History.

The Lumière brothers were born in Besançon, France, to Charles-Antoine Lumière (1840–1911) and Jeanne Joséphine Costille Lumière, who were married in 1861 and moved to Besançon, setting up a small photographic portrait studio where Auguste and Louis were born. They moved to Lyon in 1870, where son Edouard and three daughters were born. Auguste and Louis both attended La Martiniere, the largest technical school in Lyon. Their father Charles-Antoine set up a small factory producing photographic plates, but even with Louis and a young sister working from 5 a.m. to 11 p.m. it teetered on the verge of bankruptcy, and by 1882 it looked as if they would fail, but when Auguste returned from military service the boys designed the machines necessary to automate their father's plate production and devised a very successful new photo plate, 'etiquettes bleue', and by 1884 the factory employed a dozen workers. They patented several significant processes leading up to their film camera, most notably film perforations (originally implemented by Emile Reynaud) as a means of advancing the film through the camera and projector. The original cinématographe had been patented by Léon Guillaume Bouly on 12 February 1892. The cinématographe — a three-in-one device that could record, develop, and project motion pictures — was further developed by the Lumières. The brothers patented their own version on 13 February 1895.  The date of the recording of their first film is in dispute. In an interview with Georges Sadoul given in 1948, Louis Lumière tells that he shot the film in August 1894. This is questioned by historians (Sadoul, Pinel, Chardère) who consider that a functional Lumière camera didn't exist before the end of 1894, and that their first film La Sortie de l'usine Lumière à Lyon was recorded on 19 March 1895, and then publicly projected 22 March 1895 at the Société d'encouragement pour l'industrie nationale in Paris.  The Lumière brothers saw film as a novelty and had withdrawn from the film business by 1905. They went on to develop the first practical photographic colour process, the Lumière Autochrome.  Louis died on 6 June 1948 and Auguste on 10 April 1954. They are buried in a family tomb in the New Guillotière Cemetery in Lyon.

First film screenings.

The Lumières presented their invention with a screening on 22 March 1895 in Paris, at the "Society for the Development of the National Industry", in front of an audience of 200 people, one of whom was Léon Gaumont, then director of the company the Comptoir géneral de la photographie. The main focus of the conference by Louis Lumière concerned the recent developments in the photograph industry, mainly the research on polychromy (colour photography). It was much to Lumière's surprise that the moving black-and-white images retained more attention than the coloured stills. The American Woodville Latham screened works of film 2 months later on 20 May 1895. The first public screening of films at which admission was charged was a program by the Skladanowsky brothers that was held on 1 November 1895 in Berlin.  The Lumières gave their first paid public screening on 28 December 1895, at Salon Indien du Grand Café in Paris. This history-making presentation consisted of the following 10 short films (in order of presentation):  Each film is 17 meters long, which, when hand cranked through a projector, runs approximately 50 seconds. The Lumières went on tour with the cinématographe in 1896, visiting Brussels (the first place a film was played outside Paris on the Galleries Saint-Hubert on 1 March 1896), Bombay, London, Montreal, New York City, Palestine, and Buenos Aires.  In 1896, only a few months after the initial screenings in Europe, films by the Lumiere Brothers were shown in Egypt, first in the Tousson stock exchange in Alexandria on 5 November 1896 and then in the Hamam Schneider (Schneider Bath) in Cairo. The moving images had an immediate and significant influence on popular culture with "L'Arrivée d'un Train en Gare de la Ciotat" (literally, "the arrival of a train at La Ciotat", but more commonly known as "Arrival of a Train at a Station") and "Carmaux, défournage du coke" (Drawing out the coke). Their actuality films, or "actualités", are often cited as the first, primitive documentaries. They also made the first steps towards comedy film with the slapstick of "L'Arroseur Arrosé".

Early colour photography.

The brothers stated that "the cinema is an invention without any future" and declined to sell their camera to other filmmakers such as Georges Méliès. This made many film makers upset. Consequently, their role in the history of film was exceedingly brief. In parallel with their cinema work they experimented with colour photography. They worked on a number of colour photographic processes in the 1890s including the Lippmann process (interference heliochromy) and their own 'bichromated glue' process, a subtractive colour process, examples of which were exhibited at the Exposition Universelle in Paris in 1900. This last process was commercialised by the Lumieres but commercial success had to wait for their next colour process. In 1903 they patented a colour photographic process, the "Autochrome Lumière", which was launched on the market in 1907. Throughout much of the 20th century, the Lumière company was a major producer of photographic products in Europe, but the brand name, Lumière, disappeared from the marketplace following merger with Ilford.

Advantages of the Cinématographe Lumière over other systems.

Earlier moving images in for instance phantasmagoria shows, the phénakisticope, the zoetrope and Émile Reynaud's Théâtre Optique consisted of hand-drawn images. Despite many obvious similarities, animation is usually regarded as a very different medium than cinematography. A system that could record reality in motion, in a fashion much like it is seen by the eyes, had a greater impact on people.  Eadweard Muybridge's Zoopraxiscope lectures showed painted contours based on his chronophotography recordings. The only Zoopraxoscope disc with actual photographs was made with an early form of stop motion. Lesser known predecessors, such as Jules Duboscq's Bioscope were not projected.  Louis Le Prince's "Roundhay Garden Scene" (1888) and other films are now widely regarded as the first examples of proper cinematography, but Le Prince disappeared without a trace before he managed to present his work or publish about it.  Ottomar Anschütz's Electrotachyscope projected very short loops. The films of the Lumières initially lasted circa 50 seconds each.  Thomas Edison believed projection of films wasn't as viable a business model as offering the films in the "peepshow" kinetoscope device. Watching the images on the screen turned out to be much preferred by audiences.  William Friese-Greene's "machine camera", patented in 1889, Thomas Edison's Kinetoscope (developed by William Kennedy Dickson), premiered publicly in 1894. did not impress audiences.  Kazimierz Prószyński had built his camera and projecting device, called Pleograph, in 1894. (no details known)  Lauste and Latham's Eidoloscope was demonstrated for members of the press on April 21, 1895, and opened to the paying public on Broadway on May 20. The Eidoloscope Company was dissolved in 1896 after copyright disputes.  Max and Emil Skladanowsky, inventors of the Bioscop, had offered projected moving images to a paying public in Berlin from 1 November 1895 until the end of the month. Their machinery was relatively cumbersome and their films much shorter. Their planned screening in Paris were cancelled after they had watched the 26 December 1895 Lumière screening and competition seemed futile.

The Lumière brothers (, ; ), Auguste Marie Louis Nicolas (; 19 October 1862 – 10 April 1954) and Louis Jean (; 5 October 1864 – 7 June 1948), were manufacturers of photography equipment, best known for their Cinématographe motion picture system and the short films they produced between 1895 and 1905. Their screening on 22 March 1895 for circa 200 members of the "Society for the Development of the National Industry" in Paris was probably the first presentation of films on a screen for a large audience. Their first commercial public screening on 28 December 1895 for circa 40 paying visitors and invited relations has traditionally been regarded as the birth of cinema. Either the techniques or the business models of earlier filmmakers proved to be less viable than the breakthrough presentations of the Lumières.


Early life.

Wölfli was born in Bern. He was abused both physically and sexually as a child, and was orphaned at the age of 10. He thereafter grew up in a series of state-run foster homes. He worked as a "Verdingbub" (indentured child labourer) and briefly joined the army. He often attempted to perform sexual acts on young girls – often getting away unpunished. Eventually, he was caught in the act and institutionalized for his doings. After being freed, he was re-arrested for a similar offense and in 1895 was admitted to the Waldau Clinic, a psychiatric hospital in Bern where he spent the rest of his adult life. He was very disturbed and sometimes violent on admission, leading to him being kept in isolation for his early time at hospital. He suffered from psychosis, which led to intense hallucinations.

Creative works.

At some point after his admission Wölfli began to draw. His first surviving works (a series of 50 pencil drawings) are dated from between 1904 and 1906.  Walter Morgenthaler, a doctor at the Waldau Clinic, took a particular interest in Wölfli's art and his condition, later publishing "Ein Geisteskranker als Künstler" (A Psychiatric Patient as Artist) in 1921 which first brought Wölfli to the attention of the art world.  Morgenthaler's book detailed the works of a patient who seemed to have no previous interest in art and developed his talents and skills independently after being committed for a debilitating condition. In this respect, Wölfli was an iconoclast and influenced the development and acceptance of outsider art, "Art Brut" and its champion Jean Dubuffet.  Wölfli produced a huge number of works during his life, often working with the barest of materials and trading smaller works with visitors to the clinic to obtain pencils, paper or other essentials. Morgenthaler closely observed Wölfli's methods, writing in his influential book:  ""Every Monday morning Wölfli is given a new pencil and two large sheets of unprinted newsprint. The pencil is used up in two days; then he has to make do with the stubs he has saved or with whatever he can beg off someone else. He often writes with pieces only five to seven millimetres long and even with the broken-off points of lead, which he handles deftly, holding them between his fingernails. He carefully collects packing paper and any other paper he can get from the guards and patients in his area; otherwise he would run out of paper before the next Sunday night. At Christmas the house gives him a box of coloured pencils, which lasts him two or three weeks at the most.""  The images Wölfli produced were complex, intricate and intense. They worked to the very edges of the page with detailed borders. In a manifestation of Wölfli's "horror vacui", every empty space was filled with two small holes. Wölfli called the shapes around these holes his "birds".  His images also incorporated an idiosyncratic musical notation. This notation seemed to start as a purely decorative affair but later developed into real composition which Wölfli would play on a paper trumpet.  In 1908, he set about creating a semi-autobiographical epic which eventually stretched to 45 volumes, containing a total of over 25,000 pages and 1,600 illustrations. This work was a mix of elements of his own life blended with fantastical stories of his adventures from which he transformed himself from a child to 'Knight Adolf' to 'Emperor Adolf' and finally to 'St Adolf II'. Text and illustrations formed the narrative, sometimes combining multiple elements on kaleidoscopic pages of music, words and colour.  After Wölfli died at Waldau in 1930, his works were taken to the Museum of the Waldau Clinic in Bern. Later the Adolf Wölfli Foundation was formed to preserve his art for future generations. Its collection is now on display at the Museum of Fine Arts in Bern.

Music and audio recordings.

