy and then Beiyang Naval Officers' School () at Tianjin. During this time, Yan Fu succumbed to the opium addiction that had sprung up in China. It was not until after the Chinese defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–95, fought for control of Korea) that Yan Fu became famous. He is celebrated for his translations, including Thomas Huxley's "Evolution and Ethics", Adam Smith's "The Wealth of Nations", John Stuart Mill's "On Liberty" and Herbert Spencer's "Study of Sociology". Yan critiqued the ideas of Darwin and others, offering his own interpretations. The ideas of "natural selection" and "survival of the fittest" were introduced to Chinese readers through Huxley's work. The former idea was famously rendered by Yan Fu into Chinese as "tiānzé" ().  Yan Fu served as an editor of the newspaper "Guowen Bao". He became politically active, and in 1895, he was involved in the Gongche Shangshu movement, which opposed the Treaty of Shimonoseki ending the First Sino-Japanese War. In 1909 he was given an honorary "Jinshi" degree. In 1912 he became the first principal of National Peking University (now Peking University). Today the university holds an annual academic conference in his honor.  He became a royalist and conservative who supported Yuan Shikai () and Zhang Xun () to proclaim themselves emperor in his later life. He also participated the foundation of Chouanhui (), an organization which supported restoring monarchy. He laughed at "New Literature Revolutionaries" such as Hu Shih ().  On October 27, 1921, after returning to his home in Fuzhou only a year earlier to recuperate from his recurring asthma, Yan Fu died at the age of 67.

Translation theory.

Yan stated in the preface to his translation of "Evolution and Ethics" (天演論) that "there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" (譯事三難:信達雅). He did not set them as general standards for translation and did not say that they were independent of each other. However, since the publication of that work, the phrase "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" has been attributed to Yan Fu as a standard for any good translation and has become a cliché in Chinese academic circles, giving rise to numerous debates and theses. Some scholars argue that this dictum actually derived from Scottish theoretician of translation, Alexander Fraser Tytler.  Though Yan Fu's classical prose did its best to meet the standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance", there were those who criticized his works for not being accessible to the younger generations. In particular, a famous liberal from the May Fourth Movement, Cai Yuanpei, stated in an article written in 1924: "...[Yan Fu's translations]...seem to be old-fashioned and his literary style is difficult to comprehend, but the standard with which he selected books and the way he translated them are very admirable even today". Other critiques of his work arose as Chinese scholars became more aware of Western learning.

Translated works.

Yan Fu was one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. Previous translation efforts had been focused mainly on religion and technology. Yan Fu was also one of the first scholars to have personal experiences in Western culture, whereas many prior scholars were students in Japan who then translated Western works from Japanese to Chinese. Yan Fu also played an important role in the standardization of science terminology in China during his time serving as the Head of the State Terminology Bureau.  In 1895 he published "Zhibao" 直報, a Chinese newspaper founded in Tianjin by the German Constantin von Hannecken (1854-1925), which contains several of his most famous essays:  Later, from 1898 to 1909, Yan Fu went on to translate the following major works of Western liberal thought:

Yan Fu (, IPA: ; courtesy name: Ji Dao, 幾道; 8 January 1854 — 27 October 1921) was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin's "natural selection", to China in the late 19th century.


Playing career.

Bolland was born in 1986 in Etobicoke, a district of Toronto, Ontario, and lived in the Mimico neighbourhood. He started playing hockey at the local arena, Mimico Arena, where he played for the Queensway Canadiens. He then played minor hockey for the Toronto Red Wings in the Greater Toronto Hockey League (GTHL) from 2000 until 2002. The Redwings would go on to win the OHL All Ontario Bantam Championship with Bolland recording four points in the championship game. He played in the 2000 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with the Toronto Red Wings.

Junior.

While playing for the Toronto Red Wings, Bolland was selected in the first round, eighth overall, of the 2002 Ontario Hockey League Priority Selection by the London Knights. Bolland made his OHL debut with the Knights during the 2002–03 season, where he played 63 games, scoring seven goals and adding 10 assists. During his sophomore OHL season (2003–04), Bolland increased his offensive contributions to the Knights, scoring 37 goals and adding 30 assists, while being named the club's Most Improved Player. Bolland represented the Western Conference at the 2004 OHL All-Star Game and was also chosen to participate in the 2004 CHL Top Prospects Game. Heading into the 2004 NHL Entry Draft, Bolland was the eighth ranked North American skater by the NHL's Central Scouting Bureau. Bolland was selected by the Chicago Blackhawks in the second round, 32nd overall, of the 2004 NHL Entry Draft.

Professional.

Bolland made his NHL debut versus the Vancouver Canucks on October 25, 2006. Bolland started the 2007–08 season with the Rockford IceHogs of the AHL, though spent the majority of his second professional season with the Blackhawks. He recorded his first NHL point on October 31, 2007, against the Dallas Stars and scored his first NHL goal on December 16 against the Florida Panthers. Bolland scored a game-winning overtime goal against the Toronto Maple Leafs on November 22, 2008. On May 22, 2009, Bolland had two assists for the Blackhawks in the first 10 minutes of the 2009 Western Conference Finals against the Detroit Red Wings. On June 9, 2010, Bolland became a Stanley Cup champion when the Blackhawks defeated the Philadelphia Flyers and won the Stanley Cup, ending their 49-year drought. On June 24, 2013, Bolland scored the game-winning goal in the final minute of Game 6 of the 2013 Stanley Cup Finals over the Boston Bruins, leading the Blackhawks to their second Stanley Cup title in four years.  During the 2013 NHL Entry Draft, the Blackhawks traded Bolland to the Toronto Maple Leafs for three Toronto draft picks: a second-round 2013 pick (Carl Dahlström, selected 51st overall), a fourth-round 2013 pick previously acquired from the Anaheim Ducks (Fredrik Bergvik, selected 117th overall) and a fourth-round pick in the 2014 NHL Entry Draft (Frederik Olofsson, selected 98th overall).  Following one season played with the Maple Leafs, Bolland was unable to agree to a new contract with the team, and on July 1, 2014, the Florida Panthers signed Bolland as an unrestricted free agent for a five-year, $27.5 million contract.  After the 2015–16 season, having largely been unable to perform to contract expectations in two unproductive years with the Panthers, Bolland was traded along with prospect Lawson Crouse to the Arizona Coyotes in exchange for a conditional 3rd round pick in the 2017 NHL Entry Draft (used to select Max Gildon) and a conditional 2nd round pick in the 2018 NHL Entry Draft (used to select Serron Noel) on August 25, 2016.  Bolland last played an NHL game on December 12, 2015, in a 3-1 loss to the Boston Bruins, and has yet to play again due to a back injury.

David D. Bolland (born June 5, 1986) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey player. Bolland earned the nickname ""'The Rat""' for his ability to get under the skin of opponents, similar to the play of Ken Linseman, the first player to have the nickname. Bolland was drafted by the Chicago Blackhawks in the second round (32nd overall) of the 2004 NHL Entry Draft. Prior to joining the Blackhawks full-time, Bolland played in the American Hockey League (AHL) for the Norfolk Admirals and Rockford IceHogs. While playing junior hockey in the Ontario Hockey League (OHL), Bolland helped the London Knights capture the 2005 Memorial Cup. He also competed at the 2006 World Junior Championships, where he helped Canada capture the gold medal.


Childhood and education.

Duncan was born in Kansas City, Missouri, where his childhood was marked by interest in the outdoors, helping him earn the rank of Eagle Scout in the Boy Scouts at a relatively young age. A lantern-slide presentation by big-game hunter and physician Richard L. Sutton, Sr., M.D., at Duncan's elementary school in Kansas City inspired an early interest in photography and world travel. Duncan briefly attended the University of Arizona, where he studied archaeology. While in Tucson, he inadvertently photographed John Dillinger trying to get into a hotel. Duncan eventually continued his education at the University of Miami, where he graduated in 1938, having studied zoology and Spanish. It was in Miami that his interest in photojournalism began in earnest. He worked as picture editor and photographer of the university paper.

Career.

