Etymology.

Lutetia derives from Latin meaning, "place near a swamp".  The name may contain the Celtic root, which means "mouse" and "-ek(t)ia", meaning "the mice" and which is contained in the Breton word "logod", the Welsh "llygod", and the Irish "luch".  Alternatively, it may derive from another Celtic root, "luto-" or "luteuo-", which means "marsh" or "swamp" and which survives today in the Gaelic "loth" ("marsh") and the Breton "loudour" ("dirty").

Gallic origins.

Archaeological excavations between 1994 and 2005 show that the location of Gallic Lutetia lay in Nanterre, a large area of proto-urbanisation of several main streets and hundreds of houses over 15 hectares in the suburbs of Paris, not far from the future location of Lutetia.  In 52 BC, a year or so before the end of Julius Caesar's Gallic Wars, the Battle of Lutetia was fought with the local Parisii tribe. However the garrison led by Vercingetorix's lieutenant Camulogenus, whose army camped on "Mons Lutetius", fell to the Roman military forces led by Titus Labienus, one of Caesar's generals who captured and burned the stronghold. The Romans also crushed the Gauls at nearby Melun and took control of Lutetia.

Roman Lutetia.

The Roman city was centred on the hill on the south bank of the river (the Montagne Sainte-Geneviève), as the low-lying plain near the river was easily flooded though still initially suitable for farming.  The regular Roman street plan of Lutetia was established with the north–south axis, possibly dictated by the need to cross the marshy riverbanks in the shortest possible distance, but also aligning with the standard Roman orientation for a "cardo maximus". Two main routes converged at the bridgehead over the Seine: one road coming from Spain (today's Rue Saint-Jacques) via Orléans was used as the main axis ("cardo maximus"), and the other road from Rome (today's rue Galande and further on rue Mouffetard) via Lyon. Dendrochronological study of wooden pilings beneath the lowest stratum of the Roman north–south axis date the road's construction after 4 AD, more than fifty years after the Roman pacification of the region. On the north bank the Rue St-Martin continues the Roman main axis ("cardo maximus").  The street plan and the boundaries of the main monuments—the forum at the top of the hill, theatre, baths—show that the Roman city was laid out with blocks or "insulae" of 300 Roman feet.  The development of the city began under Augustus and was well advanced in the early 1st century AD when the elaborate "Pilier des Nautes" (pillar of the boatmen) was erected by a corporation of local river merchants and sailors (nautes) and dedicated to Tiberius and to several gods, showing that there was an important port on the river.  Major public works and monuments were constructed in the 2nd century AD. Lutetia expanded with a population estimated at around 8,000 but did not have a great deal of political importance—the capital of its province, "Lugdunensis Senona", was "Agedincum" (modern Sens, Yonne).  An aqueduct 26 km in length, with a flow rate estimated at 2,000 cubic metres a day, provided the city with spring water collected from several points. To bridge the Bièvre valley at Arcueil-Cachan, a bridge was required, whose piers and ruined arches, still discernible, gave rise to the toponym "Arcueil".  In the 3rd century St Denis became the city's first bishop and in about 250 AD he and two companions were arrested and decapitated on the hill of "Mons Mercurius" thereafter known as "Mons Martyrum" (Martyrs' Hill, or Montmartre) where Roman foundations have been found.  After a barbarian attack in 275 by the Franks and Alemanni that destroyed much of the south bank portions of the city, the population moved to the island and a surrounding wall was built on the Île de la Cité from large stones taken from damaged structures. The city on the south bank along with the main public buildings including baths, the theatres and the amphitheatre were gradually abandoned.  In 357–358 Julian II, as Caesar of the Western empire and general of the Gallic legions, moved the Roman capital of Gaul from Trier to Paris which, after defeating the Franks in a major battle at Strasbourg in 357, he defended against Germanic invaders coming from the north. He was proclaimed emperor by his troops in 360 in Lutetia.  Later Valentinian I resided in Lutetia for a brief period (365–366).  Lutetia was gradually renamed Paris, taking its name from the Parisii. The name had already been used for centuries as an adjective ("Parisiacus"). The legend of the Breton city of Ys suggests a different, if less likely, origin.

Remains.

Remains of the ancient city are mainly buried below ground although many of these are gradually being discovered. Those visible include:  Many artifacts from Lutetia have been recovered and are on display at the Musée Carnavalet.

May 2006 findings.

In May 2006, a Roman road was found during expansion of the University of Pierre and Marie Curie campus. Remains of private houses dating from the reign of Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD) and containing heated floors were found. Everyday items like flowerpots, bronze chains, ceramics, and drawer handles were found. The owners were wealthy enough to own baths found in one of the homes, a status symbol among Roman citizens.

Legacy.

Several scientific discoveries have been named after Lutetia. The element lutetium was named in honor of its discovery in a Paris laboratory, and the characteristic building material of the city of Paris—Lutetian Limestone—derives from the ancient name. The "Lutetian" is, in the geologic timescale, a stage or age in the Eocene Epoch. The asteroid 21 Lutetia, discovered in 1852 by Hermann Goldschmidt, is named after the city.  Lutetia is featured in the French comic series "The Adventures of Asterix".

The Roman city of Lutetia (also "Lutetia Parisiorum" in Latin, in French "Lutèce") was the predecessor of present-day Paris. Impressive monumental remains of the ancient city are visible "in situ".


Scorpène characteristics.

The Scorpène class of submarines has four subtypes: the CM-2000 conventional diesel-electric version, the AM-2000 air-independent propulsion (AIP) derivative, the downsized CA-2000 coastal submarine, and the enlarged S-BR for the Brazilian Navy, without AIP.  The Chilean and Malaysian boats are fitted with the TSM 2233 Mk 2 sonar. The class can also be fitted with an 'S-Cube' sonar suite from Thales.

Air-independent propulsion.

The French Module d'Energie Sous-Marine Autonome (MESMA) system is being offered by the French shipyard Direction des Constructions Navales (DCNS) for the Scorpène-class submarines. It is essentially a modified version of their nuclear propulsion system with heat being generated by ethanol and oxygen. The combustion of the ethanol and stored oxygen, at a pressure of, generates steam which powers a conventional turbine power plant. This pressure-firing allows exhaust carbon dioxide to be expelled overboard at any depth without an exhaust compressor.  Each MESMA system costs around US$50–60 million. As installed on the Scorpènes, it requires adding a new, 305-tonne hull section to the submarines, and enables a submarine to operate for more than 21 days under water, depending on variables such as speed.  DCNS is also developing second-generation hydrogen fuel cell AIP modules for future Scorpène models.

Scorpène information leak.

In mid-August 2016, "The Australian" newspaper reported that design details of the Scorpène-class submarine and other ships had been leaked. The leaked information spreads over 22,400 pages and includes detailed information about the submarine's combat and stealth capabilities. The leak also included information about noise levels, submarine frequencies and more. Despite all the information leaks, Indian Navy chief Admiral Sunil Lanba was quoted as saying that the leaks were being viewed "very seriously", but were "not a matter of much worry". The report also suggested that an ex-French Navy officer working as a sub-contractor for DCNS may have been the source of the leak, and that the leaked data may have been written in France in 2011. However, on 30 August 2016, a court in New South Wales temporarily banned "The Australian" from releasing any more confidential data on the Indian Scorpène-class submarines.

Operators.

Chile.

The Chilean Navy ordered two Scorpène-class boats, which replaced two s retired by the Chilean Navy. The Chilean "Scorpène"-class "O'Higgins" and "Carrera" were completed in 2005 and 2006, respectively.

Malaysia.

In 2002, Malaysia ordered two Scorpène-class boats worth US$1.2 billion. Both boats and "Tun Abdul Razak" commissioned by Royal Malaysian Navy in 2009.

India.

In 2005, India chose the Scorpène design; purchasing six submarines for US$3 billion (US$500 million per boat). Under a technology transfer agreement, the state-owned Mazagon Docks in Mumbai was to manufacture the submarines, and deliver them between 2012 and 2016, however the project is running six years behind schedule. Construction started on 23 May 2009. The first Scorpène submarine, named INS "Kalvari", was undocked for the purpose of starting sea trials in April 2015 and will be delivered in September 2016. In August 2016, over 20,000 confidential pages of the submarine's manual were leaked by Australian media, stirring up a controversy about the impact to India's ambitions of fielding a blue-water navy.  DCNS answered that those documents were not crucial. After extensive sea trials, "Kalvari" was commissioned into the Indian Navy on 14 December 2017.

Brazil.

In 2009, Brazil purchased four enlarged Scorpènes for US$9.9 billion with a technology transfer agreement and a second agreement to develop a French/Brazilian nuclear-powered submarine. The Brazilian submarine class was given the designation "Riachuelo" class. The hull of the first S-BR ("S40") was laid down at Cherbourg on 27 May 2010 and is to be jumboized at the Brazilian Navy Shipyard in Sepetiba in late 2012. The latter three submarines will be built there entirely, and are planned to be commissioned in 2020, 2021, and 2022. The nuclear-powered submarine is under construction since 2018, with scheduled launch for 2027.  "Riachuelo" was launched on 14 December 2018, and began sea trials in September 2019.

Potential operators.

Spain.

In 2003, the Spanish government ordered four Scorpène AIP submarines worth €1,756 million. However, the Spanish navy canceled the order, and ordered four submarines, instead. This has caused conflicts and controversies between DCNS and Navantia, as the latter is still involved in the construction of the submarines sold to India, Malaysia, and Chile, while the S-80 is offered on the export market. As an answer to the competition from the S-80, DCNS designed its own enhanced version of the Scorpène called the, but little is known about this design and the Scorpène is still offered by France on the export market. The dispute was settled when Navantia gave up export rights on the Scorpène class, leaving DCNS with sole responsibility for the project.

Poland.

On 1 March 2011, the Naval Shipyard Gdynia of Poland and DCNS offered a license to build a yet undisclosed number of modified Scorpène-class boats. The Scorpène design is competing with that of the German Type 214 submarine.

Norway.

In December 2016, the Norwegian Ministry of Defence announced that Norway would sign a contract for four new submarines before the end of 2019. These would either be Scorpène vessels from DCNS or German U-boats from ThyssenKrupp. Norway would also be looking into possible cooperation on maintenance and construction with other potential buyers of the same submarines, such as Poland or the Netherlands. In February 2017, the Norwegian Government announced that it intended to procure its new submarines from the German manufacturer, ThyssenKrupp. Norway and Germany will buy submarines together to mutualize expenses. In practice the tender was cancelled and exclusive government to government negotiations were initiated.