Wölfli's work has inspired many composers. Danish composer Per Nørgård, after viewing a Wölfli exhibition in 1979, embarked on a schizoid style lasting for several years; among the works of this time are an opera on the life of Wölfli called "The Divine Circus". The chamber opera "Wölfli Szenen" ("Wölfli Scenes"), which premiered in Graz, Austria, in 1981, featured music by Georg Friedrich Haas, the Austrian composer of spectral music, Gösta Neuwirth, Anton Prestele and Wolfgang Rihm.  On their web site, The Adolph Wölfli Foundation poses the following question:  Naturally enough, the question whether Wölfli's music can be played is asked again and again. The answer is yes, with some difficulty. Parts of the musical manuscripts of 1913 were analyzed in 1976 by Kjell Keller and Peter Streif and were performed. These are dances – as Wölfli indicates – waltzes, mazurkas, and polkas similar in their melody to folk music. How Wölfli acquired his knowledge of music and its signs and terms is not clear. He heard singing in the village church. Perhaps he himself sang along. There he could see song books from the eighteenth century with six-line staffs (explaining, perhaps, his continuous use of six lines in his musical notations). At festivities he heard dance music, and on military occasions he heard the marches he loved so well. More important than the concrete evaluation of his music notations is Wölfli's concept of viewing and designing his whole oeuvre as a big musical composition. The basic element underlying his compositions and his whole oeuvre is rhythm. Rhythm pervades not only his music but his poems and prose, and there is also a distinctive rhythmic flow in his handwriting.  In 1978, "Adolf Wölfli: Gelesen Und Vertont", the first recording of Wölfli's work ever to be published, was released by the Adolf Wölfli Foundation, Museum of Fine Arts, Bern. Since that time, a number of German musicians have released adaptations of Wölfli's work. A comprehensive list of these artists can be found at The Adolph Wölfli Foundation's music page.  In 1987, musician and composer Graeme Revell released an LP entitled "Necropolis, Amphibians & Reptiles: The Music of Adolf Wolfli". This was on his own Musique Brut label in London, UK in 1987. This audio compilation was based on the works of Wölfli and incorporated digital renditions of Wölfli's compositions, with additional sound effects and ambient soundscapes added to the songs, by Revell, based on the artwork surrounding Wölfli's musical notations. The LP was a collection of musical interpretations by Revell as well as DDAA, & Nurse With Wound. This LP came with a booklet with a biography and images of Wolfli's works. Tracks 8 and 9 are combined into one track. This record was later re-released as "The Musique Brut Collection" on CD by the Grey Area record label, a sub-label of UK-based Mute Records, under the parent label EMI UK. This audio compilation also includes the other Musique Brut LP release "The Insect Musicians". The CD release also contains a small booklet containing pictures of Wölfli's artwork, information about his history, and a brief write-up on Revell's process of converting Wölfli's lithographs into songs.  Terry Riley composed and performed a two-hour opera entitled "The Saint Adolf Ring" based on Wolfli's life.

Adolf Wölfli (February 29, 1864 – November 6, 1930) (occasionally spelled Adolf Woelfli or Adolf Wolfli) was a Swiss artist who was one of the first artists to be associated with the Art Brut or outsider art label.


Plot.

Melvin Udall is a misanthropic best-selling romance novelist in New York City, whose obsessive–compulsive disorder has him avoiding stepping on sidewalk cracks while walking through the city, and eating breakfast at the same table in the same restaurant every day. He takes an interest in his waitress, Carol Connelly, the only server at the restaurant who can tolerate his uncouth behavior.  One day, Simon Bishop, a homosexual artist who is Melvin's apartment neighbor, is assaulted and nearly killed during a robbery. Melvin is intimidated by Simon's agent, Frank Sachs, into caring for Simon's dog, Verdell, while Simon is hospitalized. Although he initially does not enjoy caring for the dog, Melvin becomes emotionally attached to it. He simultaneously receives more attention from Carol. When Simon is released from the hospital, Melvin is unable to cope emotionally with returning the dog. Melvin's life is further altered when Carol decides to work closer to her home in Brooklyn so she can care for her acutely asthmatic son Spence. Unable to adjust to another waitress, Melvin arranges through his publisher (whose husband is a doctor) to pay for her son's considerable medical expenses as long as Carol agrees to return to work. She is overwhelmed at his generosity.  Meanwhile, Simon's assault and rehabilitation, coupled with Verdell's preference for Melvin, causes Simon to lose his creative muse. Simon is approaching bankruptcy due to his medical bills. Frank persuades him to go to Baltimore to ask his estranged parents for money. Because Frank is too busy to take injured Simon to Baltimore himself, Melvin reluctantly agrees to do so; Frank lends Melvin the use of his Saab 900 convertible for the trip. Melvin invites Carol to accompany them on the trip to lessen the awkwardness. She reluctantly accepts the invitation, and relationships among the three develop.  Once in Baltimore, Carol persuades Melvin to take her out to have dinner. Melvin's comments during the dinner greatly flatter—and subsequently upset—Carol, and she abruptly leaves. Upon seeing Carol, who is frustrated, Simon begins to sketch her, semi-nude, in his hotel room, which rekindles his creativity, and he once more feels a desire to paint. He briefly reconnects with his parents, but is able to tell them that he will be fine.  After returning to New York, Carol tells Melvin that she does not want him in her life anymore. She later regrets her statement and calls to apologize. The relationship between Melvin and Carol remains complicated, until Simon (whom Melvin has allowed to move in with him, as he had to sell his apartment) persuades Melvin to declare his love for her. Melvin goes to see Carol, who is hesitant, but agrees to try and establish a relationship with him. The film ends with Melvin and Carol walking together. As he opens the door at an early morning pastry shop for Carol, he realizes that he has stepped on a crack in the pavement, but does not seem to mind.

Production.

In 1996, James L. Brooks flew Geoffrey Rush from Sydney to Los Angeles to audition for the part of Simon Bishop, and offered him the role, but Rush declined it.  Owen Wilson served as associate producer, one of his first jobs in Hollywood.

Soundtrack.

The soundtrack features instrumental pieces composed by Hans Zimmer and songs by various artists. Zimmer's work was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Score – Musical or Comedy.

Release.

Box office.

"As Good as It Gets" was a box office hit, opening at number three at the box office (behind "Titanic" and "Tomorrow Never Dies") with $12.6 million, and eventually earning over $148 million domestically and $314 million worldwide. It is Jack Nicholson's second highest earning film, behind "Batman".

Critical reception.

"Chicago Reader" film critic Jonathan Rosenbaum wrote that what director James Brooks "manages to do with [the characters] as they struggle mightily to connect with one another is funny, painful, beautiful, and basically truthful—a triumph for everyone involved."  Praise for the film was not uniform among critics. While Roger Ebert gave the film three stars (out of four), he called the film a "compromise, a film that forces a smile onto material that doesn't wear one easily," writing that the film drew "back to story formulas," but had good dialogue and performances. "The Washington Post" critic Desson Howe gave a generally negative review of the film, writing that it "gets bogged down in sentimentality, while its wheels spin futilely in life-solving overdrive."  Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 85% of professional critics gave the film a positive review based on 79 reviews, with its consensus stating: "James L. Brooks and Jack Nicholson, doing what they do best, combine smart dialogue and flawless acting to squeeze fresh entertainment value out of the romantic-comedy genre." Metacritic gave the film a score of 67 out of 100, based on reviews from 30 critics, indicating generally favorable reviews.

Accolades.

The film was nominated for and received many film awards, including Best Actor and Best Actress awards for Nicholson and Hunt at the 70th Academy Awards and the 55th Golden Globe Awards ceremony. It was nominated for a Best Picture Oscar and won Best Picture–Music or Comedy at the Golden Globes.

As Good as It Gets is a 1997 American romantic comedy film directed by James L. Brooks, who co-wrote it with Mark Andrus. The film stars Jack Nicholson as a misanthropic and obsessive-compulsive novelist, Helen Hunt as a single mother with a chronically ill son, and Greg Kinnear as a homosexual artist. The paintings were created for the film by New York artist Billy Sullivan.


Biography.

May Sutton was born on September 25, 1886 in Plymouth, England, the youngest of seven children of Adolphus DeGrouchy Sutton, a captain in the Royal Navy and Adeline Esther Godfray. When she was six years old, Sutton's family moved to a ranch near Pasadena, California. It was there that she and her sisters played tennis on a court built by her father. As young ladies, May and her sisters, Violet, Florence, and Ethel, dominated the California tennis circuit. In addition to being accomplished tennis players, the girls were excellent basketball players. May, Florence and Violet were all on the Pasadena High School basketball team, which went undefeated in 1900. In 1904 at age 17, May Sutton won the singles title at the U.S. Championships on her first attempt. She also teamed with Miriam Hall to win the women's doubles title and came close to making it a clean sweep by advancing to the mixed doubles final.  She was unable to defend her U.S. title as she traveled to England in May 1905 to compete in the Wimbledon Championships. In June, she won the grass court Northern Championships in Manchester, defeating Hilda Lane in the final. Sutton became the first American and first non-British woman to win the Wimbledon singles title when she beat British star and reigning two-time Wimbledon champion Dorothea Douglass Chambers in the challenge round. She did it while shocking the British audience by rolling up her sleeves to bare her elbows and wearing a skirt that showed her ankles. For the next two years, she and Chambers met in the final, with Chambers recapturing the title in 1906 and Sutton winning it back in 1907.  Sutton was the 1908 Rose Parade Queen in Pasadena.  On December 11, 1912, she married Tom Bundy, who was a three-time winner of the men's doubles title at the U.S. Championships, and semi-retired to raise a family. However, in 1921 at the age of 35, she made a comeback and became the fourth-ranked player in the U.S. In 1925, she was a women's doubles finalist at the U.S. Championships and, although almost forty years of age, her game was strong enough to be selected for America's Wightman Cup team. She was a Wimbledon quarterfinalist in 1929 at the age of 42, which was the first time she had played Wimbledon since 1907. In 1928 and 1929, she and her daughter Dorothy Cheney became the only mother/daughter combination to be seeded at the U.S. Championships. Her nephew, John Doeg, won the U.S. Championships in 1930, and in 1938, daughter Dorothy won the Australian Championships.  In 1956, Sutton was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame. She never stopped playing tennis and was playing regularly well into her late 80s.  Sutton died of cancer on October 4, 1975 in Santa Monica, California and was interred in the local Woodlawn Memorial Cemetery.

Playing style.