His career as a photojournalist began when he took photographs of a hotel fire in Tucson, Arizona, while he was then studying archaeology at nearby University of Arizona. His photos included one of a hotel guest who made repeated attempts to go back into the burning building for his suitcase. That photo proved to be newsworthy when the guest turned out to have been notorious bank robber John Dillinger and the suitcase to have contained the proceeds of a bank robbery in which he had shot a police officer. Unfortunately, after the film was turned over to the "Tucson Citizen", it was lost forever, and the photos were never printed.  After college, Duncan began to freelance, selling his work to journals such as "The Kansas City Star", "Life" and the "National Geographic Magazine".  After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Duncan joined the Marine Corps, earned an officer's commission, and became a combat photographer. After brief postings in California and Hawaii, he was sent to the South Pacific on assignment when the United States entered World War II. As a 2nd lieutenant, he initially served with Marine Aircraft Group 23 and was later assigned to photograph operations of the South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command. Though combat photographers are often close to the action, they rarely fight. However, in a brief engagement at Bougainville Island, Duncan found himself fighting against the Japanese. Duncan also covered the Battle of Okinawa, and was on board the USS "Missouri" for the Japanese surrender.  Duncan's wartime photographs were so impressive that after the war he was hired by "Life" to join its staff at the urging of J.R. Eyerman, "Life" chief photographer. During his time with "Life", Duncan covered many events, including the end of the British Raj in India and conflicts in Turkey, Eastern Europe, Africa, and the Middle East.  Perhaps his most famous photographs were taken during the Korean War. He compiled many of these into a book, "This Is War!", (1951), with the proceeds going to widows and children of Marines who had been killed in the conflict. Duncan is considered the most prominent combat photographer of the Korean War.  His photo and talk with Marines in the Battle of Chosin Reservoir are notable:  “I asked him, ‘If I were God, what would you want for Christmas?’” Duncan says. “He just looked up into the sky and said, ‘Give me tomorrow.’”  Out of the Vietnam War, Duncan eventually compiled two additional books, "I Protest! (1968)" and "War Without Heroes (1970)". Here, Duncan abandoned impartiality and challenged the US government's handling of the war.  Aside from his combat photographs, Duncan is also known for his photographs taken informally at the homes of Pablo Picasso and his second wife Jacqueline Roque, initiated in 1956 on the suggestion of fellow photographer Robert Capa. He published seven books of photographs of Picasso in all. Duncan became a close friend of Picasso and was the only person allowed to photograph many of Picasso's private paintings. Duncan lived in Castellaras, France, close to Mougins, where Picasso spent the last 12 years of his life.  Duncan greatly assisted Nippon Kogaku (Nikon) during its early years, and in 1965 he was presented with the 200,000th Nikon F built in recognition for his use and popularization of their camera.  In 1966 he published "Yankee Nomad," a visual autobiography that collected representative photographs from throughout his career. In 2003 this was revised and published under the title of "Photo Nomad".  Duncan photographed both the 1968 Democratic and Republican national conventions, and published photographs from those conventions in a coffee-table book titled "Self-Portrait U.S.A." in 1969.  Duncan traveled extensively in the Middle East, having been stationed there ten years after World War II for "Life Magazine". He later published "The World of Allah" in 1982.  He turned 100 in January 2016 and died in June 2018 in Grasse, France, aged 102.

David Douglas Duncan (January 23, 1916 – June 7, 2018) was an American photojournalist, known for his dramatic combat photographs, as well as for his extensive domestic photography of Pablo Picasso and his wife Jacqueline.


Playing career.

A native of Urbandale, Iowa, Clemmensen was drafted by the New Jersey Devils in the 8th round, 215th overall, in the 1997 NHL Entry Draft after playing high school hockey with the Des Moines Capitals of the MHSHL, and then junior hockey with the Des Moines Buccaneers of the United States Hockey League (USHL). Upon being drafted, Clemmensen went on to play college hockey with the Boston College Eagles from 1997–2001, and won the NCAA National Championship with them as a senior. He played in four consecutive NCAA tournaments, reaching the Frozen Four all four years and the title game 3 of the 4 times. To this day, he holds the NCAA record for most career wins in the tournament, with 10 victories.  Turning pro in the 2001–02 season, Clemmensen made his NHL debut in New Jersey's season opener vs. the Washington Capitols and played in two games for the Devils, while playing the majority of his professional rookie season with the Albany River Rats of the American Hockey League (AHL), the Devils' minor league affiliate. He remained for the following three seasons in Albany, competing with fellow Devils' goaltending prospect Ari Ahonen for starts. In 2003–04, Clemmensen was called up and appeared in four games for the Devils, posting a 1.01 goals against average (GAA). He received his first NHL start against the Pittsburgh Penguins on January 20, 2004, winning 3–0. In doing so, Clemmensen became the first player in the history of the National Hockey League to have been born in the state of Iowa.  Following the 2004–05 NHL lockout, Clemmensen became Martin Brodeur's permanent backup, appearing in 13 games (starting in 9) and posting a 3.35 GAA for the 2005–06 season. The following year, Clemmensen appeared in six games in relief of Brodeur, recording a 3.14 GAA. In the off-season, he became a free agent and after the Devils signed Kevin Weekes to back up Brodeur, Clemmensen signed a one-year, two-way contract with the Toronto Maple Leafs on July 6, 2007. He played the majority of the 2007–08 season splitting starts with Maple Leafs Justin Pogge with the Toronto Marlies of the AHL, while appearing in three games for the Maple Leafs. He made his first start with the Maple Leafs on January 1, 2008, as the result of an injury to starter Vesa Toskala, and recorded a 4–3 shootout win against the Tampa Bay Lightning. Going into the 2007 Calder Cup playoffs back with the Marlies, Clemmensen assumed the starting role over Pogge and helped the club to the Western Conference semi-finals against the Chicago Wolves, where they were eliminated in five games. On July 10, 2008, Clemmensen returned to the New Jersey Devils, signing a one-year contract. He started the 2008–09 season with New Jersey's new AHL affiliate, the Lowell Devils. However, when Brodeur suffered a major injury early in the season, Clemmensen was called up to backup second-string goalie Kevin Weekes. However, as Weekes struggled in his early starts following Brodeur's injury, Clemmensen took over and started the majority of the games in Brodeur's absence. On February 25, 2009, Brodeur was taken off the injured reserve and Clemmensen was sent back to the Lowell Devils. In 40 games, Clemmensen posted a 25-13-1 record and two shutouts. His 25 wins are the highest total by a goaltender besides Brodeur in franchise history, while his 2.39 GAA and.917 save percentage were statistically in the league's top ten. He was awarded the Devils' Unsung Hero Award, as voted by his teammates, and was also selected as the Devils' nominee for the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy, awarded for perseverance and sportsmanship. He was not, however, retained as one of the league's three finalists. In April 2009, Clemmensen was called up once again, this time to backup Brodeur for the 2009 playoffs after an injury to Weekes.  Clemmensen signed with the Florida Panthers on July 1, 2009. On November 3, 2011, the Panthers loaned Clemmensen, who suffered a knee injury in the pre-season, to the San Antonio Rampage of the American Hockey League for conditioning purposes.  On July 1, 2014, Clemmensen returned to his original club, the New Jersey Devils as a free agent on a one-year contract. On June 30, 2015, Clemmensen ended his professional career but remained with the Devils in accepting a development goaltending coach role.

International play.

On May 1, 2009, Clemmensen was selected to represent Team USA at the 2009 IIHF World Championships as the starting goalie. He also played for Team USA in the 2010 IIHF World Championships, posting two consecutive shutouts: a 10-0 win over Kazakhstan, which he shared with Ben Bishop, and a 4-0 victory against France.

Scott Lee Clemmensen (born July 23, 1977) is an American former professional ice hockey goaltender, who played with the New Jersey Devils, Toronto Maple Leafs and the Florida Panthers in the National Hockey League (NHL).


Education.

Antonin Eliáš graduated in geodesy from the Czech Technical University in 1911. Working for a private company as a land surveyor he was sent to Bosnia to work on the construction of a railway.

Military career.

World War I.

After the declaration of war on Serbia Eliáš was obliged to join the Austro-Hungarian Army, and was sent with the Prague 28th Infantry Regiment to the Russian Front. After only a few days at the front Eliáš was taken prisoner on 28 August 1914 in Galicia.

Czechoslovak legions in France.

In 1917 Eliáš learnt of the existence of Czechoslovak Legions and joined them. The Czechoslovak Legions were volunteer armed forces fighting with the Entente Powers during World War I (France, Britain, Italy, Russia). Their goal was to win the Allies' support for independence, in which they were ultimately successful.  Eliáš was later dispatched to France, where he studied at the officer school at St Maixent, and was later assigned to the 21st Czechoslovak Regiment as a platoon commander.  In the autumn of 1918 he took part in battles at Terron and on the Aisne. For his bravery and command skills, he was awarded the French Croix de Guerre (Cross of War) and a made a member of the Legion of Honour.

Creation of Czechoslovakia.

His studies in France significantly accelerated Eliáš' career after the war. In Prague Eliáš became a general staff officer, later being promoted to Brigadier General.  As a military expert he was a member of the Czechoslovak delegation at the Disarmament Conference in Geneva. In 1936 he was promoted to General of Division (the second highest army rank) and became commander of the Vth Army Corps in Trenčín.  During the Second Czechoslovak Republic he was appointed Minister of Transportation and member of the Supreme State Defence Council of Czechoslovakia.

Prime Minister.

Appointment.

The first government under the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was only provisional, serving as a successor to the government of the Second Czechoslovak Republic during the German occupation of Czechoslovakia. Its replacement was discussed at the end of April 1939, with President Emil Hácha thinking Alois Eliáš would be a good choice for prime minister, because the popularity he had acquired during his earlier military career would legitimise the puppet regime. Eliáš had served with the Czechoslovak Legion in France during World War I, and attained the rank of general. Although somewhat dubious, some historians (who?) have written that Hácha hoped Eliáš's former contacts with Reichsprotektor Konstantin von Neurath could influence the Reichsprotektor on the desirability of Eliáš as Prime Minister.

Activities.

On 11 May 1939, Eliáš proposed that Jews would be deprived of Protectorate citizenship and subject to various discriminatory measures.  Eliáš maintained contacts with the Czechoslovak government-in-exile led by President Edvard Beneš. His situation started to deteriorate after a wave of arrests of resistance members in 1940. Among Eliáš' close contacts, the government minister fled to London, while the Lord Mayor of Prague,, who was well informed about Eliáš's activities in support of families of exiled and arrested Czechs and secret messengers and contacts with Czech president Edvard Beneš in exile, was arrested and later executed. By January 1941, the Gestapo had accumulated damning evidence of Eliáš' involvement in the resistance. SS and Police Leader Karl Hermann Frank called for his arrest, but was unsuccessful in having Eliáš removed.

The Sandwich Affair.

