Technology.

C++Builder uses the same IDE as Delphi, and shares many core libraries. Notable shared Delphi (Object Pascal code) and C++ Builder routines include the FastMM4 memory manager, which was developed as a community effort within the FastCode project, the entire UI framework known as the VCL, which is written in Object Pascal, as well as base system routines, many of which have been optimised for both Delphi and C++Builder through the FastCode project.  C++Builder projects can include Delphi code. The Delphi compiler emits C++ headers, allowing C++ code to link to Delphi classes and methods as though they were written in C++. The reverse (C++ code being used by Delphi) is not as straightforward but possible.

History.

Borland C++Builder.

C++Builder originally targeted only the Microsoft Windows platform. Later versions incorporated Borland CLX, a cross-platform development visual component library based on Qt, that supports Windows and Linux, however CLX is now abandoned. A cross-platform version for Linux and OS X is reportedly planned.  Traditionally, the release cycle was such that Delphi got major enhancements first, with C++Builder following, though recent versions have been released at the same time as their Delphi equivalents.

1.0.

Preview edition was announced in Jan. 7, 1997. Retail version was released on February 26, 1997. Original Borland C++Builder editions include Client/Server Suite, Professional, Standard.

Borland C++Builder 4.

New features include:

Borland C++Builder 5.

On March 22, 2000, Inprise Corporation announced the release of Borland C++Builder 5, available in Enterprise, Professional, Standard editions. New features include:

Borland C++Builder 6 (Studio).

On February 5, 2002, Borland Software Corporation announced the release of Borland C++Builder 6 on February 8, 2002, including C++Builder 6 Enterprise, C++Builder 6 Professional, and C++Builder 6 Personal editions. 60-day free trial download of C++Builder 6 Enterprise was also planned. New features include:  Minimum supported operating system was changed to Windows 98.

C++ Builder 2006.

On Oct 10, 2005, Borland Software Corporation announced the release of Borland C++Builder (previously codenamed "DeXter"). Minimum supported operating system was changed to Windows 2000.  About a year after the announcement Borland released "Borland Developer Studio 2006" which includes "Borland C++Builder 2006" that provides improved configuration management and bug fixes. "Borland Developer Studio 2006" is a single package containing Delphi, C++Builder, and C#Builder.  In 2006 Borland's Developer Tools Group, developers of C++Builder, was transferred to a wholly owned subsidiary, CodeGear.

Borland C++BuilderX.

On Sep 15, 2003, Borland Software Corporation announced the release of "Borland C++BuilderX" (CBX), which was also included as part of the latest Borland Enterprise Studio for Mobile. CBX was written using the same framework as JBuilder and bore little resemblance to either C++Builder or Delphi. This product was aimed at developing large programs for enterprises, but did not sell well.  On Sep 22, 2003, Borland Software Corporation and PalmSource, Inc. announced Borland has licensed the PalmSource software development kits (SDKs) and will support Palm OS development in the Borland C++BuilderX Integrated Development Environment (IDE) and latest Borland Application Lifecycle Management (ALM) solutions for C++.  At the end of 2004 Borland announced that it would continue to develop the earlier C++Builder and bundle it with the Delphi development suite, abandoning C++BuilderX.

CodeGear Borland C++Builder.

In 2007 CodeGear released "C++Builder 2007", providing full API support for Microsoft Vista, increased ANSI C++ conformance, up to 500% faster in-IDE build performance, support for MSBuild, DBX4 database architecture, and "VCL for the Web" which supports Ajax. The API support for Microsoft Vista includes themed applications and seamless VCL support for Aero and Vista Desktop. "CodeGear RAD Studio 2007" incorporates "C++Builder 2007" and "Delphi". Also in 2007 Borland revived the "Turbo" brand and released two "Turbo" editions of C++Builder: Turbo C++ Professional, and Turbo C++ Explorer (no longer available from CodeGear), based on "Borland C++Builder 2006".  In 2008 CodeGear was purchased by Embarcadero Technologies, who continued development.

Embarcadero C++Builder.

"C++Builder 2009" was released in August 2008, with the most notable improvements being full Unicode support throughout VCL and RTL, early adoption of the C++0x standard, full ITE (Integrated Translation Environment) support, native Ribbon components and the inclusion of the Boost library. "C++Builder 2010" then followed in August 2009, adding in particular the touch and gesture support newly introduced to the VCL and a C++ specific class explorer. C++Builder XE was released in August 2010.  Embarcadero moved to a different versioning scheme in 2010. Rather than using numbers, they use XE.

XE (15).

C++ Builder XE was released in August 2010. No notable major changes were included in this version except for bug fixes.

XE2 (16).

C++Builder XE2 was released in August 2011. Inclusion of 'FireMonkey' for creating cross-platform GUIs.

XE3 (17).

C++ Builder XE3 was released in August 2012. No notable major changes were included in this version except for bug fixes.

XE4 (18).

C++ Builder XE4 was released in April 2013. Included a 64-bit Windows compiler based on Clang 3.1. The 32-bit compiler is still based on Embarcadero's older technology.

XE5 (19).

Changes to C++Builder XE5 include: C++Builder XE5 Starter Edition includes: Available editions include Architect, Ultimate, Enterprise, Professional, Starter.  RAD Studio XE5 also includes C++Builder XE5.

10 Seattle (23).

Released in late August 2015 Seattle updates the C++ compiler suite to CLANG 3.3 with the following exceptions:

10.1 Berlin (24).

Released in late April 2016.

10.2 Tokyo (25).

Released in late March 2017.

macOS support.

C++Builder XE2 was released in August 2011, introducing OS X support to the compiler for the first time. This allows the creation of cross-platform executables from a single source using the included FireMonkey libraries, however the IDE is only compatible with Microsoft Windows.  C++Builder XE3 was released in August 2012 containing further OS X support and an upgraded version of FireMonkey.  C++Builder XE4 was released in April 2013 containing further OS X support and FireMonkey version 3.

Version history.

The following is a rough outline of product release information.

Editions.

C++ Builder is available in four editions with increasing features and price:

C++Builder is a rapid application development (RAD) environment, originally developed by Borland and owned by Embarcadero Technologies (a subsidiary of Idera), for writing programs in the C++ programming language targeting Windows NT (IA-32 and x64), macOS, iOS and Android. C++Builder combines the Visual Component Library and IDE written in Object Pascal with multiple C++ compilers. Most components developed in Delphi can be used in C++Builder with no or little modification, although the reverse is not true, but this constraint is valid only for source code. Binary code generated by Delphi can easily be linked to binary code generated by C++Builder and vice versa to generate an executable written in both Object Pascal and C++. With this approach, C++ can be called from Object Pascal and vice versa. Since both Delphi and C++ use the same back end linker, the debugger can single step from Delphi code into C++ transparently.


Sunni imams.

The Sunni branch of Islam does not have imams in the same sense as the Shi'a, an important distinction often overlooked by those outside of the Islamic religion. In everyday terms, the imam for Sunni Muslims is the one who leads Islamic formal (Fard) prayers, even in locations besides the mosque, whenever prayers are done in a group of two or more with one person leading (imam) and the others following by copying his ritual actions of worship. Friday sermon is most often given by an appointed imam. All mosques have an imam to lead the (congregational) prayers, even though it may sometimes just be a member from the gathered congregation rather than an officially appointed salaried person. The position of women as imams is controversial. The person that should be chosen, according to Hadith, is one who has most knowledge of the Quran and Sunnah (prophetic tradition) and is of good character.  The term is also used for a recognized religious scholar or authority in Islam, often for the founding scholars of the four Sunni madhhabs, or schools of jurisprudence ("fiqh"). It may also refer to the Muslim scholars who created the analytical sciences related to Hadith or it may refer to the heads of Muhammad's family in their generational times.  The Position of Imams In Turkey  Imams are appointed by the state to work at mosques and they are required to be graduates of an İmam Hatip high school or have a university degree in Theology. This is an official position regulated by the Presidency of Religious Affairs in Turkey and only males are appointed to this position while female officials under the same state organisation work as preachers and Qur'an course tutors, religious services experts. These officials are supposed to belong to the Hanafi school of the Sunni sect.  A central figure in an Islamic movement is also called as an Imam like the Imam Nabhawi in Syria and Ahmad Raza Khan in India and Pakistan is also called as the Imam for Sunni Muslims.

Shi'a imams.

In the Shi'a context, an imam is not only presented as the man of God "par excellence", but as participating fully in the names, attributes, and acts that theology usually reserves for God alone. Imams have a meaning more central to belief, referring to leaders of the community. Twelver and Ismaili Shi'a believe that these imams are chosen by God to be perfect examples for the faithful and to lead all humanity in all aspects of life. They also believe that all the imams chosen are free from committing any sin, impeccability which is called "ismah". These leaders must be followed since they are appointed by God.

Twelver.

Here follows a list of the Twelvers Shia imams:  Fatimah, also Fatimah al-Zahraa, daughter of Muhammed (615–632), is also considered infallible but not an Imam. The Shi'a believe that the last Imam, the 12th Imam Mahdi will one day emerge on Qiyamah.

Ismaili.

See Imamah (Ismaili doctrine) and List of Ismaili imams for Ismaili imams.

Zaidi.

See details under Zaidiyyah, Islamic history of Yemen and Imams of Yemen.

Imams as secular rulers.

At times, imams have held both secular and religious authority. This was the case in Oman among the Kharijite or Ibadi sects. At times, the imams were elected. At other times the position was inherited, as with the Yaruba dynasty from 1624 and 1742. See List of rulers of Oman, the Rustamid dynasty: 776–909, Nabhani dynasty: 1154–1624, the Yaruba dynasty: 1624–1742, the Al Said: 1744–present for further information. The Imamate of Futa Jallon (1727-1896) was a Fulani state in West Africa where secular power alternated between two lines of hereditary Imams, or "almami". In the Zaidi Shiite sect, imams were secular as well as spiritual leaders who held power in Yemen for more than a thousand years. In 897, a Zaidi ruler, al-Hadi ila'l-Haqq Yahya, founded a line of such imams, a theocratic form of government which survived until the second half of the 20th century. (See details under Zaidiyyah, History of Yemen, Imams of Yemen.)  Ruhollah Khomeini is officially referred to as Imam in Iran. Several Iranian places and institutions are named "Imam Khomeini", including a city, an international airport, a hospital, and a university.