Philippines.

In December 2019, Secretary of National Defense of the Philippines Delfin Lorenzana announced that the "Scorpène-"class submarine of France fits the requirements of the Philippine Navy. Lorenzana saw a "Scorpène-"class submarine when he visited France. In December 18, 2019, Delfin Lorenzana said that the Philippines is one step closer to acquire the French Submarine after signing an agreement with France sought to enhance both country's martime defense. In January 2020, the Philippine and French Navy conduct expert change on submarine to enhance members in the Submarine's information about the submarine proper.

The Scorpène-class submarines are a class of diesel-electric attack submarines jointly developed by the French Direction des Constructions Navales (DCNS) and the Spanish company Navantia, and now by Naval Group. It features diesel propulsion and an additional air-independent propulsion (AIP).


Before episcopate.

It is not certain whether Conrad was a member of the patrician family named von Vechta, living as successful merchants in Bremen, where family members also held positions in the city government, or if Conrad was born in Vechta and therefore epithetised von Vechta in German. However, his brother Konstantin von Vechta held a canonicate at Bremen Cathedral as cathedral provost (Dompropst), presiding the cathedral chapter. This rather substantiates a patrician background, because Bremian canonicates were usually provided for members of patrician families of Bremen or of noble families of the Bremian knightage. Conrad was definitely no member of the comital family of Vechta, which used to be called after its castle Counts of Ravensberg.  Conrad strove for a clerical career. He sided already early with Wenceslaus, King of the Romans, ruling the Holy Roman Empire since 1376, on whose instigation Conrad was provided with a number of prebends. As many North Germans used to study in Prague, Conrad's siding with Wenceslaus, who was simultaneously ruling as King of Bohemia since 1378, may indicate that Conrad had done so too. In 1395 Wenceslaus failed to get Conrad invested as bishop of Verden, whereas Dietrich of Nieheim prevailed. Conrad had earlier been provost of Lüne Nunnery and was then promoted to canon of the Collegiate Church of St. Blaise in Brunswick.

Provided bishop of Verden.

In 1400 Pope Boniface IX, on Wenceslaus' instigation, deposed Conrad's provided predecessor Conrad of Soltau, who had so far only been provided bishop of Verden in 1399, but not invested, and provided instead Conrad of Vechta not before 1 May, however, also lacking investiture. Conrad titled himself bishop elect of Verden until 1407. Lacking the elective mandate of the cathedral chapter in Verden upon Aller, it did not recognise his episcopate. However, the pope soon changed his mind again, when the other prince-electors had deposed Wenceslaus as ruler of the Empire in 1400 and replaced him by King Rupert, who in May 1401 had accepted the deposed Conrad of Soltau, a native of the Prince-Bishopric of Verden, as legitimate and invested him with the princely regalia as prince-bishop. Boniface IX thus also confirmed Conrad of Soltau as canonical bishop of Verden in autumn 1402.

Later offices.

In 1410 Konstantin von Vechta followed Conrad to Prague, succeeding him as provost of Mělník's Ss. Peter and Paul Church, which was combined with a canonicate at St. Vitus Cathedral, Prague.  On 28 July 1419 Conrad crowned Sigismund of Luxembourg as King of Bohemia. Conrad took the side of the Hussites during the Hussite Wars, despite remaining a Catholic prelate, and was deposed as archbishop by the Roman Curia.

Art patronage.

Conrad was the probable original owner of a richly illuminated manuscript Bible, now known as the Antwerp Bible from its survival in the Museum Plantin-Moretus, Antwerp.

Conrad of Vechta (Czech "Konrád z Vechty"; German "Konrad von Vechta") (born ca. 1370, possibly in Bremen; died 24 December 1431 in Roudnice nad Labem) was Bishop of Verden (1400–1402/1407), Bishop of Olomouc (1408–1413), Archbishop of Prague (1413–1421), and Master of the Mint (1401–1403) and Chancellor (1405–1412) of the Kingdom of Bohemia.


Antiaircraft warfare.

These ships were optimized for antiaircraft warfare. For this role the ships are equipped with an advanced sensor and weapons suite. The primary sensors for this role are the long range surveillance radar SMART-L and the multifunction radar APAR. The SMART-L and APAR are highly complementary, in the sense that SMART-L is a D band radar providing very long range surveillance while APAR is an I band radar providing precise target tracking, a highly capable horizon search capability, and missile guidance using the Interrupted Continuous Wave Illumination (ICWI) technique, thus allowing guidance of 32 semi-active radar homing missiles in flight simultaneously, including 16 in the terminal guidance phase. The primary antiaircraft weapons are the point defence Evolved Sea Sparrow Missile and the area defence RIM-66 Standard Missile (SM-2) Block IIIA. The Mk 41 Vertical Launch System is used to house and launch these missiles. 32 Evolved Sea Sparrow Missile and 32 Standard Missile SM-2 Block IIIA are carried.

Ballistic missile defence.

The Navy is investigating the use of these ships for the role of Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD). During tests carried out by in the Pacific Ocean near Hawaii, experimental modifications to the SMART-L to allow even longer range were proven. A study by the "Koninklijke Marine", the Netherlands Defence Material Organization, Thales Nederland, Raytheon Missile Systems, Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, and Lockheed Martin has been conducted to establish the feasibility of modifying the "De Zeven Provinciën" class to provide it the capability to intercept ballistic missiles. In particular, the study examined the feasibility of integrating the SM-3 Block IB missile with the SMART-L and APAR radars. The study concluded that – with certain modifications to the SMART-L and APAR, as well as to the ship's Combat Management System and the missile itself – BMD with the "De Zeven Provinciën" class could be achieved. During a 2015 very large NATO exercise the BMD capabilities were proven, the sensor suite discovered ballistic targets, and the ship destroyed them using both its own SAM missiles, as well as using a U.S. Navy destroyer's missiles, by providing target data and missile guidance.  A contract was awarded for the radar modification in June 2012, operational tests & life firing show the performance to exceed expectations.

Modernization.

The "De Zeven Provinciën"-class ships will get the new SMART-L Mk2 radar that can detect ballistic missiles at a range of. The Dutch minister promised also that the APAR radar will have a bigger range than as the Netherlands is the first country to participate as an active missile shield for NATO.  In late 2011, the Ministry of Defence announced a modernization program to upgrade the SMART-L early-warning radar so that "De Zeven Provinciën"-class frigates can detect and track ballistic missiles at extended range. In 2018 plans were announced to acquire the BMD-capable SM-3 surface-to-air missiles as the ships are provisioned for an extra 8-cell vertical launch module, "De Zeven Provinciën"-class frigates can pass on the tracking and detection data to other sea-based or land-defense BMD assets, including U.S. Navy's warships, that can deal with a ballistic missile threat. This modernization program is scheduled for completion by late 2017 for the entire "De Zeven Provinciën" class.  On 3 May 2018 the Dutch Secretary of Defence, Barbara Visser, informed the Dutch national parliament that the evolved sea sparrow missile (ESSM) aboard the "De Zeven Provinciën"-class frigates will be upgraded from block 1 to block 2. This upgrade will be completed by 2024 and will allow the frigates to deal with the growing threat of modern anti-ship missiles. ESSM Block 2 allows the four frigates to defend against missiles that have greater speed, agility and perform unexpected movements. The current Harpoon surface-to-surface missile (SSM) will also be replaced with a new SSM by 2024. Furthermore, the 127mm-cannon will be replaced with a new similar cannon. The current cannons are over 50 years old and originate from Canadian ships. The new cannon must be able to fire multiple types of ammunition, including in the future precision-guided ammunition. The project costs between € 100 million and € 250 million, and will be take place between 2018 and 2023. Lastly, the Goalkeepers will be upgraded to a new version and all ships will have two installed as originally designed, they will eventually be replaced after 2025 by a new system.

Surface and subsurface warfare.

As noted above, these ships were optimized for antiaircraft warfare, but they also have weapons on-board capable of attacking surface and submarine targets, for example: the RGM-84F Harpoon missile and Mk. 46 torpedoes. In a new defense Study published by the Dutch government in March 2018, it was stated the frigates will receive a new surface-to-surface missile to succeed the Harpoon Block 1D.  Proposals to equip some of the Zeven Provinciën-class frigates with a total of 32 BGM-109 Tomahawk cruise missiles have existed, but these were shelved in May 2005.

Live missile firings.

In November 2003, some from the Azores, the missile guidance capabilities were tested with live firings for the first time. The firings involved the firing of a single ESSM and a single SM-2ER Block IIIA. These firings were the first ever live firings involving a full-size ship-borne active electronically scanned array (i.e., APAR) guiding missiles using the ICWI technique in an operational environment. As related by Jane's Navy International: During the tracking and missile-firing tests, target profiles were provided by Greek-built EADS/3Sigma Iris PVK medium-range subsonic target drones. [...] According to the RNLN,... APAR immediately acquired the missile and maintained track until destruction". [...] These ground-breaking tests represented the world's first live verification of the ICWI technique. Further live firings were performed in March 2005, again in the Atlantic Ocean some west of the Azores. The tests involved three live-firing events including firing a single SM-2 Block IIIA at an Iris target drone at long range, a single ESSM at an Iris target drone, and a two-salvo launch (with one salvo comprising two SM-2 Block IIIAs and the other comprising two ESSMs) against two incoming Iris target drones. The long-range SM-2 engagement apparently resulted in an intercept at a range of greater than from the ship, with a missile-target miss distance of (the warhead's proximity fuse having been disabled for the purposes of the test).

Counterpiracy operations.

Ships of the "De Zeven Provinciën" class have been involved in counter-piracy operations off the Horn of Africa. The untraditional target set (i.e., small slow-moving or even static surface targets) can apparently be challenging for doppler radars designed to take on "high end" threats. However, according to Jane's International Defence Review: [The RNLN has] reported great success using tailored surface-search software for the APAR sets fitted to the "De Zeven Provinciën"-class frigates deployed on antipiracy roles. By sacrificing some of APAR's high-end antiaircraft warfare capabilities, which were deemed unnecessary for the antipiracy role, its performance and resolution were improved in the surface-search role.

Export.

On November 30, 2017 Alion Canada submitted a proposal based on the "De Zeven Provinciën class" for the Canadian Single Class Surface Combatant Project. Damen Group, as builder of the "De Zeven Provincien class" frigates, was part of Alion's team in this proposal.