Eight-time U.S. National Championship winner Molla Bjurstedt Mallory indicated that Sutton was the best player she had met. "Her drive was the fastest and the...most difficult...to handle, because it dove suddenly to the ground and then jumped up unexpectedly with queer curves. When she could keep her drives near the baseline, they either forced me back farther than I had been accustomed to play or compelled me to make errors. She was also strong overhead when she came to the net and altogether had more power and effectiveness than any other woman tennis player of her time". Sutton played with an extreme Western grip and had a powerful topspin forehand that made the ball dip and bound high.

May Godfrey Sutton (September 25, 1886 – October 4, 1975) was an American tennis player who was active during the first decades of the 20th century. At age 17 she won the singles title at the U.S. National Championships and in 1905 she became the first American player to win the singles title at Wimbledon.


Appearance.

The Podenco Canario is a very agile, slender and lightly built but sturdy dog. There are two distinct sizes of Podenco Canarios. One is similar to the Ibizan Hound, medium in size, with height at the withers approximately 55 to 64 cm (21.7 to 25.2 ins) for males, females are slightly smaller. Sizes vary with the terrain on which the dog hunts. A second smaller size Podenco Canario has been recognised within the Canary Islands, with height at the withers approximately 30 to 40 cm for males, females slightly smaller. The short, dense coat should be some shade of red, white, or a combination of red and white, depending on the island and, in some cases, the specific area on some of the islands. There should be no other colour on the coat, or indeed anywhere on the body, as even the dog's nose, nails and skin should be a shade of red, and they are even known to "blush" when excited. The neck is long, the head is longer than it is wide, and the large ears are carried fully up. The long tail is usually seen low set but can be raised. The tail is not carried too high when moving. The dog should move in an extended and agile trot. Faults, which indicate that a particular dog should not be bred, include aspects of appearance as well as structural faults that would prevent the dog's ability to move and hunt, such as cow hocks, and crossing of the fore and hind legs at a trot.  It is a slightly elongated and very muscular dog with a brown (chocolate), red, or yellow coat, can be accompanied by white, brown, or tan markings, and usually have short fur. They begin to demonstrate hunting instinct in as little as 3 months but can take up to 14 months to develop. When it is pursuing prey, they emit a characteristic staccato repetitive barking, known to some local hunters as "song of the rabbit".

History.

The Podenco Canario is found on all of the Canary Islands. The legend is that it had descended from ancient dogs brought to the islands in antiquity from North Africa by the earliest human settlers and isolated there. However, recent genetics studies have concluded that the Podenco is a type of dog more closely related to, and no more primitive than, the rest of the European hunting breeds.

Current use.

Rabbits ("Oryctolagus cuniculus") were introduced (first on La Palma) in the 16th century. Rabbit hunting with the Podenco Canario is a very popular sport. Used as a throwaway tool and not seen as pets, these poor hounds are often starved and mistreated throughout the year, and often abandoned at the end of the hunting season or as soon as they can no longer hunt effectively. Bitches are rarely sterilised, as it is more economical to drown or shoot recently born puppies every six months. There are few to no public pounds and the local governments euthanise. Many foreign nationals and foreign organisations export abandoned and unwanted dogs, and the Podenco Canario forms a large percentage of these dogs. The Podenco Canario is recognised by "La Real Sociedad Canina de España" (R.S.C.E., the Spanish Kennel Club) as an indigenous breed and is recognised internationally by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale as breed number 329 in Group 5 "Spitz and primitive types", Section 7 : "Primitive type - Hunting Dogs", Spain. In North America the breed is listed with the United Kennel Club as a hunting dog in the Sighthound & Pariah Group. The breed is also recognized by a number of minor registries, hunting clubs, and internet-based dog registry businesses. Exported from its homeland, it is promoted as a rare breed for those seeking a unique pet.

Health and temperament.

Podencos have few health problems. They suffer more often from injury while hunting than disease or predisposition to illnesses. A sexual-development genetic disorder was observed in one dog of this breed, s.p. testicular/ovotesticular disorder, which can result in dogs that are genetically female (XX) developing testes or ovotestes instead of ovaries. This disorder was formerly referred to as SRY-negative XX sex reversal, and is more commonly documented in American and English Cocker Spaniels.  The breed standard states that the typical behaviour is "nervy, agitated, and of an enthusiastic dynamism".

Nomenclature and recognition.

Within Spain all five types of Podencos are recognised by the people: the Podenco Ibizenco, Mallorquín, Menorquín, Andaluz, and Canario. But while the UKC of the United Kingdom recognises the Podenco Canario and obviously uses the word "podenco" in its naming convention, it recognise the Podenco Ibizenco as an "Ibizan Hound" and fails to maintain the clarification of "podenco". The AKC of the U.S.A. also recognises the "Ibizan Hound" as such but as of yet does not recognise the Canary Island Podenco. Many bilingual speakers within Spain, including some veterinarians familiar with the recent history of these dogs believe a more correct naming convention should include the word "podenco", of which one breed would be the Ibizan Podenco.

Similar breeds.

Breeds also listed in Group 5/Section 7 include the Ibizan Hound, Cirneco dell'Etna, Portuguese Podengo, and the Thai Ridgeback.

See also.

References.

Podenco Canario (In English: "Canary Island Podenco", "Canary Island Hound", or "Canarian Warren Hound") is a breed of dog from the Canary Islands. The Podenco Canario is still used today, primarily in packs, most often for the sport hunting of rabbits. The word "podenco" in Spain refers to a certain type of dog, typically rabbit hunters with the same body shape. "Canario" is a reference to its region of origin, the Canary Islands. The Spanish Kennel Club, Real Sociedad Canina de España, recognises the following similar dog breeds that use the identifier "podenco" in their names: Podenco Andaluz, Podenco Ibicenco, and Podenco Valenciano.


History.

Kingdom of Prussia.

In the course of the 1848 Revolution King Frederick William IV of Prussia and his Minister Gottfried Ludolf Camphausen had agreed to call for the general election of a national assembly in all Prussian provinces. The Prussian National Assembly however was dismissed by royal decree of 5 December 1848 and the king imposed the Constitution of Prussia. The constitution, though reactionary, at least provided a bicameral parliament, consisting of a First Chamber ("Erste Kammer", called House of Lords from 1855), as well as a Second Chamber ("Zweite Kammer", from 1855 House of Representatives) whose members were elected according to the three-class franchise system. Both houses and the King of Prussia had the right to introduce bills.  Under the regency of Prince William I and his liberal prime minister Prince Karl Anton von Hohenzollern from 1858 ("New Era"), the House of Representatives led by the newly established German Progress Party gradually developed to a serious political actor, culminating in a constitutional conflict in 1861: William I, who had just acceded to the Prussian throne, and his war minister Albrecht von Roon requested the approval for an increment of the military budget, which the deputies refused. Roon urged the king to appoint Otto von Bismarck Prime Minister, who - "not by speeches and votes of the majority are the great questions of the time decided (...) but by iron and blood" - acted on an alleged gap in the constitution ("Lückentheorie") and openly sidestepped any power of the purse of the Prussian representatives. The assembly raised a blistering protest and over the following years Bismarck's cabinet had to govern without a government budget passed by the legislature. In September 1866 the prime minister, at a peak of his power after the Battle of Königgrätz, reached the passage of the Indemnity Act ("Indemnitätsgesetz") subsequently legalising his budget management. The balloting led to the split-off of the National Liberal Party which became a loyal supporter of Bismarck's policies.

Free State of Prussia.

During the German Revolution of 1918–19 the new Prussian government of Majority Social Democrats (MSPD) and Independent Social Democrats (USPD) under Paul Hirsch had the bicameral legislature abolished. A constitutional convention ("Preußische Landesversamlung") was elected on 26 January 1919, after the introduction of equal franchise for all men and women. After the failed Kapp Putsch of 1920, the assembly confirmed the first cabinet of Minister-president Otto Braun and finally adopted the new Prussian constitution on 30 November. The "Preußischer Landtag" was re-established as the parliament of the Free State of Prussia in 1921. The provinces were represented in the Prussian State Council, which succeeded the former "Herrenhaus" as a kind of upper house. The Cologne mayor Konrad Adenauer served as its president until 1933.  A legislative period lasted for no longer than four years. The parliament could be dissolved early by joint resolution of the prime minister and the presidents of the Landtag and the State Council or by a plebiscite. In 1931 just such a referendum took place on the initiative of "the "Stahlhelm"" veterans' organization, with the support of the Nazi Party and the German Communist Party. Landtag elections took place on 20 February 1921, 7 December 1924, 20 May 1928, 24 April 1932, and 5 March 1933.

Building complex.

In 1899, the House of Representatives ("Abgeordnetenhaus") moved into a building on Prinz-Albrecht-Straße No. 5 (present-day Niederkirchnerstraße), close to Potsdamer Platz and situated opposite to the Martin Gropius Bau. During the German Revolution of 1918–19 the "Reichsrätekongress" (national Workers' and Soldiers' Council) held its assemblies here from 16 to 20 December 1918. On 1 January 1919, the Communist Party of Germany was founded here. Since 1993 the building has been the seat of the Abgeordnetenhaus of Berlin: colloquially it is still named "Preußischer Landtag" just as the nearby building accommodating the Bundestag is still generally referred to as the Reichstag.  The seat of the Prussian House of Lords on Leipziger Straße was inaugurated in 1904. Both buildings were built back-to-back according to plans designed by Friedrich Schulze, they intercommunicate via a common restaurant wing. Upon the Nazi "Machtergreifung", the "Herrenhaus" building served as an annex of the neighbouring Ministry of Aviation and Hermann Göring's "Preußenhaus" foundation. After World War II it housed several departments of the (East) German Academy of Sciences and since 29 September 2000 is the seat of the German Bundesrat.

Presidents of the Prussian Landtag (Free State of Prussia).

Political Party:

The Landtag of Prussia () was the representative assembly of the Kingdom of Prussia implemented in 1849, a bicameral legislature consisting of the upper House of Lords ("Herrenhaus") and the lower House of Representatives ("Abgeordnetenhaus"). After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–19 the "Landtag" diet continued as the parliament of the Free State of Prussia between 1921 and 1933.


Early life and poems.