Imam (; '; plural: ') is an Islamic leadership position. It is most commonly used as the title of a worship leader of a mosque and Muslim community among Sunni Muslims. In this context, imams may lead Islamic worship services, serve as community leaders, and provide religious guidance. In Yemen, the title was formerly given to the king of the country.


History.

Little is known of the origin or history of the Raetians, who appear in the records as one of the most powerful and warlike of the Alpine tribes. Livy states distinctly that they were of Etruscan origin (a belief that was favored by Niebuhr and Mommsen). A tradition reported by Justin and Pliny the Elder affirmed that they were a portion of that people who had settled in the plains of the Po and were driven into the mountains by the invading Gauls, when they assumed the name of "Raetians" from an eponymous leader Raetus. Even if their Etruscan origin be accepted, at the time when the land became known to the Romans, Celtic tribes were already in possession of it and had amalgamated so completely with the original inhabitants that, generally speaking, the Raetians of later times may be regarded as a Celtic people, although non-Celtic tribes (es. Euganei) were settled among them.  The Raetians are first mentioned (but only incidentally) by Polybius, and little is heard of them till after the end of the Republic. There is little doubt, however, that they retained their independence until their subjugation in 15 BC by Tiberius and Drusus.  At first Raetia formed a distinct province, but towards the end of the 1st century AD Vindelicia was added to it; hence Tacitus ("Germania", 41) could speak of "Augusta Vindelicorum" (Augsburg) as "a colony of the province of Raetia". The whole province (including Vindelicia) was at first under a military prefect, then under a procurator; it had no standing army quartered in it but relied on its own native troops and militia for protection until the 2nd century AD.  During the reign of Marcus Aurelius, Raetia was governed by the commander of the Legio III "Italica", which was based in Castra Regina (Regensburg) by 179 AD. Under Diocletian, Raetia formed part of the diocese of the "vicarius Italiae", and was subdivided into "Raetia prima", with a "praeses" at Curia Raetorum (Chur) and "Raetia secunda", with a "praeses" at Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg), the former corresponding to the old Raetia, the latter to Vindelicia. The boundary between them is not clearly defined, but may be stated generally as a line drawn eastwards from the "lacus Brigantinus" (Lake Constance) to the "Oenus" (River Inn).  During the last years of the Western Roman Empire, the land was in a desolate condition, but its occupation by the Ostrogoths in the time of Theodoric the Great, who placed it under a "dux", to some extent revived its prosperity. Much of "Raetia prima" remained as a separate political unit, Raetia Curiensis, for several centuries, until it was attached to the Duchy of Swabia in AD 917.

Economy.

The land was very mountainous, and the inhabitants, when not engaged in predatory expeditions, chiefly supported themselves by breeding cattle and cutting timber, little attention being paid to agriculture. Some of the valleys, however, were rich and fertile, and produced wine, which was considered equal to any in Italia. Augustus Caesar preferred Raetian wine to any other. Considerable trade in pitch, honey, wax, and cheese occurred.

Geography.

The chief towns of Raetia (excluding Vindelicia) were "Tridentum" (Trento) and "Curia" (Coire or Chur). It was traversed by two great lines of Roman roads — the Via Claudia Augusta leading from Verona and Tridentum across the Reschen Pass to the Fern Pass and thence to "Augusta Vindelicorum" (Augsburg), the other from "Brigantium" (Bregenz) on Lake Constance by Chur and Chiavenna to Como and Milan.  The Rätikon mountain range derives its name from Raetia.

Raetia (, ; also spelled Rhaetia) was a province of the Roman Empire, named after the Rhaetian ("Raeti" or "Rhaeti") people. It bordered on the west with the country of the Helvetii, on the east with Noricum, on the north with Vindelicia, on the south-west with Transalpine Gaul and on the south with Venetia et Histria.


Rise.

Leo was of a modest family in southern Italy, the son of Atyuppius and Elizabeth. He was made cardinal-priest of Santa Susanna by Pope Adrian I, and seemingly also vestiarius, or chief of the pontifical treasury, or wardrobe.  He was elected on 26 December 795, the day Adrian I was buried, and consecrated on the following day. It is quite possible that this haste may have been due to a desire on the part of the Romans to prevent any interference by the Franks. With the letter informing the Frankish ruler Charlemagne that he had been unanimously elected pope, Leo sent him the keys of the confession of St. Peter, and the standard of the city, and requested an envoy. This he did to show that he regarded the Frankish king as the protector of the Holy See. In return, Charlemagne sent letters of congratulation and a great part of the treasure which the king had captured from the Avars.

Pontificate.

Charlemagne's gift enabled Leo to be a great benefactor to the churches and charitable institutions of Rome. While Charlemagne's letter is respectful and even affectionate, it also exhibits his concept of the coordination of the spiritual and temporal powers, and he does not hesitate to remind the pope of his grave spiritual obligations. Charlemagne's reply stated that it was his role to defend the Church, and the role of the pope to pray for the realm and for the victory of his army.

Attack on Leo.

Prompted by jealousy or ambition, or the thought that only someone of the nobility should hold the office of pope, a number of relatives of Adrian I formed a plot to render Leo unfit to hold his office. On the occasion of the procession of the Greater Litanies, 25 April 799, when the pope was making his way towards the Flaminian Gate, he was suddenly attacked by armed men. He was dashed to the ground, and an effort was made to root out his tongue and tear out his eyes which left him injured and unconscious. He was rescued by two of Charlemagne's "missi dominici", who came with a considerable force. Duke Winiges of Spoleto sheltered the fugitive pope, who went later to Paderborn, where Charlemagne's camp then was. He was received by the Frankish king with the greatest honour at Paderborn. This meeting forms the basis of the epic poem "Karolus Magnus et Leo Papa".  Leo was accused by his enemies of adultery and perjury. Charlemagne ordered them to Paderborn, but no decision could be made. He then had Leo escorted back to Rome. In November 800, Charlemagne himself went to Rome, and on 1 December held a council there with representatives of both sides. Leo, on 23 December, took an oath of purgation concerning the charges brought against him, and his opponents were exiled.

Coronation of Charlemagne.

Charlemagne's father, Pepin the Short, defended the papacy against the Lombards and issued the Donation of Pepin, which granted the land around Rome to the pope as a fief. In 754 Pope Stephen II had conferred on Charles's father the dignity of "Patricius Romanus", which implied primarily the protection of the Roman Church in all its rights and privileges; above all in its temporal authority which it had gradually acquired (notably in the former Byzantine Duchy of Rome and the Exarchate of Ravenna) by just titles in the course of the two preceding centuries.  Two days after his oath, on Christmas Day 800, Leo crowned Charlemagne as emperor. According to Charlemagne's biographer, Einhard, Charles had no suspicion of what was about to happen, and if informed would not have accepted the imperial crown. There is, however, no reason to doubt that for some time previous the elevation of Charlemagne had been discussed, both at home and at Rome, especially since the imperial throne in Constantinople was controversially occupied by a woman, Irene of Athens, and since the Carolingian dynasty had firmly established its power and prestige. The coronation offended Constantinople, which had seen itself still as the rightful defender of Rome, but Empress Irene, like many of her predecessors since Justinian I, was too weak to offer protection to the city or its much reduced citizenry.  In 808, Leo committed Corsica to Charlemagne for safe-keeping because of Muslim raids, originating from Al-Andalus, on the island. Nonetheless, Corsica, along with Sardinia, would still go on to be occupied by Muslim forces in 809 and 810.

Theological policy.

Leo helped restore King Eardwulf of Northumbria and settled various matters of dispute between the archbishops of York and Canterbury. He also reversed Adrian I's decision in regards to the granting of the pallium to Bishop Hygeberht of Lichfield. He believed that the English episcopate had been misrepresented before Adrian and that therefore his act was invalid. In 803, Lichfield was a regular diocese again.  When asked to confirm the decision of the 809 Council of Aachen, Leo, though affirming the orthodoxy of the term "Filioque" and approving of its use in catechesis and personal professions of the faith, explicitly disapproved the addition of the "filioque" to the Creed of 381. Around this time, he ordered two heavy silver shields, containing the original text of the Creed in both Greek and Latin, to be made and placed in St. Peter's Basilica, adding: "Haec Leo posui amore et cautela orthodoxae fidei" ("I, Leo, put these here for love and protection of orthodox faith").

Death and legacy.

Leo III died in 816 after a reign of more than 20 years. He was originally buried in his own monument. However, some years after his death, his remains were put into a tomb that contained the first four popes named Leo. In the 18th century, the relics of Leo the Great were separated from his namesakes, and he was given his own chapel.  Leo III was canonized by Clement X, who, in 1673, had Leo's name entered in the Roman Martyrology.

Pope Leo III (; 12 June 816) was the bishop of Rome and ruler of the Papal States from 26 December 795 to his death. Protected by Charlemagne from the supporters of his predecessor, Adrian I, Leo subsequently strengthened Charlemagne's position by crowning him emperor. The coronation was not approved in Constantinople, although the Byzantines, occupied with their own defenses, were in no position to offer much opposition.


Motivation.

Refactoring is usually motivated by noticing a code smell. For example, the method at hand may be very long, or it may be a near duplicate of another nearby method. Once recognized, such problems can be addressed by "refactoring" the source code, or transforming it into a new form that behaves the same as before but that no longer "smells".  For a long routine, one or more smaller subroutines can be extracted; or for duplicate routines, the duplication can be removed and replaced with one shared function. Failure to perform refactoring can result in accumulating technical debt; on the other hand, refactoring is one of the primary means of repaying technical debt.

Benefits.

There are two general categories of benefits to the activity of refactoring.

Challenges.

Refactoring requires extracting software system structure, data models, and intra-application dependencies to get back knowledge of an existing software system. The turnover of teams implies missing or inaccurate knowledge of the current state of a system and about design decisions made by departing developers. Further code refactoring activities may require additional effort to regain this knowledge. Refactoring activities generate architectural modifications that deteriorate the structural architecture of a software system. Such deterioration affects architectural properties such as maintainability and comprehensibility which can lead to a complete re-development of software systems. Code refactoring activities are secured with software intelligence when using tools and technics providing data about algorithms and sequences of code execution. Providing a comprehensible format for the inner-state of software system structure, data models, and intra-components dependencies is a critical element to form a high-level understanding and then refined views of what needs to be modified, and how.