List of ships.

All ships were built at the Damen Schelde Naval Shipbuilding shipyard in Vlissingen, Netherlands.

"De Zeven Provinciën"-class frigates are highly advanced air-defence and command frigates in service with the Royal Navy of the Netherlands ("Koninklijke Marine"). This class of ships is also known as "LCF" ("Luchtverdedigings- en commandofregat", air defense and command frigate). The ships are similar to the German "Sachsen"-class frigates in role and mission.


History.

Originally, the Champ de Mars was part of a large flat open area called Grenelle, which was reserved for market gardening. Citizens would claim small plots and exploit them by growing fruits, vegetables, and flowers for the local market. However, the plain of Grenelle was not an especially fertile place for farming.  The construction, in 1765, of the "École Militaire" designed by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, was the first step toward the Champ de Mars in its present form. Grounds for military drills were originally planned for an area south of the school, the current location of the "place de Fontenoy". The choice to build an esplanade to the north of the school led to the erection of the noble facade which today encloses the Champ de Mars. The planners leveled the ground, surrounded it with a large ditch and a long avenue of elms, and, as a final touch, the esplanade was enclosed by a fine grille-work fence.  The Isle of Swans, formerly a riverine islet at the location of the northeastern foot of the Eiffel Tower, was, for the sake of symmetry and pleasing perspectives, attached to the shore. (Note that the Isle of Swans discussed here should not be confused with the Isle of Swans that sits in the middle of the Seine downstream and around the next bend in the river, between the fifteenth and sixteenth arrondissements.)  Jacques Charles and the Robert brothers launched the world's first hydrogen-filled balloon from the Champ-de-Mars on 27 August 1783.  This place witnessed the spectacle and pageantry of some of the best-remembered festivals of the French Revolution. On 14 July 1790 the first "Federation Day" celebration ("fête de la Fédération"), now known as Bastille Day, was held on the Champ de Mars, exactly one year after the storming of the prison. The following year, on 17 July 1791, the massacre on the Champ de Mars took place. Jean Sylvain Bailly, the first mayor of Paris, became a victim of his own revolution and was guillotined there on 12 November 1793.  The Champ de Mars was also the site of the Festival of the Supreme Being on 8 June 1794. With a design by the painter Jacques-Louis David, a massive "Altar of the Nation" was built atop an artificial mountain and surmounted by a tree of liberty. The festival is regarded as the most successful of its type in the Revolution.  The Champ de Mars was the site of Expositions Universelles in 1867, 1878, 1889, 1900, and 1937.

In art, culture, film and sport.

Art and culture.

In 2012, the United Buddy Bears exhibit was held on the Champ de Mars, an international art exhibition with more than 140 two-meter-tall bears representing individual countries. They promote peace, love, tolerance and international understanding and are displayed across the planet. They stand at Champ de Mars in Paris, fronting the Eiffel Tower.

Use in film and television.

Champ de Mars was used as a filming location in the 1985 James Bond film "A View to a Kill", in which Bond (played for the last time by Roger Moore) drove a Renault 11 taxi which he had hijacked at the Eiffel Tower in pursuit of a mysterious assassin, later revealed to be May Day (Grace Jones).

Sports.

The Champ de Mars will be the site of Beach Volleyball at the 2024 Summer Olympics and of five-a-side football at the 2024 Summer Paralympics.

The Champ de Mars ( ; ) is a large public greenspace in Paris, France, located in the seventh "arrondissement", between the Eiffel Tower to the northwest and the École Militaire to the southeast. The park is named after the Campus Martius ("Mars Field") in Rome, a tribute to the Latin name of the Roman God of war. The name alludes to the fact that the lawns here were formerly used as drilling and marching grounds by the French military.


Clinical significance.

The action of the mites moving within the skin and on the skin itself produces an intense itch that may resemble an allergic reaction in appearance. A delayed Type IV hypersensitivity reaction to the mites, their eggs, or scybala (packets of feces) occurs approximately 30 days after infestation. The presence of the eggs produces a massive allergic response that, in turn, produces more itching. Individuals who already are sensitized from a prior infestation can develop symptoms within hours.  "Sarcoptes" is a genus of skin parasites, and part of the larger family of mites collectively known as "scab mites". They are also related to the scab mite "Psoroptes", also a mite that infests the skin of domestic animals. Sarcoptic mange affects domestic animals and similar infestations in domestic fowls causes the disease known as "scaly leg". The effects of "S. scabiei" are the most well-known, causing "scabies", or "the itch". The adult female mite, having been fertilized, burrows into the skin (usually at the hands or wrists, but other parts of the body may also be affected), and lays its eggs.  The burrowing is carried out using the mouth parts and special cutting surfaces on the front legs. While these are being used, the mite anchors itself with suckers on its feet. Eggs are laid in small numbers as the mite burrows, and, as these hatch, six-legged larvae climb out on to the skin and search for hair follicles, where they feed and moult (discard old cuticles to grow). In the hair follicles, the larvae show the first nymphal stages, with eight legs.  In the nymphal stages, the creature feeds and moults, and if male, gives rise to the adult. In the case of females, another moult occurs before adulthood. The female has more moults than a male, so takes longer—17 days compared to 9 to 11 days for a male—to reach adulthood. The female is about twice the size of the male.  Although the life-cycle is only about two weeks, individual patients are seldom found to have more than about a dozen mites on them. Even so, this number can cause agonising itching, especially at night, and severe damage to the skin often comes as a result of scratching, in particular by the introduction of infective bacteria, which may lead to impetigo or eczema.  The eggs are laid by the female at a rate of about two to three eggs a day for about two months. About 2% of the British population is thought to be infected with these mites, which take about 25 minutes to an hour to burrow into the skin.  The best conditions in which to harbor "S. scabiei" is in areas with frequent skin-to-skin contact, such as the hands and wrists, as the mites are transmitted by skin contact with carriers, and they very easily spread. Infestations of "S. scabiei" are commonly found in pigs. They significantly depress growth and feeding rate, but usually die out in around five days in typical farm conditions. However, once in a herd, the mites are very difficult to eliminate without great measures taken.

Morphology.

Adult scabies mites are spherical, eyeless mites with four pairs of legs (two pairs in front and two pairs behind). They are recognizable by their oval, ventrally flattened and dorsally convex tortoise-like bodies and multiple cuticular spines. No demarcation into cephalothorax or abdomen occurs, and the mite's surface has folds covered with short bristles. The front legs end in long, tubular processes known as suckers, and the hind legs end in long bristles. The male has suckers on all legs except the third pair, which distinguishes it from the female. Females are long and wide, and males are just over half that size.

Life cycle.

The scabies mite "Sarcoptes scabiei" var. "hominis" goes through four stages in its lifecycle: egg, larva, nymph, and adult.  Upon infesting a human host, the adult female burrows into the "stratum corneum" (outermost layer of skin), where she deposits two or three eggs per day. These oval eggs are long and hatch as larvae in three to four days. A female can lay up to 30 eggs, then dies at the end of a burrow. Upon hatching, the six-legged larvae migrate to the skin surface and then burrow into molting pouches, usually into hair follicles, where vesicles form (these are shorter and smaller than the adult burrows). After three to four days, the larvae molt, turning into eight-legged nymphs. This form molts a second time into slightly larger nymphs, before a final molt into adult mites. Adult mites then mate when the male penetrates the molting pouch of the female. Mating occurs only once, as that one event leaves the female fertile for the rest of her life (one to two months). The impregnated female then leaves the molting pouch in search of a suitable location for a permanent burrow. Once a site is found, the female creates her characteristic S-shaped burrow, laying eggs in the process. The female will continue lengthening her burrow and laying eggs for the duration of her life.

Sarcoptes scabiei or the itch mite is a parasitic mite (an arthropod) that burrows into skin and causes scabies. The mite is found in all parts of the world. Humans are not the only mammals that can become infected. Other mammals, such as wild and domesticated dogs and cats (in which it is one cause of mange) as well as ungulates, wild boars, bovids, wombats, koalas, and great apes are affected. The Italian biologists Giovanni Cosimo Bonomo and Diacinto Cestoni showed in the 17th century that scabies is caused by "Sarcoptes scabiei"; this discovery of the itch mite in 1687 marked scabies as the first disease of humans with a known microscopic causative agent. The disease produces intense, itchy skin rashes when the impregnated female tunnels into the stratum corneum of the skin and deposits eggs in the burrow. The larvae, which hatch in three to 10 days, move about on the skin, moult into a nymphal stage, and then mature into adult mites. The adult mites live three to four weeks in the host's skin.


Plot.

Claude Ratinier (Louis de Funès), known as Le Glaude, is an old man who lives on a small farm across the road from his long-time friend Francis Chérasse (Jean Carmet), known as Le Bombé. The two are described as the last surviving members of their breed, still living in a rural fashion while the rest of the world has modernized. They spend their days getting drunk and eating cabbage soup, while they spend their nights getting drunk and farting.  One night, their farting summons an alien (Jacques Villeret) from the planet Oxo while Le Bombé is asleep. Le Glaude is awake to welcome the alien, who can only communicate in a squealing-siren sound at first. Surprised, Le Glaude communicates with the alien through rough sign language and then sends him off with a canister full of cabbage soup. The next day, we find out that Le Bombé had seen the flying saucer and Le Glaude tells him that there was no such thing. He goes to the police but he is dismissed by them as a loony. When Le Bombé realizes that no one believes him, he becomes very sad. Worried about his friend, Le Glaude tricks him into hanging himself while he secretly cuts the rope so that he falls when he puts his weight on it in order to show Le Bombé that he doesn't want to die.  The alien returns several times because of the cabbage soup that he was given. On his planet, they eat minerals and to them cabbage soup is the most amazing thing ever. On the second meeting, the alien has learned French and we are told that on his planet they live to 200, no more, no less. But trouble brews when the alien arranges to have Le Glaude's late wife resurrected at the age of 20. She runs away to Paris with a young man within a day of her resurrection. He also duplicates Le Glaude's gold coin hundreds of times, making Glaude rich. Finally, because of the effect of the delicious cabbage soup on Oxo, the alien offers Le Glaude, Le Bombé and their cat residence on Oxo so that they could grow their cabbage and make cabbage soup. This would allow them all to live to the age of 200. Glaude initially rejects the proposition outright.  Meanwhile, the mayor of the rural town decides to modernize. He plans a new housing project directly on the old men's land. Although he threatens to put them in a cage like monkeys, he cannot convince them to give up their land. He decides to simply build around their houses and fence them off from the rest of the neighborhood. They become a thing of curiosity, with people jeering at them and throwing popcorn at them whenever they step outside of their doors. This sad destruction of their peaceful home convinces Le Glaude to accept the alien's offer.  He tells Le Bombé about their option, who is utterly unconvinced, but opens up to the idea when he sees the communicator left by the alien. Before leaving, Le Glaude makes a last stop at the post office to send his wife a package containing the gold they were given by the alien. The film ends with Le Glaude, Le Bombé, their cat and the alien flying off into space inside the flying saucer, joyous and drinking.