Nikolay was born in the town of Kronstadt on Kotlin Island, into the family of Stepan Yakovlevich Gumilyov (1836–1920), a naval physician, and Anna Ivanovna L'vova (1854–1942). His childhood nickname was "Montigomo," the Hawk's Claw. He studied at the gymnasium of Tsarskoe Selo, where the Symbolist poet Innokenty Annensky was his teacher. Later, Gumilyov admitted that it was Annensky's influence that turned his mind to writing poetry.  His first publication were verses "I ran from cities into the forest" () on September 8, 1902. In 1905 he published his first book of lyrics entitled "The Way of Conquistadors". It comprised poems on most exotic subjects imaginable, from Lake Chad giraffes to Caracalla's crocodiles. Although Gumilyov was proud of the book, most critics found his technique sloppy; later he would refer to that collection as "apprentice's work".  From 1907 and on, Nikolai Gumilyov traveled extensively in Europe, notably in Italy and France. In 1908 his new collection "Romantic Flowers" appeared. While in Paris, he published the literary magazine "Sirius", but only three issues were produced. On returning to Russia, he edited and contributed to the artistic periodical "Apollon". At that period, he fell in love with a non-existent woman Cherubina de Gabriak. It turned out that Cherubina de Gabriak was the literary pseudonym for two people: and Maximilian Voloshin. On November 22, 1909 he had a duel with Voloshin over the affair.  Gumilev married Anna Akhmatova in April 25, 1910. He dedicated some of his poems to her. On September 18, 1912, their child Lev was born. He would eventually become an influential and controversial historian.

Travel to Africa.

Like Flaubert and Rimbaud before him, but inspired by exploits of Alexander Bulatovich and Nikolay Leontiev, Gumilyov was fascinated with Africa and travelled there almost each year. He explored, helping development of Ethiopia, sometime hunted lions, and brought to the Saint Petersburg museum of anthropology and ethnography a large collection of African artifacts. His landmark collection "The Tent" (1921) collected the best of his poems on African themes, one of them "Giraffe".

Guild of Poets.

In 1910, Gumilyov fell under the spell of the Russian Symbolist poet and philosopher Vyacheslav Ivanov and absorbed his views on poetry at the evenings held by Ivanov in his celebrated "Turreted House". His wife Akhmatova accompanied him to Ivanov's parties as well.  Dissatisfied with the vague mysticism of Russian Symbolism, then prevalent in the Russian poetry, Gumilyov and Sergei Gorodetsky established the so-called "Guild of Poets", which was modeled after medieval guilds of Western Europe. They advocated a view that poetry needs craftsmanship just like architecture needs it. Writing a good poem they compared to building a cathedral. To illustrate their ideals, Gumilev published two collections, "The Pearls" in 1910 and the "Alien Sky" in 1912. It was Osip Mandelstam, however, who produced the movement's most distinctive and durable monument, the collection of poems entitled "Stone" (1912).  According to the principles of acmeism (as the movement came to be dubbed by art historians), every person, irrespective of his talent, may learn to produce high-quality poems if only he follows the guild's masters, i.e., Gumilyov and Gorodetsky. Their own model was Théophile Gautier, and they borrowed much of their basic tenets from the French Parnasse. Such a program, combined with colourful and exotic subject matter of Gumilev's poems, attracted to the Guild a large number of adolescents. Several major poets, notably Georgy Ivanov and Vladimir Nabokov, passed the school of Gumilev, albeit informally.

War experience.

When World War I started, Gumilyov hastened to Russia and enthusiastically joined a corps of elite cavalry. He fought in battles in East Prussia and Macedonia. For his bravery he was invested with two St. George crosses (December 24, 1914 and January 5, 1915).  His war poems were assembled in the collection "The Quiver" (1916). In 1916 he wrote a verse play, "Gondla", which was published the following year; set in ninth-century Iceland, torn between its native paganism and Irish Christianity, it is also clearly autobiographical, Gumilev putting much of himself into the hero Gondla (an Irishman chosen as king but rejected by the jarls, he kills himself to ensure the triumph of Christianity) and basing Gondla's wild bride Lera on Gumilev's wife Akhmatova (or maybe Larissa Reysner). The play was performed in Rostov na Donu in 1920.  During the Russian Revolution, Gumilyov served in the Russian Expeditionary Force in France. Despite advice to the contrary, he rapidly returned to Petrograd. There he published several new collections, "Tabernacle" and "Bonfire", and finally divorced Akhmatova (August 5, 1918), whom he had left for another woman several years prior. The following year he married Anna Nikolaevna Engelhardt, a noblewoman and daughter of a well-known historian.

Execution.

In 1920 Gumilyov co-founded the "All-Russia Union of Writers". Gumilev made no secret of his anti-communist views. He also made the Sign of the Cross in public and didn't care to hide his contempt for half-literate Bolsheviks. On August 3, 1921, he was arrested by the Cheka on charges of participation in a nonexistent monarchist conspiracy known as the "Petrograd military organization". On August 24, the Petrograd Cheka decreed execution of 61 participants of the case, including Nikolai Gumilev. They were shot on August 26 in the Kovalevsky Forest (the actual date was established only in 2014; previously it was thought he died on August 25). Maxim Gorky, his friend and fellow writer, hurried to Moscow and appealed to Lenin, but was unable to save Gumilev.

Legacy.

Gumilyov's execution placed a stigma on Anna Akhmatova and on their son, Lev Gumilev. Lev was arrested later in the purges of the 1930s and spent almost two decades in the Gulag.  Despite Gumilyov's execution by the Cheka, "Gondla" was again performed in Petrograd in January 1922: "The play, despite its crowd scenes being enacted on a tiny stage, was a major success. Yet when the Petrograd audience called for the author, who was now officially an executed counter-revolutionary traitor, the play was removed from the repertoire and the theatre disbanded."  In February 1934, as they walked along a Moscow street, Osip Mandelstam quoted Gondla's words "I am ready to die" to Akhmatova, and she repeated them in her "Poem without a Hero."

Cultural influence.

Although banned in the Soviet times, Gumilev was loved for his adolescent longing for travel and giraffes and hippos, for his dreams of a fifteen-year-old captain" His "The Tram That Lost Its Way" is considered one of the greatest poems of the 20th century.

Nikolay Stepanovich Gumilyov (; April 15 NS 1886 – August 26, 1921) was an influential Russian poet, literary critic, traveler, and military officer. He was a cofounder of the Acmeist movement. He was husband of Anna Akhmatova and father of Lev Gumilev. Nikolay Gumilev was arrested and executed by the Cheka, the secret Soviet police force, in 1921.


Planning and location.

In the early nineteenth century, Germany's bourgeoisie had become increasingly self-aware and self-confident. This growing class began to embrace new ideas regarding the relationship between itself and art, and the concepts that art should be open to the public and that citizens should be able to have access to a comprehensive cultural education began to pervade society. King Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia was a strong proponent of this humboldtian ideal for education and charged Karl Friedrich Schinkel with planning a public museum for the royal art collection.  Schinkel's plans for the "Königliches Museum", as it was then known, were also influenced by drafts of the crown prince, later King Friedrich Wilhelm IV, who desired a building that was heavily influenced by antiquity. The crown prince even sent Schinkel a pencil sketch of a large hall adorned with a classical portico.  Schinkel's plans incorporated the "Königliches Museum" into an ensemble of buildings, which surround the "Berliner Lustgarten" (pleasure garden). The "Stadtschloss" in the south was a symbol of worldly power, the "Zeughaus" in the west represented military might, and the "Berliner Dom" in the east was the embodiment of divine authority. The museum to the north of the garden, which was to provide for the education of the people, stood as a symbol for science and art—and not least for their torchbearer: the self-aware bourgeoisie. For the front facing the Lustgarten, a simple columned hall in grand style and proportionate to the importance of the location would most certainly give the building character. The arrangement of the eighteen Ionic columns was effected by the Lustgarten. The portico was designed with a function in order to give the museum building an exterior befitting its site, in which the monuments can be placed.  Schinkel had developed plans for the "Königliches Museum" as early as 1822/23, but construction did not begin until 1825. Construction was completed in 1828 and the museum was inaugurated on 3 August 1830. Schinkel was also responsible for the renovation of the "Berliner Dom" in the neo-classical style (which was originally a "baroque" cathedral), and he exercised considerable influence on Peter Joseph Lenné's renovation of the "Lustgarten", which coincided with the construction of the museum, resulting in a harmonized and integrated ensemble.  In 1841, King Friedrich Wilhelm IV announced in a royal decree, that the entire northern part of the Spree Island (now known as Museum Island) "be transformed into a sanctuary for art and science." In 1845, with the completion of the "Neues Museum", the "New Museum", the "Königliches Museum" was renamed the "Altes Museum", the name it holds to this day.

History.

The royally appointed commission, which was responsible for the conception of the museum, decided to display only "High Art" in the proposed building which included Old Master paintings and prints and drawings on the upper floor, as well as Classical sculpture from ancient Greece and Rome on the ground floor. This precluded the incorporation of ethnography, prehistory and the excavated treasures of the ancient Near East from Assyria and Persia (and elsewhere); instead, these artifacts were primarily housed in Schloss Monbijou.  With the completion of the "Neues Museum" (New Museum) by Friedrich August Stüler in 1855, Museum Island began to take form. This was followed by the "Nationalgalerie" (now the "Alte Nationalgalerie") by Johann Heinrich Strack (1876), the "Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum" (now the Bodemuseum) by Ernst von Ihne after plans by Stüler (1904), and the Pergamonmuseum by Alfred Messel and Ludwig Hoffmann (1930). Thus Museum Island evolved into the institution it is today.  Julius Carl Raschdorff's 1894–1905 reconstruction of the "Berliner Dom" into a neo-Renaissance cathedral (replacing the classical cathedral designed by Schinkel) severely disrupted the classical ensemble, especially since the new cathedral has significantly larger dimensions than its predecessor.  During National Socialism, the Altes Museum was used as the backdrop for propaganda, both in the museum itself and upon the parade grounds of the redesigned "Lustgarten". Just before the end of Second World War, the museum was badly damaged when a tank truck exploded in front of the museum, and the frescoes designed by Schinkel and Peter Cornelius, which adorned the vestibule and the back wall of the portico, were largely lost.  Under General Director Ludwig Justi, the building was the first museum of Museum Island to undergo reconstruction and restoration, which was carried out from 1951 to 1966 by Hans Erich Bogatzky and Theodor Voissen. Following Schinkel's designs, the murals of the rotunda were restored in 1982. However, neither the ornate ceilings of the ground floor exhibition rooms nor the pairs of columns under the girders were reconstructed. The former connection to the "Neues Museum" has also not been rebuilt; instead, an underground passageway connecting all of the museums of Museum Island is planned as part of the "Museumsinsel 2015" renovations.

The Antique Collection.