In early September 1941, Alois Eliáš lost patience with several collaborationist journalists. Eliáš officially invited them to the Office of the Government, planning to poison them. With the help of his urologist Miloš Klika, sandwiches were laced with botulism toxin, tuberculosis-causing Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and typhus-causing Rickettsia bacteria. On 18 September 1941 the invited journalists ate the poisoned sandwiches. Karel Lažnovský, the pro-Nazi editor of the journal "České slovo", was the only fatality. Other journalists, including Jaroslav Křemen and Emanuel Vajtauer, fell ill. Although Eliáš handled the sandwiches, he did not fall ill. Though the Sandwich affair was investigated by the Gestapo, Eliáš was not charged and remained in office.

Arrest and execution.

On 27 September 1941, two days before the appointment of Heydrich as the new Reich Protektor (German governor of Czech Lands), Eliáš was arrested, put on trial and sentenced to death. Eliáš was executed at the Kobylisy Shooting Range on 19 June 1942. During Eliáš' time on death row, Heydrich himself was assassinated by the Czech resistance.  It was over 60 years later that prime minister Eliáš was given a state funeral with full honours on 7 May 2006 and was buried at the National Monument in Vitkov in Prague.

Alois Eliáš (29 September 1890 in Prague – 19 June 1942 at Kobylisy Shooting Range, Prague) was a Czech General and politician. He served as Prime Minister of the puppet government of the German-occupied Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia from 27 April 1939 to 27 September 1941, but maintained contact with the government-in-exile. Because of his participation in the anti-Nazi resistance, he was the only head of government to be murdered by the Nazis during the war.


De Vries expedition.

The two ships, the "Castricum" under De Vries and the "Breskens" under Hendrick Cornelisz Schaep left Batavia, the capital of Dutch Java, in February 1643. After a stop in Ternate in the Moluccas they continued their journey on April 4. On May 20 the two ships lost touch with each other in a storm, while off Hachijo Shima, an island some 290 km south of Edo, which, due to this setback, was christened "Ongeluckich", or "Unlucky", Island by the Dutch.

"Breskens" in Yamada.

The "Breskens" arrived in a promising bay and was received friendly by the population of Yamada on Tohoku, Japan. Six weeks later the "Breskens" again sailed to Yamada, probably while they had a good time. In the evening they organized a party with a samurai and most probably some Japanese women. (It is not known what exactly happened, because the diary got lost in 1692, after Nicolaes Witsen received it.) The next day, July 29, ten members of the crew, including the captain were invited by the women to come to a farm where they would receive fresh vegetables and fish. The unarmed crew was offered sake and rice, but captured, and sent to Morioka and Edo for interrogation. The Japanese feared Portuguese / Spanish Jesuits had come to land. As a result, bakufu officials were extremely anxious about the problem of coastal defenses. However, after it was understood that the crew were Dutch merchants and not Catholics, the problem to be solved became one of deciding by which procedure the Dutch should be released. After Jan van Elserac had arrived the "shōgun" Tokugawa Iemitsu sent them in December to Deshima. The crew had to wait nine months for the next ship to Taiwan while the "Breskens" had left Honshu already at the end of July (without a captain) searching for the Gold and Silver Islands.

"Castricum" going north.

In the summer of 1643, the "Castricum" sailed by the southern Kuril Islands, visiting Kunashir, Iturup (which they named "Staten Island", although nowadays this name is only used to refer to Staten Island, in New York City), and Urup, where they met with the Ainu, and which they named "Company Island" and claimed for the Netherlands.  The "Castricum" passed between the islands of Iturup and Urup, the strait between the islands being later named Vries Strait after its discoverer, and entered the Sea of Okhotsk.  The Dutch sailed north, without encountering any land, until being driven south-west toward the northern shores of Hokkaido. Then they sailed north again, discovering Cape Aniva (the southeastern tip of Sakhalin Island), Gulf of Patience (where they indeed had to be patient, waiting for the fog to clear), and Cape Patience east of it.  After another excursion, now east into the Pacific, the "Castricum" returned to Japanese waters and managed to meet with the "Breskens" off Kyushu. The two ships sailed to Fort Zeelandia (Taiwan) and returned to Batavia in mid-December 1643.

Battles of La Naval de Manila.

Maarten Gerritsz Vries died on board from disease after leading an unsuccessful attempt to invade the Philippines.

Maarten Gerritszoon Vries, or Fries, also referred to as de Vries, (18 February 1589, Harlingen, Netherlands – late 1647, at sea near Manila) was a 17th-century Dutch cartographer and explorer, the first Western European to leave an account of his visit to Ezo, Sakhalin, Kuril Islands and the Sea of Okhotsk.


Playing career.

Paek was the first player of Korean descent to play hockey in the NHL. Paek was drafted by the Pittsburgh Penguins in the ninth round, 170th overall, in the 1985 NHL Entry Draft. Before joining the NHL in 1990–91, he played three seasons for the Oshawa Generals (1984–85 to 1986–87) of the OHL and three seasons with the Muskegon Lumberjacks (1987–88 to 1989–90) of the IHL. Paek also played 48 games for the Canadian National Team in 1990–91.  Paek's NHL career began with the Penguins in 1990–91. Upon entering the league, he became the first Korean-born hockey player to ever play in the NHL and since he was part of the Penguins' Stanley Cup run of 1990–91, he became the first player of Korean descent to have his name engraved on the Cup. His Penguins sweater now hangs in the Hockey Hall of Fame honouring this feat.  After four seasons and two Stanley Cups in Pittsburgh, Paek was traded mid-season to the Los Angeles Kings in 1993–94 as part of the deal that brought Tomas Sandström to the Penguins. After only 18 regular season games as a King, he moved on, signing with the Ottawa Senators for the 1994–95 NHL season.  After only 29 games with the Ottawa Senators in 1994–95, he left the NHL and began play in the International Hockey League. In the IHL, he played for the Houston Aeros, winning the league championship Turner Cup in 1999, Minnesota Moose, Manitoba Moose, and Cleveland Lumberjacks. His next stop was Great Britain, where he joined the Nottingham Panthers of the British Ice Hockey Superleague. With the exception of 40 games in 2001–02 with the Anchorage Aces of the West Coast Hockey League, he played out the rest of his career with the Panthers, retiring after the 2002–03 season.  In five NHL seasons, Paek played 217 regular season games, recording five goals, and 29 assists. He also racked up 155 penalty minutes. Paek played in 27 playoff games, recording one goal, four assists, and eight penalty minutes.

Coaching career.

Early career.

After retiring from play, Paek coached the Orlando Seals of the World Hockey Association 2, guiding the club to a 27–25–5 in 2003–04, and coaching in the league's all-star game.  In 2004, Paek served as an assistant coach for the St. Edward High School, leading the team to an Ohio state championship. While coaching at St. Edward, he also served as a co-coach of the Cleveland Panthers bantam minor squad, leading them to an Eastern Elite Amateur Hockey League title.

Grand Rapids Griffins.

On 11 August, 2005, Paek was named the assistant head coach for the Grand Rapids Griffins of the American Hockey League (AHL). Paek helped guide the Griffins to their first Calder Cup in 2013, the American Hockey League's regular season championship in 2005-06, and a cumulative record of 357–272–33–46 (0.560) during his nine seasons. Paek was the longest-tenured coach in franchise history, having served as the assistant coach for nine seasons.

International career.

On July 23, 2014, it was announced that Paek accepted a position as the director of hockey for the Korea Ice Hockey Association (KIHA), and head coach of the South Korean national team. Under Paek's leadership, South Korea earned its first-ever Olympic hockey qualification to the 2018 Winter Olympics, held on home soil in Pyeongchang.

Personal life.

Paek was born in Seoul but grew up in Canada after moving there at age one, playing hockey in Toronto. As a youth, he played in the 1980 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with the Toronto Marlboros minor ice hockey team.

Jim Paek (, born April 7, 1967) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey player, who is currently the director of hockey for the Korea Ice Hockey Association and head coach of the South Korean national team. Paek played in the National Hockey League (NHL) from 1990–91 to 1994–95, and won the Stanley Cup twice, in 1991 and 1992 with the Pittsburgh Penguins. He is both the first Korean-born hockey player to play in the NHL, and to have his name engraved on the Stanley Cup.


Life.

