Life.

Koželuch was born on 26 June 1747 in Velvary, in present-day Czech Republic. His father was Antonín Bartholomäus Koželuh, a shoemaker. He was baptised Jan Antonín, but by 1773 he had adopted the name Leopold to avoid confusion with his elder cousin, the composer Jan Antonín Koželuh. He also Germanised his surname to Koželuch. After starting his musical education in Velvary, Koželuch moved to Prague where he studied with his cousin and František Xaver Dušek, the latter teaching him in the keyboard and composition.  From 1771 to 1778 Koželuch wrote ballets and pantomimes which were performed in Prague. The success of these works led him to abandon plans to study law in favour of a musical career. He moved to Vienna for this purpose in 1778, where he quickly established himself as a pianist, albeit one who did not perform in public, composer and teacher. Pianist Kemp English observes that in Vienna Koželuch "found himself in the right place at the right time", and was able to advance his career there with carefully cultivated connections. He composed a cantata for the death of Maria Theresa in 1780. His pupils would include Maria Theresia Paradis, Archduchess Elisabeth of Württemberg and Archduchess Marie Louise. His appointment to teach Archduchess Elizabeth was an official court position, succeeding Georg Christoph Wagenseil. In 1781 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart resigned his appointment as court organist in Salzburg following a quarrel with his employer, the Archbishop of Salzburg. The Archbishop offered the position to Koželuch, but Koželuch refused, later expressing concerns to a friend that he might too have fallen victim to what he saw as Mozart's ill-treatment. In 1784 Koželuch expanded into publishing, and soon formed his own firm, Musikalisches Magazin, which would later come under the management of his brother Antonín Tomáš. Koželuch would use the firm, in combination with overseas partners, to publish many of his compositions.  By 1790, a time at which Mozart and Joseph Haydn were at the height of their careers, Koželuch's reputation was such as to move Ernst Ludwig Gerber to say the following of his status within Europe: "Leopold Kozeluch is without question with young and old the generally most loved among our living composers, and this with justification". Koželuch's esteem in royal circles grew again in 1791, when he composed a well-received cantata commissioned for the coronation of Emperor Leopold II in Prague. Mozart composed "La clemenza di Tito" for the same occasion. Mozart's death later in the year afforded Koželuch another opportunity: Emperor Franz II offered him Mozart's positions in his court, "Kammer Kapellmeister" (music director) and "Hofmusik Compositor" (composer), and at double Mozart's salary. Koželuch would remain in the positions until his death. Koželuch joined a masonic lodge in 1791, marking another coincidence between his career and Mozart's and serving to advance himself further within Viennese society.  Koželuch's compositional output declined after the turn of the century as he focused on his court duties, teaching, and the lucrative work of arranging Scottish, Irish and Welsh folk songs for the publisher George Thomson. William Crotch reflected on Koželuch's reputation in a lecture in 1806, remarking that he had "sunk in unmerited neglect" while Mozart's reputation had enjoyed posthumous growth. In 1809, Ludwig van Beethoven, a frequent disparager of rival composers, would write to Thomson referring to Koželuch as "Miserabilis".  Koželuch died on 7 May 1818. His daughter, Catherina Cibbini-Kozeluch, became a prominent pianist and composer based in Vienna.

Works.

Koželuch left around 400 compositions. Among these there are about thirty symphonies, twenty-two piano concertos, including a concerto for piano four-hands, arguably one of the best examples of this rare genre, two clarinet concertos, twenty-four violin sonatas, sixty-three piano trios, six string quartets, two oratorios (one of which, "Moisè in Egitto", has recently been produced and recorded), nine cantatas and various liturgical works. Among his music there are also operas and works for ballet, which—with the exception of one opera —have yet to be heard in recent years. Numerous arrangements by him of Scottish songs for the Edinburgh collector George Thomson were popular, and some of these have also been recorded.  Milan Poštolka, a musicologist, catalogued Koželuch's works in 1964.

Keyboard.

Koželuch's substantial output of keyboard compositions reflected the promotion of his reputation as a specialist keyboard virtuoso. Christopher Hogwood argues that Koželuch's keyboard sonatas, especially those which open in minor keys, "substantially anticipated... the tragic-pathetic manner" of Beethoven and Schubert, and that in them he "created the internationally praised "cantabile" idiom". Hogwood further states that "Koželuch's sonatas are, in the true sense, 'classics'—that is to say,'models for imitation and study'—and display to perfection precisely those features that theorists required of a sonata at the end of the 18th century." The oeuvre of sonatas spans almost the entirety of Koželuch's career: the first was composed in 1773; the final three date from after 1810. The sonatas cater for different purposes. Some are exhibitionist works; some are simpler; some are cast in a Romantic style that foreshadows Beethoven. In the third category, Koželuch was composing slow minor-key introductions to sonatas as much as 17 years before Beethoven composed his Piano Sonata No. 8 ("Pathetique"), while neither Mozart nor Haydn ever did so. Koželuch's composed his sonatas to be played on the newly emerging fortepiano rather than the harpsichord. The popularity of the sonatas in turn helped to make the fortepiano fashionable.  Twenty-two Koželuch keyboard concertos survive. The musicologist Richard Wigmore argues that they "conspicuously lack the melodic abundance, rich woodwind colouring and operatic-style dialogues of Mozart's great Viennese concertos", but nonetheless "beguile with their limpid grace, their sparkling keyboard writing (often in just two parts), and their sense of proportion." Most are scored only for strings, oboes, horns and soloist—sparser than Mozart's scoring of his contemporaneous concertos—suggesting that the works were intended for small-scale performances.

Chamber.

Koželuch's chamber music, especially his output from the 1790s, is among the more advanced of his works, often foreshadowing the expressionism of Beethoven. Musicologist Roger Hickman refers to this period of chamber music output as representing a more "daring character" on the part of the composer, and argues that these works "must have been noted by the young Schubert". Koželuch's only string quartets date from this period. A set of six published as Opus 32 and Opus 33, they became known throughout Europe.

Orchestral and choral.