The Altes Museum was originally constructed to house all of the city's collections of fine arts, including Old Master paintings, and prints and drawings. However, since 1904, the museum has solely housed the "Antikensammlung" (Collection of Classical Antiquities). Since 1998, the Collection of Classical Antiquities has displayed its Greek collection, including the treasury, on the ground floor of the Altes Museum. Special exhibitions are displayed on the second floor of the museum.

The Altes Museum (German for Old Museum) is a museum building on Museum Island in Berlin, Germany. Since restoration work in 2010–11, it houses the "Antikensammlung" (antiquities collection) of the Berlin State Museums. The museum building was built between 1823 and 1830 by the architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel in the neoclassical style to house the Prussian royal family's art collection. The historic, protected building counts among the most distinguished in neoclassicism and is a high point of Schinkel's career. Until 1845, it was called the "Königliches Museum" (Royal Museum). Along with the other museums and historic buildings on Museum Island, the Altes Museum was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1999.


Biography.

Ignacy Mościcki was born on 1 December 1867 in Mierzanowo, a small village near Ciechanów, Congress Poland. After completing school in Warsaw, he studied chemistry at the Riga Polytechnicum. There he joined the Polish underground leftist organization, "Proletariat".  Upon graduating, he returned to Warsaw, but was threatened by the Tsarist secret police with life imprisonment in Siberia and was forced to emigrate in 1892 to London. In 1896 he was offered an assistantship at the University of Fribourg in Switzerland. There he patented a method for cheap industrial production of nitric acid.  In 1912 Mościcki moved to Lemberg (; modern Lviv, Ukraine), in the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria within the Austro-Hungarian Empire, where he accepted a chair in physical chemistry and technical electrochemistry at the Lemberg Polytechnic. In 1925 he was elected rector of the Lwów Polytechnic (as it was now called), but soon moved to Warsaw to continue his research at the Warsaw Polytechnic. In 1926, he became an Honorary Member of the Polish Chemical Society.

Presidency.

After Józef Piłsudski's May 1926 coup d'état, on 1 June 1926, Mościcki – an erstwhile associate of Piłsudski's in the Polish Socialist Party – was elected president of Poland by the National Assembly, on Piłsudski's recommendation (after Piłsudski himself refused the office).  As president, Mościcki was subservient to Piłsudski, never openly showing dissent from any aspect of the Marshal's leadership. After Piłsudski's death in 1935, Piłsudski's followers divided into three main factions: those supporting Mościcki as Piłsudski's successor; those supporting General Edward Rydz-Śmigły; and those supporting Prime Minister Walery Sławek.  With a view to eliminating Sławek from the game, Mościcki concluded a power-sharing agreement with Rydz-Śmigły, which saw Sławek marginalized as a serious political player by the end of the year. As a result of this agreement, Rydz-Śmigły would become the "de facto" leader of Poland until the outbreak of the war, while Mościcki remained influential by continuing in office as president.  Mościcki was the leading moderate figure in the regime, which was referred to as the "colonels' government" due to the major presence of military officers in the Polish government. Mościcki opposed many of the nationalist excesses of the more right-wing Rydz-Śmigły, but their pact remained more or less intact.  Mościcki remained president until September 1939, when he was interned in Romania following the German invasion of Poland, and was forced by France to resign his office. He transferred the office to General Bolesław Wieniawa-Długoszowski, who held it for only one day before General Władysław Sikorski and the French government ousted him in favour of Władysław Raczkiewicz.

Later life.

Mościcki was planning to leave for Switzerland after leaving office as President. From 1908 to 1920, he was a citizen of Switzerland; he was also an honorary citizen of the Fribourg commune. The Romanian authorities gave their provisional consent to his departure, but Germany opposed it. Mościcki was offered to US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who was determined to have Mościcki go to Switzerland. The intervention of the US government forced the Romanian authorities to agree. General Sikorski also ordered the Polish embassy in Bucharest to provide all assistance to Mościcki. The president stayed in Romania until December 1939.  Mościcki came to Switzerland through Milan, where he met with Bolesław Wieniawa-Długoszowski. Initially, he lived in Friborg, where he was allowed to continue his scientific work. During this period, among others, he wrote down his memories, which were published by the New York magazine "Independence". Mościcki donated money to soldiers of the Polish Army in France, Warsaw residents in prisoner-of-war camps, concentration camps and labor camps. For five months, he taught at the University of Fribourg. Later, he was forced to take up paid work. In 1940, he moved to Geneva, where he worked in the Hydro-Nitro Chemical Laboratory.  Mościcki's health deteriorated rapidly after 1943. He died on 2 October 1946, in Versoix, near Geneva. In 1984, his descendants requested that the remains of Mościcki and his wife be moved from Switzerland to Poland. The relevant Polish authorities agreed that a funeral was to be held in Warsaw and be completely private, without any state ceremonies. However, the authorities of the Canton of Geneva in Switzerland withdrew their agreement for political reasons after protests related to Solidarity from emigrants. In 1993, Mościcki's remains were transported, on behalf of incumbent President Lech Wałęsa, to Poland and deposited in the crypt of St. John's Archcathedral, Warsaw. Mościcki's symbolic grave is located in the Avenue of Merit at the Powązki Cemetery in Warsaw, where his second wife is buried next to him.

Ignacy Mościcki (; 1 December 18672 October 1946) was a Polish chemist, politician, and President of Poland from 1926 to 1939. He was the longest serving President in Poland's history. He was serving as the president of Poland when Nazi Germany invaded the country on 1 September 1939, starting World War II.


History.

In 1955, Ing. Karel Hartl began to consider crossing a Carpathian grey wolf ("Canis lupus lupus") with a German Shepherd-Dog (,, ) as a scientific experiment at the military kennels in Czechoslovakia. A few years later, however, the idea was born to establish a new breed. The first hybrids of a female wolf named "Brita" and a male German Shepherd-Dog named "Cézar" were born on 26 May 1958 in Libějovice.  Puppies of the first generation resembled the wolf in appearance and behavior. Their upbringing was difficult; training was possible, but the results hardly matched the effort. In adulthood, they were again bred with German Shepherd-Dogs, decreasing the proportion of "wolf-blood" to 6.25% in the fourth generation. Most individuals of the third and fourth generations were able to attend a normal course and could be placed in a service performance. Compared with dogs they had better navigational skills, night vision, hearing, and sense of smell. In tests of endurance, hybrids finished the entire 100 km route without being exhausted.  The lecture of Ing. Karel Hartl, "Results of crossing wolves with dogs", brought major attention at the World Dog Show held in June 1965 in Brno and in Prague at the annual meeting of the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) and the International Cynologic Congress. In the following year, Ing. Hartl compiled a draft standard of a new dog breed. Mating of the wolf "Brita" with the German Shepherd-Dog "Kurt" then created the basis of a second line. A third line was made by joining the wolf "Argo" with the female German Shepherd-Dog "Asta" from the SNB. In 1977, a 3rd-generation hybrid female named "Xela" of the border guards was covered by the wolf "Sarika"; he also mated with the female "Urta" of the border guards.  However, the breed-in-foundation repeatedly refused recognition, and in the 1970s, most breeding dogs were moved to the Slovakian military kennels near Malacky, under the supervision of Vice-commander Major František Rosík. In 1971–1981, litters were born only in Slovakia. In 1982, the Club of Czechoslovakian Wolfdog Breeders ("Klub chovatelů československého vlčáka") was founded in Brno, with authority over the entire territory of the former Czechoslovakia.  In 1982, the breed was again presented for recognition by František Rosík through the Club of Czechoslovakian Wolfdog Breeders (now divided into Czech and Slovakian Breed Club), and this time, it was recognized by the Czechoslovakian breeders associations as a national breed. The last addition of wolf-blood took place in 1983. The wolf "Lejdy" of Ohrada Zoo in Hluboká nad Vltavou gave birth to last line of the new breed, the father of the puppies being the German Shepherd-Dog "Bojar von Shottenhof". Since that time, breeding has been carried out only in closed populations and the developed breed referred to as Czechoslovakian Wolfdogs.  In 1989, it became provisionally recognized as FCI standard no. 332, group 1, section 1. It won the title of "World Champion" at the World Dog Show in Brno in 1990. Ten years later, in 1999, the breed confirmed its viability and met all the criteria of the FCI, earning full recognition of the Czechoslovakian Wolfdog breed.  In 2012, the breed numbered 168 adult females and 170 adult males officially registered in the Czech Republic. As of January 2014, the most puppies each year are registered in Italy (up to two hundred), in the Czech Republic (about 100), and in Slovakia (about 50). The breed is growing in popularity in the UK too, with a number of Czechoslovakian Wolfdogs working in Search and Rescue, supported by a dedicated Breed Club.

DNA analysis.

In 2015, a DNA study of the breed compared to German Shepherd-Dogs and Carpathian wolves found only two maternal mitochondrial DNA haplotypes and two paternal Y DNA haplotypes within the breed. Both mDNA haplotypes and one yDNA haplotype originated with German Shepherd-Dogs and was the result of back-crossing. The other yDNA haplotype was unique to the breed. All four haplotypes were distinct from those of the parental populations. The results indicate limited introgression of lupine alleles (genetic expressions) within a higher proportion of the canine genome, which is consistent with the backcrossing used in the breed.

Appearance.

Both the build and the haircoat of the Czechoslovak Wolfdog are reminiscent of a wolf. The lowest shoulder height is for a male and for a female, and there is no upper limit. The body frame is rectangular, with the ratio of the height to length being 9:10 or less. The minimum weight is for males and for females. The expression of the head must indicate the sex. Amber eyes set obliquely and short upright ears in a triangular shape are its characteristic features. The set of teeth is complete (42) and very strong; both scissors-shaped and pliers-shaped dentition are acceptable. The spine is straight, strong in movement, with a short loin. The chest is large and flat rather than barrel-shaped. The belly is strong and drawn in. The back is short and slightly sloped; the tail is high set, and when freely lowered reaches the tarsi. The forelimbs are straight and narrow-set, with the paws slightly turned out, with a long radius and metacarpus. The hind limbs are muscular, with a long calf and instep.  The coat colour is yellow-grey to silver-grey, with a light mask. The hair is straight, close, and very thick. The Czechoslovakian Wolfdog is a typical tenacious canterer; its movement is light and harmonious, and its stride is long.

Temperament.