Testing.

Automatic unit tests should be set up before refactoring to ensure routines still behave as expected. Unit tests can bring stability to even large refactors when performed with a single atomic commit. A common strategy to allow safe and atomic refactors spanning multiple projects is to store all projects in a single repository, known as monorepo.  With unit testing in place, refactoring is then an iterative cycle of making a small program transformation, testing it to ensure correctness, and making another small transformation. If at any point a test fails, the last small change is undone and repeated in a different way. Through many small steps the program moves from where it was to where you want it to be. For this very iterative process to be practical, the tests must run very quickly, or the programmer would have to spend a large fraction of their time waiting for the tests to finish. Proponents of extreme programming and other agile software development describe this activity as an integral part of the software development cycle.

Techniques.

Here are some examples of micro-refactorings; some of these may only apply to certain languages or language types. A longer list can be found in Martin Fowler's refactoring book and website. Many development environments provide automated support for these micro-refactorings. For instance, a programmer could click on the name of a variable and then select the "Encapsulate field" refactoring from a context menu. The IDE would then prompt for additional details, typically with sensible defaults and a preview of the code changes. After confirmation by the programmer it would carry out the required changes throughout the code.

Hardware refactoring.

While the term "refactoring" originally referred exclusively to refactoring of software code, in recent years code written in hardware description languages (HDLs) has also been refactored. The term "hardware refactoring" is used as a shorthand term for refactoring of code in hardware description languages. Since HDLs are not considered to be programming languages by most hardware engineers, hardware refactoring is to be considered a separate field from traditional code refactoring.  Automated refactoring of analog hardware descriptions (in VHDL-AMS) has been proposed by Zeng and Huss. In their approach, refactoring preserves the simulated behavior of a hardware design. The non-functional measurement that improves is that refactored code can be processed by standard synthesis tools, while the original code cannot. Refactoring of digital HDLs, albeit manual refactoring, has also been investigated by Synopsys fellow Mike Keating. His target is to make complex systems easier to understand, which increases the designers' productivity.

History.

Although refactoring code has been done informally for decades, William Griswold's 1991 Ph.D. dissertation is one of the first major academic works on refactoring functional and procedural programs, followed by William Opdyke's 1992 dissertation on the refactoring of object-oriented programs, although all the theory and machinery have long been available as program transformation systems. All of these resources provide a catalog of common methods for refactoring; a refactoring method has a description of how to apply the method and indicators for when you should (or should not) apply the method.  Martin Fowler's book "Refactoring: Improving the Design of Existing Code" is the canonical reference.  The first known use of the term "refactoring" in the published literature was in a September, 1990 article by William Opdyke and Ralph Johnson. Griswold's Ph.D. thesis, Opdyke's Ph.D. thesis, published in 1992, also used this term.  The terms "factoring" and "factoring out" have been used in this way in the Forth community since at least the early 1980s. Chapter Six of Leo Brodie's book "Thinking Forth" (1984) is dedicated to the subject.  In extreme programming, the Extract Method refactoring technique has essentially the same meaning as factoring in Forth; to break down a "word" (or function) into smaller, more easily maintained functions.  Refactorings can also be reconstructed posthoc to produce concise descriptions of complex software changes recorded in software repositories like CVS or SVN.

Automated code refactoring.

Many software editors and IDEs have automated refactoring support. It is possible to refactor application code as well as test code. Here is a list of a few of these editors, or so-called refactoring browsers.

In computer programming and software design, code refactoring is the process of restructuring existing computer code—changing the "factoring"—without changing its external behavior. Refactoring is intended to improve the design, structure, and/or implementation of the software (its "non-functional" attributes), while preserving its functionality. Potential advantages of refactoring may include improved code readability and reduced complexity; these can improve the source codes maintainability and create a simpler, cleaner, or more expressive internal architecture or object model to improve extensibility. Another potential goal for refactoring is improved performance; software engineers face an ongoing challenge to write programs that perform faster or use less memory.


Properties.

Spinel crystallizes in the isometric system; common crystal forms are octahedra, usually twinned. It has an imperfect octahedral cleavage and a conchoidal fracture. Its hardness is 8, its specific gravity is 3.5–4.1, and it is transparent to opaque with a vitreous to dull luster. It may be colorless, but is usually various shades of pink, rose, red, blue, green, yellow, brown, black, or (uncommon) violet. There is a unique natural white spinel, now lost, that surfaced briefly in what is now Sri Lanka. Some spinels are among the most famous gemstones; among them are the Black Prince's Ruby and the "Timur ruby" in the British Crown Jewels, and the "Côte de Bretagne", formerly from the French Crown jewels. The Samarian Spinel is the largest known spinel in the world, weighing.  The transparent red spinels were called spinel-rubies or balas rubies. In the past, before the arrival of modern science, spinels and rubies were equally known as rubies. After the 18th century the word ruby was only used for the red gem variety of the mineral corundum and the word spinel came to be used. "Balas" is derived from Balascia, the ancient name for Badakhshan, a region in central Asia situated in the upper valley of the Panj River, one of the principal tributaries of the Oxus River. Mines in the Gorno Badakhshan region of Tajikistan constituted for centuries the main source for red and pink spinels.

Occurrence.

Geologic occurrence.

Spinel is found as a metamorphic mineral, and also as a primary mineral in rare mafic igneous rocks; in these igneous rocks, the magmas are relatively deficient in alkalis relative to aluminium, and aluminium oxide may form as the mineral corundum or may combine with magnesia to form spinel. This is why spinel and ruby are often found together. The spinel petrogenesis in mafic magmatic rocks is strongly debated, but certainly results from mafic magma interaction with more evolved magma or rock (e.g. gabbro, troctolite).  Spinel, (Mg,Fe)(Al,Cr)O, is common in peridotite in the uppermost Earth's mantle, between approximately 20 km to approximately 120 km, possibly to lower depths depending on the chromium content. At significantly shallower depths, above the Moho, calcic plagioclase is the more stable aluminous mineral in peridotite while garnet is the stable phase deeper in the mantle below the spinel stability region.  Spinel, (Mg,Fe)AlO, is a common mineral in the Ca-Al-rich inclusions (CAIs) in some chondritic meteorites.

Geographical occurrence.

Spinel has long been found in the gemstone-bearing gravel of Sri Lanka and in limestones of the Badakshan Province in modern-day Afghanistan and Tajikistan; and of Mogok in Myanmar. Over the last decades gem quality spinels are found in the marbles of Lục Yên District (Vietnam), Mahenge and Matombo (Tanzania), Tsavo (Kenya) and in the gravels of Tunduru (Tanzania) and Ilakaka (Madagascar).  Since 2000 in several locations around the world have been discovered spinels with unusual vivid pink or blue color. Such "glowing" spinels are known from Mogok (Myanmar), Mahenge plateau (Tanzania), Lục Yên District (Vietnam) and some more localities. In 2018 bright blue spinels have been reported also in the southern part of Baffin Island (Canada). The pure blue coloration of spinel is caused by small additions of cobalt.

Synthetic spinel.

Synthetic spinel, accidentally produced in the middle of the 18th century, has been described more recently in scientific publications in 2000 and 2004. By 2015, transparent spinel was being made in sheets and other shapes through sintering. Synthetic spinel, which looks like glass but has notably higher strength against pressure, can also have applications in military and commercial use.

Spinel () is the magnesium/aluminium member of the larger spinel group of minerals. It has the formula MgAlO in the cubic crystal system. Its name comes from the Latin word "spinella", which means "spine" in reference to its pointed crystals.


Theory.

For molecules of a liquid to evaporate, they must be located near the surface, they have to be moving in the proper direction, and have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome liquid-phase intermolecular forces. When only a small proportion of the molecules meet these criteria, the rate of evaporation is low. Since the kinetic energy of a molecule is proportional to its temperature, evaporation proceeds more quickly at higher temperatures. As the faster-moving molecules escape, the remaining molecules have lower average kinetic energy, and the temperature of the liquid decreases. This phenomenon is also called evaporative cooling. This is why evaporating sweat cools the human body. Evaporation also tends to proceed more quickly with higher flow rates between the gaseous and liquid phase and in liquids with higher vapor pressure. For example, laundry on a clothes line will dry (by evaporation) more rapidly on a windy day than on a still day. Three key parts to evaporation are heat, atmospheric pressure (determines the percent humidity), and air movement.  On a molecular level, there is no strict boundary between the liquid state and the vapor state. Instead, there is a Knudsen layer, where the phase is undetermined. Because this layer is only a few molecules thick, at a macroscopic scale a clear phase transition interface cannot be seen.  Liquids that do not evaporate visibly at a given temperature in a given gas (e.g., cooking oil at room temperature) have molecules that do not tend to transfer energy to each other in a pattern sufficient to frequently give a molecule the heat energy necessary to turn into vapor. However, these liquids "are" evaporating. It is just that the process is much slower and thus significantly less visible.

Evaporative equilibrium.

If evaporation takes place in an enclosed area, the escaping molecules accumulate as a vapor above the liquid. Many of the molecules return to the liquid, with returning molecules becoming more frequent as the density and pressure of the vapor increases. When the process of escape and return reaches an equilibrium, the vapor is said to be "saturated", and no further change in either vapor pressure and density or liquid temperature will occur. For a system consisting of vapor and liquid of a pure substance, this equilibrium state is directly related to the vapor pressure of the substance, as given by the Clausius–Clapeyron relation:  where "P", "P" are the vapor pressures at temperatures "T", "T" respectively, Δ"H" is the enthalpy of vaporization, and "R" is the universal gas constant. The rate of evaporation in an open system is related to the vapor pressure found in a closed system. If a liquid is heated, when the vapor pressure reaches the ambient pressure the liquid will boil.  The ability for a molecule of a liquid to evaporate is based largely on the amount of kinetic energy an individual particle may possess. Even at lower temperatures, individual molecules of a liquid can evaporate if they have more than the minimum amount of kinetic energy required for vaporization.