Koželuch probably composed most of his symphonies during his first decade in Vienna, a period in which his Viennese contemporaries, including Mozart, were focusing on other genres. The musicologist Allan Badley labels Koželuch's symphonic compositions as "modest by the standards of the time". Badley argues that Koželuch's symphonies are influenced by those of his Prague teacher František Xaver Dušek in their orchestration and thematic organisation.  Almost all of Koželuch's choral works, including cantatas and five of his six operas, have been lost. His opera "Gustav Wasa" (presumably from 1792) was performed in Finland in 2018, for the first time since the death of the composer.

Leopold Koželuch (, born "Jan Antonín Koželuh", alternatively also "Leopold Koželuh", "Leopold Kotzeluch") (26 June 1747 – 7 May 1818) was a Czech composer and music teacher.


Early life and career.

Born in Tbilisi, Kitovani graduated from the Tbilisi Fine Arts Academy and taught at a boarding school in the town of Tetritsqaro, and then worked as a main painter for the Tbilisi State Advertising Bureau between 1967 and 1969.  Kitovani entered the national politics early in 1990 when the independence movement reached its climax in then-Soviet Georgia. Elected to the Supreme Council of Georgia the same year, he was closely associated with Zviad Gamsakhurdia, a Soviet-era dissident who went on to become the chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Council and eventually the President of Georgia in 1991. In December 1990, Gamsakhurdia decreed the creation of the National Guard of Georgia and appointed Kitovani as its head. However, the two men collided in August 1991, when Gamsakhurdia sacked him as National Guard commander. Kitovani subsequently claimed that Gamsakhurdia was intending to disband the National Guard, and had been ordered to do so by the leaders of the Moscow Putsch who had briefly taken power in the Soviet Union, but did not produce the documents he claimed to possess confirming this. Kitovani refused to accept his dismissal and left Tbilisi with most of his troops to entrench himself in the Rkoni Gorge. This was the beginning of the end for Gamsakhurdia, whose inflexible politics forced many of his former supporters into opposition.

Military coup and civil war.

The confrontation between pro- and anti-Gamsakhurdia factions quickly degenerated into a series of strikes and armed clashes, and eventually, Kitovani, joined by Gamsakhurdia’s former Prime Minister Tengiz Sigua and the paramilitary leader Jaba Ioseliani, launched a violent coup in December 1991. Ioseliani, as well as Gamsakhurdia’s supporters and some independent observers, claimed that Kitovani hired some Soviet/Russian troops stationed in Tbilisi to join the attack on the government.  On January 2, 1992, the deposition of Gamsakhurdia and the formation of the Military Council had been announced with Kitovani and Ioseliani as its leaders. Gamsakhurdia had been forced into exile by January 6, 1992, and the coup leaders invited the former Soviet foreign minister Eduard Shevardnadze to head the post-coup provisional government – the State Council – in March 1992. As a result of the power-sharing arrangement that was eventually struck between Ioseliani, Kitovani, Sigua and Shevardnadze, Kitovani remained the commander of the National Guard and retained a considerable influence on decision making. In May 1992, Shevardnadze appointed Kitovani Minister of Defence and Deputy Prime Minister in an effort to bring the National Guard under central control. However, both Kitovani and Ioseliani were reluctant to concede power to Shevardnadze and tended to engage in unilateral actions, and in doing so frequently conflicted with each other.  The first and most obvious of such actions was taken by Kitovani during a planned military operation against Gamsakhurdia’s supporters who had formed pockets of armed resistance in western Georgia and had taken Georgian government officials hostage. On the night of August 13, 1992, Kitovani’s force entered the autonomous republic of Abkhazia, whose leadership had taken a series of steps towards secession from Georgia, in order to establish control over the region’s railways sabotaged by Gamsakhurdia's loyal militias. Although this operation and show of force resulted in the eventual release of the hostages, Kitovani, acting most probably on his own initiative, proceeded towards Abkhazia’s capital of Sukhumi and forced the Abkhaz leaders into flight. Shevardnadze failed to have Kitovani’s force withdrawn from Abkhazia and the country became involved in a thirteen-month-long war which would end in Georgia’s loss of control over most of Abkhazia. Another version of these events, often quoted in Georgia, says that Russia, while supporting the Abkhaz, also instigated Kitovani to trigger the conflict and perhaps even promised support for his leadership ambitions in Georgia after a successful operation. Later, Shevardnadze would accuse Kitovani of provoking an armed conflict in Abkhazia, claiming that Kitovani disavowed his order and advance with his military to Sukhumi. Kitovani however blamed Shevardnadze for preventing him from following up an offensive on Sukhumi with an attack on the Abkhaz stronghold in Gudauta, home to a Russian military base which supplied the secessionist forces with instructors and munitions. Shevardnadze’s successor as President of Georgia, Mikheil Saakashvili, has also accused Kitovani of being a "Russian agent" and blamed him for the loss of Abkhazia.

Conflict with Shevardnadze.

During the war in Abkhazia, Kitovani developed a power centre rivalling Shevardnadze’s and on several occasions challenged Shevardnadze, now Head of State, on defence matters, suggesting that he should be responsible only for foreign policy. Kitovani stood as a candidate in Georgia's parliamentary elections of October 11, 1992 and was elected in the single-mandate constituency of Bolnisi. In the aftermath of the elections, Shevardnadze attempted to replace him as Minister of Defence with a professional soldier, General Anatoli Kamkamidze, but was unable to do so. Amid persistent rumors that he was planning a new military coup, Kitovani was finally forced into resignation in May 1993 – though a protégé, Gia Karkarashvili, was named as his replacement, and he was able to retain some of his power – partly, according to widespread rumours in Tbilisi, through his control over Georgia’s "energy mafia" and his "special relationship" with Russian defence minister Pavel Grachev.  However, Shevardnadze was able to exploit the military setback in Abkhazia to embark on a crackdown on the paramilitary groups and ultimately their leaders. After the pro-Gamsakhurdia rebellion had been quashed with Russian aid by December 1993, Shevardnadze was able to increasingly consolidate his power and deprive both Kitovani and Ioseliani of influence over national security policy.  After spending some time in Russia, Kitovani returned to Tbilisi and, together with Tengiz Sigua and Boris Kakubava, leader of a faction of ethnic Georgian IDPs from Abkhazia, founded the National Front for the Liberation of Abkhazia in the autumn of 1994.  On January 13, 1995, Kitovani, with the support of Tengiz Sigua, led a force of some 700 lightly armed supporters in a march against Abkhazia. They were stopped by Georgian police and arrested. Kitovani was tried for having organized an unlawful armed force and sentenced to eight years' imprisonment in October 1996. He served four years of his eight-year term and was pardoned by Shevardnadze on medical grounds on May 22, 1999.