Fénéon was a prominent literary stylist, art critic, and anarchist born in Turin, Italy in 1861. He was later raised in Burgundy, presumably because his father was a travelling salesman. After placing first in the competitive exams for jobs, Fénéon moved to Paris to work for the War Office where he achieved the rank of chief clerk. During his time in the war office he edited many works, including those of Rimbaud and Lautréamont, as well as helped to advance the fledgling pointillist movement under Georges Seurat. He was also a regular at Mallarmé's salons on Tuesday evenings as well as active in anarchist circles. Fénéon, ironically, worked 13 years at the War Office while remaining heavily active in supporting anarchist circles and movements. In March 1892 French police talked about Fénéon as an 'active Anarchist', and they had him shadowed. In 1894 Fénéon was arrested on suspicion of conspiracy because of an anarchist bombing of the Foyot restaurant, a popular haunt of politicians. He was also suspected of connection with the assassination of the French President, Sadi Carnot, by an Italian anarchist He and twenty-nine others were arrested under charges of conspiracy in what became known as the Trial of the Thirty. Fénéon was acquitted with many of the original thirty. However, the trial was a high point in publicity for Fénéon, normally behind the scenes, as he championed his wit to the amusement of the jury. Of the courtroom scene, Julian Barnes writes, "When the presiding judge put it to him that he had been spotted talking to a known anarchist behind a gas lamp, he replied coolly: Can you tell me, Monsieur le Président, which side of a gas lamp is its behind?"  After the trial, Fénéon became even more elusive. In 1890, the Neo-Impressionist Paul Signac asked to produce a portrait of the lauded critic. Fénéon refused several times before agreeing, on the condition that Signac produced a full face effigy. Signac naturally refused, painting instead a famous profile of Fénéon with his characteristic goatee, a picture that largely became a symbol of the movement, spawning many variations. Fénéon, though displeased, hung the picture on his wall until Signac's death 45 years later.  Aside from "Novels in Three Lines" that first appeared as clippings in the Parisian "Le Matins" in 1906 and later as a collection, only because his mistress Camille Pateel had collected them in an album, Fénéon published only a 43-page monograph in "Les Impressionists" (1886). When asked to produce "Les Nouvelles en Trois Lignes" as a collection, Fénéon famously replied with an angry "I aspire only to silence". As Luc Sante points out, Fénéon, one might say, is invisibly famous, having affected so much without being recognizable to many. Fénéon's lawyer Thadée Natanson offered him a post at "La Revue Blanche" after the trial and his subsequent expulsion from the War Office; he worked for that magazine until 1903. In that time, he went on to promote the works of Seurat and Signac through the magazine. He organized the first retrospective of Seurat's work in 1900. Seurat is known for a number of works, most significantly "La Grande Jatte". Hajo Düchting, the author of "Seurat, The Master of Pointillism" notes that "Actually he (Fénéon) was the only critic who proved capable of articulating an appreciation of Seurat's picture, and the new method of painting it exemplified, in words notable for their objective tone".  After "La Revue Blanche" failed, Fénéon went to work for the liberal paper "Le Matin", where he anonymously composed daily news "filler", what the French call "faits-divers" or "sundry events", of three lines each. His authorship was not revealed until the 1940s. In these he captured the complex subtleties of French daily life. The following examples highlight the wit of such a critic of the mundane:  After his post at "Le Matin ", Fénéon directed the Galerie Bernheim-Jeune and became increasingly involved with Neo-Impressionism, especially the art of Georges Seurat. He was the director of the gallery from 1906 to 1925. Before his retirement from the gallery, he is reported to have told a friend that he was "ready for idleness", and then he abruptly quit at the age of 63.

Félix Fénéon (22 June 1861 – 29 February 1944) was a French anarchist and art critic during the late 19th century. He coined the term "Neo-Impressionism" in 1886 to identify a group of artists led by Georges Seurat, and ardently promoted them.


Definition.

East Thrace includes all in the eastern part of the historical region of Thrace. The area includes all the territories of the Turkish provinces of Edirne, Tekirdağ and Kırklareli, as well as those territories on the European continent of the provinces of Çanakkale and Istanbul. The land borders of East Thrace were defined by the Treaty of Constantinople (1913) and the Bulgarian-Ottoman convention (1915), and were reaffirmed by the Treaty of Lausanne.

Climate.

Due to the moderating effect of the surrounding seas, the climate tends to be Mediterranean in character. It can descend to about 12°C and can rise to about 32°C, similar to Asian Turkey.

Geography.

East Thrace has an area of 23,764 km (3 percent of Turkey's land area), slightly smaller than Sardinia, and a population of about 11 million people or about 14 percent of the total Turkish population (in 2015); the population density is around 430 people/km, compared to about 80 people/km for Asiatic Turkey, which is also called Anatolia or Asia Minor. However, densities are skewed by the metropolis of Istanbul. The two continents are separated by the Dardanelles, the Bosphorus (collectively known as the Turkish Straits) and the Sea of Marmara, a route of about 361 km. The southernmost part of Eastern Thrace is called the Gallipoli peninsula. European Turkey is bordered on the west by Greece for 212 km and on the north by Bulgaria for 269 km, with the Aegean Sea to the south-west and the Black Sea to the north-east.

History.

East Thrace was the setting for several important events in history and legend, including:  The mass killings and displacement of Thracian Bulgarians in 1913 and the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey ethnically cleansed the Orthodox populations.  Prior to that the distribution of ethnoreligious groups in the local "sanjaks" was as follows: The Muslim "millet" was recorded as Turkish, while the church members of the Ecumenical Patriarchate were recorded as Greek.  In the past century, modern East Thrace was the main component of the territory of the Adrianople Vilayet, which excluded the Constantinople Vilayet, but included West Thrace and parts of the Rhodopes and Sakar. A publication from December 21, 1912 in the Belgian magazine "Ons Volk Ontwaakt" (‘Our Nation Awakes’) estimated 1,006,500 inhabitants in the vilayet:  21st century East Thrace constitutes what remains of Turkish Rumelia, which once stretched as far north as Hungary and as far west as Bosnia. Rumelia was lost piecemeal from 1699 onwards, until in 1912 the bulk of it was lost in the First Balkan War. Some small regains were made during the Second Balkan War, giving East Thrace the political borders visible today.

East Thrace or Eastern Thrace ( or simply "Trakya";, "Anatoliki Thraki";, "Iztochna Trakiya"), also known as Turkish Thrace or European Turkey, is the part of Turkey that is geographically part of Southeast Europe. It accounts for 3% of Turkey's land area but comprises 14% of its total population. The rest of much of the country is located on the Anatolian Peninsula as well as the Armenian Highlands, geographically in Western Asia. The largest city of the region is Istanbul, which straddles the Bosporus strait between Europe and Asia.


Life.

After his father's death in 1579, Adam Wenceslaus inherited the Duchy of Cieszyn; but because he was a minor at that time, the regency was held by his mother and the Dukes George II of Brzeg and Karl II of Ziębice. This triple regency continued until 1586, when the Dowager Duchess Sidonia Katharina remarried with the Hungarian nobleman Imre III Forgach, "Obergespan" [Count] of Trenčín (17 February) and the eldest regent, Duke George II of Brzeg, died (7 May). Despite her new marriage, Sidonia Katharina retained her influence in Cieszyn. Duke Karl II of Ziębice ruled since them as sole regent.  In 1586 Cieszyn Silesia suffered a very serious epidemic of plague who caused the death of several residents of the Duchy. One year later, in 1587, Cieszyn became in the center of the fight between Piastów other scourge for example, in 1587 the area became a duchy terrain fighting between the Archduke Maximilian III of Austria and Jan Zamoyski during the War of the Polish Succession.  In view of the continuing threats, in 1587 Adam Wenceslaus was sent in 1587 to the Electoral court in Saxony. There, the young Duke received a careful education, particularly in the military affairs. It was only in 1595 when he returned to Cieszyn, and, because, he was legally an adult, he began his independent government.  Since the beginning of his personal rule, Adam Wenceslaus took part in the wars with Turks and also declared political sympathies towards to the Emperor Rudolf II; this resulted in the need to build, in the southern part of the Duchy, some defensive fortifications. This case has special significance during the emergence of Bocskai during 1604–1606, when the Hungarian anti-Habsburg army almost defeated the Cieszyn troops.  In 1609 Adam Wenceslaus was in the middle of the conflict between Emperor Rudolf II and his brother Archduke Matthias. The Duke of Cieszyn stood at the side of the former. Finally, Rudolf II gave his brother the Bohemian crown, which placed to Adam Wenceslaus in a particularly awkward situation, who had submitted in 1611 when he had to paid homage to the new King in Wrocław.  For other reasons, the year of 1611 had a significant importance in Adam Wenceslaus's life. His time in Saxony made him a determined Protestant and in several times he issued decrees aimed at promotion of Lutheranism in Cieszyn (for example, in 1598 the Duke decreed a privilege, under which his successors were obligated to stimulate the Lutheran faith among his subjects and built churches with this purpose). However, some of his relatives, who like him where educated in the Electoral court, opted for converted to Catholicism. Adam Wenceslaus had a total variation in his Protestant politics—in accordance with the principle of ""cuius regio, eius religio""—and started the fight with the Church, followed the evangelical spirit of the Counter-Reformation (one of the first decisions of Adam Wenceslaus after his conversion to the Catholic faith was the cancellation of the Privilege of 1598). This caused hard resistance between the nobility and burghers; however, a large part of the population also shifted to Roman Catholicism. Soon after, the Duke restored to the expelled Catholic religious orders (like the Dominicans and Franciscans) their former monasteries. The exact reasons for the Duke of Cieszyn's conversion are unknown, but this was probably in order to amended his relations with his sovereign, King Matthias of Bohemia, since 1612 also Holy Roman Emperor. However, Adam Wenceslaus wasn't a fervent Catholic and didn't force the part of the Cieszyn population who remained Protestant to shift to the Catholic faith.  This radical step in fact improved the Duke's relations with Emperor Matthias, who on 6 February 1617 appointed Adam Wenceslaus as Landeshauptmann General of Silesia.  The rule of Adam Wenceslaus over Cieszyn proved to be less favorable. The constant trips, expensive military expeditions, and finally the change of faith, led the Duchy in the imminent bankruptcy. Two examples of his expensive lifestyle were the trip to Wrocław to paid homage to the King Matthias—his suite, composed by 285 people, were richly furnished by him—and in 1614, after a vote for his miraculous conversion, Adam Wenceslaus went on a pilgrimage to Kalwaria Zebrzydowska. This trip, according to contemporary sources, was not religious: the Duke's only desire was to show his wealth. At the end, his debts were often paid by the towns and chivalry.  Adam Wenceslaus died on 13 July 1617 in Brandys, a Cieszyn suburb, and was buried in the Dominican church of Cieszyn. In 1617 Adam Bysiński from Bysina, heir of Iłownica, accused three Cieszyn noblemen to poisoned Adam Wenceslaus: Erazm Rudzki, speaker of the Chancellor, Waclaw Pelhrzim from Trzenkowice (von Pelchrzim), a Judge court, and Piotr Gurecki from Kornice on Jaworzu. On 21 December 1622 both parties concluded an agreement, and the allegations of Bysiński were dismissed.