The Czechoslovak Wolfdog is more versatile than specialized. It is considered to be a handful. Distinct from the character of the Saarloos wolfdog, shyness is a disqualifying fault in the Czechoslovak Wolfdog.  The Czechoslovak Wolfdog develops a very strong social relationship—not only with its owner, but with the whole family. It can easily learn to live with other domestic animals that belong to the family; however, difficulties can occur in encounters with strange animals. It is vital to subdue the Czechoslovak Wolfdog's passion for hunting when it is a puppy to avoid aggressive behavior towards smaller animals as an adult. The puppy should never be isolated in the kennel; it must be socialized and get used to different surroundings. Female Czechoslovak Wolfdogs tend to be more easily controllable, but both sexes often experience a stormy adolescence.  The Czechoslovak Wolfdog is very playful, temperamental, and learns easily. However, it does not train spontaneously, the behavior of the Czechoslovak Wolfdog is strictly purposeful—it is necessary to find motivation for training. The most frequent cause of failure is usually the fact that the dog is tired out with long useless repetitions of the same exercise, which results in the loss of motivation. These dogs have admirable senses and are very good at following trails. They are very independent and can cooperate in the pack with a special purposefulness. If required, they can easily shift their activity to the night hours. Sometimes problems can occur during their training when barking is required. Czechoslovak Wolfdogs have a much wider range of means of expressing themselves and barking is unnatural for them; they try to communicate with their masters in other ways (mainly through body language, but also with quiet noises such as growls, grunts, and whining). Generally, teaching the Czechoslovak Wolfdog stable and reliable performance takes a bit longer than teaching traditional specialized breeds. The Czechoslovak Wolfdog has been successfully employed as a Search And Rescue (SAR) dog in Italy, although, admittedly, handling one requires much more work than other breeds.

The Czechoslovak Wolfdog (,, ) is a relatively new dog-breed of wolf-dog that traces its original lineage to an experiment conducted in 1955 in Czechoslovakia.


Life.

Landgrave.

William was born in Kassel, the eldest son of Landgrave Philip the Magnanimous and Christine of Saxony. After his father's death in 1567, the Landgraviate of Hesse was divided between the four sons out of the late Landgrave of Hesse's first marriage, and William received the portion around the capital Kassel, the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel.  William took a leading part in safeguarding the Lutheran Reformation, and was indefatigable in his endeavours to unite the different sections of Protestantism against Catholicism. However, he was reluctant to use military force in this conflict.  As an administrator he displayed rare energy, issuing numerous ordinances, appointing expert officials, and in particular ordering his slender finances. By a law of primogeniture he secured his Landgraviate's land against such testamentary divisions as had diminished his father's estate.

Astronomical work.

William is most notable for his patronage of the arts and sciences. As a youth he had cultivated close connections with scholars and as a ruler he kept up this connection. His interest in astronomy may have been inspired by Petrus Apianus's "Astronomicum Caesareum".  William was a pioneer in astronomical research, and perhaps owes his most lasting fame to his discoveries in this branch of study. Most of the mechanical contrivances which made instruments of Tycho Brahe so superior to those of his contemporaries were adopted in Kassel about 1584. From then on the observations made in Hesse-Kassel seem to have been about as accurate as those of Tycho. However the resulting longitudes were 6' too great in consequence of the adopted solar parallax of 3'.

Hessian star catalogue.

The principal product of the astronomical observations was the Hessian star catalogue, a catalogue of about a thousand stars. The locations were determined by the methods usually employed in the 16th century, connecting a fundamental star by means of Venus with the sun, and thus finding its longitude and latitude, while other stars could at any time be referred to the fundamental star. It should be noticed that clocks, on which Tycho depended very little, were used at Kassel for finding the difference of right ascension between Venus and the sun before sunset. Tycho preferred observing the angular distance between the sun and Venus when the latter was visible in the daytime.  The Hessian star catalogue was published in "Historia coelestis" (Augsburg, 1666) by Albert Curtz, and a number of other observations are to be found in "Coeli et siderum in eo errantium observationes Hassiacae" (Leiden, 1618), edited by Willebrord Snell.  R. Wolf, in his "Astronomische Mittheilungen," No. 45 (Vierteljahrsschrift der naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Zurich, 1878), has given a resume of the manuscripts still preserved at Kassel, which throw much light on the methods adopted in the observations and reductions.

Family and children.

William was married to Sabine of Württemberg, daughter of Christoph, Duke of Württemberg. They had the following children:  In addition William had a few illegitimate children. Most significant and favored among these was Philipp von Cornberg (1553–1616), William's son by Elisabeth Wallenstein. Philipp was ennobled by his father and became the ancestor of the current Barons von Cornberg.  <BR

William IV of Hesse-Kassel (24 June 1532 – 25 August 1592), also called "William the Wise", was the first Landgrave of the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel). He was the founder of the oldest line, which survives to this day.


Early life and education.

Arbour was born in Montreal, Quebec to Bernard and Rose (née Ravary) Arbour, the owners of a hotel chain. She attended convent school, during which time her parents divorced. As editor of the school magazine, she earned a reputation for irreverence.  In 1967, she graduated from Collège Regina Assumpta, and proceeded to the Université de Montréal where she completed an LL.B. with distinction in 1970. She became the Law Clerk for Justice Louis-Philippe Pigeon of the Supreme Court of Canada in 1971–72 while completing graduate studies at the Faculty of Law (Civil Section) of the University of Ottawa. This is where she met her long time common-law partner Larry Taman, with whom she lived for 27 years. In a 2014 interview, Arbour named the move from Quebec to Ontario as the "biggest hurdle [she] had to overcome to succeed in [her] career," as her entire education had been in French.  She was called to the Bar of Quebec in 1971 and to the Law Society of Upper Canada in 1977.

Personal life.

She has three adult children: Emilie, Patrick and Catherine. Her daughter Emilie Taman was an NDP candidate in the 2015 Canadian election in the electoral district of Ottawa—Vanier. She also has three grandchildren. Her long time common law partner, Larry Taman, was once Deputy Attorney General of Ontario, working with Attorney General Ian Scott.

Legal career.

Canada.

From 1972–73, Arbour was research officer for the Law Reform Commission of Canada. She then taught at Osgoode Hall Law School, York University, first as a Lecturer (1974), then as Assistant Professor (1975), Associate Professor (1977-87), and finally as Associate Professor and Associate Dean (1987). She was Vice-President of the Canadian Civil Liberties Association until her appointment to the Supreme Court of Ontario (High Court of Justice) in 1987 and to the Court of Appeal for Ontario in 1990. In 1995, Arbour was appointed as President of a Commission of Inquiry, under the Inquiries Act, for the purpose of investigating and reporting on events at the Prison for Women in Kingston, Ontario, following allegations by prisoners of abuse.

The Hague.

In 1996, at Richard Goldstone's recommendation, Arbour was appointed as his replacement as Chief Prosecutor of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda in Arusha, and of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) in The Hague. She indicted then-Serbian President Slobodan Milošević for war crimes, the first time a serving head of State was called to account before an international court. Other indictees were Milan Milutinović, President of the Republic of Serbia, Nikola Šainović, Deputy Prime Minister of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Dragoljub Ojdanić, Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and Vlajko Stojiljković, Minister of Internal Affairs of the Republic of Serbia.

Supreme Court of Canada.

In 1999, Prime Minister Jean Chrétien appointed Arbour to the Supreme Court of Canada (oc1999-0941) the 26th of May, just one day before the publication of the indictment of Milosevic by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY).

Works and awards.

She has been published in the area of criminal procedure and criminal law, in both French and English. At various times, she has served as an editor for the "Criminal Reports", the "Canadian Rights Reporter", and the "Osgoode Hall Law Journal".  Arbour has been awarded honorary doctorates by twenty-seven universities. In 2005, Arbour was awarded the Thomas J. Dodd Prize in International Justice and Human Rights, along with Justice Richard Goldstone, in recognition of her work on the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda. She was the subject of a 2005 fact-based Canadian-German made-for-television movie, "Hunt For Justice" which follows her quest to indict Bosnian Serb war criminals. Arbour was played by Canadian actress Wendy Crewson.  She was made a Companion to the Order of Canada in 2007 "for her contributions to the Canadian justice system and for her dedication to the advancement of human rights throughout the world". She was made a Grand Officer of the National Order of Quebec in 2009.  She was made a Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour in 2011. She has been awarded numerous honorary degrees, including Doctor of Civil Laws from the University of Western Ontario in June 2000, Doctor of Humane Letters from Mount Saint Vincent University in May 2001, and Doctor of Laws degrees from the University of British Columbia in November 2001, the University of Waterloo in October 2006, in June 2009 from the University of Alberta and University of Guelph, and from Simon Fraser University in October 2009.  On January 24, 2008, Arbour welcomed the entry into force of the 2004 version of the "Arab Charter on Human Rights", which has been criticized for containing the following:Article 2(3) All forms of racism, Zionism and foreign occupation and domination constitute an impediment to human dignity and a major barrier to the exercise of the fundamental rights of peoples; all such practices must be condemned and efforts must be deployed for their elimination. Following criticisms about this statement, Arbour reportedly distanced herself from some aspects of the charter. The Arab Charter remains listed in the Office of the High Commissioner's website, among many texts adopted by international groups aimed at promoting and consolidating democracy.  In September 2008, Arbour gave a lecture, "Integrating Security, Development and Human Rights", at the University of San Diego's Joan B. Kroc Institute for Peace & Justice Distinguished Lecture Series.  In 2013, Arbour courted controversy by questioning the international community's policy toolkit.  On 9 March 2017, Madam Arbour was appointed by the U.N. Secretary-General, António Guterres, to be his Special Representative for International Migration. She will lead the follow-up to the migration-related aspects of the 19 September 2016 High-level Summit on Addressing Large Movements of Refugees and Migrants, with an aim to complete negotiations on a Global Compact on migration-related matters in the fall of 2018. In this pact she does neither address the causal issue of overpopulation nor the responsibilities of the member states in this matter.  She is currently a member of the Whitney R. Harris World Law Institute’s International Council.

Louise Arbour, (born February 10, 1947) is a Canadian lawyer, prosecutor and jurist. She is currently the Special Representative of the United Nations Secretary-General for International Migration.


Stating the theorem.

Let formula_1, formula_2 be vector spaces, where formula_1 is finite dimensional. Let formula_4 be a linear transformation. Then  where One can refine this theorem via the splitting lemma to be a statement about an isomorphism of spaces, not just dimensions. Explicitly, since induces an isomorphism from formula_8 to formula_9, the existence of a basis for that extends any given basis of formula_10 implies, via the splitting lemma, that formula_11. Taking dimensions, the Rank-Nullity theorem follows immediately.