Theme song.

The theme song became popular in France, and has been remixed many times. Artist Fat Dog created a mix with Mr. Cosmic dubbed "I'm not scoobidoobidoo".

La Soupe aux Choux (translation: "Cabbage Soup") is a 1981 French film directed by Jean Girault, based on a novel by René Fallet. It was the second to last movie made by French comedian Louis de Funès.


Meteorological history.

On December 17, the typhoon was first observed, surprising a fleet of ships in the open western Pacific Ocean. Barometric pressures as low as 26.8 inHg (907 mbar) and wind speeds up to in gusts were reported by some ships. The storm was last seen on December 18.

Task Force 38.

TF 38 consisted of seven fleet carriers, six light carriers, eight battleships, 15 cruisers, and about 50 destroyers. The carriers had been conducting raids against Japanese airfields in the Philippines and ships were being refueled, especially many destroyers, which were running low on fuel. When the storm hit, the procedure had to be aborted.  Damage to the fleet was severe. Some ships rolled more than 70 degrees. Three destroyers,,, and, had nearly empty fuel stores (10–15% of capacity) and therefore lacked the stabilizing effect of the extra weight and thus were relatively unstable. Additionally, several other destroyers, including and, were of the older "Farragut"-class and had been refitted with over of extra equipment and armament which made them top-heavy.  "Spence", "Hull", and "Monaghan" either capsized or were sunk after water flooded down their smokestacks and disabled their engines. Without power, they were unable to control their heading and were at the mercy of the wind and seas. "Hickox" and "Maddox" pumped seawater into their empty fuel tanks, adding enough stability to ride out the storm with relatively minor damage.  Many other ships of TF 38 suffered various degrees of damage, especially to radar and radio equipment which crippled communications within the fleet. Several carriers suffered fires on their hangars and 146 aircraft were wrecked or blown overboard. Nine ships – including one light cruiser, three light carriers, and two escort carriers – suffered enough damage to be sent for repairs.  The carrier was nearly taken down in flames by its own airplanes as they crashed into bulkheads and exploded during violent rolls. One of those fighting the fires aboard "Monterey" was then Lt. Gerald Ford, later President of the United States. Ford later recalled nearly going overboard when 20° and greater rolling caused aircraft below decks to careen into each other, igniting a fire. Ford, serving as General Quarters Officer of the Deck, was ordered to go below to assess the raging fire. He did so safely, and reported his findings back to the ship's commanding officer, Captain Stuart Ingersoll. The ship's crew was able to contain the fire, and the ship got underway again.

Rescue efforts.

The fleet was scattered by the storm. One ship, the destroyer escort, encountered and rescued a survivor from "Hull" while itself desperately fighting the typhoon. This was the first survivor from any of the capsized destroyers to be picked up. Shortly thereafter, many more survivors were picked up, in groups or in isolation. "Tabberer"s skipper – Lieutenant Commander Henry Lee Plage – directed that the ship, despite its own dire condition, begin boxed searches to look for more survivors.  "Tabberer" eventually rescued 55 survivors in a 51-hour search, despite repeated orders from Admiral Halsey to return all ships to port in Ulithi. She picked up 41 men from "Hull" and 14 from "Spence" before finally returning to Ulithi after being directly relieved from the search by two destroyer escorts.  After the fleet had regrouped (without "Tabberer"), ships and aircraft conducted search and rescue missions. The destroyer rescued the only survivors from "Monaghan", six in total. She additionally rescued 13 sailors from "Hull". Eighteen other survivors from "Hull" and "Spence" were rescued over the three days following Typhoon Cobra by other ships of the 3rd Fleet. The destroyer emerged from the storm undamaged and began looking for survivors before returning to Ulithi on Christmas Eve. In all, 93 men were rescued of the over 800 men presumed missing in the three ships, and two others who had been swept overboard from the escort carrier.  Despite disobeying fleet orders, Plage was awarded the Legion of Merit by Admiral Halsey, and "Tabberer"'s crew each were awarded Navy Unit Commendation ribbons (the first ever awarded).

Investigation.

While conducting refuelling operations off the Philippines, the Third Fleet remained on station rather than breaking up and seeking shelter from the storm. This led to a severe loss of men, ships, and aircraft. A Court of Inquiry was convened on board the "USS Cascade" at the Naval base at Ulithi, in the Caroline Islands, with Admiral Nimitz, CINCPAC, in attendance at the court. Forty-three-year-old Captain Herbert K. Gates was the Judge Advocate for the court. The Court found that though Halsey had committed an "error of judgement" in sailing the Third Fleet into the heart of the typhoon, it stopped short of unambiguously recommending sanction. In January 1945, Halsey passed command of the Third Fleet to Admiral Raymond A. Spruance.

In popular culture.

A typhoon plays an important role in the novel "The Caine Mutiny", which is thought to be based on the author's own experience surviving Typhoon Cobra.

Typhoon Cobra, also known as the Typhoon of 1944 or Halsey's Typhoon (named after Admiral William 'Bull' Halsey), was the United States Navy designation for a powerful tropical cyclone that struck the United States Pacific Fleet in December 1944, during World War II.


Overview.

According to the 2011 census, there were 1.08 million Catholics in the country representing about 1/10 of the total population. There are eight dioceses including two archdiocese. In addition, there is a separate jurisdiction for those of the Byzantine Rite called the Ruthenian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Czech Republic. Although the Catholic Church is the largest Christian religious grouping in the country, Czechs have historically resented the church for various reasons, especially the strong Hussite ethos and the staunch Catholicism of the oppressive Habsburg rule.

History.

Protestant Bohemia vs. the Habsburgs.

After the death of Jan Hus in 1415, the Czechs were mostly Hussite, a diverse sect which was considered heretical by the Catholic Church. The Hussite wars were fought over religious freedom in Bohemia as five consecutive crusades ordered by the Pope failed miserably. The majority of Hussites (the Utraquists) eventually made peace with Rome in the Religious peace of Kutna Hora of 1485. However, the Unity of the Brethren, founded in 1457, maintained a radical course and eventually played an important role in the Protestant Reformation and widely disseminating its principles. By the end of the 16th century, less than 20% of the population remained Catholic. After their defeat in the 1620 Battle of the White Mountain, Bohemia and Moravia were subjugated and forcefully re-converted to Catholicism by the imperial authorities, with Protestantism all but vanquished. The Czechs were made once again majority Catholic until after World War I (although many openly resented the church and were forced to hold a membership to avoid persecution, especially under the Habsburgs), when anti-Catholicism fed by nationalist anti-German sentiment and national revival perceiving the Church as historical enemy caused mass defections from the Church.

Following World War II.

The reconstituted Protestant Hussite Church and the Czech Brethren were major beneficiaries of this defection from Catholicism until after World War II, when the overall belief in organized religion started to fall steeply. In addition, the Sudeten Germans, who were those Austrians who ended up within Czech borders after World War I, were mostly Catholics, and their expulsion after World War II also reduced the Church's presence. Over 90% Catholic in 1910, the Czech Republic is now reduced to some 10%.

Communist regime.

The Communist regime, which seized power in 1948 in what was then Czechoslovakia, confiscated all the property owned by churches and persecuted many priests. Churches were then allowed to function only under the state's strict control and supervision and priests' salaries paid by the state. Churches were seized, priests jailed or executed and those allowed to celebrate liturgies did so under the supervision of the secret police. After the Velvet Revolution, some churches and monasteries were returned, but the churches have since sought to get back other assets such as farms, woodlands and buildings.  During the Communist regime, various underground Catholic movements existed. Among these is the Koinotes group, centered on Bishop Felix Davidek, whose vicar general was Ludmila Javorová, ordained by him to the presbyterate.

2012 Agreement.

In January 2012 the Czech government agreed to pay billions of dollars in compensation for property seized by the former totalitarian regime from the Church. The compensation plan was to be spread over 30 years  Under the plan, the country's 17 churches, including Catholic, Protestant and Orthodox, would get 56 percent of their former property now held by the state – estimated at 75 billion koruna ($3.7 billion) – and 59 billion koruna ($2.9 billion) in financial compensation paid to them over the next 30 years. Eighty percent of funds and property will go the Catholic Church, by far the biggest recipient. The state will also gradually stop covering their expenses over the next 17. In 2008, a similar bill was approved by the government but Parliament rejected it.

Structure.

About 200 of the Czech Republic's 1,370 priests are from neighbouring Poland.

The Catholic Church in the Czech Republic is part of the worldwide Catholic Church, under the spiritual leadership of the Pope, curia in Rome, and the Conference of Czech Bishops.


History.

In 1278, Henry, the abbot of the Cistercian monastery in Sedlec, was sent to the Holy Land by King Otakar II of Bohemia. He returned with a small amount of earth he had removed from Golgotha and sprinkled it over the abbey cemetery. The word of this pious act soon spread and the cemetery in Sedlec became a desirable burial site throughout Central Europe.  In the mid 14th century, during the Black Death, and after the Hussite Wars in the early 15th century, many thousands were buried in the abbey cemetery, so it had to be greatly enlarged.  Around 1400, a Gothic church was built in the center of the cemetery with a vaulted upper level and a lower chapel to be used as an ossuary for the mass graves unearthed during construction, or simply slated for demolition to make room for new burials.  After 1511, the task of exhuming skeletons and stacking their bones in the chapel was given to a half-blind monk of the order.  Between 1703 and 1710, a new entrance was constructed to support the front wall, which was leaning outward, and the upper chapel was rebuilt. This work, in the Czech Baroque style, was designed by Jan Santini Aichel.  In 1870, František Rint, a woodcarver, was employed by the Schwarzenberg family to put the bone heaps into order, yielding a macabre result. The signature of Rint, also executed in bone, appears on the wall near the entrance to the chapel.