Emigration and return.

Since early 2000s, Kitovani has lived in Moscow from where he harshly criticized the Shevardnadze government on several occasions. In February 2002, he responded scandalously to the mysterious suicide of Nugzar Sajaia, Shevardnadze’s close ally and an influential Chairman of Georgia’s National Security Council, making allegations that Sajaia was a homosexual and had ordered the 2001 murder of journalist Giorgi Sanaia. Later that year, Kitovani accused Shevardnadze of being behind the 2002 assassination of Kakhi Asatiani, a businessman and former soccer star. He also upheld Russia’s claims that some 700 Chechen fighters had spent that winter in Georgia’s Pankisi Gorge. He further claimed that Russian General Gennady Shpigun, abducted and killed in Chechnya in 1999/2000, was in fact held captive and put to death in Pankisi, with the body then taken to southern Chechnya. Georgia dismissed all these claims, however. Georgian Prosecutor-General Nugzar Gabrichidze claimed that Kitovani had been in close contact with National Guard veterans who staged a failed mutiny on March 23, 2003. Kitovani, however, denied any links with the mutiny.  Kitovani returned to Tbilisi, in December 2012, after the change of government in the aftermath of the October 2012 parliamentary election.

References.

Tengiz Kitovani () (born June 9, 1938) is a retired Georgian politician and military commander with high-profile involvement in the Georgian Civil War early in the 1990s when he commanded the National Guard of Georgia and served as a Defense Minister until being gradually sidelined by Eduard Shevardnadze who had earlier been invited to lead the nation after a successful coup d'etat launched by Kitovani and his allies against President Zviad Gamsakhurdia.


Life.

He was born at Altona, Duchy of Holstein (then a part of the Denmark–Norway kingdoms), the son of Jacob Struve (1755–1841). Struve's father moved the family away from the French occupation to Dorpat (nowadays Tartu) in Imperial Russia to avoid military service, equipped with Danish passports.  In 1808 he entered the Imperial University of Dorpat, where he first studied philology, but soon turned his attention to astronomy. From 1813 to 1820, he taught at the university and collected data at the Dorpat Observatory, and in 1820 became a full professor and director of the observatory. His teachings have had a strong effect that is still felt at the university.  Struve was occupied with research on double stars and geodesy in Dorpat until 1839, when he founded and became director of the new Pulkovo Observatory near St Petersburg. Among other honors, he won the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1826. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in March 1827 and was awarded their Royal Medal the same year. Struve was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1833, and a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1834. In 1843 he formally adopted Russian nationality. He retired in 1862 due to failing health.  The asteroid 768 Struveana was named jointly in his honour and that of Otto Wilhelm and Karl Hermann Struve and a lunar crater was named for another 3 astronomers of the Struve family: Friedrich Georg Wilhelm, Otto Wilhelm and Otto.

Works.

Struve's name is best known for his observations of double stars, which he carried on for many years. Although double stars had been studied earlier by William Herschel and John Herschel and Sir James South, Struve outdid any previous efforts. He discovered a very large number of double stars and in 1827 published his double star catalogue "Catalogus novus stellarum duplicium". Stars of his catalogue are sometimes indicated by the Greek letter sigma, Σ. Thus, 61 Cygni is also designated as Σ2758.  Since most double stars are true binary stars rather than mere optical doubles (as William Herschel had been the first to discover), they orbit around one another's barycenter and slowly change position over the years. Thus Struve made micrometric measurements of 2714 double stars from 1824 to 1837 and published these in his work "Stellarum duplicium et multiplicium mensurae micrometricae".  Struve carefully measured the "constant of aberration" in 1843. He was also the first to measure the parallax of a star Vega, although Friedrich Bessel had been the first to measure the parallax of a star (61 Cygni).  In an 1847 work, "Etudes d'Astronomie Stellaire: Sur la voie lactee et sur la distance des etoiles fixes," Struve was one of the first astronomers to identify the effects of interstellar extinction (though he provided no mechanism to explain the effect). His estimate of the average rate of visual extinction, 1 mag per kpc, is remarkably close to modern estimates (0.7–1.0 mag per kpc).  He was also interested in geodetic surveying, and in 1831 published "Beschreibung der Breitengradmessung in den Ostseeprovinzen Russlands". He initiated the Struve Geodetic Arc, which was a chain of survey triangulations stretching from Hammerfest in Norway to the Black Sea, through ten countries and over 2,820 km, to establish the exact size and shape of the earth. UNESCO listed the chain on its List of World Heritage Sites in Europe in 2005.

Family.

Struve was the second of a dynasty of astronomers through five generations. He was the great-grandfather of Otto Struve and the father of Otto Wilhelm von Struve. He was also the grandfather of Hermann von Struve, who was Otto Struve's uncle.  In 1815 he married Emilie Wall (1796–1834) in Altona, who bore 12 children, 8 of which survived early childhood. In addition to Otto Wilhelm von Struve, other children were Heinrich Wilhelm von Struve (1822–1908), a prominent chemist, and Bernhard Wilhelm von Struve (1827–1889), who served as a government official in Siberia and later as governor of Astrakhan and Perm.  After his first wife died, he remarried to Johanna Henriette Francisca Bartels (1807–1867), a daughter of the mathematician Martin Bartels, who bore him six more children. The most well-known was Karl de Struve (1835–1907), who served successively as Russian ambassador to Japan, the United States, and the Netherlands.  Bernhard's son Pyotr Berngardovich Struve (1870–1944) is probably the best known member of the family in mainland Russia (his other descendants mainly resigned in the Baltic region and subsequently Germany). He was one of the first Russian marxists and penned the Manifesto of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party upon its creation in 1898. Even before the party split into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks, Struve left it for the Constitutional Democratic party, which promoted ideas of liberalism. He represented this party at all the pre-revolutionary State Dumas. After the Russian Revolution, he published several striking articles on its causes and joined the White movement. In the governments of Pyotr Wrangel and Denikin he was one of the ministers. During the following three decades, Pyotr lived in Paris, while his children were prominent in the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia.

Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve (, trans. "Vasily Yakovlevich Struve"; 15 April 1793 – ) was a Baltic German astronomer and geodesist from the famous Struve family. He is best known for studying double stars and for initiating a triangulation survey later named Struve Geodetic Arc in his honor.


Works.

Brown was born in Cincinnati. He began to sell mystery short stories to American magazines from 1936. His first science fiction story, "Not Yet the End", was published in the Winter 1941 issue of the magazine "Captain Future".  His science fiction novel "What Mad Universe" (1949) is a parody of pulp SF story conventions. "Martians, Go Home" (1955) is both a broad farce and a satire on human frailties as seen through the eyes of a billion jeering, invulnerable Martians who arrive not to conquer the world but to drive it crazy.  "The Lights in the Sky Are Stars" (1952) tells the story of an aging astronaut who is trying to get his beloved space program back on track after Congress has cut off the funds for it.  Brown's flash fiction short story "The Hobbyist" (1961) is about a man named Sangstrom, who is in a desperate search for an undetectable poison but winds up getting more than he bargained for.  The short story "Arena" was used as the basis for the episode of the same name in the. It was also adapted in 1973 for issue 4 of Marvel Comics' "Worlds Unknown."  Brown's first mystery novel, "The Fabulous Clipjoint", won the Edgar Award for outstanding first mystery novel. It began a series starring Ed and Ambrose Hunter, and depicts how a young man gradually ripens into a detective under the tutelage of his uncle, an ex–private eye now working as a carnival concessionaire.  Many of his books make use of the threat of the supernatural or occult before the "straight" explanation at the end. For example, "Night of the Jabberwock" is a humorous narrative of an extraordinary day in the life of a small-town newspaper editor.  "The Screaming Mimi" (which became a 1958 movie starring Anita Ekberg and Gypsy Rose Lee, and directed by Gerd Oswald, who also directed the "Fun and Games" episode of "The Outer Limits", the plot of which was similar to Brown's short story "Arena"), and "The Far Cry" are noir suspense novels reminiscent of the work of Cornell Woolrich. "The Lenient Beast" experiments multiple first-person viewpoints, among them a gentle, deeply religious serial killer, and examines racial tensions between Anglos and Latinos in the US state of Arizona. "Here Comes a Candle" is told in straight narrative sections alternating with a radio script, a screenplay, a sportscast, a teleplay, a stage play, and a newspaper article.

Popularity and influence.

His short story "Arena" was voted by Science Fiction Writers of America as one of the top 20 SF stories written before 1965. His 1945 short story "The Waveries" was described by Philip K. Dick as "what may be the most significant—startlingly so—story SF has yet produced". The opening of "Knock" is a complete two-sentence short-short story in itself.  Brown was one of three dedicatees of Robert A. Heinlein's "Stranger in a Strange Land" (the other two being Robert Cornog and Philip José Farmer).  In his non-fiction book "Danse Macabre" (1981), a survey of the horror genre since 1950, writer Stephen King includes an appendix of "roughly one hundred" influential books of the period: Fredric Brown's short-story collection "Nightmares and Geezenstacks" is included, and is, moreover, asterisked as being among those select works King regards as "particularly important".  Brown's short story "Naturally" was adapted into "Geometria", a short film by director Guillermo del Toro. Another short story, "The Last Martian", was adapted into "Human Interest Story", an episode of "Alfred Hitchcock Presents".  In the third episode of the third series of Amazon's adaptation of Philip K. Dick's "The Man In The High Castle" Oberstgruppenführer Smith remarks, when told of the possibility of travel between worlds, that "this is like something out of Fredric Brown", implying that Brown's work is known in the German-occupied areas of the former United States.  His novel "The Lights in the Sky Are Stars" gives its name to the final episode of 2007 anime "Gurren Lagann".  Philosopher and novelist Umberto Eco in his book "On Ugliness" describes Brown's short story "Serenity" as, "one of the finest short stories produced by contemporary science fiction" and uses its twist ending as an example of how ugliness and aesthetics are relative to different cultures.

Fredric Brown (October 29, 1906 – March 11, 1972) was an American science fiction and mystery writer. He is known for his use of humor and for his mastery of the "short short" form—stories of 1 to 3 pages, often with ingenious plotting devices and surprise endings. Humor and a somewhat postmodern outlook carried over into his novels as well. One of his stories, "Arena", is officially credited for an adaptation as an of the American television series ".


Calculation.

Interest rate risk analysis is almost always based on simulating movements in one or more yield curves using the Heath-Jarrow-Morton framework to ensure that the yield curve movements are both consistent with current market yield curves and such that no riskless arbitrage is possible. The Heath-Jarrow-Morton framework was developed in the early 1991 by David Heath of Cornell University, Andrew Morton of Lehman Brothers, and Robert A. Jarrow of Kamakura Corporation and Cornell University.  There are a number of standard calculations for measuring the impact of changing interest rates on a portfolio consisting of various assets and liabilities. The most common techniques include:

At banks.

The assessment of interest rate risk is a very large topic at banks, thrifts, saving and loans, credit unions, and other finance companies, and among their regulators. The widely deployed CAMELS rating system assesses a financial institution's: (C)apital adequacy, (A)ssets, (M)anagement Capability, (E)arnings, (L)iquidity, and (S)ensitivity to market risk. A large portion of the (S)ensitivity in CAMELS is "interest rate risk". Much of what is known about assessing interest rate risk has been developed by the interaction of financial institutions with their regulators since the 1990s. Interest rate risk is unquestionably the largest part of the (S)ensitivity analysis in the CAMELS system for most banking institutions. When a bank receives a bad CAMELS rating equity holders, bond holders and creditors are at risk of loss, senior managers can lose their jobs and the firms are put on the FDIC problem bank list.  See the (S)ensitivity section of the CAMELS rating system for a substantial list of links to documents and examiner manuals, issued by financial regulators, that cover many issues in the analysis of interest rate risk.  In addition to being subject to the CAMELS system, the largest banks are often subject to prescribed stress testing. The assessment of interest rate risk is typically informed by some type of stress testing. See: Stress test (financial), List of bank stress tests, List of systemically important banks.

Interest rate risk is the risk that arises for bond owners from fluctuating interest rates. How much interest rate risk a bond has depends on how sensitive its price is to interest rate changes in the market. The sensitivity depends on two things, the bond's time to maturity, and the coupon rate of the bond.