Marriage and issue.

On 17 September 1595 Adam Wenceslaus married with Elisabeth (d. 19 November 1601), daughter of Gotthard Kettler, Duke of Courland. They had five children:  In addition to his legitimate offspring, he had an illegitimate son, born from his relationship with "Margareta Kostlachówna" (ca. 1584 – Cieszyn, 3 January 1617):

Adam Wenceslaus of Cieszyn (,, ; 12 December 1574 – 13 July 1617), was a Duke of Cieszyn from 1579 until his death.


Life.

Originally raised in the Lutheran faith, in 1611 she converted to the Catholicism, together with her whole family.  On 13 July 1617 her father, Adam Wenceslaus, died and was succeeded by his only surviving son, Frederick William. On 23 April 1618 Elizabeth Lucretia was married against her will with the also ex-Lutheran Gundakar of Liechtenstein, a widower almost twenty years her senior. Gundakar was a younger brother of Karl I, Duke of Opava (Troppau) and Krnov (Jägerndorf), one of the members of the Regency council who ruled the Duchy of Cieszyn during Frederick William's absence; however, this arrangement was short-lived, and the de facto rule was held by Elizabeth Lucretia, even after Frederick William returned to Cieszyn and assumed the effective government in 1624, because the Duke almost immediately after his return made a trip with the Emperor to the Netherlands. During this journey, Frederick William became suddenly ill and died on 19 August 1625 in Köln, unmarried and without legitimate issue.  Initially, Emperor Ferdinand II tried to join Cieszyn to his domains, using his rights as King of Bohemia; but the end, he accepted Elizabeth Lucretia as reigning Duchess, by right of the Privilege granted by King Władysław II Jagiellon to Duke Casimir II of Cieszyn in 1498, under which was secured the female succession over Cieszyn until the fourth generation.  During her reign, Cieszyn passed through one of the most difficult periods in his history. It was the Thirty Years' War, during which Cieszyn was regularly plundered by foreign forces (during 1626-1627 by Danish troops of Ernst von Mansfeld, during 1642-1643 and 1645-1647 by Swedish troops under the commands of Colonel Rochowa and General Königsmarck, respectively), both in terms of infrastructure and finances. In addition plague and hunger also affected the Duchy and many citizens died. Eventually, this led to Cieszyn being economically and demographically destroyed for the next 100 years. Elizabeth Lucretia's life was seriously threatened on several occasions: for example, in 1642, when she had to find refuge in Jablunkov and in 1645, when she escaped to Kęty, after the Swedish forces took the capital (which capitulated only in 1646). Only the Peace of Westphalia on 24 October 1648 finally established the peace in her domains.  The marriage of the Duchess with Gundakar of Liechtenstein proved to be unsuccessful, despite the fact that they had three children together. In 1626 they were formally separated, and remained in this way until her death.  Elizabeth Lucretia died on 19 May 1653 and was buried in the Ducal crypt in the Dominican church in Cieszyn.  After her death, the Duchy of Cieszyn reverted to the Bohemian Crown as a completed fiefdom and was onward ruled directly by the Bohemian kings, then members of the House of Habsburg. Subsequently, Habsburg dynasty bore the title until the fall of the Empire and the liquidation of the Duchy of Cieszyn in 1918.

Children.

Elizabeth and Gundakar had three children:

Elizabeth Lucretia of Cieszyn (; ; ); 1 June 1599 – 19 May 1653), was a reigning Duchess of Cieszyn (Teschen, Těšín) from 1625 until her death. Born as the third child and second daughter of Adam Wenceslaus, Duke of Cieszyn (by his wife Elisabeth, daughter of Gotthard Kettler, Duke of Courland), she was the last ruler of Cieszyn from the Polish Piast dynasty.


Life.

In 1405 Bolesław's father entrusted him with direct rule over Bytom and Siewierz and the government of the Duchy of Cieszyn. A year later (1406), the murder of his brother Przemysław originated a break in relations between Bolesław and his father. Shortly after, Bolesław married Margareta, the sister of John II the Iron, Duke of Racibórz, who was the instigator of Przemysław's death. According to Jan Długosz, his father, Duke Przemysław I Noszak strongly opposed this union, and even threatened to disinherit Bolesław if he maintained contact with the Přemyslid Dukes of Opava and Racibórz. The early death of Margareta shortly after the wedding contributed to the reconciliation between Bolesław and his father, which was formally signed on 7 September 1407.  After his father's death in 1410, Bolesław inherited Cieszyn, Toszek, Strzelin and half of both Głogów and Ścinawa. Also, he was named regent of the Duchy of Oświęcim on behalf of his nephew Casimir, only son of Bolesław's brother.  Bolesław's second marriage in 1412 to Euphemia (called also Ofka), daughter of Duke Siemowit IV of Masovia, was probably suggested by King Władysław II Jagiełło of Poland (Euphemia's maternal uncle), who saw the opportunity to make close bonds between Upper Silesia and Kraków. However, Bolesław and Euphemia were related in the third degree of consanguinity, so a Papal dispensation was needed, which was granted on 27 January 1412. The wedding took place some months later, on 20 November.  His alliance with Jagiełło quickly brought him results, as in 1414 Bolesław took an active part in the Polish-Teutonic War at the King's side. However, he didn't appear in the Congress of Wrocław in 1420, where King Sigismund of Bohemia (future Holy Roman Emperor), as a mediator between the Teutonic Order and the King of Poland, had issued an unfavorable ruling to the Polish King.  In 1414 Bolesław decided to transfer to his nephew Casimir full government over Oświęcim, Gliwice and Toszek. However, Casimir's ambitions erupted in a conflict between him and Bolesław, which ended two years later, on 11 November 1416, when (following the mediation of Duke Henry IX of Lubin), the Duke of Cieszyn give the town of Strzelin and 300 fines as payment to Casimir. Bolesław retained the rest of his lands.  Although the Duchy of Cieszyn was under the rule of the Kingdom of Bohemia, Bolesław didn't support the House of Luxembourg in its struggle for the Bohemian crown, but maintained good relations with Kraków and the Bohemian townspeople. In 1422, despite the Bohemian-Polish dispute, Bolesław was a guest at the court of King Władysław II Jagiełło, and took part in the coronation of his wife, Queen Sophia of Halshany.  During the last years of his reign, Bolesław supported Bohemian side during the Hussite Wars, but didn't participate in the war itself.  In internal politics, he supported the development of the towns. He ceded several rights to some towns, for example Bytom (where in 1412 he give the right to inheritance to the burgers), Frýdek and Bielsko. This was also partly motivated by the lack of money in the duchies' budget.  Bolesław died on 6 May 1431 and was buried in the Dominican church in Cieszyn.

Marriages and Issue.

On 1 January 1406, Bolesław married firstly Margareta (b. 1380 - d. bef. 7 September 1407), daughter of Duke John I of Opava-Ratibor. They had no children.  On 20 November 1412, Bolesław married secondly Euphemia (Ofka) (b. 1395/98 - d. bef. 17 September 1447), daughter of Duke Siemowit IV of Masovia. They had five children:

Bolesław I of Cieszyn (,, ) ( – 6 May 1431) was a Duke of half of Bytom and Siewierz from 1405, Duke of Cieszyn and half of both Głogów and Ścinawa from 1410, and Duke of Toszek and Strzelin during 1410–1414.


Life.

Early years.

Little is known about the early years of Mieszko I's life. His first documented mention was on 21 October 1258, when he appears together with his father and two younger brothers in the consent of the foundation of a Cistercian abbey in Rudy.

Duke of Racibórz.

After his father's death in 1282, and according to the custom during the fragmentation of Poland, Mieszko and his brothers divided the Duchy of Opole-Racibórz between them: Mieszko and his youngest brother Przemysław received together the district of Racibórz as co-rulers. The other two brothers, Casimir and Bolko I, received Opole. Because Przemysław was still a minor at that time, Mieszko ruled alone until he attained his majority, in 1284.  In 1285 Mieszko politically supported the Bishop of Wrocław, Thomas II Zaremba against Henry IV Probus, providing shelter to the Bishop in Raciborz. His politics against Henry IV were reinforced when the Duke of Wrocław repudiated his wife Constance —sister of Mieszko— and sent her back to her homeland. Another consequence of Mieszko's politics was an armed expedition of Henry IV in 1287 against Racibórz, who was sieged. Then Mieszko was forced to refuse his help to the Bishop.

Duke of Cieszyn.

In 1290 the division was made of the Duchy of Racibórz: Przemysław retained Racibórz and Mieszko obtained the rule over the districts of Cieszyn, Oświęcim and Zator. The first time that he signed himself as Duke of Cieszyn was on 1 January 1290.  In internal politics he pursued vigorous policies. Mieszko carried out intensive colonizing policies and founded many settlements. He also gave city rights to several towns: Cieszyn, Oświęcim (in 1291), Bielsko, Skoczów and Fryštát. On 10 November 1292 he granted the city rights to Zator.

Struggles for the Throne of Kraków.