Matrices.

Since formula_12, matrices immediately come to mind when discussing linear maps. In the case of an formula_13 matrix, the dimension of the domain is formula_14, the number of columns in the matrix. Thus the Rank-Nullity theorem for a given matrix formula_15 immediately becomes

Proofs.

Here we provide two proofs. The first operates in the general case, using linear maps. The second proof looks at the homogeneous system formula_17 for formula_18 with rank formula_19 and shows explicitly that there exists a set of formula_20 linearly independent solutions that span the kernel of formula_21.  While the theorem requires that the domain of the linear map be finite-dimensional, there is no such assumption on the codomain. This means that there are linear maps not given by matrices for which the theorem applies. Despite this, the first proof is not actually more general than the second: since the image of the linear map is finite-dimensional, we can represent the map from its domain to its image by a matrix, prove the theorem for that matrix, then compose with the inclusion of the image into the full codomain.

First proof.

Let formula_22 be vector spaces over some field formula_23 and formula_24 defined as in the statement of the theorem with formula_25.  As formula_26 is a subspace, there exists a basis for it. Suppose formula_27 and let be such a basis.  We may now, by the Steinitz exchange lemma, extend formula_29 with formula_30 linearly independent vectors formula_31 to form a full basis of formula_1.  Let such that is a basis for formula_1.  From this, we know that We now claim that formula_37 is a basis for formula_38. By definition, formula_37 is generating; it remains to be shown that it is also linearly independent to conclude that it is a basis.  To summarise, we have formula_29, a basis for formula_50, and formula_37, a basis for formula_48.  Finally we may state that This concludes our proof.

Second proof.

Let formula_18 with formula_19 linearly independent columns (i.e. formula_56). We will show that: To do this, we will produce a matrix formula_57 whose columns form a basis of the null space of formula_21.  Without loss of generality, assume that the first formula_19 columns of formula_21 are linearly independent. So, we can write where  This means that formula_67 for some formula_68 (see rank factorization) and, hence,  Let where formula_71 is the formula_72 identity matrix. We note that formula_57 satisfies  Therefore, each of the formula_20 columns of formula_76 are particular solutions of formula_77.  Furthermore, the formula_20 columns of formula_76 are linearly independent because formula_80 will imply formula_81 for formula_82: Therefore, the column vectors of formula_76 constitute a set of formula_20 linearly independent solutions for formula_77.  We next prove that "any" solution of formula_77 must be a linear combination of the columns of formula_76.  For this, let  be any vector such that formula_90. Note that since the columns of formula_66 are linearly independent, formula_92 implies formula_93.  Therefore,  This proves that any vector formula_96 that is a solution of formula_17 must be a linear combination of the formula_20 special solutions given by the columns of formula_76. And we have already seen that the columns of formula_76 are linearly independent. Hence, the columns of formula_76 constitute a basis for the null space of formula_21. Therefore, the nullity of formula_21 is formula_20. Since formula_19 equals rank of formula_21, it follows that formula_107. This concludes our proof.

Reformulations and generalizations.

This theorem is a statement of the first isomorphism theorem of algebra for the case of vector spaces; it generalizes to the splitting lemma.  In more modern language, the theorem can also be phrased as saying that each short exact sequence of vector spaces splits. Explicitly, given that is a short exact sequence of vector spaces, then formula_109, hence Here "R" plays the role of im "T" and "U" is ker "T", i.e.  In the finite-dimensional case, this formulation is susceptible to a generalization: if is an exact sequence of finite-dimensional vector spaces, then The rank–nullity theorem for finite-dimensional vector spaces may also be formulated in terms of the "index" of a linear map. The index of a linear map formula_113, where formula_1 and formula_2 are finite-dimensional, is defined by  Intuitively, formula_117 is the number of independent solutions formula_118 of the equation formula_119, and formula_120 is the number of independent restrictions that have to be put on formula_121 to make formula_122 solvable. The rank–nullity theorem for finite-dimensional vector spaces is equivalent to the statement  We see that we can easily read off the index of the linear map formula_24 from the involved spaces, without any need to analyze formula_24 in detail. This effect also occurs in a much deeper result: the Atiyah–Singer index theorem states that the index of certain differential operators can be read off the geometry of the involved spaces.

The rank–nullity theorem is a fundamental theorem in linear algebra which relates the dimensions of a linear map's kernel and image with the dimension of its domain.


Early life.

Born in Cape Town, South Africa, on 2 February 1915 to Lithuanian Jewish parents, Eban moved to the United Kingdom at an early age. As a child, he recalled being sent to his grandfather's house every weekend to study the Hebrew language, Talmud, and Biblical literature. He lived for a period of time in Belfast.  He was educated at St Olave's Grammar School, then in Southwark and read Classics and Oriental languages at Queens' College, Cambridge, where he achieved a double first. During his time at University and afterwards, Eban was highly involved in the Federation of Zionist Youth and was editor of its ideological journal, "The Young Zionist".  After graduating, he researched Arabic and Hebrew as a Fellow of Pembroke College from 1938–39. At the outbreak of World War II, he worked for Chaim Weizmann at the World Zionist Organization in London from December 1939.  He served in the British Army in Egypt and Mandate Palestine, becoming an intelligence officer in Jerusalem, where he coordinated and trained volunteers for resistance in the event of a German invasion, serving as a liaison officer for the Allies to the Jewish Yishuv.  After the war he continued in his post, helping to set up and run the British Foreign Office's Middle East Centre for Arab Studies which was originally based in Jerusalem before relocating to Shemlan near Beirut. He was at that time known as "Aubrey Evans".  In 1947, he translated from the original Arabic, "Maze of Justice: Diary of a Country Prosecutor", a 1937 novel by Tawfiq al-Hakim.

Diplomacy.

Eban moved back to London briefly to work in the Jewish Agency's Information Department, from which he was posted to New York, where the United Nations General Assembly was considering the "Palestine Question". In 1947, he was appointed as a liaison officer to the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine, where he was successful in attaining approval for the recommendation of partition of Palestine into Jewish and Arab segments—Resolution 181. At this stage, he changed his name to the Hebrew word Abba, meaning "Father".  Eban continued at the United Nations over the next decade. From 1950 to 1959 he also served as his country's ambassador to the United States. He was renowned for his oratorical skills. As Henry Kissinger stated:I have never encountered anyone who matched his command of the English language. Sentences poured forth in mellifluous constructions complicated enough to test the listener’s intelligence and simultaneously leave him transfixed by the speaker's virtuosity. His knowledge of history and fluency in ten languages enhanced his speech-making in the United Nations, even to skeptical or hostile audiences. In 1952, Eban was elected Vice President of the UN General Assembly. A collection of Eban's speeches before the United Nations' Security Council and General Assembly both at universities and other venues between 1948 and 1968 was compiled in "Voice of Israel", recently reissued in eBook form by Plunkett Lake Press.  He was known for his witty remarks. For example, when he was complimented on his perfect Oxford English he replied "Cambridge actually, but in politics one expects to be smeared."

Politics.

Eban left the United States in 1959 and returned to Israel, where he was elected to the Knesset (the Israeli parliament) as a member of Mapai. He served under David Ben-Gurion as Minister of Education and Culture from 1960 to 1963, then as deputy to Prime Minister Levi Eshkol until 1966. Through this period (1959–66), he also served as president of the Weizmann Institute in Rehovot.  From 1966 to 1974, Eban served as Israel's foreign minister. He defended the country's reputation after the Six-Day War by asserting, in a speech to the United Nations General Assembly, that Israel acted in response to an imminent threat: "So on the fateful morning of 5 June, when Egyptian forces moved by air and land against Israel's western coast and southern territory, our country's choice was plain". Nonetheless, he was a strong supporter of trading parts of the territories occupied in the war in exchange for peace. He played an important part in the shaping of UN Security Council Resolution 242 in 1967, as well as Resolution 338 in 1973. Among his other high level contacts, Eban was received by Pope Paul VI in 1969.  Eban was at times criticized for not voicing his opinions in Israel's internal debate. However, he was generally known to be on the "dovish" side of Israeli politics and was increasingly outspoken after leaving the cabinet. In 1977 and 1981, it was widely understood that Shimon Peres intended to name Eban Foreign Minister, had the Labor Party won those elections. Eban was offered the chance to serve as minister without portfolio in the 1984 national unity government, but chose to serve instead as Chair of the Knesset's Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee from 1984 to 1988.  His comment that Arabs "never miss an opportunity to miss an opportunity" (i.e., for peace), made after the Geneva peace talks in December 1973, is often quoted.

Later life.

In 1988, after three decades in the Knesset, he lost his seat over internal splits in the Labour Party. He devoted the rest of his life to writing and teaching, including serving as a visiting academic at Princeton University, Columbia University and George Washington University. He also narrated television documentaries including "Heritage: Civilization and the Jews" (PBS, 1984), for which he was host, "Israel, A Nation Is Born" (1992), and "On the Brink of Peace" (PBS, 1997).  Eban died in 2002 and was buried in Kfar Shmaryahu, north of Tel Aviv. He was survived by his wife, Shoshana "Suzy" (née Ambache) (sister of Aura Herzog), who died in 2011, and their two children.

Family.

Eban's son, Eli Eban, is a clarinetist who teaches at Indiana University. Eli has two children, Yael and Omri Eban.  Eban's brother-in-law was Chaim Herzog, the sixth President of Israel. Herzog's son Isaac Herzog was leader of the Israeli Labor Party from 2013–2018.  Eban's cousin, Oliver Sacks, was a neurologist and author. Eban's nephew, Jonathan Lynn, is a filmmaker and script writer known for satirical BBC shows "Yes Minister" and "Yes, Prime Minister". Lynn recounts that the plot of an episode of "Yes, Prime Minister" ("A Victory for Democracy"), which involved the British Prime Minister bypassing his own Arab-centric bureaucracy by taking the Israeli ambassador's advice, was based on an actual incident narrated to him by Eban.

Awards.

In 2001, Eban was awarded the Israel Prize for lifetime achievement and special contribution to society and the State.

Abba Solomon Meir Eban (; ; born Aubrey Solomon Meir Eban; 2 February 1915 – 17 November 2002) was an Israeli diplomat and politician, and a scholar of the Arabic and Hebrew languages.


History.