Early life and education.

Born in Philadelphia into a prominent Quaker family, Thomas Say was the great-grandson of John Bartram, and the great-nephew of William Bartram. His father, Dr. Benjamin Say, was brother-in-law to another Bartram son, Moses Bartram. The Say family had a house, "The Cliffs" at Gray's Ferry, adjoining the Bartram family farms in Kingessing township, Philadelphia County. As a boy, Say often visited the family garden, Bartram's Garden, where he frequently took butterfly and beetle specimens to his great-uncle William.

Career.

He became an apothecary. A self-taught naturalist, Say helped found the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia (ANSP) in 1812. In 1816, he met Charles Alexandre Lesueur, a French naturalist, malacologist, and ichthyologist who soon became a member of the Academy and served as its curator until 1824.  At the Academy, Say began his work on what he would publish as "American Entomology". To collect insects, he made numerous expeditions to frontier areas, risking American Indian attacks and hazards of traveling in wild countryside. In 1818, Say accompanied his friend William Maclure, then the ANSP president and father of American geology; Gerhard Troost, a geologist; and other members of the Academy on a geological expedition to the off-shore islands of Georgia and Florida, then a Spanish colony. In 1819–20, Major Stephen Harriman Long led an exploration to the Rocky Mountains and the tributaries of the Missouri River, with Say as zoologist. Their official account of this expedition included the first descriptions of the coyote, swift fox, western kingbird, band-tailed pigeon, rock wren, Say's phoebe, lesser goldfinch, lark sparrow, lazuli bunting, orange-crowned warbler, checkered whiptail lizard, collared lizard, ground skink, western rat snake, and western ribbon snake.  In 1823, Say served as chief zoologist in Long's expedition to the headwaters of the Mississippi River. He traveled on the "Boatload of Knowledge" to the New Harmony Settlement in Indiana (1826–34), a utopian society experiment founded by Robert Owen. Say was accompanied by Maclure, Lesueur, Troost, and Francis Neef, an innovative pedagogue. There he later met Constantine Samuel Rafinesque-Schmaltz, another naturalist.  On January 4, 1827, Say secretly married Lucy Way Sistare, whom he had met as one of the passengers to New Harmony, near the settlement. She was an artist and illustrator of specimens, as in the book "American Conchology", and was elected as the first woman member of the Academy of Natural Sciences.  At New Harmony, Thomas Say carried on his monumental work describing insects and mollusks, leading to two classic works:  During their years in New Harmony, Say and Lesueur experienced considerable difficulties. Say was a modest and unassuming man, who lived frugally like a hermit. He abandoned commercial activities and devoted himself to his studies, making difficulties for his family.  Say died, apparently from typhoid fever, in New Harmony on 10 October 1834, when he was 47 years old.

Legacy and honors.

Say described more than 1,000 new species of beetles, more than 400 species of insects of other orders, and seven well-known species of snakes.  Other zoologists honored him by naming several taxa after him:

See also.

Frederick Valentine Melsheimer, also considered the "Father of Entomology"

Thomas Say (June 27, 1787 – October 10, 1834) was an American entomologist, conchologist, and herpetologist. His definitive studies of insects and shells, numerous contributions to scientific journals, and scientific expeditions to Florida, Georgia, the Rocky Mountains, Mexico, and elsewhere made him an internationally known naturalist. Say has been called the father of American descriptive entomology and American conchology. He served as librarian for the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, curator at the American Philosophical Society, and professor of natural history at the University of Pennsylvania.


Distribution.

This species is native to wooded areas north of the Amazon River in Brazil, Guyana, French Guiana, Suriname, and possibly Venezuela. A population of tamarins south of the Amazon River that lack the contrasting feet and hands was previously believed to be a sub-population of red-handed tamarins but is now treated as a separate species, the black tamarin.  Populations of red-handed tamarins appear to be expanding into the historical range of the pied tamarin, with the red-handed tamarin gradually displacing the pied tamarin through interspecific competition.

Habitat.

This species prefers trees with small crowns.

Description.

The red-handed tamarin's body measures ; including the tail it measures. It weighs.  The fur of the red-handed tamarin is dark brown or black, with contrasting reddish-orange hair on its feet and hands (hence the common name). The dark face is hairless, the big ears stick out of the fur. As with all marmosets, there are claws instead of nails on the fingers and toes (with the exception of the big toe). Furthermore, the thumb is not opposable.

Biology and behavior.

The life expectancy of "Saguinus midas" is approximately 10 years in the wild and 16 years in captivity. These tamarins live in cooperative groups of 4 to 15 members with little competition within group even between breeding males. Adults can reach sexual maturity at age of 16-20 months. Only one female in the group will breed during breeding season with the other females suppressing the instinct. The gestation period is 140–170 days and mothers typically give birth to two offspring. Young tamarins are cared for primarily by the father and turned over to the mother only to nurse, however the entire group helps with the care of the young. Defense is a priority in a group, and when one tamarin is threatened the others will rush to its defense. The red-handed tamarin is territorial and can be aggressive, with sharp canines and claws instead of fingernails on all fingers and all but the large toe.  The red-handed tamarin is an exceptional climber and spends most of its time among the vines and branches of the trees. It is quick and agile and is a superb jumper known to jump distances of over from a tree to the ground with no sign of injury. It is omnivore. Its diet consists of leaves, plant exudates, fruit, flowers, eggs, insects and other arthropods, frogs, spiders, lizards, and nectar. Its natural predators include small cats, birds of prey, and snakes.

The red-handed tamarin ("Saguinus midas"), also known as the golden-handed tamarin or Midas tamarin, is a New World monkey belonging to the family "Callitrichidae".


Biography.