In media.

In 1970, the centenary of Rint's contributions, Czech filmmaker Jan Švankmajer was commissioned to document the ossuary. The result was a 10-minute-long frantic-cut film of skeletal images overdubbed with an actual tour-guide's neutral voice narration. This version was initially banned by the Czech Communist authorities for alleged subversion, and the soundtrack was replaced by a brief spoken introduction and a jazz arrangement by Zdeněk Liška of the poem "Comment dessiner le portrait d'un oiseau" ("How to Draw the Portrait of a Bird") by Jacques Prévert. Since the Velvet Revolution, the original tour guide soundtrack has been made available.  In the documentary "Long Way Round", Ewan McGregor and Charley Boorman stop to see this church. Dan Cruickshank also views the church in his "Adventures in Architecture".  The ossuary is a major plot device in the John Connolly novel "The Black Angel".  The ossuary is used as a location for the "Dungeons & Dragons" movie and the movie "Blood & Chocolate".  The ossuary was also featured in "Ripley's Believe it or Not" and is described by Cara Seymour in the final scene of the film "Adaptation."  The ossuary was also the influence for Dr. Satan's lair in the Rob Zombie film "House of 1000 Corpses".

The Sedlec Ossuary (; ) is a small Roman Catholic chapel, located beneath the Cemetery Church of All Saints (Czech: "Hřbitovní kostel Všech Svatých"), part of the former Sedlec Abbey in Sedlec, a suburb of Kutná Hora in the Czech Republic. The ossuary is estimated to contain the skeletons of between 40,000 and 70,000 people, whose bones have, in many cases, been artistically arranged to form decorations and furnishings for the chapel. The ossuary is among the most visited tourist attractions of the Czech Republic - attracting over 200,000 visitors annually. Four enormous bell-shaped mounds occupy the corners of the chapel. An enormous chandelier of bones, which contains at least one of every bone in the human body, hangs from the center of the nave with garlands of skulls draping the vault. Other works include piers and monstrances flanking the altar, a coat of arms of the House of Schwarzenberg, and the signature of František Rint, also executed in bone, on the wall near the entrance.


Types.

Merton distinguishes two types of opinion leadership: monomorphic and polymorphic. Typically, opinion leadership is viewed as a monomorphic, domain-specific measure of individual differences, that is, a person that is an opinion leader in one field may be a follower in another field. An example of a monomorphic opinion leader in the field of computer technology, might be a neighborhood computer service technician. The technician has access to far more information on this topic than the average consumer and has the requisite background to understand the information, though the same person might be a follower at another field (for example sports) and ask others for advice. In contrast, polymorphic opinion leaders are able to influence others in a broad range of domains. Variants of polymorphic opinion leadership include market mavenism, personality strength and generalized opinion leadership. So far, there is little consensus as to the degree these concepts operationalize the same or simply related constructs.

Characteristics.

In his article "The Two Step Flow of Communication", Elihu Katz, found opinion leaders to have more influence on people's opinions, actions, and behaviors than the media. Opinion leaders are seen to have more influence than the media for a number of reasons. Opinion leaders are seen as trustworthy and non-purposive. People do not feel they are being tricked into thinking a certain way about something if they get information from someone they know. However, the media can be seen as forcing a concept on the public and therefore will be less influential. While the media can act as a reinforcing agent, opinion leaders have a more changing or determining role in an individual's opinion or action.  This does not mean that opinion leaders can be always easily used by external agents to promote what they want to promote. Influential individuals might not be willing to change their behavior and may even lose their opinion leader status, if they do.

Factors for leadership.

In his article, Elihu Katz answers the question, "Who is an opinion leader?" One or more of these factors make noteworthy opinion leaders:  There are personal characteristics that make up an opinion leader. Opinion leaders are individuals who obtain more media coverage than others and are especially educated on a certain issue. Opinion leaders that utilize social media are more likely to be introverted. Introverts don't receive as much interpersonal interaction offline. They can compensate by creating a controllable network of followers to interact with and gain recognition from in a social context. Opinion leaders seek the acceptance of others and are especially motivated to enhance their social status. Public individualism is the idea that an individual will act different from other because they are different. Kenny K. Chan and Shekhar Misra found opinion leaders possess this trait. “The individuation process and this personal-influence process both involve a reciprocal interchange which involve a willingness to stand out in a group situation." An opinion leader’s willingness to stand out is what sets them apart from their followers. In the jargon of public relations, they are called thought leaders. Research has also found that opinion leaders tend to be boundary spanners.  In relation to their followers, opinion leaders maintain a particular degree of separation in terms of socio-economic status. According to Gershon Feder and Sara Savastano, it is not effective for leaders to be a part of the same socio-economic status as followers. “opinion leaders who are superior to followers, but not excessively so, are more effective in transmitting knowledge.” Meanwhile the leader must be close enough in standing to relate to the followers they want to influence.

Examples.

In a strategic attempt to engage the public in environmental issues and his nonprofit, The Climate Project, Al Gore used the concept of opinion leaders. Gore found opinion leaders by recruiting individuals who were educated on environmental issues and saw themselves as influential in their community and amongst their friends and family. From there, he trained the opinion leaders on the information he wanted them to spread and enabled them to influence their communities. By using opinion leaders, Gore was able to educate and influence many Americans to take notice of climate change and change their actions.  Matthew Nisbet describes the use of opinion leaders as intermediaries between scientists and the public as a way to reach the public via trained individuals who are more closely engaged with their communities, such as "teachers, business leaders, attorneys, policymakers, neighborhood leaders, students, and media professionals." Examples of initiatives that take this approach include Science & Engineering Ambassadors, sponsored by the National Academy of Sciences, and Science Booster Clubs, coordinated by the National Center for Science Education.

Opinion leadership is leadership by an active media user who interprets the meaning of media messages or content for lower-end media users. Typically the opinion leader is held in high esteem by those who accept their opinions. Opinion leadership comes from the theory of two-step flow of communication propounded by Paul Lazarsfeld and Elihu Katz. Significant developers of the theory have been Robert K. Merton, C. Wright Mills and Bernard Berelson. This theory is one of several models that try to explain the diffusion of innovations, ideas, or commercial products.


History.

The sport started in the United States at the Atlanta Motor Speedway on June 17, 1979 and was the opening scene in the movie "Smokey and the Bandit II".  Maximum race speed is restricted to 160 km/h (100 mph) for safety reasons, and a minimum weight limit is 5500 kg. Races start from a rolling start, and commonly races last from 8 to 12 laps. Although a non contact sport, due to the physical size, and closeness of trucks to one another during races, minor collisions can often occur. However, injuries to drivers are very rare.  Unlike other forms of motor sport aside from touring car racing, race trucks look like their road-going counterparts and conform to regulations to ensure that major components used are the same.

North America.

United States.

As a sanctioned sport it began as ATRA (American Truck Racing Association) in 1979 then was sold to N. Linn Henndershott in 1982 and it became the Great American Truck Racing circuit. The races were run on dirt and paved ovals mostly in the Eastern United States. The trucks used in the beginning were actually working trucks with tandem rear axles and used street tires yet still attained speeds of 150 mph (241 km/h) on the front straight at Pocono Raceway and set the closed course record of 132 mph (212 km/h) in qualifying at Texas World Speedway by Charlie Baker on March 21, 1982.  After 1986 when the series was bought by Glenn Donnelly of DIRT (Drivers Independent Race Tracks) the GATR trucks became highly modified with the bodies being cut and lowered, losing the tag axle and shedding more than 2,000 pounds in weight. The last sanctioned GATR race in the US was in July 1993 at Rolling Wheels NY.  The Bandit Big Rig Series debuted in the United States in 2017, giving America its first truck race series since GATR in 1993. The Minimizer Bandit Big Rig Series had 13 races in his first (2017) season, with historic tracks Hickory Motor Speedway and Greenville-Pickens Speedway included on the schedule.

Mexico.

Mexico also started its own truck racing version called Tractocamiones, which ran from 1992 to 2000 and was revived in 2015 as Campeonato Tractocamiones Freightliner. Notable international drivers that have raced in the series include former Champ Car race winner Michel Jourdain Jr., former F1 driver Allen Berg, Indy 500 Rookie of the year Bernard Jourdain, the late Carlos Pardo, Rubén Pardo, Jorge Goeters, Carlos Contreras, Abraham Calderón and Jimmy Morales among others.

Europe.

The FIA European Truck Racing Championship was created in 1985.

Britain.

In Britain, in the last few years the profile of truck racing has increased, and currently over 30 teams regularly compete. The sporting regulations came under the control of the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) later, to ensure that the vehicles conform to the layout and original style of the truck, whilst defining the safety standards required to race.  The makes of truck currently represented in truck racing cover most of the common marques over the last 20 years.  The regulations allow for trucks to compete in two classes, so trucks with less sophisticated engine management systems, suspension, and braking systems can compete effectively.  The organising body for truck racing in the United Kingdom is the British Truck Racing Association founded in 1984. The British Championships and race events are organised by the British Automobile Racing Club.

South America.

Brazil.

In Brazil, the Fórmula Truck had been held between 1996 and 2017 when the series was folded in May of 2017 (after only 3 races that year). It featured several factory teams. Starting in 2017, it was created the Copa Truck replacing the former Formula Truck, almost every driver and factory teams of the former series entered in Copa Truck.

Asia.

India.

T1 Prima Truck Racing Championship is a truck racing championship in India by Tata Motors. This was also on the calendar of Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) and Federation of Motor Sports Clubs of India (FMSCI). This event was held 23 March 2014 at Buddh International Circuit, Greater Noida.

Other formats.

Trucks also are very popular in rally raid as a separate category (Group T4) for example in Dakar Rally and others rally raids.  In France, trucks are very common in different types of off-road racing, like the "camion cross" (trucks cross in English), similar to rallycross but with trucks instead.  Also in Europe, it is popular the (truck trials), like Motorcycle trials but with trucks. They have an european championship called Europe Truck Trial.

Truck racing is a form of motorsport road racing which involves modified versions of heavy tractor units on road racing or oval track circuits.


List of deep submergence rescue vehicles.

Australian models.

ASRV "Remora" ("Really Excellent Method Of Rescuing Aussies") was the Australian navy's DSRV. It is based on a diving bell design.

Chinese models.