Mieszko refused to support any of the Piast pretenders to the Polish throne (Henry IV Probus, Przemysł II and Władysław I the Elbow-high). Instead he stood alongside King Wenceslaus II of Bohemia. On 17 January 1291 the formal agreement was signed in Olomouc which formed the alliance between the Bohemian Kingdom, Mieszko and his two brothers Casimir and Przemysław. Mieszko eventually swore homage to King Wenceslaus II, although the exact date was still debatable; the most accepted date by historians was 11 August 1292.  Despite his alliance, Mieszko didn't take an active part in Wenceslaus II's campaign against Władysław I the Elbow-high in 1292; however, he put his army at the King's disposal and later took part in the Battle of Siewierz. Mieszko was present at the coronation of Wenceslaus II as King of Poland in Gniezno in 1300. After the death of Wenceslaus II in 1305, Mieszko continued to support the Přemyslid dynasty in the person of Wenceslaus III, son and successor of Wenceslaus II.  On 5 October 1305, Mieszko obtained his major victory when his daughter Viola Elisabeth married King Wenceslaus III. This union was a chance for Mieszko to make himself one of the most powerful figures in Bohemia, and he even began some attempts to obtain the Polish crown.  However, Mieszko's promising career ended suddenly with the murder of Wenceslaus III (Olomouc, 4 August 1306). Viola Elisabeth never bore Wenceslaus III any children and the Přemyslid dynasty became extinct.  After 1306 the political activity of Mieszko almost disappeared. Is unknown why this happened, because at that time he was only around fifty-years-old and was still considered young enough. The government of the Duchy was increasingly absorbed by his sons Wladyslaw and Kazimierz. The only sign of his political activities during this time was the lease of the Czech city of Kęty to the Bishop of Kraków, Jan Muskata, a strong opposer to the rule of Władysław I the Elbow-high in Greater Poland. However, in contrast to his brother Bolko I, Mieszko didn't support the Rebellion of wójt Albert in 1311.

Donations to the Church.

Mieszko was known for his generosity to the church. Thanks to him, the construction was completed of the Dominican convent at Oświęcim (shortly after 1283). Also, he financially assisted the monastery of Czarnowąsy near Opole and in the Dominican of Cieszyn.

Death.

Mieszko's exact date of death is unknown. Diplomatic sources suggest that he died in 1314 or in the first half of 1315, before 27 June. He was probably buried in the Dominican church in Cieszyn. In 1931 the Polish painter and sculptor Jan Raszka made a sculpture of Mieszko I in Cieszyn.

Marriage and issue.

According to some sources, Mieszko's wife died around 1303, but her name is unknown. The Obituary of the Church of St. Vincent in Wrocław showed the existence of a certain "Grzymisława, Duchess of Opole" ("Grimizlaua ducissa Opuliensis") who was buried there around 13 September 1286. Her parentage is also unknown, but her name suggests a Russian origin, probably member of the Rurikids. Her title suggests that she may have been the wife of Mieszko I or the first wife of Bolko I (Mieszko I's brother), or maybe a completely different person.  Also, the exact date of their marriage was uncertain, but after a further reconstructions of their children's birth dates, was placed between 1275 and 1280. They had three children:

Mieszko I of Cieszyn (,, ; also known as Mieszko I of Opole; 1252/56 – by 27 June 1315), was a Duke of Racibórz during 1282–1290 (with his brother as co-ruler) and the first Duke of Cieszyn since 1290 until his death.


The experiment.

This experiment involves an apparatus with two main sections. After two entangled photons are created, each is directed into its own section of the apparatus. Anything done to learn the path of the entangled partner of the photon being examined in the double-slit part of the apparatus will influence the second photon, and vice versa. The advantage of manipulating the entangled partners of the photons in the double-slit part of the experimental apparatus is that experimenters can destroy or restore the interference pattern in the latter without changing anything in that part of the apparatus. Experimenters do so by manipulating the entangled photon, and they can do so before or after its partner has passed through the slits and other elements of experimental apparatus between the photon emitter and the detection screen. Under conditions where the double-slit part of the experiment has been set up to prevent the appearance of interference phenomena (because there is definitive "which path" information present), the quantum eraser can be used to effectively erase that information. In doing so, the experimenter restores interference without altering the double-slit part of the experimental apparatus.  A variation of this experiment, delayed choice quantum eraser, allows the decision whether to measure or destroy the "which path" information to be delayed until after the entangled particle partner (the one going through the slits) has either interfered with itself or not. In delayed-choice experiments quantum effects can mimic an influence of future actions on past events. However, the temporal order of measurement actions is not relevant.  First, a photon is shot through a specialized nonlinear optical device: a beta barium borate (BBO) crystal. This crystal converts the single photon into two entangled photons of lower frequency, a process known as spontaneous parametric down-conversion (SPDC). These entangled photons follow separate paths. One photon goes directly to a detector, while the second photon passes through the double-slit mask to a second detector. Both detectors are connected to a coincidence circuit, ensuring that only entangled photon pairs are counted. A stepper motor moves the second detector to scan across the target area, producing an intensity map. This configuration yields the familiar interference pattern. Next, a circular polarizer is placed in front of each slit in the double-slit mask, producing clockwise circular polarization in light passing through one slit, and counter-clockwise circular polarization in the other slit (see Figure 1). This polarization is measured at the detector, thus "marking" the photons and destroying the interference pattern (see Fresnel–Arago laws).  Finally, a linear polarizer is introduced in the path of the first photon of the entangled pair, giving this photon a diagonal polarization (see Figure 2). Entanglement ensures a complementary diagonal polarization in its partner, which passes through the double-slit mask. This alters the effect of the circular polarizers: each will produce a mix of clockwise and counter-clockwise polarized light. Thus the second detector can no longer determine which path was taken, and the interference fringes are restored.  A double slit with rotating polarizers can also be accounted for by considering the light to be a classical wave. However this experiment uses entangled photons, which are not compatible with classical mechanics.

Other applications.

Quantum erasure technology can be used to increase the resolution of advanced microscopes.

Common Misconception.

A very common misunderstanding about this experiment is that it may be used to instantaneously communicate information between two detectors. It is important to understand the role of the coincidence detector in this experimental setup. The linear polarizer in the top path is effectively filtering out half the entangled photons, and via the coincidence detector, is filtering out the corresponding photons in the bottom path. The coincidence detector can only function by comparing data from both sensors, making it impossible to use this setup for instant communication.  In other words, only a small percentage of the light passing through the BBO crystal is split into entangled pairs. The vast majority of photons passing through the crystal are not split, and must be removed from the final data set as unwanted noise. Since there is no way for the detectors to measure whether or not a photon had been part of an entangled pair, that decision is made by looking at the timing, and filtering out any photons that are not picked up at the same time as their 'twin' at the other detector. Thus, when a pair of entangled photons is created, but one of the two is blocked by a polarizer and lost, the remaining photon will be filtered out of the data set as if it was one of the many non-entangled photons. When viewed this way, it is not surprising that making changes to the upper path can have an impact to measurements taken on the lower path, as the two measurements are being compared and used to filter the data.  Note that in the final state of this experimental setup, measurements on the lower path always show a smeared out pattern on the raw data. Seeing an interference pattern is only possible by filtering the data with the coincidence detector and only looking at photons that were 1/2 of an entangled pair.

In quantum mechanics, the quantum eraser experiment is an interferometer experiment that demonstrates several fundamental aspects of quantum mechanics, including quantum entanglement and complementarity.


Description.

The yellow-footed rock-wallaby is grey to fawn-grey above and light-coloured below with a black mid-dorsal stripe from the crown of the head to the centre of the back. There is a distinct white cheek stripe, with ears ranging in colour from orange to grey-brown. The forearms and hind legs are bright yellow to rich orange to a light orange-brown. The tail is orange-brown irregularly ringed with dark brown and golden-brown, with the colour of the tip variable from dark brown to white. The head and body length is 480–650 mm (usually 600 mm), with tail length 570–700 mm (usually 690 mm), and weight 6–11 kg.

Distribution and habitat.

This species of rock-wallaby is found in western New South Wales, eastern South Australia and isolated portions of Queensland. It is not typically found near human habitation, instead preferring rough terrain and rock outcroppings.

Subspecies.

There are two recognised subspecies. There are no observable differences between the two subspecies, but genetic analysis of DNA samples from the different populations found them to be genetically distinct. The genetic divergence between the subspecies is greater than that between some other rock-wallaby species, reinforcing the subspecies status.  The two subspecies are:

"P. x. xanthopus".

"P. x. xanthopus" is listed as vulnerable under the "Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999" by the Australian government. Colonies persist in South Australia, within the Gawler Ranges, the Flinders Ranges and the Olary Ranges. The population is SA is estimated at around 2,000 to 6,500 animals, with great uncertainty and likely large fluctuations. Due to conservation efforts by sanctuaries in the Flinders Ranges and pastoralists in the Olary Ranges, populations there have increased in recent years.  In NSW, colonies have been found at three sites in the Gap Range and seven sites in the Coturaundee Range, with a population of between 170 and 215 animals. Threats include competition from introduced herbivores (in particular feral goats and rabbits), predation by foxes and feral cats, isolation of populations, and habitat destruction through mineral exploration.

"P. x. celeris".

"P. x. celeris" is listed as vulnerable under the "Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999" by the Australian government. It has a restricted distribution in the rocky ranges of central-western Queensland. Threats include fox predation, competition with domestic and wild introduced species (particularly goats and cattle), climate change, reduced access to water sources, habitat loss and fragmentation, and increase in bushfires. The population of "P. x. celeris" was roughly estimated to be 5,000-10,000 individuals in 1993, but is now considered unknown.

Conservation.