Soutine was born Chaim Sutin, in Smilavichy in the Minsk Governorate of the Russian Empire (present-day Belarus). He was the tenth of eleven children. From 1910 to 1913 he studied in Vilnius at a small art academy. In 1913, with his friends Pinchus Kremegne (1890–1981) and Michel Kikoine (1892–1968), he emigrated to Paris, where he studied at the École des Beaux-Arts under Fernand Cormon. He soon developed a highly personal vision and painting technique. For a time, he and his friends lived at La Ruche, a residence for struggling artists in Montparnasse where he became friends with Amedeo Modigliani (1884–1920). Modigliani painted Soutine's portrait several times, most famously in 1917, on a door of an apartment belonging to Léopold Zborowski (1889–1932), who was their art dealer. Zborowski supported Soutine through World War I, taking the struggling artist with him to Nice to escape the possible German invasion of Paris.  After the war Paul Guillaume, a highly influential art dealer, began to champion Soutine's work. In 1923, in a showing arranged by Guillaume, the prominent American collector Albert C. Barnes (1872–1951), bought 60 of Soutine's paintings on the spot. Soutine, who had been virtually penniless in his years in Paris, immediately took the money, ran into the street, hailed a Paris taxi, and ordered the driver to take him to Nice, on the French Riviera, more than 400 miles away.  Soutine once horrified his neighbours by keeping an animal carcass in his studio so that he could paint it ("Carcass of Beef"). The stench drove them to send for the police, whom Soutine promptly lectured on the relative importance of art over hygiene. There's a story that Marc Chagall saw the blood from the carcass leak out onto the corridor outside Soutine's room, and rushed out screaming, 'Someone has killed Soutine.' Soutine painted 10 works in this series, which have since become his most well-known. His carcass paintings were inspired by Rembrandt's still life of the same subject, "Slaughtered Ox", which he discovered while studying the Old Masters in the Louvre. Soutine produced the majority of his works from 1920 to 1929. From 1930 to 1935, the interior designer Madeleine Castaing and her husband welcomed him to their summer home, the mansion of Lèves, becoming his patrons, so that Soutine could hold his first exhibition in Chicago in 1935. He seldom showed his works, but he did take part in the important exhibition "The Origins and Development of International Independent Art" held at the Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume in 1937 in Paris, where he was at last hailed as a great painter. Soon afterwards France was invaded by German troops. As a Jew, Soutine had to escape from the French capital and hide in order to avoid arrest by the Gestapo. He moved from one place to another and was sometimes forced to seek shelter in forests, sleeping outdoors. Suffering from a stomach ulcer and bleeding badly, he left a safe hiding place for Paris in order to undergo emergency surgery, which failed to save his life. On August 9, 1943, Chaim Soutine died of a perforated ulcer. He was interred in Cimetière du Montparnasse, Paris.

Legacy.

In February 2006, an oil painting of his controversial and iconic series "Le Bœuf Écorché" (1924) sold for a record £7.8 million ($13.8 million) to an anonymous buyer at a Christie's auction held in London—after it was estimated to fetch £4.8 million. In February 2007, a 1921 portrait of an unidentified man with a red scarf "(L'Homme au Foulard Rouge)" sold for $17.2 million—a new record—at Sotheby's London auction house. In May 2015, "Le Bœuf", circa 1923, oil on canvas, achieved a record price for the artist of $28,165,000 at the Christie's curated auction "Looking forward to the past".  One of the beef paintings, known as “Le boeuf,” was sold for $1 million in 2004 and resold six months later for twice that price to the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.. Heirs of the first seller sued to have the painting returned, claiming the price was unfairly low, and a complex settlement in 2009 required the painting to be transferred to them.  Some years after Soutine's death, Roald Dahl placed him as a character in his short story "Skin".  The Jewish Museum in New York has presented major exhibitions of Soutine's work in "An Expressionist in Paris: The Paintings of Chaim Soutine" (1998) and "Chaim Soutine: Flesh" (2018).

Chaïm Soutine (13 January 1893 – 9 August 1943) was a Belarusian painter who made a major contribution to the expressionist movement while living and working in Paris.


History.

Early history.

Tissot was founded in 1853 by Charles-Félicien Tissot and his son Charles-Émile Tissot in the Swiss city of Le Locle, in the Neuchâtel area of the Jura Mountains. Charles-Emile Tissot left for Russia in 1858 and succeeded in selling their savonnette pocket watches across the Russian Empire. Tissot merged with Omega in 1930 and Tissot-Omega watches from this era are sought after by collectors.  Tissot was used for downhill skiing in Switzerland in 1938 and the Davis Cup in 1957. Tissot's first engagement as an official timekeeper was in 1938 where they timed a series of Ski races in Villars-sur-Ollon, near the company's hometown in the Jura mountains.

Recent development.

Tissot has been a subsidiary of the Swiss Swatch Group since 1983, the largest watch producer and distributor in the world. After joining Swatch, Tissot was still based in Le Locle, Switzerland and marketed in 160 countries around the world. Tissot watches are currently classified by the Swatch Group as "mid-range market" products.  Tissot is an official timekeeper for the world championships in cycling, motorcycling, fencing and ice hockey, etc. Tissot was also a key sponsor for the Formula One teams Lotus, Renault, and Sauber. For early events, handheld stopwatches were sufficient to provide official timings. Today, Tissot works with various sporting bodies to develop systems to produce ever more accurate timings for specific events. In competitive cycling, for instance, sensors are placed on the bikes and track which are then linked by computers to provide track timings and performance data.  Tissot also unveiled its brand new worldwide campaign, 'Tissot, This is Your Time'. The message at the heart of the campaign emphasises the watch that relates to the milestones in one's life. A new tagline, new visuals and powerful communication all serve to emphasise Tissot's position in the market.

Motto and slogan.

The company motto/slogan of Tissot is "Innovators by Tradition".

Watch manufacturing.

Notable inventions.

Tissot introduced the first mass-produced pocket watch as well as the first pocket watch with two time zones in 1853 and the first anti-magnetic watch, in 1929–30. The Tissot company was also the first to make watches out of plastic (Idea 2001 in 1971), stone (the Alpine granite RockWatch in 1985), mother of pearl (the Pearl watch in 1987), and wood (the Wood watch in 1988).  Tissot introduced its first tactile watch, with "T-Touch," technology in 1999; watches containing this technology have touch-sensitive sapphire crystals to control various functions like compass, barometer, altimeter and thermometer. The latest models in the T-Touch series, the T-Touch Expert Solar and T-Touch Lady Solar, have 25 functions.

Environmental rating.