The People's Republic of China has three Type 925 Dajiang class and three Type 926 class. Each ship is equipped with either two Type 7103 DSRV or one LR7 manned submersible undersea rescue vehicle.

European models.

France, Norway and the UK share the NATO Submarine Rescue System programme.

Italian models.

Italy operates, equipped with the SRV-300 submersible in a submarine rescue role

Swedish models.

The Swedish Navy operates the submarine rescue ship which can carry the Swedish submarine rescue vessel URF (Swedish: "Ubåtsräddningsfarkost") as well as the British LR5.

United Kingdom models.

The United Kingdom operates the LR5 submersible in a submarine rescue role. It previously operated the Slingsby Engineering built LR3.

Indian models.

The Indian Navy inducted its first DSRV in November 2018. A second DSRV is scheduled to be inducted in 2019.

Japanese models.

The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force operate two DSRVs with dedicated mother ships.

Korean model.

The Korean navy operates a submarine rescue ship called "Cheong Haejin". It has a dedicated mother ship. The model is based on a modified British design.

Russian models.

Russia is believed to have one vessel of the "Bester" class and five of the "Priz" class, which was involved in the failed attempt to rescue the crew of "Kursk".

Singapore model.

, launched 29 November 2008, is Singapore's first and only submarine recovery vessel. It is equipped with a deep submergence rescue vehicle.  The vessel consisted of a Submarine Support and Rescue Vessel (SSRV) SSRV mother vessel proper and an integrated Submarine Rescue Vehicle (SRV), built by ST Marine at its Benoi Shipbuilding Yard in Singapore with its UK joint venture partner JFD based on its proprietary Deep Search and Rescue (DSAR) 500 Class submarine rescue vehicle platform, It also has an underwater drone ROV and a helipad.  The Republic Of Singapore Navy has signed submarine rescue agreement with Australia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, United States to assist in submarine rescue efforts for their respective submarine fleets.

United States models.

The mode of deployment for these United States submersibles is: fly the vehicle to the port closest to the incident; attach the vehicle to a host submarine; the host submarine travels to the incident site; rescue. The DSRVs were originally designed to work with and, but those two vessels have since been decommissioned and replaced by the Submarine Rescue Diving Recompression System.

Operation.

The Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle (DSRV) is designed to rescue 24 people at a time at depths of up to. Their maximum operating depth is. Power is provided by two large batteries, one fore, and one aft that power the electrical, hydraulic and life support systems. The DSRV uses mercury in a completely sealed system to allow themselves to match any angle (up to 45°) in both pitch and roll so as to "mate" (attach) to a downed submarine that may be at an angle on the sea floor. The DSRV is capable of being transported by Air Force C-5 to anywhere in the world within 24 hours.  It is then loaded onto a "Mother Submarine" (MOSUB). The MOSUB then carries the DSRV to the rescue site where several trips are made to rescue all personnel. Rescue is usually accomplished by ferrying rescuees from the stranded sub to the MOSUB, however, they can also be taken to a properly equipped surface support ship.  In addition to a number of U.S. Navy submarines being outfitted for MOSUB capabilities, several NATO countries also have submarines outfitted to carry the U.S. Navy DSRV for rescue capability as needed. Both the UK and French Navies have such submarines.  The interior of the DSRV is composed of three spheres. The forward sphere is the "Control Sphere" where the DSRV's pilot and copilot operate the vehicle. The two aft spheres (known as Mid Sphere and Aft Sphere) are used to seat the rescuees or to install equipment for additional operations. Maneuvering is accomplished using four thrusters and one main propeller.

A deep-submergence rescue vehicle (DSRV) is a type of deep-submergence vehicle used for rescue of downed submarines and clandestine missions. While DSRV is the term most often used by the United States Navy, other nations have different designations for their vehicles.


New layout introduction.

In 1955, the same year in which the Škoda 440/445 made its first appearance, Škoda started making plans for a new car for the 1960s. The initial plans for the car were to make the car as light and fuel-efficient as possible: it was to weigh no more than 700 kg, and the overall fuel consumption was not to exceed 6-7 litres per 100 kilometres (33-38mpg).  The next step was to produce the car as a four-door saloon, which would be built using monocoque construction. Like most leading car manufacturers dating from before the Second World War, Škoda always built their cars using the traditional and well-proven front-engine and rear-wheel drive layout.  The "front-engined-with-front-wheel-drive" option was unsuccessful due higher cost and design complexity, and therefore Škoda opted for the rear-engined-with-rear-wheel-drive format. Even by the early 1960s, the idea of rear-engined small family saloons was still considered to be reasonably popular. In France, there were the Renault Dauphine, Renault 8 and Simca 1000, while in Germany there were the Volkswagen Beetle and NSU Prinz, in Italy there were the Fiats 500 and 600, and in Britain there was the Hillman Imp, all of which employed the rear-engined concept.

A new era for Škoda.

The Škoda 1000 MB (the letters ‘MB’ coming from the initials of Mladá Boleslav) made its debut in April 1964, as the successor for the Škoda Octavia. This was just the beginning of what was to eventually evolve into a long line of rear-engined Škodas. The engine that powered the 1000 MB was a 988cc (1-litre), 4-cylinder, overhead valve (OHV) unit that produced. It was water-cooled, with an aluminum cylinder block and cast iron cylinder head. The 1000 MB had a four-speed manual all-synchromesh gearbox, all-round independent suspension, swing axle rear suspension, and drum brakes at the front and rear.  The 1000 MB was a stylish four-door saloon (measuring 13 feet 8 inches in length and 5 feet 4 inches in width, with a wheelbase of 7 feet 10 inches), which featured a steeply sloping nose that was flanked by rounded front wings (not unlike the Ford Anglia 105E of the time). Being a rear-engined car, the 1000 MB's radiator and (engine-driven) cooling fan were situated in the rear engine compartment, so therefore a series of slats were cut into each rear wing and the rear panel to increase the flow rate of air in order to assist in keeping the engine cool. Apart from the use of cooling vents in the rear wings and rear panel, everything else about the 1000 MB's styling was normal, which was undoubtedly in an attempt to appeal to all the conservative-minded buyers in export countries like the UK. This car was highly successful both for Škoda and the Czech economy.  By early 1965, the British were starting to receive the 1000 MB, which was being priced at a reasonable £579, which worked out cheaper than similarly-sized four-door saloons like the Ford Cortina 1200 (at £592) and the Hillman Minx Deluxe (at £636). Despite being affordably priced, the 1000 MB was well equipped, with reclining front seats, a heater and demister, full tool kit, and a generously sized boot up front as well as a useful storage area behind the split/folding rear seat. Many salesman rightly stated over the years that the 1000 MB was “a lot of car for the money.”  The 1000 MB's overall performance was acceptable, especially when you remember how small an engine it had for a car of its size (as mentioned, a 1-litre engine in a car 13 feet 8 inches long by 5 feet 3 inches wide). The top speed was 120 km/h (75 mph), reaching 100 km/h (62 mph) from standstill in 27 seconds. Overall fuel economy was around 36 miles per gallon (6.5 litres per 100 km).  By the late 1960s, Škoda felt it was time for an update of the ‘MB series, which they did with the introduction of the Škoda 100 and Škoda 110 in August 1969. By the time it was updated, a total of 443,141 ‘MBs were built. The ‘MBX series was produced in very limited numbers (2,517 in total) and is therefore an extreme rarity these days.

The Škoda 1000 MB and Škoda 1100 MB are two rear-engined, rear-wheel drive small family cars that were produced by Czechoslovak manufacturer AZNP in Mladá Boleslav between 1964 and 1969. The 2-door coupé versions of the 1000 MB and 1100 MB were called the 1000 MBX and 1100 MBX.


Description.

"Xenoturbella" has a very simple body plan. It consists of dorsoventrally flattened acoelomate animals, with an anterior circumferential furrow. It shows two ciliated epithelial layers: an external epidermis and an internal gastrodermis lining the simple sac-like gut. The multiciliated epiderm displays unique interconnected ciliary rootlets and mode of withdrawal and resorption of worn epidermal cells. The mouth is a mid-ventral pore leading to a gastral cavity, and there is no anus: waste is dispelled through the same opening as food is taken in.  The nervous system is composed by a net of interconnected neurons beneath the epidermis, without any concentration of neurons forming ganglia or nerve cords.  Species of "Xenoturbella" also lack a respiratory, circulatory and excretory system. In fact, there are no defined organs, except for an anterior statocyst containing flagellated cells and a frontal pore organ. There are no organized gonads, but gametes are produced. Adults producing sperm are very rarely observed, but eggs and embryos are known to occur in follicles.  Eggs of "Xenoturbella" are wide, pale orange and opaque. Newly hatched embryos are free-swimming (tending to stay close to water surface) and ciliated. They feature no mouth and they do not apparently feed. They are similar to the juveniles of acoelomate "Neochildia fusca".

Systematics.

Etymology.

The term "Xenoturbella" derives from the Ancient Greek word (), meaning "strange, unusual", and from the Latin word "turbella" meaning "stir, bustle". This refers to the enigmatic, unusual taxonomic status of the animal, initially considered as related to turbellarians, a group of flatworms whose aquatic species stir microscopic particles close to their ciliated epidermis.

Taxonomy.

Currently the genus "Xenoturbella" contains 6 recognized species:

Phylogeny.

Among species.

To date, the genus "Xenoturbella" is composed of six species distributed into a shallow-water clade — three species up to — and a deep-water clade — three species deeper than.  The two smaller species, "X. bocki" and "X. hollandorum", which are up to long, are found in shallower waters less than deep. They form a clade together with a third species, "X. japonica", which is slightly over long and was found in waters less than deep. Three larger species, "X. monstrosa", "X. churro", and "X. profunda", which were or greater long and lived in deeper waters, form another clade.

Among animals.