Factors influencing the rate of evaporation.

Note: Air used here is a common example; however, the vapor phase can be other gases.  In the US, the National Weather Service measures the actual rate of evaporation from a standardized "pan" open water surface outdoors, at various locations nationwide. Others do likewise around the world. The US data is collected and compiled into an annual evaporation map. The measurements range from under 30 to over per year.

Thermodynamics.

Evaporation is an endothermic process, in that heat is absorbed during evaporation.

Applications.

Combustion vaporization.

Fuel droplets vaporize as they receive heat by mixing with the hot gases in the combustion chamber. Heat (energy) can also be received by radiation from any hot refractory wall of the combustion chamber.

Pre-combustion vaporization.

Internal combustion engines rely upon the vaporization of the fuel in the cylinders to form a fuel/air mixture in order to burn well. The chemically correct air/fuel mixture for total burning of gasoline has been determined to be 15 parts air to one part gasoline or 15/1 by weight. Changing this to a volume ratio yields 8000 parts air to one part gasoline or 8,000/1 by volume.

Film deposition.

Thin films may be deposited by evaporating a substance and condensing it onto a substrate, or by dissolving the substance in a solvent, spreading the resulting solution thinly over a substrate, and evaporating the solvent. The Hertz–Knudsen equation is often used to estimate the rate of evaporation in these instances.

Evaporation is a type of vaporization that occurs on the surface of a liquid as it changes into the gas phase. The surrounding gas must not be saturated with the evaporating substance. When the molecules of the liquid collide, they transfer energy to each other based on how they collide with each other. When a molecule near the surface absorbs enough energy to overcome the vapor pressure, it will escape and enter the surrounding air as a gas. When evaporation occurs, the energy removed from the vaporized liquid will reduce the temperature of the liquid, resulting in evaporative cooling.


History and distribution.

The earliest official reports of apple scab were made in 1819 by Swedish botanist, Elias Fries. However, genetic studies have indicated that apple scab likely emerged in Central Asia. As neither the spores nor conidia of this disease are capable of travelling great distances, it is likely that apple scab spread through the movement of domesticated apple trees by migrating humans. By the end of the 19th century, the disease had spread to North America and Oceania alongside the importation of host plants. Today apple scab is present in nearly all regions where apples are cultivated, with the most significant infections occurring in temperate areas, where it is cool and moist in the spring.

Disease cycle.

The disease cycle begins in early spring, when cool temperatures and abundant moisture promote the release of sexual spores (ascospores) from overwintering structures (pseudothecia) found in the debris at the base of previously-infected trees. Moisture is a critical factor in the development of the disease as rainfall not only triggers the release of ascospores, but also facilitates the infection of new hosts by helping the spores adhere to and germinate on the healthy tissue of new hosts. Following their dissemination, ascospores are transported to the surfaces of newly-emerged leaves and blossoms by wind and splashing water. The tissue is then penetrated either directly with a germ tube or indirectly using an appressorium, thus initiating a new infection. Shortly after penetration, light-green, irregularly shaped lesions develop on infected foliar tissue and gradually darken, expand, and pucker as the infection progresses. Lesions on fruit are black or brown and irregularly shaped, with older fruit lesions causing the underlying tissue to become dry, corky, and eventually disfigured by splitting. Within 10 days of infection, asexual conidia will develop on the darkened lesions and allow for the establishment of secondary infections in healthy leaf and fruit tissue. Under optimal conditions, this cycle may repeat every 1–2 weeks during the growing season. At the end of the season, heavily-infected fruit and foliage fall from the canopy, allowing for the development of pseuothecia, which serve as a source of primary inoculum for the next spring.

Predicting infection.

First developed in 1944 by American plant pathologist, W.D. Mills, a Mills Table predicts the likelihood of an apple scab infection developing based on the average temperature and the number of hours of leaf wetness that the host plant is exposed to. This prediction system has been rapidly adopted in both Europe and North America, where apple growers use it as an early warning system for new infections, allowing them to apply preventive fungicides when appropriate. Several revisions have been made to the Mills Table since its creation. The most notable revision was made in 1989 by plant pathologists William MacHardy and David Gadoury, who determined that ascospores required 3 hours less than originally calculated in order to establish a new infection. While other methods of prediction include ascospore maturation models and leaf orchard leaf canopy models, the Mills Table, combined with electronic weather monitoring, remains the most-widely used tool for predicting apple scab infection periods.

Management of apple scab.

Cultural controls.

Cultural controls may be used as a first step when seeking to reduce the incidence of new infections. These practices include cleaning leaf litter from the base of previously-infected trees, as well as removing infected woody material from the canopy when performing annual pruning. Doing so will reduce the amount of primary inoculum in the spring and subsequently delay the establishment of the disease. Furthermore, regular pruning will improve air flow and light penetration in the canopy, which ultimately inhibits the development and spread of disease. Another aspect of cultural control is water management. As water triggers ascospore release and promotes germination on vulnerable tissue, growers are advised to monitor watering periods and avoid using overhead watering systems. Doing so may ultimately aid in reducing infection periods caused by natural precipitation.

Chemical controls.

The management of apple scab using chemical controls is primarily concerned with preventing the initiation of primary infection cycles by reducing the germination of ascospores. As such, fungicides are typically applied early in the season, when ascospores are first released. However, fungicide applications may also be made later in the season to prevent infection of old leaves, which can help reduce the amount of primary inoculum for the following season. Benzimidazole fungicides are among the most commonly-used classes of fungicide for managing apple scab in conventional orchards; however, there is some evidence that the disease is developing resistance to this class of fungicides, along with several others, including demethylation inhibitors and quinone outside inhibitors. To manage the development of fungicide resistance, growers can reduce the number of applications made throughout the season and alternate between different classes of fungicide.  In organic production systems, growers commonly use copper- or sulfur-based protectant sprays to reduce the efficacy of primary inoculum. Although these sprays were among the earliest methods of preventing the development of apple scab, they do little to manage pre-existing infections and application may significantly damage the foliage of treated trees. Moreover, research has indicated that applications of copper-based fungicides may result in changes in the structure and functionality of soil microbiota, thus having a negative effect on soil health. As such, alternative management strategies appropriate for organic production systems are currently being developed.

Biological Control.

Biological control refers to the use of a population of one organism (a biological control agent) to suppress the population of another. There are very few biological control agents registered for the control of apple scab. One of the most widely-recognized products is Serenade® ASO, a microbial biofungicide which uses "Bacillus subtilis" as its active ingredient and may be used to control foliar diseases caused by bacteria or fungi. Furthermore, several fungal antagonists have been isolated and identified as potential biocontrols. One of such antagonists is "Cladosporium cladosporioides" (strain H39). This antagonistic fungus has demonstrated significant bioactivity against apple scab. This was indicated in a 2015 study, which found that applications of "C. cladosporioides" could reduce leaf scab incidence by 42-98% and apple scab incidence by 41-94% in both conventionally and organically managed orchards.

Resistance breeding programs.

The first formal resistance breeding programs for apple scab began in the early 20th century with the development of the PRI Apple Breeding Program by Purdue University, Rutgers University, and the University of Illinois. Since its inception in 1945, the PRI Apple Breeding Program has used controlled crosses between cultivated apples and wild "Malus" species to develop 1500 resistant cultivars, 16 of which (including 'Prima,' 'Jonafree,' and 'Goldrush') have been named released into market. Modern genetic work has found that a total of fifteen genes may confer resistance to apple scab. Many of these genes have been isolated from wild "Malus" spp. populations in East Asia, where a high level of species diversity still remains. Of these resistance genes, the Vf (Rvi6) gene is the most well-studied and is currently being used by researchers seeking to develop resistant cultivars using transgenic technology. While the development of transgenic resistant cultivars may reduce management costs in orchards, limited market acceptance pose a barrier to early adoption by commercial growers. Moreover, researchers have observed a breakdown of resistance genes by "Venturia" populations, posing another significant barrier to the success of this technology.

Apple scab is a common disease of plants in the rose family (Rosaceae) that is caused by the ascomycete fungus "Venturia inaequalis". While this disease affects several plant genera, including "Sorbus, Cotoneaster," and "Pyrus", it is most commonly associated with the infection of "Malus" trees, including species of flowering crabapple, as well as cultivated apple. The first symptoms of this disease are found in the foliage, blossoms, and developing fruits of affected trees, which develop dark, irregularly-shaped lesions upon infection. Although apple scab rarely kills its host, infection typically leads to fruit deformation and premature leaf and fruit drop, which enhance the susceptibility of the host plant to abiotic stress and secondary infection. The reduction of fruit quality and yield may result in crop losses of up to 70%, posing a significant threat to the profitability of apple producers. To reduce scab-related yield losses, growers often combine preventive practices, including sanitation and resistance breeding, with reactive measures, such as targeted fungicide or biocontrol treatments, to prevent the incidence and spread of apple scab in their crops.


Description.

The European pine marten's fur is usually light to dark brown. It is short and coarse in the summer, growing longer and silkier during the winter. It has a cream- to yellow-coloured "bib" marking on its throat. Its body is up to long, with a bushy tail of about. Males are slightly larger than females; typically, it weighs around. It has excellent senses of sight, smell, and hearing.

Distribution and habitat.

The European pine marten inhabits well-wooded areas.

Great Britain and Ireland.