During the 1950s–1970s the population of the city soared over a million and designs for a rapid transit system were initially put up during the late 1960s. Construction began on 3 May 1977, and the system was opened to the public on 30 June 1984, becoming the ninth metro system in the Soviet Union. The original eight station section has since expanded into a two-line 29 station network with of route.  Despite the dissolution of the Soviet Union the construction of Minsk metro continued uninterrupted throughout the 1990s (as opposed to other ex-Soviet Metros like those of Yerevan and Samara, which were halted due to a complete lack of funding). Some experts attribute it to the slow reform of the Soviet planned economy in Belarus, which turned out to be beneficial for the metro expansion. Currently, station launch dates are ahead of original schedule. For example, the final phase of the Aŭtazavodskaja Line, originally planned for 2006, was opened in late 2005, and similarly the northern extension of the Maskoŭskaja Line, originally scheduled for 2008, opened on 7 November 2007. There were also 3 new stations opened on the southern end of the Maskoŭskaja line in November 2012.

Operational characteristics.

The city is located on an almost level surface and on very dry soils. As a result, although all of the Minsk Metro stations are under the surface, there are no deep-level stations that are found in most of the ex-Soviet cities. Out of the current 29 stations 19 are pillar-spans and 10 are of vaulted type. Like most of the Soviet metro systems, all of the stations are vividly decorated. Some (notably, Niamiha) exhibit Belarusian national motifs, others focus on more Soviet socialist themes. Although recent years saw more priority on "high-tech" decorations.

Expansion plans.

At present, there are several projects, only one of which is under construction, the southwestern extension of the Maskowskaya line to the new residential districts in the south-west of the city. This project is fully complete, with 3 out of 4 stations opened November 2012, with Malinawka the final station, opened June 2014. The Maskowskaya and Awtazavodskaya lines can potentially receive an extension on both ends of each line.  However, the major project after 2013 will be a third line running from the south to the north-east of the city via the centre, creating two new transfer points with the existing lines. The construction of the third line was expected to start in 2011, delayed to late 2013, and the first stage of the line is expected to open in 2020. This would follow a northern contour parallel to Maskowskaya, and relieve the extensive congestion in the city area, and then extend south of the city.  A fourth line is not expected to be built before 2020. It is expected to connect south-eastern parts of the city with the north-western residential areas.

Incidents.

1999 stampede.

On 30 May 1999, a sudden thunderstorm caused a large crowd, from a nearby rock concert, to seek shelter at the Nyamiha station. The limited size of the subways leading into the ticket hall and the wet pavement caused a human crush. Fifty-three people died.

2011 bombing.

The Kastrychnitskaya station was the site of a terrorist bombing on 11 April 2011. Fifteen people were killed.

The Minsk Metro (, ) is a rapid transit system that serves Minsk, the capital of Belarus. Opened in 1984, it presently consists of 2 lines and 29 stations, totaling. In 2013, the system carried 328.3 million passengers, which averages to a daily ridership of approximately 899,450.


Biography.

Born in Mineola, New York, of Polish and Italian origin, Wilczek was educated in the public schools of Queens, attending Martin Van Buren High School. It was around this time Wilczek's parents realized that he was exceptional—in part as a result of Frank Wilczek having been administered an IQ test. He was raised Catholic but later "lost faith in conventional religion". He has been described as an agnostic but tweeted in 2013 that "pantheist" is "closer to the mark".  He received his Bachelor of Science in Mathematics and membership in Phi Beta Kappa at the University of Chicago in 1970, a Master of Arts in Mathematics at Princeton University, 1972, and a Ph.D. in physics at Princeton University in 1974. In 1982, he was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship. Wilczek holds the Herman Feshbach Professorship of Physics at MIT Center for Theoretical Physics. He worked at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton and the Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of California, Santa Barbara and was also a visiting professor at NORDITA.  Wilczek became a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2000. He was awarded the Lorentz Medal in 2002. Wilczek won the Lilienfeld Prize of the American Physical Society in 2003. In the same year he was awarded the Faculty of Mathematics and Physics Commemorative Medal from Charles University in Prague. He was the co-recipient of the 2003 High Energy and Particle Physics Prize of the European Physical Society. The Nobel Prize in Physics 2004 was awarded jointly to David J. Gross, H. David Politzer and Frank Wilczek "for the discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction.” Wilczek was also the co-recipient of the 2005 King Faisal International Prize for Science. On January 25, 2013 Wilczek received an honorary doctorate from the Faculty of Science and Technology at Uppsala University, Sweden.  He currently serves on the board for Society for Science & the Public and is a co-founding member of the Kosciuszko Foundation of the Collegium of Eminent Scientists of Polish Origin and Ancestry.  Wilczek was married to Betsy Devine on July 3, 1973, and together they have two daughters, Amity (Academic Dean at Deep Springs College) and Mira (senior partner at Link Ventures.)  Wilczek said that "the world embodies beautiful ideas" but "although this may inspire a spiritual interpretation, it does not require one".  Wilczek has appeared on an episode of "", where Penn referred to him as "the smartest person [they have] ever had on the show."  In 2014, Wilczek penned a letter, along with Stephen Hawking and two other scholars, warning that "Success in creating AI would be the biggest event in human history. Unfortunately, it might also be the last, unless we learn how to avoid the risks." He is a member of the Scientific Advisory Board for the Future of Life Institute, an organization that works to mitigate existential risks facing humanity, particularly existential risk from advanced artificial intelligence. He is also a supporter of the Campaign for the Establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, an organisation which advocates for democratic reform in the United Nations, and the creation of a more accountable international political system.  Wilczek was elected as a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1990 and a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1993.

Research.

In 1973, while a graduate student working with David Gross at Princeton University, Wilczek (together with Gross) discovered asymptotic freedom, which holds that the closer quarks are to each other, the less the strong interaction (or color charge) between them; when quarks are in extreme proximity, the nuclear force between them is so weak that they behave almost as free particles. The theory, which was independently discovered by H. David Politzer, was important for the development of quantum chromodynamics.  Wilczek has helped reveal and develop axions, anyons, asymptotic freedom, the color superconducting phases of quark matter, and other aspects of quantum field theory. He has worked on condensed matter physics, astrophysics, and particle physics.  In 2012 he proposed the idea of a time crystal. In 2018, several research teams reported the existence of time crystals. In 2018 he and Qing-Dong Jiang calculated that the so-called "quantum atmosphere" of materials should theoretically be capable of being probed using existing technology such as diamond probes with nitrogen-vacancy centers.

Frank Anthony Wilczek (; born May 15, 1951) is an American theoretical physicist, mathematician and a Nobel laureate. He is currently the Herman Feshbach Professor of Physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Founding Director of T. D. Lee Institute and Chief Scientist at the Wilczek Quantum Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University (SJTU), Distinguished Professor at Arizona State University (ASU) and full Professor at Stockholm University.


2004 Israeli operation in the northern Gaza Strip

Overview.

Following the death of two Israeli children from a Qassam rocket launched by Palestinian militants, Israel launched a major military invasion of the northern Gaza strip, focusing on the towns of Beit Hanoun and Beit Lahia and the Jabaliya refugee camp. The stated goal of the operation, code-named "Days of Penitence" (ימי תשובה) by the Israeli Defence Force, was to prevent Palestinians from launching rockets and mortar shells into Israeli settlements in Gaza and the town of Sderot in Israel.  During this 17 day attack the Israeli military killed some 130 Palestinians; demolished at least 85 houses and damaged hundreds more; damaged public facilities, including schools, kindergartens and mosques, and destroyed farmland. According to Israeli soldiers, many of the buildings that were demolished were used by Palestinian militants as a cover for launching Qassam rockets and for shooting anti-tank missiles.  During the UN Security Council deliberations over censuring Israel for this military attack, Israel accused the United Nations Relief and Welfare Agency (UNRWA) of complicity in Palestinian attacks by allowing its vehicles to transport rockets. The Israeli government released a video claiming that it showed rockets being loaded into the UNRWA ambulance. UNRWA denied the accusation and demanded an apology stating that the object was a stretcher, not a rocket (the person in the video was carrying the lightweight object with just one hand). On October 6, Israel retracted the accusation.(Reuters) "See further discussion here".  The attack resulted in a proposed Security Council resolution condemning the Israeli action, calling for Israeli withdrawal and respect for human rights of Palestinians. The resolution was vetoed by the United States on October 5 who criticized it for ignoring terrorism against Israelis.  Over the weekend of October 17, the Israeli military announced that its troops withdrew from the Jabalia refugee camp and other populated areas and redeployed to positions nearby and proclaimed the attack a success, with a warning that the troops would return if the rocket attacks resume, which analysts from both sides say is likely.  Both sides claimed victory in the operation.  Capt. Jacob Dallal, an Israeli Defence Forces spokesman, acclaimed the operation's success: "We really impaired the ability to shoot Qassams from Jabalya. We engaged many cells and now there are fewer Hamas members to shoot rockets," he says. "We dealt a hard blow to the whole Hamas infrastructure in Jabalia."  The Palestine Information Center published a statement by Hamas spokesman Ismail Hanneya who asserted that the problem was not in resistance or in Qassam missiles but rather in what Hamas views as the Israeli occupation of Palestinian land: "Hamas achieved a victory over the Zionist enemy... the blows of the resistance and the steadfastness of the people caused the occupying forces to withdraw without achieving any of their goals."

Allegations of Israeli war crimes.

In 2005 and 2006 Adalah requested the Military Advocate General (MAG) to initiate a criminal investigation into events that took place during "Operation Rainbow". In 2007 also for "Operation Days of Penitence". All requests had been denied. On 15 April 2007, Adalah, PCHR and Al-Haq filed a petition, in which they asked the Israeli High Court of Justice to order a criminal investigation, referring to many local and international organizations who had accused Israel of committing war crimes. Not earlier than two years later, on 6 May 2009, the Court held a hearing. Another 1.5 years later, on 8 December 2011, the Court rejected the petition because, according to the Israeli judges, the request was too late and too unspecific, the aim of the operations was justified, and a criminal investigation was not the most appropriate tool.

Casualties.

The casualties from 28 September to 16 October 2004 are as follows:

In 2004 the Israeli Defense Forces launched Operation "Days of Penitence" (Hebrew: מבצע ימי תשובה), otherwise known as Operation "Days of Repentance" in the northern Gaza Strip. The operation lasted between 29 September and 16 October 2004. About 130 Palestinians, and 1 Israeli were killed.