The systematic and phylogenetic position of "Xenoturbella" among animals has been considered enigmatic since its discovery. An early DNA analysis suggested a close relationship to molluscs, but it was probably a result from contamination with DNA of molluscs that "Xenoturbella" consumes.  A subsequent study suggested a placement of the genus in its own phylum, Xenoturbellida, as a deuterostome clade and sister group to the Ambulacraria. The deuterostome affiliations were then recovered by studies that indicate a basal position of this phylum within the deuterostomes or in a sister group relationship with the Ambulacraria.  However, morphological characters, such as the structure of epidermal cilia, suggested a close relationship with Acoelomorpha, another problematic group. The study of the embryonic stages of "Xenoturbella" also showed that it is a direct developer without a feeding larval stage, and this developmental mode is similar to that of acoelomorphs. Molecular studies based on the concatenation of hundreds of proteins revealed indeed a monophyletic group composed by "Xenoturbella" and Acoelomorpha. This clade was named Xenacoelomorpha.  The monophyly of Xenacoelomorpha soon became established, but its position as either a basal bilaterian clade or a deuterostome remained unresolved until 2016 when two new studies, with increased gene and taxon sampling, again placed "Xenoturbella" as the sister group of Acoelomorpha within Xenacoelomorpha, and placed Xenacoelomorpha as sister to Nephrozoa (Protostomia plus Deuterostomia), and therefore the basalmost bilaterian phylum.

Xenoturbella is a genus of very simple bilaterians up to a few centimeters long. It contains a small number of marine benthic worm-like species.


Early life and education.

Werner Faymann was born in Vienna and also attended grammar school there. After graduating from grammar school he enrolled at the University of Vienna (jurisprudence, political science, and history of art).

Career.

In 1981, Faymann became provincial chairman of the Socialist Youth Vienna (Sozialistische Jugend Wien). From 1985 to 1988 Faymann was a consultant to the bank Zentralsparkasse der Gemeinde Wien (now UniCredit Bank Austria AG). The bank at the time was closely linked to the municipal government dominated by the Social Democrats. He left the bank to become director and provincial chairman of the Viennese Tenants' counselling.  Subsequently, Faymann became a member of the Viennese state parliament and municipal council, where he held various positions concerning housing construction and urban renewal.

Minister of Transport, 2007–08.

Faymann was Minister for Transport, Innovation and Technology in the Cabinet of Chancellor Alfred Gusenbauer. Moreover, Gusenbauer appointed him as coalition co-ordinator.  Soon Faymann was seen as the likely successor of Gusenbauer. He never challenged Gusenbauer openly, but the chancellor faced an internal party rebellion in June 2008 and voluntarily relinquished the party leadership. On 16 June 2008 Faymann succeeded Gusenbauer as chairman of the Social Democratic Party of Austria (SPÖ) and led the party in the snap legislative elections, held on 28 September 2008.  The election was famously preceded by Faymann and Gusenbauer announcing a shift in the party's position towards the signing of new EU treaties, which they did by writing an open letter to Hans Dichand, the editor of the yellow press medium Kronen Zeitung. At the time, the Kronen Zeitung was the largest newspaper in the country. The letter caused a scandal within the party, as no party committee had been involved in deciding the shift.  The pro-EU Austrian People's Party (ÖVP) cancelled the existing coalition, thus causing new elections. Faymann was known for his good relationship to Dichand, who would also support him in the following election campaign. Although the SPÖ lost 11 seats, and had a 6% swing against it (in fact, their worst result since World War II), they came out ahead of their main rivals Austrian People's Party in regard to seats (57 to 51) as well as to share of the vote (29.26% to 25.98%). Afterwards, Faymann renewed the coalition with the Austrian People's Party, as he had announced before the election.

Chancellor of Austria, 2008–2016.

As head of the largest party in the National Council of Austria, Faymann was asked by Federal President Heinz Fischer on 8 October 2008 to form a new government.  A coalition between the SPÖ and the ÖVP was agreed upon on 23 November 2008 and was sworn in on 2 December 2008.  In 2012, Austria's government curbed the remit of a parliamentary investigation into high-level corruption and ensured Faymann was not called to testify.  In 2013, public prosecutors were looking into whether Faymann and a top aide, Josef Ostermayer, had swayed the ÖBB state railways and ASFiNAG motorway agency to place advertisements promoting him in newspapers during his tenure as infrastructure minister. Both had repeatedly denied any wrongdoing in the breach of trust case, which the opposition Freedom Party (FPÖ) had asked prosecutors to investigate. By November 2013, Austrian authorities dropped their investigation.  On 9 May 2016, Faymann resigned as chancellor and party leader, after losing confidence from a considerable number of party members, despite retaining confidence from a majority of them. His party's candidate and the candidate from its coalition partner, the People's Party, were both historically eliminated in the first round of the presidential elections held on 24 April 2016, resulting in a run-off between Norbert Hofer of the right-wing populist Freedom Party of Austria and Alexander Van der Bellen, an independent endorsed by The Greens. Hofer announced that as president he could dissolve the National Council in order to hold elections, which would at the time probably have led to a win of the populists and thereby forced Faymann to resign.

Political positions.

During his tenure, Faymann is said to have moved his once solidly pro-European party toward a more eurosceptic course, but he kept his distance from the far-right parties. In domestic affairs, Faymann's administration was notable in enacting a wide range of reforms in areas such as education and social security.  Initially, Faymann sided with German Chancellor Angela Merkel in supporting the thousands of refugees fleeing wars in countries such as Syria and seeking asylum in Europe. Austria took in around 90,000 asylum-seekers in 2015, then more than 1 percent of its population. However, support for his policies fell, and the country's institutions struggled to cope with hundreds of thousands of arrivals in Austria, and he later criticized what he called Merkel's "wait-and-see" approach to tackling Europe's economic problems and demanded a more aggressive push to combat unemployment in Europe. Measures to halt immigration inflows along the so-called "Balkan route" subsequently strained relations between the two countries. The reversal angered parts of the Social Democrats but failed to stop Norbert Hofer, a right-wing politician, from taking more than 35 per cent of the vote in the first round of the 2016 presidential election, then the highest vote that the party had ever secured in a national poll.

Life after politics.

In August 2016, UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon appointed Faymann as the United Nations' Special Envoy on Youth Unemployment. In this capacity, he works closely with Ahmad Alhendawi, the Secretary-General's Envoy on Youth.  In September 2016, Faymann and his former spokesperson Matthias Euler-Rolle founded their own communications consultancy in Vienna.

Controversy.

In a media interview published amid the European migrant crisis in September 2015, Faymann said Hungary's decision to tell refugees that a train they were boarding was bound for the capital Budapest when in fact it was heading to a refugee camp was reminiscent "of the darkest chapter of our continent's history". In response to this comparison with Nazi deportations, Hungary summoned the Austrian ambassador.

Personal life.

Faymann is Roman Catholic. He is in his second marriage and has two children.

Werner Faymann (; born 4 May 1960) is a former Austrian politician who was Chancellor of Austria and chairman of the Social Democratic Party of Austria (SPÖ) from 2008 to 2016. On 9 May 2016, Faymann resigned from both positions amid widening criticism within his party.


Development.

In 1957, the US Navy began using submarines in the nuclear deterrent role, when a pair of World War II vintage diesel-electric boats, and, converted to be able to carry a pair of Regulus cruise missiles, began operating deterrent patrols. These two were soon joined by a pair of purpose built diesel boats, and a nuclear powered boat,. However, the use of Regulus in the deterrent role showed a number of limitations; as a cruise missile, it was vulnerable to interception by fighter aircraft, it was limited to subsonic speed, and had a range of less than 1000 km, while the largest of the Regulus armed boats could carry a maximum of five missiles. Additionally, the submarine had to surface to launch a missile, and the missile was guided by a radio signal transmitted from either ship, aircraft or ground station. To over come these limitations, the Navy turned to ballistic missiles.  The commissioning of "George Washington" on 30 December 1959, the first submarine Polaris launch on 20 July 1960, and her first deterrent patrol November 1960-January 1961 were the culmination of four years of intense effort. The Navy initially worked on a sea-based variant of the US Army Jupiter intermediate-range ballistic missile, projecting four of the large, liquid-fueled missiles per submarine. Rear Admiral W. F. "Red" Raborn was appointed by Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Arleigh Burke to head a Special Project Office to develop Jupiter for the Navy, beginning in late 1955. However, at the Project Nobska submarine warfare conference in 1956, physicist Edward Teller stated that a compact one-megaton warhead could be produced for the relatively small, solid-fueled Polaris missile, and this prompted the Navy to leave the Jupiter program in December of that year. Soon Admiral Burke concentrated all Navy strategic research on Polaris, still under Admiral Raborn's Special Project Office. The problems of submerged launch, designing a submarine for 16 missiles, precise navigation for accurate missile targeting, and numerous others were all solved quickly. By comparison, the contemporary Soviet Golf- and Hotel-class ballistic missile submarines only carried three missiles each; the Soviets did not commission an SSBN comparable to the George Washington class until 1967 with the introduction of the Yankee-class submarines.

Construction.

The Navy ordered a class of nuclear-powered submarines armed with long-range strategic missiles on 31 December 1957, and tasked Electric Boat with converting two existing attack submarine hulls to ballistic missile-carrying boats to quickly create the deterrent force. To accomplish this conversion, Electric Boat persuaded the Navy in January 1958 to slip the launch dates for two fast attack submarines, the just-begun and the not-yet-started. On 12 February 1958, President Dwight D. Eisenhower authorized funding for three ballistic missile submarines.  The "George Washington"s were essentially "Skipjack"s with a missile compartment, inserted between the ship's control/navigation areas and the nuclear reactor compartment. In the case of the lead ship,, that was literally the case: the keel already laid by Electric Boat at Groton, Connecticut for "Scorpion" was cut apart and extended to become the keel for "George Washington". Then Electric Boat and Mare Island Naval Shipyard began construction of one other boat each from extended plans. President Eisenhower authorized construction of two more submarines on 29 July 1958. Newport News Shipbuilding and Portsmouth Naval Shipyard began work immediately.  The "George Washington"s carried the Polaris A1 missile on their patrols until 2 June 1964, when she changed out her A1 missiles for Polaris A3s. The last member of this class, swapped out her A1s for A3s on 14 October 1965.

Withdrawal from strategic role.

By the end of 1979, to make room within the limitations imposed by SALT II for the ballistic missile submarines, and performing shortened patrols of six weeks due to reduced reactor fuel, "Theodore Roosevelt" and "Abraham Lincoln" offloaded their missiles at the newly-established Explosives Handling Wharf at Bangor, Washington. Eventually their missile compartments were completely removed and they were decommissioned by the end of 1982. For the same reason, by 1983 "George Washington",, and had their missiles removed and were reclassified as attack submarines nicknamed, "slow attacks", a role in which they served briefly in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii prior to being decommissioned by early 1985.  "George Washington"'s sail is preserved at the Submarine Force Library and Museum at Groton, Connecticut.

Boats in class.