In Great Britain, the species was for many years common only in northwestern Scotland. A study in 2012 found that martens have spread from their Scottish Highlands stronghold, north into Sutherland and Caithness and southeastwards from the Great Glen into Moray, Aberdeenshire, Perthshire, Tayside, and Stirlingshire, with some in the Central Belt, on the Kintyre and Cowal peninsulas and on Skye and Mull. The expansion in the Galloway Forest has been limited compared with that in the core marten range. Martens were reintroduced to the Glen Trool Forest in the early 1980s and only restricted spread has occurred from there. This may be due to ongoing persecution and trapping by local gamekeepers.  In England, pine martens are extremely rare, and long considered probably extinct. A scat found at Kidland Forest in Northumberland in June 2010 may represent either a recolonisation from Scotland, or a relict population that has escaped notice previously. There have been numerous reported sightings of pine martens in Cumbria, however, it was not until 2011 that concrete proof – some scat that was DNA-tested – was found. In July 2015, the first confirmed sighting of a pine marten in England for over a century was recorded by an amateur photographer in woodland in Shropshire. Sightings have continued in this area, and juveniles were recorded in 2019, indicating a breeding population. In July 2017, footage of a live pine marten was captured by a camera trap in the North York Moors in Yorkshire. In March 2018 the first ever footage of a pine marten in Northumberland was captured by the Back from the Brink pine marten project.  There is a small population of pine martens in Wales. Scat found in Cwm Rheidol forest in 2007 was confirmed by DNA testing to be from a pine marten. A male was found in 2012 as road kill near Newtown, Powys. This was the first confirmation in Wales of the species, living or dead, since 1971. The Vincent Wildlife Trust (VWT) has begun a reinforcement of these mammals in the mid-Wales area. During autumn 2015, 20 pine martens were captured in Scotland, in areas where a healthy pine marten population occurs, under licence from Scottish Natural Heritage. These animals were translocated and released in an area of mid-Wales. All of the martens were fitted with radio collars and are being tracked daily to monitor their movements and find out where they have set up territories. During autumn 2016, the VWT planned to capture and release another 20 pine martens in the hope of creating a self-sustaining population.  The marten is still quite rare in Ireland, but the population is recovering and spreading; its traditional strongholds are in the west and south, especially the Burren and Killarney National Park, but the population in the Midlands has significantly increased in recent years. A study managed by academics at Queens University Belfast, using cameras and citizen scientists, published in 2015, showed that pine martens were distributed across all counties of Northern Ireland.

Behaviour and ecology.

Martens are the only mustelids with semiretractable claws. This enables them to lead more arboreal lifestyles, such as climbing or running on tree branches, although they are also relatively quick runners on the ground. They are mainly active at night and dusk. They have small, rounded, highly sensitive ears and sharp teeth adapted for eating small mammals, birds, insects, frogs, and carrion. They have also been known to eat berries, birds' eggs, nuts, and honey. European pine martens are territorial animals that mark their range by depositing feces (called scats) in prominent locations. These scats are black and twisted and can be confused with those of the fox, except that they reputedly have a floral odour. Pine Martens usually make their own dens in hollow trees or scrub-covered fields.  The diet of the pine marten includes small mammals, carrion, birds, insects, and fruits.  The recovery of the European pine marten has been credited with reducing the population of invasive grey squirrels in the UK and Ireland. Where the range of the expanding European pine marten population meets that of the grey squirrel, the population of the grey squirrels quickly retreats and the red squirrel population recovers. Because the grey squirrel spends more time on the ground than the red squirrel, which co-evolved with the pine marten, they are thought to be far more likely to come in contact with this predator.

Lifespan.

The European pine marten has lived to 18 years in captivity, but in the wild the maximum age attained is only 11 years, with a mere 3-4 years being more typical. They reach sexual maturity at 2–3 years of age. Copulation usually occurs on the ground and can last more than 1 hour. Mating occurs in July and August but the fertilized egg does not enter the uterus for about 7 months. The young are usually born in late March or early April after a 1-month-long gestation period that happens after the implantation of the fertilized egg, in litters of one to five. Young European pine martens weigh around 30 grams at birth. The young begin to emerge from their dens around 7-8 weeks after birth and are able to disperse from the den around 12-16 weeks after their birth.

Threats.

Although they are preyed upon occasionally by golden eagles, red foxes, wolves, and wildcats, humans are the largest threat to pine martens. They are vulnerable from conflict with humans, arising from predator control for other species, or following predation of livestock and the use of inhabited buildings for denning. Martens may also be affected by woodland loss. Persecution (illegal poisoning and shooting) by gamekeepers, loss of habitat leading to fragmentation, and other human disturbances have caused a considerable decline in the pine marten population. They are also prized for their very fine fur in some areas. In the United Kingdom, European pine martens and their dens are offered full protection under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 and the Environmental Protection Act 1990.

The European pine marten ("Martes martes") is a mustelid native to Northern Europe. It is known most commonly as the pine marten in anglophone Europe, and less commonly also known as baum marten, or sweet marten.


Early life.

Newton was born in Berlin, the son of Klara "Claire" (née Marquis) and Max Neustädter, a button factory owner. His family was Jewish. Newton attended the Heinrich-von-Treitschke-Realgymnasium and the American School in Berlin. Interested in photography from the age of 12 when he purchased his first camera, he worked for the German photographer Yva (Elsie Neuländer Simon) from 1936.  The increasingly oppressive restrictions placed on Jews by the Nuremberg laws meant that his father lost control of the factory in which he manufactured buttons and buckles; he was briefly interned in a concentration camp on Kristallnacht, 9 November 1938, which finally compelled the family to leave Germany. Newton's parents fled to Argentina. He was issued with a passport just after turning 18 and left Germany on 5 December 1938. At Trieste he boarded the "Conte Rosso" (along with about 200 others escaping the Nazis), intending to journey to China. After arriving in Singapore he found he was able to remain there, first briefly as a photographer for the "Straits Times" and then as a portrait photographer.

From 1940: Life in Australia.

Newton was interned by British authorities while in Singapore and was sent to Australia on board the "Queen Mary", arriving in Sydney on 27 September 1940. Internees travelled to the camp at Tatura, Victoria, by train under armed guard. He was released from internment in 1942 and briefly worked as a fruit picker in Northern Victoria. In August 1942, he enlisted with the Australian Army and worked as a truck driver. After the war in 1945, he became a British subject and changed his name to Newton in 1946. In 1948, he married actress June Browne, who performed under the stage name June Brunell. She later became a successful photographer under the ironic pseudonym Alice Springs (after Alice Springs, the central Australian town).  In 1946, Newton set up a studio in fashionable Flinders Lane in Melbourne and worked on fashion, theatre and industrial photography in the affluent postwar years. He shared his first joint exhibition in May 1953 with Wolfgang Sievers, a German refugee like himself, who had also served in the same company. The exhibition of 'New Visions in Photography' was displayed at the Federal Hotel in Collins Street and was probably the first glimpse of New Objectivity photography in Australia. Newton went into partnership with Henry Talbot, a fellow German Jew who had also been interned at Tatura, and his association with the studio continued even after 1957, when he left Australia for London. The studio was renamed 'Helmut Newton and Henry Talbot'.

Late 1950s: to London, Europe, a return to Australia.

Newton's growing reputation as a fashion photographer was rewarded when he secured a commission to illustrate fashions in a special Australian supplement for "Vogue" magazine, published in January 1956. He won a 12-month contract with British Vogue and left for London in February 1957, leaving Talbot to manage the business. Newton left the magazine before the end of his contract and went to Paris, where he worked for French and German magazines. He returned to Melbourne in March 1959 to a contract for Australian "Vogue".

1961: to Paris.

Newton and wife finally settled in Paris in 1961 and the work continued as a fashion photographer. His images appeared in magazines including the French edition of "Vogue" and "Harper's Bazaar".  He established a particular style marked by erotic, stylised scenes, often with sado-masochistic and fetishistic subtexts. A heart attack in 1970 reduced Newton's output, nevertheless his wife's encouragement led to his profile continuing to expand, especially with a big success, the 1980 studio-bound stark infinity of the "Big Nudes" series. His "Naked and Dressed" portfolio followed and in 1992 "Domestic Nudes" which marked the pinnacle of his erotic-urban style, these series all underpinned with the prowess of his technical skills. Newton also worked in portraiture and more fantastical studies.  Newton shot a number of pictorials for "Playboy", including pictorials of Nastassja Kinski and Kristine DeBell. Original prints of the photographs from his August 1976 pictorial of DeBell, "200 Motels, or How I Spent My Summer Vacation" were sold at auctions of "Playboy" archives by Bonhams in 2002 for $21,075, and by Christie's in December 2003 for $26,290.

"Three Boys from Pasadena".

In 2009, June Browne Newton conceptualised a tribute exhibition to Newton, based on three photographers that befriended Newton in Los Angeles in 1980: Mark Arbeit, Just Loomis, and George Holz. All three had been photography students at The Art Center College of Design in Pasadena, California. All three became friends with Helmut and June Newton and to varying degrees assisted Helmut Newton. Each went on to independent careers. The exhibit premiered at the Helmut Newton Foundation in Berlin and combined the work of all three with personal snapshots, contact sheets, and letters from their time with Newton.

Death.

In his later life, Newton lived in both Monte Carlo and Los Angeles, California. He was in an accident on 23 January 2004, when his car sped out of control and hit a wall on Sunset Boulevard, coming out from the Chateau Marmont, which had for several years served as his residence in Southern California. He died at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center. His ashes are buried three plots down from the grave of Marlene Dietrich at the Städtischer Friedhof III in Berlin.

Helmut Newton (born Helmut Neustädter; 31 October 192023 January 2004) was a German-Australian photographer. He was a "prolific, widely imitated fashion photographer whose provocative, erotically charged black-and-white photos were a mainstay of "Vogue" and other publications."


History.

Early history.

A fortress was built at the location in the 1370s by Bo Jonsson Grip. It was sold to queen Margaret in 1404, and remained the property of the crown until it was acquired by Sten Sture the Elder, the Regent, in 1472 by an exchange of landed properties, whereby it became private, hereditary land of allodial status, to belong to the ownership of Regent Steen's own family. Steen donated the place's use to a convent for males of the order of the Carthusians in 1498, and the Gripsholm estate functioned as a convent for almost thirty years. In 1526, the Carthusian Abbey was dissolved by King Gustav I during the Swedish Reformation, and the estate was returned to its hereditary owner, the heir of the late Sten Sture the Old. It is well-recorded that Gripsholm was a part of the so-called Kungens Arv och Eget in registers of the 1500s and the 1600s. The King tore the convent building and the old castle down, and built a fortified castle with circular corner towers and a wall, for defensive purposes. Of the original medieval fortress, only the façade of a wall remains. As private family inheritance from the Regent Steen Sture the Old, the royal Vasa family held Gripsholm in high regard, as reminder of the royals' descent from earlier rulers, and used the place frequently.

Royal Residence.