Previously the species has been killed in large numbers for its pelt, primarily through the period between the 1880s and 1920s.  The yellow-footed rock-wallaby was originally known and described from specimens from South Australia. The species was subsequently discovered in New South Wales (and Queensland) where it was first recorded in 1964 in the Coturaundee Ranges, now part of Mutawintji National Park. The two small mountain ranges in the far west of the state are still the only known places where the species survives in New South Wales.  In 1968, the Arkaroola Wilderness Sanctuary was established on the 610 square kilometre Arkaroola pastoral lease, with a specific goal of protecting the Yellow Footed Rock Wallaby. Conservation activities include extensive fox baiting, and the control of feral cats and goats, as well as occasional hand-rearing of abandoned joeys  In 1979, the Foundation for National Parks & Wildlife purchased 100 square kilometres of this land, which then became Coturaundee Nature Reserve, for the conservation and protection of the yellow-footed rock-wallaby. Further funds were allocated to fox and goat eradication. Annual surveys of the area, which is now part of Mutawintji National Park, indicate that the population is now recovering, seemingly having grown progressively since 1995, with at least one large fluctuation due to rainfall changes noted. The recovery strategy that saved the yellow-footed rock-wallaby initially served as a model to preserve other rock-wallabies including the brush-tailed rock-wallaby from extinction.

The yellow-footed rock-wallaby ("Petrogale xanthopus"), formerly known as the ring-tailed wallaby, is a member of the macropod family (the marsupial family that includes the kangaroos, wallabies, tree-kangaroos, and wallaroos).


History.

The Soviet census of 1926 showed 53,700 Jews living in Minsk (constituting close to 41% of the city's inhabitants).  The ghetto was created soon after the German invasion of the Soviet Union and capture of the city of Minsk, capital of the Belorussian SSR, on 28 June 1941. On the fifth day after the occupation, 2,000 Jewish intelligentsia were massacred by the Germans; from then on, murders of Jews became a common occurrence. About 20,000 Jews were murdered within the first few months of the German occupation, mostly by the Einsatzgruppen squads.  On 17 July 1941 the German occupational authority, the Reichskommissariat Ostland, was created. On 20 July, the Minsk Ghetto was established. A Jewish Council (Judenrat) was established as well. The total population of the ghetto was about 80,000 (over 100,000 according to some sources), of which about 50,000 were pre-war inhabitants, and the remainder (30,000 or more) were refugees and Jews forcibly resettled by the Germans from nearby settlements.  In November 1941 a second ghetto was established in Minsk for Jews deported from the West, known as Ghetto Hamburg, which adjoined the main Minsk ghetto. Above the entrance to this separate ghetto was a sign: "Sonderghetto" (Special Ghetto). Every night the Gestapo would murder 70–80 of the new arrivals. This ghetto was divided into five sections, according to the places from which the inhabitants came: Hamburg, Frankfurt, Berlin, the Rhineland, Bremen, and Vienna. Most of the Jews in this ghetto were from Germany and the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia; at its height it had about 35,000 residents. Little contact was permitted between the inhabitants of the two ghettos.  As in many other ghettos, Jews were forced to work in factories or other German-run operations. Ghetto inhabitants lived in extremely poor conditions, with insufficient stocks of food and medical supplies.  On 2 March 1942, the ghetto's nursery or orphanage was "liquidated"; the children were buried alive in a pit after the murderers had tossed them candy: At that moment, several SS officers, among them Wilhelm Kube, arrived, whereupon Kube, immaculate in his uniform, threw handfuls of sweets to the shrieking children. All the children perished in the sand. In March 1942, approximately 5,000 Jews were killed nearby where "The Pit" memorial to the Minsk ghetto now stands. On 31 March, the Germans raided the ghetto to arrest Resistance leaders and much of the ghetto, including the synagogue, was burned.  By August fewer than 9,000 Jews were left in the ghetto according to German official documents. The ghetto was liquidated on 21 October 1943, with many Minsk Jews perishing in the Sobibor extermination camp. Several thousand were massacred at Maly Trostenets extermination camp (before the war, Maly Trostenets was a village a few miles to the east of Minsk). By the time the Red Army retook the city on 3 July 1944, there were only a few Jewish survivors.

Resistance.

The Minsk Ghetto is notable for its large scale resistance organization, which cooperated closely with Soviet partisans. About 10,000 Jews were able to escape the ghetto and join partisan groups in the nearby forests. Barbara Epstein estimates that perhaps half of them survived, and notes that all together, perhaps as many as 30,000 people tried to escape the Minsk Ghetto to join the partisans (but 20,000 of them could have died along the way).

The Minsk Ghetto was created soon after the German invasion of the Soviet Union. It was one of the largest in Belorussian SSR, and the largest in the German-occupied territory of the Soviet Union. It housed close to 100,000 Jews, most of whom perished in The Holocaust.


Terminology.

When a player tries to choose the "best" strategy among a multitude of options, that player may compare two strategies A and B to see which one is better. The result of the comparison is one of: This notion can be generalized beyond the comparison of two strategies.  Strategy: A complete contingent plan for a player in the game. A complete contingent plan is a full specification of a player's behavior, describing each action a player would take at every possible decision point. Because information sets represent points in a game where a player must make a decision, a player's strategy describes what that player will do at each information set.  Rationality: The assumption that each player acts to in a way that is designed to bring about what he or she most prefers given probabilities of various outcomes; von Neumann and Morgenstern showed that if these preferences satisfy certain conditions, this is mathematically equivalent to maximizing a payoff. A straightforward example of maximizing payoff is that of monetary gain, but for the purpose of a game theory analysis, this payoff can take any form. Be it a cash reward, minimization of exertion or discomfort, promoting justice, spread of ones genes, or amassing overall “utility” - the assumption of rationality states that players will always act in the way that best satisfies their ordering from best to worst of various possible outcomes.  Common Knowledge: The assumption that each player has knowledge of the game, knows the rules and payoffs associated with each course of action, and realizes that every other player has this same level of understanding. This is the premise that allows a player to make a value judgment on the actions of another player, backed by the assumption of rationality, into consideration when selecting an action.

Dominance and Nash equilibria.

If a strictly dominant strategy exists for one player in a game, that player will play that strategy in each of the game's Nash equilibria. If both players have a strictly dominant strategy, the game has only one unique Nash equilibrium. However, that Nash equilibrium is not necessarily "efficient", meaning that there may be non-equilibrium outcomes of the game that would be better for both players. The classic game used to illustrate this is the Prisoner's Dilemma.  Strictly dominated strategies cannot be a part of a Nash equilibrium, and as such, it is irrational for any player to play them. On the other hand, weakly dominated strategies may be part of Nash equilibria. For instance, consider the payoff matrix pictured at the right.  Strategy "C" weakly dominates strategy "D." Consider playing "C": If one's opponent plays "C," one gets 1; if one's opponent plays "D," one gets 0. Compare this to "D," where one gets 0 regardless. Since in one case, one does better by playing "C" instead of "D" and never does worse, "C" weakly dominates "D". Despite this, is a Nash equilibrium. Suppose both players choose "D". Neither player will do any better by unilaterally deviating—if a player switches to playing "C," they will still get 0. This satisfies the requirements of a Nash equilibrium. Suppose both players choose C. Neither player will do better by unilaterally deviating—if a player switches to playing D, they will get 0. This also satisfies the requirements of a Nash equilibrium.

Iterated elimination of strictly dominated strategies (IESDS).

The iterated elimination (or deletion) of dominated strategies (also denominated as IESDS or IDSDS) is one common technique for solving games that involves iteratively removing dominated strategies. In the first step, at most one dominated strategy is removed from the strategy space of each of the players since no rational player would ever play these strategies. This results in a new, smaller game. Some strategies—that were not dominated before—may be dominated in the smaller game. The first step is repeated, creating a new even smaller game, and so on. The process stops when no dominated strategy is found for any player. This process is valid since it is assumed that rationality among players is common knowledge, that is, each player knows that the rest of the players are rational, and each player knows that the rest of the players know that he knows that the rest of the players are rational, and so on ad infinitum (see Aumann, 1976).  There are two versions of this process. One version involves only eliminating strictly dominated strategies. If, after completing this process, there is only one strategy for each player remaining, that strategy set is the unique Nash equilibrium.  Strict Dominance Deletion Step-by-Step Example:  Another version involves eliminating both strictly and weakly dominated strategies. If, at the end of the process, there is a single strategy for each player, this strategy set is also a Nash equilibrium. However, unlike the first process, elimination of weakly dominated strategies may eliminate some Nash equilibria. As a result, the Nash equilibrium found by eliminating weakly dominated strategies may not be the "only" Nash equilibrium. (In some games, if we remove weakly dominated strategies in a different order, we may end up with a different Nash equilibrium.)  Weak Dominance Deletion Step-by-Step Example:  In any case, if by iterated elimination of dominated strategies there is only one strategy left for each player, the game is called a dominance-solvable game.

In game theory, strategic dominance (commonly called simply dominance) occurs when one strategy is better than another strategy for one player, no matter how that player's opponents may play. Many simple games can be solved using dominance. The opposite, intransitivity, occurs in games where one strategy may be better or worse than another strategy for one player, depending on how the player's opponents may play.


History.