Submarines of the "George Washington" class:

The "George Washington" class was a class of nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines deployed by the United States Navy. The "George Washington", along with the later,,, and classes, comprised the "41 for Freedom" group of submarines that represented the Navy's main contribution to the nuclear deterrent force through the late 1980s.


Early life.

In 1490 he matriculated at the University of Leipzig, went to the University of Vienna (1493) to continue his humanistic studies, and in 1494 entered there on a course of medicine. At this early age he edited the ""Liber Hymnorum"" of Prudentius, and made a reputation by his lectures on Virgil, Horace, Sallust, and Cicero.  He was acquainted with Emperor Frederick III. In 1493, in reward for a panegyric on the life of St. Leopold of Austria, he was crowned as poet laureate and received the title of Master of Arts from Maximilian. Soon after this he was made a doctor of medicine, and in 1500 rector of the university.

Career.

Maximilian made him his confidential councillor and appointed him curator of the university for life. Cuspinian also received the position of chief librarian of the Imperial Library, and superintendent of the archives of the imperial family. As curator of the university he exercised great influence on its development, although he was not able to prevent the decline caused by the political and religious disturbances of the second decade of the sixteenth century. He was on terms of friendship with the most noted humanists and scholars; the calling of his friend Conrad Celtes to Vienna is especially due to him. Celtes and he were the heading spirits of the literary association called the ""Sodalitas Litterarum Danubiana"".  In 1515 Cuspinian was prefect of the city of Vienna. Emperor Maximilian, also Charles V at a later date, sent him on numerous diplomatic missions to Hungary, Bohemia, and Poland. He brought about a settlement of the disputed succession between the Habsburg line and the King of Hungary and Bohemia; another of his missions was to accompany Bona Sforza, the bride of King Sigismund of Poland, to Cracow.  As a diplomat, he served as an envoy to Poland and Hungary and orchestrated the Habsburg and Jagellonian marriage alliance of 1515. In 1515 Sigismund I of Poland entered an alliance with the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I. In return for Maximilian lending weight to the provisions of the 2nd Peace of Thorn, Sigismund consented to the marriage of the children of Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary, his brother, to the grandchildren of Maximilian. Through this double marriage contract, Bohemia and Hungary passed to the House of Habsburg in 1526, on the death of Sigismund's nephew, Louis II - a result of enormous importance for later central and eastern European history for centuries to come.

Writings.

His literary activity covered the most varied domains. Although his poetical writings are of little importance, and his manuscript ""Collectanea medicinalia"" of no great value, nevertheless he attained a high reputation as a collector and, to some degree, as an editor of ancient and medieval manuscripts.  Among other publications, he edited in 1511 L. Florus, in 1515 the ""Libellus de lapidibus"" of Marbod, and the medieval chronicler Otto of Freising. Important as a contribution to the study of ancient history is the publication which first appeared, after his death in 1553, namely, the ""Fasti consulares"", with which were united the ""Chronicle"" of Cassiodorus and the ""Breviarium"" of Faenius Rufus. Another valuable work of Cuspinian is the ""History of the Roman Emperors"", prepared during the years 1512-22 (in Latin, 1540, and in German, 1541).  For a long time, especially after the Battle of Mohács, he busied himself with the Turkish question and printed both political and historical writings on the subject, the most important of which is his ""De Turcarum origine, religione et tyrannide"". It was at that time that some of Cuspinian's earlier writings were irrevocably lost because the only copies of them had been kept in the famed Bibliotheca Corviniana at Buda, destroyed during the Ottoman conquest.  Cuspinian's best work is ""Austria, sive Commentarius de rebus Austriæ"", edited by Kaspar Brusch in 1553 with critical notes. A kind of diary (1502–27), which throws much light on his political activity, was published in ""Fontes rerum austriacarum"" (1885), I, 1ff. A life of Cuspinian, not always reliable, is found in the complete edition of his works by Gerbelius (Commentationes Cusp., Strasburg, 1540); a more complete edition of his works appeared at Frankfurt am Main in 1601.  In 1528 he published the manuscript map of Hungary he had found after 1526, presumably in Buda. The map was edited by Georg Tannstetter from the manuscript of Lazarus Secretarius and was published by Petrus Apianus the printer of Ingolstadt.

Grave.

Cuspinianus is buried in Vienna's Stephansdom.

Johannes Cuspinianus (December 1473 – 19 April 1529), born Johan Spießhaymer (or Speißheimer), was an Austrian humanist, scientist, diplomat, and historian. Born in Spießheim near Schweinfurt in Franconia, of which "Cuspinianus" is a Latinization, he studied in Leipzig and Würzburg. He went to Vienna in 1492 and became a professor of medicine at the University of Vienna. He became Rector of the university in 1500 and also served as Royal Superintendent until his death.


Life.

Peroutka was born to a Czech-German family in Prague in 1895. In 1913 he began his career as a journalist. After World War I, he became an editor-in-chief of a new newspaper "Tribuna" ("Tribune"). Some articles published in "Tribuna" were later incorporated into books "Z deníku žurnalistova" ("Of the Journalist's Diary") and above all "Jací jsme" ("What we are like") —in this book Peroutka mapped some myths about the Czech nation.  In 1924 Peroutka passed from "Tribuna" to "Lidové noviny" and founded—thanks to Tomáš Masaryk's donation—the review "Přítomnost" ("The Presence"). As a commentator he became very influential, standing on the position of the "Castle" (group of President Masaryk) and criticizing both communists and the Right represented by the national-democratic party of the first Czechoslovak prime minister Karel Kramář. Peroutka expressed his political and other opinions also in several books: "Boje o dnešek" ("Fights for Today"), "Ano a ne" ("Yes and No"), "Budování státu" ("Building of the State") and "Osobnost, chaos a zlozvyky" ("Personality, Chaos and Bad Habits"). As a representative of the Czech democratic tradition, Peroutka was arrested after the outbreak of World War II in 1939 and held in the Buchenwald concentration camp until 1945. He was offered freedom on the condition that he would serve as editor of a collaborationist "Přítomnost"; he refused and spent the whole of the war in Buchenwald.  After liberation, Peroutka became an editor-in-chief of the newspaper "Svobodné noviny" and refounded his famous review, "Přítomnost", under the name "Dnešek" ("Today"). The journal became prominent through its critical stance on postwar violence committed on the German minority and hundreds of alleged collaborators. Nonetheless it also fit the general pattern of the time by hosting illusory views of the Communist party underestimating its totalitarian pretensions. Peroutka wrote two dramas: "Oblak a valčík" ("The Cloud and the Waltz") and "Štastlivec Sula" ("Sula the Happy Man"). Political articles Peroutka issued in the book "Tak nebo tak" ("One Way Or Another"). The 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état caused Peroutka to decide to emigrate. In 1951 he became a director of the Czech division of the Radio Free Europe. The summa of his democratic life views was issued in 1959 as "Democratic Manifesto".  Peroutka also became a novelist in exile. He re-wrote his drama to the novel of the same name. The second novel, "Pozdější život Panny" ("The Later Life of the Virgin"), deals with the idea of the rescue of Joan of Arc. Peroutka's last drama was named "Kdybych se ještě jednou narodil" ("If I Was Born One More Time").

Ferdinand Peroutka (6 February 1895 – 20 April 1978) was a Czech journalist and writer. A prominent political thinker and journalist during the First Czechoslovak Republic, Peroutka was persecuted by the Nazi regime for his democratic convictions and imprisoned at Buchenwald concentration camp. Following the 1948 coup by the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, he emigrated to both the United Kingdom and, later, the United States.


Etymology.

The scientific name, "Eleutherococcus" (from Greek) means "free-berried," and "senticosus", (from Latin) means "sentis" (thorn-bush, briar), an adjective meaning "thorny" or "full of briers or thorns." It is not the same plant as American ginseng ("Panax quinquefolius") or Asian ginseng ("Panax ginseng"). It has a diversity of common names across its range of distribution.

Distribution.

The herb grows in mixed and coniferous mountain forests, forming low undergrowth or is found in groups in thickets and edges. "Eleutherococcus senticosus" is sometimes found in oak groves at the foot of cliffs, rarely in high forest riparian woodland. Its native habitat is East Asia, China, Japan, and Russia. "E. senticosus" is broadly tolerant of soils, growing in sandy, loamy, and heavy clay soils with acid, neutral, or alkaline chemistry and including soils of low nutritional value. It can tolerate sun or dappled shade and some degree of pollution. "E. senticosus" is a deciduous shrub growing to at a slow rate. It is hardy to zone 3. It flowers in July in most habitats. The flowers are hermaphroditic and are pollinated by insects.

Extract and chemical constituents.

Roots of "E. senticosus" are cylindrical, up to in diameter, straight or branched, dark brown, and have a smooth surface with bark fixed closely to the xylem. The derived extract from the roots has been characterized for its major constituents, including lignans, sesamin (eleutheroside B4), syringaresinol, phenylpropanes, coumarins, beta-sitosterol and daucosterol.  Berries from "E. senticosus" contain diverse polyphenols, including caffeic acid, vanillic acid, ferulic acid, p-coumaric acid, and benzoic acid, with significant content of calcium, magnesium, and potassium.  Major constituents of essential oil from leaves of "Eleutherococcus senticosus" include α-bisabolol (26%), β-caryophyllene (7%), germacrene D (7%), β-bisabolene (5%), and α-humulene (4%).

Traditional medicine and adverse effects.

Extracts from the root of "Eleutherococcus senticosus" are promoted in alternative and traditional medicine for providing a range of health effects, but such claims are not supported by medical evidence. The plant has been assessed in preliminary research for its potential use as an antimicrobial or antistress agent, but these studies were of poor quality and there is no scientific confirmation that such effects exist.  People with high blood pressure, sleep apnea, narcolepsy, heart disease, mental illness, a compromised immune system, women during pregnancy and lactation, and people taking digoxin or hexobarbital may have adverse reactions to "E. senticosus". High doses may cause irritability, confusion, insomnia, or anxiety.

Eleutherococcus senticosus is a species of small, woody shrub in the family Araliaceae native to Northeastern Asia. It may be colloquially called devil's bush, Siberian ginseng, eleuthero, "ciwujia", "Devil's shrub", "shigoka", "touch-me-not", "wild pepper", or "kan jang". "E. senticosus" has a history of use in folklore and traditional Chinese medicine. Root extracts of "E. senticosus" are sold as a dietary supplement or cosmetic, usually under the name "Siberian ginseng".