King Gustav had it constructed to serve as one of the main residences of the royal house. The castle was constructed between 1537 and 1545, and often served as the residence of the royal court: during the Dacke War, for example, the royal children were housed there.  Between 1563 and 1567, King Eric XIV imprisoned his brother John and his consort Catherine Jagiellon in the castle. John's son Sigismund, later the King of Poland and Sweden, was born in the castle on June 20, 1566. When Eric XIV was deposed by John, Gripsholm Castle came to serve as one of the castles were John had Eric imprisoned. The deposed king Eric was kept prisoner here from 1571 until 1573.  The royal family continued to use Gripsholm Castle during the 17th-century. It was the dower residence of the widow of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg, who lived here from 1636 until 1640. Between 1654 and 1715, Gripsholm Castle was a part of the dower granted to queen Hedvig Eleonora, who often lived there with her court even before being widowed in 1660, and who rebuilt and expanded it in several ways. After her death, however, the Castle was abandoned by the court for some time. For a period during the 18th-century, it was used as a prison.  In 1773, Gripsholm Castle was renovated by King Gustav III on behalf of his consort Sophia Magdalena. The castle was frequently used the royal court during the reign of Gustav III, who favored it and spent several months there every year. The perhaps most famous addition to the castle during his reign was a theater, which was added in one of the castle towers. It was the stage for both the amateur theatre of the royal court as well as The French Theater of Gustav III in 1781–1792.  After the Coup of 1809, Gustav IV Adolf and his family were also imprisoned in the castle after his deposition from the throne. He had to sign his abdication document there.

Museum.

In 1822, the building came to host the National Portrait Gallery (Sweden), which was placed under the supervision of the "Nationalmuseum" in the 1860s.  Between 1889 and 1894, the castle underwent a heavy and controversial restoration by the architect Fredrik Lilljekvist during which many of the 17th and 18th-century alterations were removed. The largest change was the addition of a third floor; the planned demolition of a wing did not take place.  Now the castle is a museum which is open to the public, containing paintings and works of art. Part of the castle houses the National Portrait Gallery ("Statens porträttsamlingar"), one of the oldest portrait collections in the world.

Gripsholm Castle () is a castle in Mariefred, Södermanland, Sweden. It is located by lake Mälaren in south central Sweden, in the municipality of Strängnäs, about 60 km west of Stockholm. Since Gustav Vasa, Gripsholm has belonged to the Swedish Royal Family and was used as one of their residences until the 18th century. It is now a museum, but it is still considered to be a palace at the disposal of the King and as such it is part of the Crown palaces in Sweden.


Composition and textual history.

Büchner probably began writing the play between June and September 1836. It is loosely based on the true story of Johann Christian Woyzeck, a Leipzig wigmaker who later became a soldier. In 1821, Woyzeck, in a fit of jealousy, murdered Christiane Woost, a widow with whom he had been living; he was later publicly beheaded. Büchner's work remained in a fragmentary state at the time of his early death in 1837.  The play was first made public in a heavily edited and augmented version by Karl Emil Franzos, who published it in periodicals in 1875 and 1877, before including it in his edition of Büchner's collected works in 1879. Franzos mistakenly understood the title character's name in the manuscripts as "Wozzeck", and the play bore that title in its first stage productions, and in subsequent published editions based on Franzos's version. The play was not performed until November 8, 1913 at the Residenztheater, Munich, where it was produced by Max Reinhardt.  Not only did Franzos have to cope with Büchner's "microscopically small" handwriting, but the pages had faded so badly that they had to be chemically treated to make the text decipherable at all. Franzos was unaware of the real-life basis of the drama, which was first generally disseminated through the appearance in 1921 of a new edition based on the manuscript by Georg Witkowski, which introduced the corrected title "Woyzeck".

Plot summary.

Franz Woyzeck, a lonely soldier stationed in a provincial German town, is living with Marie, the mother of his child who is not blessed by the church as the child was born out of wedlock. Woyzeck earns extra money for his family by performing menial jobs for the Captain and agreeing to take part in medical experiments conducted by the Doctor. At one of these experiments, the Doctor tells Woyzeck that he must eat nothing but peas. Woyzeck's mental health is breaking down and he begins to experience a series of apocalyptic visions. Meanwhile, Marie grows tired of Woyzeck and turns her attentions to a handsome drum major who, in an ambiguous scene taking place in Marie's bedroom, sleeps with her.  With his jealous suspicions growing, Woyzeck confronts the drum major, who beats Woyzeck up and humiliates him. Finally, Woyzeck stabs Marie to death by a pond. While a third act trial is claimed by some, notably A. H. J. Knight and Fritz Bergemann, to have been part of the original conception (what may be the beginning of a courtroom scene survives), the fragment, as left by Büchner, ends with Woyzeck disposing of the knife in the pond while trying to clean himself of the blood.  Here Franzos inserted the stage direction "ertrinkt" (he drowns), and although this emendation according to Knight "almost amounts to a forgery", most versions employ drowning as an appropriate resolution to the story.

Notable productions.

Since the original play was unfinished, many productions have taken liberties with the play's dialogue and scene order. Notable productions include:

Adaptations.

The many adaptations of "Woyzeck" include:  The title character in Benjamin Hale's novel "The Evolution of Bruno Littlemore", a chimpanzee, stages the play at the research center to which he is confined.

Woyzeck () is a stage play written by Georg Büchner. He left the work incomplete at his death, but it has been posthumously "finished" by a variety of authors, editors and translators. "Woyzeck" deals with the dehumanising effects of doctors and the military on a young man's life. It is often seen as 'working class' tragedy, though it can also be viewed as having another dimension, portraying the 'perennial tragedy of human jealousy'. The play was admired both by the German naturalist Gerhart Hauptmann and, subsequently, by expressionist playwrights. "Woyzeck" has become one of the most performed and influential plays in the German theatre repertory.


In Sophocles.

The story of Antigone was addressed by the fifth-century BC Greek playwright Sophocles in his Theban plays:

Oedipus Rex.

Antigone and her sister Ismene are seen at the end of Oedipus Rex as Oedipus laments the "shame" and "sorrow" he is leaving his daughters to. He then begs Creon to watch over them, but in his grief reaches to take them with him as he is led away. Creon prevents him from taking the girls out of the city with him. Neither of them is named in the play.

Oedipus at Colonus.

Antigone serves as her father's guide in "Oedipus at Colonus," as she leads him into the city where the play takes place. Antigone resembles her father in her stubbornness and doomed existence. She stays with her father for the majority of the play, until she is taken away by Creon in an attempt to blackmail Oedipus into returning to Thebes. However, Theseus defends Oedipus and rescues both Antigone and her sister who was also taken prisoner.  At the end of the play both Antigone and her sister mourn the death of their father. Theseus offers them the comfort of knowing that Oedipus has received a proper burial, but by his wishes they cannot go to the site. Antigone then decides to return to Thebes.

Antigone.

Antigone is the subject of a story in which she attempts to secure a respectable burial for her brother Polynices. Oedipus's sons, Eteocles and Polynices, had shared the rule jointly until they quarrelled, and Eteocles expelled his brother. In Sophocles' account, the two brothers agreed to alternate rule each year, but Eteocles decided not to share power with his brother after his tenure expired. Polynices left the kingdom, gathered an army and attacked the city of Thebes in a conflict called the Seven Against Thebes. Both brothers were killed in the battle.  King Creon, who has ascended to the throne of Thebes after the death of the brothers, decrees that Polynices is not to be buried or even mourned, on pain of death by stoning. Antigone, Polynices' sister, defies the king's order and is caught.  Antigone is brought before Creon, and admits that she knew of Creon's law forbidding mourning for Polynices but chose to break it, claiming the superiority of divine over human law, and she defies Creon's cruelty with courage, passion and determination. Creon orders Antigone buried alive in a tomb. Although Creon has a change of heart and tries to release Antigone, he finds she has hanged herself. Creon's son Haemon, who was in love with Antigone commits suicide with a knife, and his mother Queen Eurydice, also kills herself in despair over her son's death. She has been forced to weave throughout the entire story, and her death alludes to The Fates. By her death Antigone ends up destroying the household of her adversary, Creon.  "Antigone" is a typical Greek tragedy, in which inherent flaws of the acting characters lead to irrevocable disaster. Antigone and Creon are prototypical tragic figures in an Aristotelian sense, as they struggle towards their fore-doomed ends, forsaken by the gods.

Other representations.

In the oldest version of the story, the burial of Polynices takes place during Oedipus' reign in Thebes, before Oedipus marries his mother, Jocasta. However, in other versions such as Sophocles' tragedies "Oedipus at Colonus" and "Antigone", it occurs in the years after the banishment and death of Oedipus and Antigone's struggles against Creon.

Seven Against Thebes.

Antigone appears briefly in Aeschylus' "Seven Against Thebes."

Euripides' lost story.

The dramatist Euripides also wrote a play called "Antigone", which is lost, but some of the text was preserved by later writers and in passages in his "Phoenissae". In Euripides, the calamity is averted by the intercession of Dionysus and is followed by the marriage of Antigone and Hæmon. Antigone also plays a role in the Phoenissae.

Appearance elsewhere.

Different elements of the legend appear in other places. A description of an ancient painting by Philostratus ("Imagines" ii. 29) refers to Antigone placing the body of Polynices on the funeral pyre, and this is also depicted on a sarcophagus in the Villa Doria Pamphili in Rome. And in Hyginus' version of the legend, founded apparently on a tragedy by some follower of Euripides, Antigone, on being handed over by Creon to her lover Hæmon to be slain, is secretly carried off by him and concealed in a shepherd's hut, where she bears him a son, Maeon. When the boy grows up, he attends some funeral games at Thebes, and is recognized by the mark of a dragon on his body. This leads to the discovery that Antigone is still alive. The demi-god Heracles then intercedes and pleads with Creon to forgive Hæmon, but in vain. Hæmon then kills Antigone and himself. The intercession by Heracles is also represented on a painted vase (circa 380–300 BC).

Cultural references.

Adaptations.

The story of Antigone has been a popular subject for books, plays, and other works, including:

Writings On.