The "Panzerschreck" development was initially based on the American bazooka, captured in Tunisia, February 1943. The "Panzerschreck" was larger and heavier than its American counterpart - the "Panzerschreck" had an 88 mm calibre, compared to the 60 mm calibre of the bazooka - which meant that it could penetrate thicker armor, but also produced more smoke when firing.  Calibre 88 mm was selected as the existing RPzB. Gr. 4312 for "8.8 cm Raketenwerfer 43" was reused for "Panzerschreck". Warhead and fuzing was carried over, but the rocket motor's housing needed lengthening from to to accommodate the longer rocket motor. "Raketenwerfer 43" had percussion firing, whereas for the "Panzerschreck" an electrical priming was selected, forming standard grenade RPzB. Gr. 4322. Other munitions were developed, including drill dummy, practice live rocket with inert warhead and standard grenade with improved contact system.  The earliest production model of the RPzB 54 was long and weighed about when empty. Unlike the rockets used in American bazookas which extinguished before leaving the tube, the RPzB rockets kept burning for about after exiting the tube. Users were instructed to wear heavy gloves, a protective poncho and a gas mask without a filter to protect them from the heat of the backblast when the weapon was fired. Improvised shields were made to protect the user and in February 1944, the RPzB 54 was fitted with an official blast shield to protect the operator which made the weapon heavier, weighing empty. Small numbers of the shortened "RPzB 54/1" were later produced. It had an improved rocket, a shorter barrel, and a range increased to about.  Firing the RPzB generated a copious amounts of smoke both in front of and behind the weapon. Because of the weapon's tube and smoke produced, official documentation named the weapon the "Ofenrohr" ("stove pipe"). This also meant that anti-tank teams were revealed once they fired, making them targets and, therefore, required them to shift positions after firing. This type of system also made it problematic to fire the weapon from inside closed spaces (such as bunkers or houses), filling the room with toxic smoke and revealing the firing location immediately.  Late war German tactical doctrine called for "Panzerschreck" and/or "Panzerfaust" teams to set up in staggered trenches no further than apart. In this way, attacking armor would face anti-tank fire from multiple directions at a distance of no more than. Anti-tank teams were instructed to aim for the thinner side or rear armor whenever possible. Allied armored units frequently attempted to add improvised protection to their tanks, e.g., sandbags, spare track units, logs and so on to protect against HEAT rounds. Another defense was to rig metal mesh and netting around the tank, resembling the German "Schürzen" auxiliary plates. In practice about 1 meter of air gap were required to substantially reduce the penetrating capability of RPzB, thus skirts and sandbags were virtually entirely ineffective against RPzB and Panzerfaust.  In 1944, Germany provided the "Panzerschreck" to Finland, which used it to great effect against Soviet armour. The Finnish name for the weapon was "Panssarikauhu" (literal translation of the German name).  The Italian Social Republic and Hungary also used the "Panzerschreck". Several Italian units became known as skilled anti-tank hunters and the Hungarians used the "Panzerschreck" extensively during Operation Spring Awakening.

Performance.

Penetration measured against Face-Hardened Armor (FHA), Rolled Homogeneous Armor (RHA).

Panzerschreck (lit. "tank fright", "tank's fright" or "tank's bane") was the popular name for the "Raketenpanzerbüchse " 54 ("Rocket Anti-armor Rifle model 54" abbreviated to RPzB 54), an 88 mm reusable anti-tank rocket launcher developed by Nazi Germany in World War II. Another earlier, official common name was "Ofenrohr" ("stove pipe").


Background.

In August 1914, Russian armies moved against both German East Prussia and Austria-Hungary's largest province of Eastern Galicia, straddling the present-day Poland/Ukraine border. Its advance into Germany was soon repulsed but its Galician campaign was more successful. General Nikolai Ivanov overwhelmed the Austro-Hungarian forces under Conrad von Hötzendorf during the Battle of Galicia, and the whole Austrian front fell back over to the Carpathian Mountains. The fortress at Przemyśl was the only Austrian post that held out and by 28 September, was completely behind Russian lines. The Russians were now in a position to threaten the German industrial region of Silesia, making the defense of Przemyśl of importance to the Germans as well as the Austro-Hungarians.

First siege.

On 24 September, General Radko Dimitriev, commander of the Russian Third Army began the siege of the fortress. Dimitriev was without sufficient siege artillery when he began the investment and instead of waiting for the Russian high command to send him the artillery pieces, Dimitriev ordered a full-scale assault on the fortress before an Austrian relief force could be sent. For three days the Russians attacked and accomplished nothing at the cost of 40,000 casualties. While this was under way General Paul von Hindenburg launched an offensive against Warsaw in the north. In conjunction with the German attack on Warsaw, General Svetozar Boroevic von Bojna led a relief force towards Przemyśl. On 11 October, Dimitriev lifted the siege and withdrew across the San River. Conrad von Hötzendorf had hopes that a combined assault from Boroevic's army and the Przemyśl garrison would inflict a severe blow on the Russians.  A month and a half on from the time when the Russians encircled the town, German troops helped the Habsburg troops to break the encirclement. Civilians were ordered to leave at once – in part to relieve the severe food shortage.

Second siege.

By 31 October, Hindenburg had been defeated at the Battle of the Vistula River and withdrew from his assault on Warsaw. This caused Boroevic to pull back from the River San line, and abandon von Hötzendorf's proposed offensive against Russia. On November 9 the Russians resumed the siege of Przemyśl. Radko Dimitriev's force was withdrawn from the Przemyśl sector and moved north. The Russian Eleventh Army under General Andrei Nikolaevich Selivanov took up the siege operations. Selivanov did not order any frontal assaults as Dimitriev had, and instead settled to starve the garrison into submission. By mid-December 1914, the Russians were pounding the fortress with ceaseless artillery fire seeking to compel the town's surrender. During the winter 1914–1915 the Habsburg armies continued to fight their way to the fortress. Months of fighting resulted in great losses, largely from frostbite and disease, but relieving forces failed to reach the garrison at Przemysl.  In February 1915, Boroevic led another relief effort towards Przemyśl. By the end of February, all relief efforts having been defeated von Hötzendorf informed Hermann Kusmanek von Burgneustädten that no further efforts would be made. Selivanov was given sufficient artillery to reduce the fortress. The Russians overran the northern defenses on 13 March. An improvised line of defense held up the Russian attacks long enough for Kusmanek to destroy anything left in the city that could be of use to the Russians once captured. On March 19 Kusmanek ordered an attempt to break out but his sallies were repulsed and he was forced to retreat back into the city. With nothing useful left within the city, Kusmanek had no choice but to surrender. On 22 March, the remaining garrison of 117,000 surrendered to the Russians. Among the captured were nine generals, ninety-three senior staff officers, and 2500 other officers.

Life in Przemyśl under siege.

Diaries and notebooks kept by various people in the town have survived. The diary of Josef Tomann, an Austrian recruited into military service as a junior doctor, reveals the results of the activities of garrison officers: "The hospitals have been recruiting teenage girls as nurses. They get 120 crowns a month and free meals. They are, with very few exceptions, utterly useless. Their main job is to satisfy the lust of the gentlemen officers and, rather shamefully, of a number of doctors, too [-] New officers are coming in almost daily with cases of syphilis, gonorrhea and soft chancre. The poor girls and women feel so flattered when they get chatted up by one of these pestilent pigs in their spotless uniforms, with their shiny boots and buttons." Other accounts reveal the pervasive presence of starvation and disease, including cholera, and the diary of Helena Jablonska, a middle-aged, quite wealthy Polish woman, reveals class and anti-semitic and racial tensions in the town; " The Jewish women in basements rip you off the worst", and on March 18, 1915 – "The Jews are taking their shop signs down in a hurry, so that no one can tell who owns what. [-] They've all got so rich off the backs of those poor soldiers, and now of course they all want to run away!" Once the Russians arrived in March the fate of the Jews worsened and she noted: "The Cossacks waited until the Jews set off to the synagogue for their prayers before setting upon them with whips. There is such lamenting and despair. Some Jews are hiding in cellars, but they'll get to them there too."

Mail communications.

Airmail flights from Przemyśl during both sieges when airmail postcards, mostly military mail, were flown from the besieged city on twenty-seven flights. Following a forced landing, mail from one flight was confiscated by the Russians and sent to Saint Petersburg for postal censorship and onward transmission. Balloon mail, on some manned but mainly unmanned paper balloons, was also carried out of the city. Pigeon mail was also used to send messages out of the city.

Results.

The fall of Przemyśl led many to believe that Russia would now launch a major offensive into Hungary. This anticipated offensive never came, but the loss of Przemyśl was a serious blow to Austro-Hungarian morale. A further blow to Austria-Hungary was the fact that Przemyśl was only supposed to be garrisoned by 50,000, yet over 110,000 Austro-Hungarians surrendered with the fortress, a much more significant loss. The Russians held Przemyśl until the summer of 1915 when the Gorlice-Tarnow Offensive pushed back the Russian front in Galicia. Przemysl stayed in Austro-Hungarian hands until October 1918, at which point Eastern Galicia left the Austro-Hungarian Empire and became part of the newly created independent state of Poland. The Austro-Hungarian army never recovered from its losses in the winter of 1914–1915 and the Habsburgs would rely henceforth on German assistance both in their sector of the Eastern Front and in the Balkans.  Meanwhile Austro-Hungarian attempts to relieve the fortress ended catastrophically as the poorly supplied and outnumbered imperial forces attempted offensive after offensive through the Carpathian Mountains. Casualties for January to April 1915, in the Carpathians, were officially reported as 800,000, mostly due to weather and disease rather than combat. Russian casualties were nearly as high, but easier to replace, and balanced out more by the surrender of 117,000 Austro-Hungarian troops at the end of the siege. All told, the siege and the attempts to relieve it cost the Austro-Hungarian army over a million casualties and inflicted on it significant damage from which it would never recover.

The Siege of Przemyśl was the longest siege of the First World War, and a crushing defeat for Austria-Hungary against Russian attackers. Przemyśl (German: "Premissel") was a fortress town on the River San and a Galician stronghold. The investment of Przemyśl began on 16 September 1914, and was briefly suspended on 11 October, due to an Austro-Hungarian offensive. The siege resumed again on 9 November, and the Austro-Hungarian garrison surrendered on 22 March 1915, after holding out for a total of 133 days.