In December 2018, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) released an official report giving environmental ratings for 15 major watch manufacturers and jewelers in Switzerland. Tissot, along with 7 other manufacturers including Omega, Rolex and Longines, was given the lowest environmental rating as "Latecomers/Non-transparent", suggesting that the manufacturer has taken very few actions addressing the impact of its manufacturing activities on the environment and climate change.  There are concerns over the lack of transparency in manufacturing activities and the sourcing of precious raw materials such as gold, which is a major cause of environmental issues such as pollution, soil degradation and deforestation. The situation is especially serious in the developing countries which are top producers of gold, including China, Russia and South Africa. It is estimated that the watch and jewelry sector uses over 50% of world's annual gold production (over 2,000 tons), but in most cases the watch companies are not able to or are unwilling to demonstrate where their raw materials come from and if the material suppliers use eco-friendly sourcing technologies.

Notable patrons and owners.

Brand Ambassadors.

Tissot has partnered with a wide range of celebrities from basketball players, actors, cricket players, to MotoGP racers to be their brand ambassadors. As of 2018, brand ambassadors include Tony Parker, Liu Yi Fei, Virat Kohli, Deepika Padukone, Huang Xiaoming, Jorge Lorenzo, Thomas Luethi, Marc Márquez and recently Rana Daggubati.

Notable Wearers.

Tissot watches have been worn by Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge, Sarah Bernhardt, singer Carmen Miranda, Grace Kelly, Elvis Presley and Nelson Mandela.  James Stewart wore a Tissot watch in "Rear Window". T-Touch watches have been worn by Angelina Jolie in the movies "" and "Mr. & Mrs. Smith".

Sponsorships.

Tissot has been the official timekeeper for a multitude of major sports, including MotoGP, ice hockey, cycling, the International Basketball Federation (FIBA) the Fencing World Championships, the Women's National Basketball Association, for many years. Being the official timekeeper means that Tissot has the responsibility of actually timing each of these sports. It has sponsored the Swiss national team, the Chinese Basketball Association and other basketball-related events, teams, and organizations.

Tissot SA () is a Swiss luxury watchmaker. The company was founded in Le Locle, Switzerland by Charles-Félicien Tissot and his son, Charles-Émile Tissot, in 1853. Since 1983, Tissot SA has been a subsidiary of the Swiss Swatch Group.


Overview.

Function words might be prepositions, pronouns, auxiliary verbs, conjunctions, grammatical articles or particles, all of which belong to the group of closed-class words. Interjections are sometimes considered function words but they belong to the group of open-class words. Function words might or might not be inflected or might have affixes.  Function words belong to the closed class of words in grammar in that it is very uncommon to have new function words created in the course of speech, whereas in the open class of words (that is, nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs) new words may be added readily (such as slang words, technical terms, and adoptions and adaptations of foreign words). See neologism.  Each function word either gives some grammatical information on other words in a sentence or clause, and cannot be isolated from other words, or it may indicate the speaker's mental model as to what is being said.  Grammatical words, as a class, can have distinct phonological properties from content words. Grammatical words sometimes do not make full use of all the sounds in a language. For example, in some of the Khoisan languages, most content words begin with clicks, but very few function words do. In English, very few words other than function words begin with voiced "th" (see Pronunciation of English th); English function words may have fewer than three letters 'I', 'an', 'in' while non-function words usually have three or more 'eye', 'Ann', 'inn' (see three letter rule).  The following is a list of the kind of words considered to be function words:

Clement Seymour "Sir Coxsone" Dodd (26 January 1932 – 4 May 2004) was a Jamaican record producer who was influential in the development of ska and reggae in the 1950s, 1960s and beyond.


Plot summary.

The story begins before the wolf-dog hybrid is born, with two men and their sled dog team on a journey to deliver the coffin of Lord Alfred to a remote town named Fort McGurry in the higher area of the Yukon Territory. The men, Bill and Henry, are stalked by a large pack of starving wolves over the course of several days. Finally, after all of their dogs and Bill have been eaten, four more teams find Henry escaping from the wolves; the wolf pack scatters when they hear the large group of people coming.  The story then follows the pack, which has been robbed of its last prey. When the pack finally brings down a moose, the famine is ended; they eventually split up, and the story now follows a she-wolf and her mate, One Eye. The she-wolf gives birth to a litter of five cubs by the Mackenzie River, and all but one die from hunger. One Eye is killed by a lynx while trying to rob her den for food for the she-wolf and her cub; his mate later discovers his remains near the lynx's den. The surviving cub and the she-wolf are left to fend for themselves. Shortly afterward, the she-wolf kills all the lynx's kittens to feed her cub, prompting the lynx to track her down, and a vicious fight breaks out. The she-wolf eventually kills the lynx but suffers severe injury; the lynx carcass is devoured over a period of seven days as the she-wolf recovers from her injuries.  One day, the cub comes across five Aboriginal people, and the she-wolf comes to his rescue. One man, Grey Beaver, recognizes the she-wolf as his brother's wolfdog, Kiche, who left during a famine. Grey Beaver's brother is dead, and so he takes Kiche and her cub and christens the cub White Fang. White Fang has a harsh life in the Indigenous People’s camp; the current puppy pack, seeing him as a wolf, immediately attacks him. The Indigenous people save him, but the pups never accept him, and the leader, Lip-Lip, singles him out for persecution. White Fang grows to become a savage, callous, morose, solitary, and deadly fighter, "the enemy of his kind".  It is at this time that White Fang is separated from his mother, who is sold off to another Indigenous people’s Camp by Three Eagles. He realizes how hard life in the wild is when he runs away from camp, and earns the respect of Grey Beaver when he saves his son Mit-Sah from a group of boys seeking revenge. When a famine occurs, he runs away into the woods and encounters his mother Kiche, only for her to chase him away, for she has a new litter of cubs. He also encounters Lip-Lip, whom he fights and kills before returning to the camp.  When White Fang is five years old, he is taken to Fort Yukon, so that Grey Beaver can trade with the gold-hunters. There, when Grey Beaver is drunk, White Fang is bought by an evil dog-fighter named Beauty Smith. White Fang defeats all opponents pitted against him, including several wolves and a lynx, until a bulldog called Cherokee is brought in to fight him. Cherokee has the upper hand in the fight when he grips the skin and fur of White Fang's neck and begins to throttle him. White Fang nearly suffocates, but is rescued when a rich, young gold hunter, Weedon Scott, stops the fight, and forcefully buys White Fang from Beauty Smith.  Scott attempts to tame White Fang, and after a long, patient effort, he succeeds. When Scott attempts to return to California alone, White Fang pursues him, and Scott decides to take the dog with him back home. In Sierra Vista, White Fang must adjust to the laws of the estate. At the end of the book, an escaped convict, Jim Hall, tries to kill Scott's father, Judge Scott, for sentencing him to prison for a crime he did not commit, not knowing that Hall was "railroaded". White Fang kills Hall and is nearly killed himself, but survives. As a result, the women of Scott's estate name him "The Blessed Wolf". The story ends with White Fang relaxing in the sun with the puppies he has fathered with the sheep-dog Collie.