In the works of Hegel, in particular in his discussion of Sittlichkeit in his "Phenomenology of Spirit" and his "Elements of the Philosophy of Right", Antigone is figured as exposing a tragic rift between the so-called feminine "Divine Law," which Antigone represents, and the "Human Law," represented by Creon. The Catholic philosopher Jacques Maritain considers Antigone as the "heroine of the natural law:" The psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan writes about the ethical dimension of Antigone in his Seminar VII, "The Ethics of Psychoanalysis." Others who have written on Antigone include theorist Judith Butler, in her book "Antigone's Claim", as well as philosopher Slavoj Žižek, in various works, including "Interrogating the Real" (Bloomsbury: London, 2005) and "The Metastases of Enjoyment" (Verso: London, 1994).

Contemporary productions.

A new translation of "Antigone" into English by the Canadian poet Anne Carson has been used in a production of the play (March 2015) at the Barbican directed by Ivo van Hove and featuring Juliette Binoche as Antigone. This production was broadcast as a TV move on April 26, 2015. The play was transferred to the BAM Harvey Theatre at the Brooklyn Academy of Music, running from September 24 to October 4, 2015.

External Links.

Antigone - a review of the Antigone myth and the various productions of her story

In Greek mythology, Antigone ( ; Ancient Greek: Ἀντιγόνη) is the daughter of Oedipus and either his mother Jocasta or Euryganeia. She is a sister of Polynices, Eteocles, and Ismene. The meaning of the name is, as in the case of the masculine equivalent Antigonus, "worthy of one's parents" or "in place of one's parents". She is the protagonist of the Sophocles play named for her.


Carrier.

The tanker was 301 meters long, 51 meters wide, 26 meters depth (987 ft x 166 ft x 88 ft), with a deadweight of 214,861 long tons and a full-load displacement of 240,291 long tons. The ship was able to transport up to 235,000 m3 (1.48 million barrels) at a sustained speed of 16.25 knots, powered by a (31,650 shp) diesel engine. Her hull design was of the single-hull type, constructed by National Steel and Shipbuilding Company in San Diego, California. She was a relatively new tanker at the time of the spill, and was delivered to Exxon on December 16, 1986.

Incident and accidents.

Prince William Sound oil spill.

At the time of the spill, "Exxon Valdez" was employed to transport crude oil from the Alyeska consortium's pipeline terminal in Valdez, Alaska, to the lower 48 states of the United States. At the time it ran aground, the vessel was carrying about 201,000 m3 (53.1 million gallons) of oil. After the spill, the vessel was towed to San Diego, arriving on June 10, 1989, and repairs were started on June 30, 1989. Approximately 1,600 tons of steel were removed and replaced that July, totaling US$30 million of repairs to the tanker. Its single-hull design remained unaltered.  The Exxon Valdez spill occurred under President George H. W. Bush, whose EPA Administrator William K. Reilly played a significant role in mobilizing presidential support for action to contain and clean up the spill.

Litigation.

Litigation was filed on behalf of 38,000 litigants. In 1994, a jury awarded plaintiffs US$287 million in compensatory damages and US$5 billion in punitive damages. Exxon appealed and the Ninth Circuit Court reduced the punitive damages to US$2.5 billion. Exxon then appealed the punitive damages to the Supreme Court which capped the damages to US$507.5 million in June, 2008. On August 27, 2008, Exxon Mobil agreed to pay 75% of the US$507.5 million damages ruling to settle the 1989 "Exxon Valdez" oil spill off Alaska. In June 2009, a federal ruling ordered Exxon to pay an additional US$480 million in interest on their delayed punitive damage awards.

Return to service.

After repairs, "Exxon Valdez" was renamed "Exxon Mediterranean", then "SeaRiver Mediterranean" in the early 1990s, when Exxon transferred its shipping business to a new subsidiary company, River Maritime Inc. The name was later shortened to "S/R Mediterranean", then to simply "Mediterranean" in 2005. Although Exxon tried briefly to return the ship to its North American fleet, it was prohibited by law from returning to Prince William Sound. It then served in Europe, the Middle East and Asia. In 2002, the ship was again removed from service. In 2005, it began operating under the Marshall Islands flag of convenience. Since then, European Union regulations have also prevented vessels with single-hull designs such as the Valdez from entering European ports. In early 2008, SeaRiver Maritime, an ExxonMobil subsidiary, sold "Mediterranean" to the Hong Kong-based shipping company, Hong Kong Bloom Shipping Ltd., which renamed the ship, once again, to "Dong Fang Ocean", under Panama registry. In 2008, she was refitted and converted from an oil tanker to an ore carrier.

Collision with MV "Aali".

On November 29, 2010, "Dong Fang Ocean" collided in the South China Sea with the Malta-flagged cargo ship, "Aali". Both vessels were severely damaged in the incident, and "Aali" was towed to Weihai and "Dong Fang Ocean" was towed to Longyan Port in Shandong.

Retirement.

In March 2012, "Dong Fang Ocean" was purchased by Global Marketing Systems, Inc. for scrap at an estimated US$16 million and sailed under her own power to a ship breaker in Singapore. She changed hands again among scrap merchants (a common occurrence) and was eventually routed to Alang, India, under the ownership of Priya Blue Industries and at some point renamed "Oriental Nicety". Before being beached, some tried to halt the action, arguing that the vessel was in breach of the Basel Convention. On 30 July 2012, the Supreme Court of India granted permission for the owners of "Oriental Nicety" to beach her at Gujarat coast to be dismantled. She was then beached at Alang on 2 August 2012.

Oriental Nicety, formerly Exxon Valdez, Exxon Mediterranean, SeaRiver Mediterranean, S/R Mediterranean, Mediterranean, and Dong Fang Ocean, was an oil tanker that gained notoriety after running aground in Prince William Sound spilling hundreds of thousands of barrels of crude oil in Alaska. On March 24, 1989, while owned by the former Exxon Shipping Company, and captained by Joseph Hazelwood and First Mate James Kunkel bound for Long Beach, California, the vessel ran aground on the Bligh Reef resulting in the second largest oil spill in United States history. The size of the spill is estimated to have been, or 257,000 to 750,000 barrels. In 1989, the "Exxon Valdez" oil spill was listed as the 54th largest spill in history.


Moscow GUM.

Design and structure.

With the façade extending for along the eastern side of Red Square, the Upper Trading Rows were built between 1890 and 1893 by Alexander Pomerantsev (responsible for architecture) and Vladimir Shukhov (responsible for engineering). The trapezoidal building features a combination of elements of Russian medieval architecture and a steel framework and glass roof, a similar style to the great 19th-century railway stations of London. William Craft Brumfield described the GUM building as "a tribute both to Shukhov's design and to the technical proficiency of Russian architecture toward the end of the 19th century".  The glass- roofed design made the building unique at the time of construction. The roof, the diameter of which is, looks light, but it is a firm construction made of more than 50,000 metal pods (about ), capable of supporting snowfall accumulation. Illumination is provided by huge arched skylights of iron and glass, each weighing some and containing in excess of 20,000 panes of glass. The facade is divided into several horizontal tiers, lined with red Finnish granite, Tarusa marble, and limestone. Each arcade is on three levels, linked by walkways of reinforced concrete.

History.

Catherine II of Russia commissioned Giacomo Quarenghi, a Neoclassical architect from Italy, to design a huge trade center along the east side of Red Square. However, that building was lost to the 1812 Fire of Moscow and replaced by trading rows designed by Joseph Bove. In turn, the current structure replaced Bove's.  By the time of the Russian Revolution of 1917, the building contained some 1,200 stores. After the Revolution, the GUM was nationalised. During the NEP period (1921–28), GUM as a State Department Store operated as a model retail enterprise for consumers throughout Russia regardless of class, gender, and ethnicity. GUM's stores were used to further Bolshevik goals of rebuilding private enterprise along socialist lines and "democratizing consumption for workers and peasants nationwide". In the end, GUM's efforts to build communism through consumerism were unsuccessful and arguably "only succeeded in alienating consumers from state stores and instituting a culture of complaint and entitlement".  GUM continued to be used as a department store until Joseph Stalin converted it into office space in 1928 for the committee in charge of his first Five Year Plan. After the suicide of Stalin's wife Nadezhda in 1932, the GUM was used briefly to display her body.  After reopening as a department store in 1953, the GUM became one of the few stores in the Soviet Union that did not have shortages of consumer goods, and the queues of shoppers were long, often extending entirely across Red Square.  At the end of the Soviet era, GUM was partially, then fully privatized, and it had a number of owners before it ended up being owned by the supermarket company Perekryostok. In May 2005, a 50.25% interest was sold to Bosco di Ciliegi, a Russian luxury goods distributor and boutique operator. As a private shopping mall, it was renamed in such a fashion that it could maintain its old abbreviation and thus still be called GUM. However, the first word "Gosudarstvennyi" ("state") has been replaced with "Glavnyi" ("main"), so that GUM is now an abbreviation for "Main Universal Store".

GUM (, pronounced, an abbreviation of, literally "Main Universal Store") is the main department store in many cities of the former Soviet Union, known as State Department Store () during the Soviet era (until 1991). Similarly-named stores operated in some Soviet republics and in post-Soviet states.


Mechanism.

A servomotor is a closed-loop servomechanism that uses position feedback to control its motion and final position. The input to its control is a signal (either analogue or digital) representing the position commanded for the output shaft.  The motor is paired with some type of position encoder to provide position and speed feedback. In the simplest case, only the position is measured. The measured position of the output is compared to the command position, the external input to the controller. If the output position differs from that required, an error signal is generated which then causes the motor to rotate in either direction, as needed to bring the output shaft to the appropriate position. As the positions approach, the error signal reduces to zero and the motor stops.  The very simplest servomotors use position-only sensing via a potentiometer and bang-bang control of their motor; the motor always rotates at full speed (or is stopped). This type of servomotor is not widely used in industrial motion control, but it forms the basis of the simple and cheap servos used for radio-controlled models.  More sophisticated servomotors use optical rotary encoders to measure the speed of the output shaft and a variable-speed drive to control the motor speed. Both of these enhancements, usually in combination with a PID control algorithm, allow the servomotor to be brought to its commanded position more quickly and more precisely, with less overshooting.

Servomotors vs. stepper motors.

Servomotors are generally used as a high-performance alternative to the stepper motor. Stepper motors have some inherent ability to control position, as they have built-in output steps. This often allows them to be used as an open-loop position control, without any feedback encoder, as their drive signal specifies the number of steps of movement to rotate, but for this the controller needs to 'know' the position of the stepper motor on power up. Therefore, on first power up, the controller will have to activate the stepper motor and turn it to a known position, e.g. until it activates an end limit switch. This can be observed when switching on an inkjet printer; the controller will move the ink jet carrier to the extreme left and right to establish the end positions. A servomotor will immediately turn to whatever angle the controller instructs it to, regardless of the initial position at power up.  The lack of feedback of a stepper motor limits its performance, as the stepper motor can only drive a load that is well within its capacity, otherwise missed steps under load may lead to positioning errors and the system may have to be restarted or recalibrated. The encoder and controller of a servomotor are an additional cost, but they optimise the performance of the overall system (for all of speed, power and accuracy) relative to the capacity of the basic motor. With larger systems, where a powerful motor represents an increasing proportion of the system cost, servomotors have the advantage.  There has been increasing popularity in closed loop stepper motors in recent years. They act like servomotors but have some differences in their software control to get smooth motion. The main benefit of a closed loop stepper motor is its relatively low cost. There is also no need to tune the PID controller on a closed loop stepper system.  Many applications, such as laser cutting machines, may be offered in two ranges, the low-priced range using stepper motors and the high-performance range using servomotors.

Encoders.

The first servomotors were developed with synchros as their encoders. Much work was done with these systems in the development of radar and anti-aircraft artillery during World War II.  Simple servomotors may use resistive potentiometers as their position encoder. These are only used at the very simplest and cheapest level, and are in close competition with stepper motors. They suffer from wear and electrical noise in the potentiometer track. Although it would be possible to electrically differentiate their position signal to obtain a speed signal, PID controllers that can make use of such a speed signal generally warrant a more precise encoder.  Modern servomotors use rotary encoders, either absolute or incremental. Absolute encoders can determine their position at power-on, but are more complicated and expensive. Incremental encoders are simpler, cheaper and work at faster speeds. Incremental systems, like stepper motors, often combine their inherent ability to measure intervals of rotation with a simple zero-position sensor to set their position at start-up.  Instead of servomotors, sometimes a motor with a separate, external linear encoder is used. These motor + linear encoder systems avoid inaccuracies in the drivetrain between the motor and linear carriage, but their design is made more complicated as they are no longer a pre-packaged factory-made system.

Motors.

The type of motor is not critical to a servomotor and different types may be used. At the simplest, brushed permanent magnet DC motors are used, owing to their simplicity and low cost. Small industrial servomotors are typically electronically commutated brushless motors. For large industrial servomotors, AC induction motors are typically used, often with variable frequency drives to allow control of their speed. For ultimate performance in a compact package, brushless AC motors with permanent magnet fields are used, effectively large versions of Brushless DC electric motors.  Drive modules for servomotors are a standard industrial component. Their design is a branch of power electronics, usually based on a three-phase MOSFET or IGBT H bridge. These standard modules accept a single direction and pulse count (rotation distance) as input. They may also include over-temperature monitoring, over-torque and stall detection features. As the encoder type, gearhead ratio and overall system dynamics are application specific, it is more difficult to produce the overall controller as an off-the-shelf module and so these are often implemented as part of the main controller.

Control.

Most modern servomotors are designed and supplied around a dedicated controller module from the same manufacturer. Controllers may also be developed around microcontrollers in order to reduce cost for large-volume applications.

Integrated servomotors.

Integrated servomotors are designed so as to include the motor, driver, encoder and associated electronics into a single package.

A servomotor is a rotary actuator or linear actuator that allows for precise control of angular or linear position, velocity and acceleration. It consists of a suitable motor coupled to a sensor for position feedback. It also requires a relatively sophisticated controller, often a dedicated module designed specifically for use with servomotors.


William in history.

William was born in northern France in the mid-8th century. He was a cousin of Charlemagne (his mother Aldana was daughter of Charles Martel) and the son of Thierry IV, Count of Autun. As a kinsman and trusted "comes", he spent his youth in the court of Charlemagne. In 788, Chorso, Count of, was captured by the Basque Adalric, and made to swear an oath of allegiance to the Duke of Gascony, Lupus II. Upon his release Charlemagne replaced him with his Frankish cousin William (790). William in turn successfully subdued the Gascons.  In 793, Hisham I, the successor of Abd ar-Rahman I, proclaimed a holy war against the Christians to the north. He amassed an army of 100,000 men, half of which attacked the Kingdom of Asturias while the other half invaded Languedoc, penetrating as far as Narbonne.  William met this force and defeated them. He met the Muslim forces again near the river Orbieu at Villedaigne but was defeated, though his obstinate resistance exhausted the Muslim forces so much that they retreated to Spain. In 801, William commanded along with Louis King of Aquitaine a large expedition of Franks, Burgundians, Provençals, Aquitanians, Gascons (Basques) and Goths that captured Barcelona from the Ummayads.  In 804, he founded the abbey in Gellone (now Saint-Guilhem-le-Désert) near Lodève in the diocese of Maguelonne. He granted property to Gellone and placed the monastery under the general control of Benedict of Aniane, whose monastery was nearby. Among his gifts to the abbey he founded was a piece of the True Cross, a present from his cousin Charlemagne. Charlemagne had received the relic from the Patriarch of Jerusalem according to the "Vita" of William.  In 806, William retired to Gellone as a monk and eventually died there on 28 May 812 (or 814). When he died, it was said the bells at Orange rang on their own accord.  William mentioned both his family and monastery in his will: His will of 28 January 804, names his living wives Gunegunde and Guitburgi, his deceased parents, Teuderico (Theodoric / Thierry IV) and Aldana (daughter of Charles Martel), two brothers, Teudoino and Adalelmo, two sisters, Abbana and Bertana, four sons, Barnardo, Guitcario, Gotcelmo, and Helmbruc, not his daughter Waldrada, or daughter Rotlinde, and one nephew, Bertrano. His wife Guitburgi is said to have been the widow of the Moorish wali of Orange taken by William in his battles against the Umayyad army of Hisham I in and around the county of Narbona about 793-796. His son Barnardo is said to have been by Guitburgi. Her name before her baptism was Orable. It is not clear if she married William or was held in concubinage, although he calls her his wife in his will.  Gellone remained under the control of the abbots of Aniane. It became a subject of contention however as the reputation of William grew. So many pilgrims were attracted to Gellone that his corpse was exhumed from the modest site in the narthex and given a more prominent place under the choir, to the intense dissatisfaction of the Abbey of Aniane. A number of forged documents and assertions were produced on each side that leave details of actual history doubtful. The Abbey was a major stop for pilgrims on their way to Santiago de Compostela. Its late 12th century Romanesque cloister, systematically dismantled during the French revolution, found its way to The Cloisters in New York. The "Sacramentary of Gellone", dating to the late 8th century, is a famous manuscript.

William in romance.

William's faithful service to Charlemagne is portrayed as an example of feudal loyalty. William's career battling Saracens is sung in epic poems in the 12th and 13th century cycle called "La Geste de Garin de Monglane", some two dozen "chansons de geste" that actually center around William, the great-grandson of the largely legendary Garin.  One section of the cycle, however, is devoted to the feats of his father, there named Aymeri de Narbonne, who has received Narbonne as his seigniory after his return from Spain with Charlemagne. Details of the "Aymeri" of the poem are conflated with a later historic figure who was truly the viscount of Narbonne from 1108 to 1134. In the "chanson" he is awarded Ermengart, daughter of Didier, and sister of Boniface, king of the Lombards. Among his seven sons and five daughters (one of whom marries Louis the Pious) is William.  The defeat of the Moors at Orange was given legendary treatment in the 12th century epic "La Prise d'Orange". There, he was made Count of Toulouse in the stead of the disgraced Chorso, then King of Aquitaine in 778. He is difficult to separate from the legends and poems that gave him feats of arms, lineage and titles: Guillaume Fièrebras, Guillaum au Court-Nez (broken in a battle with a giant), Guillaum de Narbonne, Guillaume d'Orange. His wife is said to have been a converted Saracen, Orable later christened Guibourc.

William of Gellone ( 755 – 28 May 812 or 814 AD), the medieval William of Orange, was the second Duke of Toulouse from 790 until 811. In 804, he founded the abbey of Gellone. He was canonized a saint in 1066 by Pope Alexander II.


History.

Until the end of the 17th century, Rastatt held little influence, but after its destruction by the French in 1689, it was rebuilt on a larger scale by Louis William, margrave of Baden, the imperial general in the Habsburg-Ottoman War known popularly as "Türkenlouis".  It then remained the residence of the margraves of Baden-Baden until 1771. It was the location of the First and Second Congress of Rastatt, the former giving rise to the Treaty of Rastatt while the second ended in failure in 1799. In the 1840s, Rastatt was surrounded by fortifications to form the fortress of Rastatt. For about 20 years previous to 1866, it was occupied by the troops of the German Confederation.  The Baden revolution of 1849 began with a mutiny of soldiers at Rastatt in May 1849 under Ludwik Mieroslawski and Gustav Struve, and ended there a few weeks later with the capture of the town by the Prussians. (See The Revolutions of 1848 in the German states and History of Baden.) For some years, Rastatt was one of the strongest fortresses of the German empire, but its fortifications were dismantled in 1890.  Between 1946 and 1954, about twenty major criminal proceedings (known as the Rastatt Trials) for crimes against foreign workers and prisoners in smaller camps in the National Socialist camp system in south-west Germany took place in front of the French Military Administration's Tribunal Général on the basis of Control Council Law No. 10, along with more than 2000 defendants.  In 1997, a new Mercedes-Benz car factory started production in Rastatt.

Local attractions.

Rastatt and the surrounding area is home to a variety of historical buildings, includes palaces and castles such as Schloss Rastatt and Schloss Favorite. It lies in the vicinity of the Black Forest and the French border.

International relations.

Rastatt is twinned with:

Rastatt () is a town with a baroque core, District of Rastatt, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is located in the Upper Rhine Plain on the Murg river, above its junction with the Rhine and has a population of around 50,000 (2011). Rastatt was an important place of the War of the Spanish Succession (Treaty of Rastatt) and the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states.