Main characters.

Major animal characters:  Major human characters:

Major themes.

Critics have identified many underlying themes in the novel. Tom Feller describes the story as "an allegory of humanity's progression from nature to civilization". He also expresses that "the [story's] implication is that the metamorphosis of both the individual and society will require violence at some point." Paul Deane states that "[in the novel] society demands a conformity that undermines individualism." London himself took influence from Herbert Spencer's words: "survival of the fittest", as well as Friedrich Nietzsche's idea of a "superman" (or "superdog", in this instance) and of "the worship of power".

Background.

The novel is partly an autobiographical allegory based on London's conversion from teenage hoodlum to married, middle-class writer. In writing it, he was influenced by the ideas of Herbert Spencer, Karl Marx, and Friedrich Nietzsche. Conditions in the US also influenced the story.

Publication history.

Since the novel has been published it has been translated into over 89 different languages and released as a three-volume Braille edition.

Reception.

Upon its release, "White Fang" was an immediate success worldwide, and became especially popular among younger readers. Robert Greenwood called "White Fang" "one of London's most interesting and ambitious works." Virginia Crane claims that the novel is "generally regarded as artistically inferior to its companion piece ["The Call of the Wild"], but [that it] helped establish London as a popular American literary figure".  Shortly after the book's publication, London became a target in what would later be called the nature fakers controversy, a literary debate highlighting the conflict between science and sentiment in popular nature writing. President Theodore Roosevelt, who first spoke out against the "sham naturalists" in 1907, specifically named London as one of the so-called "nature fakers". Citing an example from "White Fang", Roosevelt referred to the fight between the bulldog and the wolfdog "the very sublimity of absurdity." London only responded to the criticism after the controversy had ended. In a 1908 essay entitled "The Other Animals", he wrote:

Adaptations.

The novel has been adapted into numerous pictures and sequels, animated specials, as well as an audiobook format. A television series, "White Fang", was filmed in Arrowtown, New Zealand, in 1993.

White Fang is a novel by American author Jack London (1876–1916) — and the name of the book's eponymous character, a wild wolfdog. First serialized in "Outing" magazine, it was published in 1906. The story details White Fang's journey to domestication in Yukon Territory and the Northwest Territories during the 1890s Klondike Gold Rush. It is a companion novel (and a thematic mirror) to London's best-known work, "The Call of the Wild" (1903), which is about a kidnapped, domesticated dog embracing his wild ancestry to survive and thrive in the wild.


History.

The first wooden stadium at its location opened in 1921, in 1930 it hosted the third Women's World Games. The stadium burned in 1934 and a new main reinforced concrete grandstand was built in 1937. In 1969 all the other grandstands were replaced by reinforced concrete ones and capacity was extended to 35,880 spectators. The 1994 reconstruction into its present form saw Letná closed for nine months, till the stadium met all international standards. The running track was removed and all spectator places were now seated.  Letná has frequently hosted international matches, in October 1989 the venue saw a crowd of 34,000 watch home side Czechoslovakia defeat Switzerland in a qualifying match for the 1990 FIFA World Cup. After the dissolution of Czechoslovakia, Letná continued as an international stadium, hosting matches of the Czech Republic national football team from 1995, including qualification matches for UEFA Euro 1996, in which the Czechs defeated the Netherlands and Norway.  The playing surface was renovated in 2001, including the installation of a new under-soil heating and watering system and grass from Germany. This necessitated Sparta playing league matches at the end of the 2000–01 season at the nearby Stadion Evžena Rošického.  Sparta was hit by a 55,000 CHF fine from European football governing body UEFA in 2001 following racist slurs from the crowd targeted at black Brazilian Luis Robson in a UEFA Champions League match at Letná against Spartak Moscow. It was, at the time, the biggest fine ever handed out by UEFA to a club for racist chanting.  Since 2002, the stadium have a heated turf. In 1994 the stadium was reopened after a complete modernization, all seats have since been seated and the stadium meets all required standards. In 2009, major changes took place at the stadium, barriers were removed, two video screens were installed and infrared radiators were installed to heat the "opposite" tribune.

Non football activities.

Since the beginning the stadium has been used as a speaking tribune for events that took place in front of it, in/around the Milada Horaková street and the large "Letná Plain". During the Velvet revolution in 1989, were at the plain assebled some 800,000 people for anti-government demonstrations. The speaking tribune was later removed.

Transport.

The stadium is served by the tram stop "Sparta", called at by services 1, 2, 8, 12, 25 and 26. The nearest metro stations are Vltavská to the east and Hradčanská to the west.

The Generali Česká pojišťovna Arena, previously, and still commonly known as Letná Stadium ( ), is a football stadium in Prague. It is the home venue of Sparta Prague and occasionally hosts the matches of the Czech Republic national football team. It has capacity for 19,416 people.


Club career.

Early career.

Plašil, aged 18, was signed by Monaco in 2000, but in his first two-year spell, he only started 8 matches. He was subsequently loaned to Ligue 2 club Créteil. After a decent performance, Plašil returned to Monaco at the start of the 2003 season and for the next four years he was a regular in the starting team and even enjoyed his finest moment in the 2003–04 season when the principality side reached the final of the UEFA Champions League. In that season, Plašil contributed a goal to Monaco's record-breaking 8–3 defeat of Deportivo La Coruña.

Osasuna.

On 25 August 2007, Plašil signed a four-year deal at La Liga team CA Osasuna for a fee of €2.25 million, to replace the injured Javad Nekounam.  He made his debut on 16 September, replacing Javier García Portillo for the final 19 minutes of a goalless home draw against FC Barcelona. His first goal for the team from Pamplona came on 2 December, a left-foot volley to open a 2–1 victory at Deportivo de La Coruña. Three days later he got his first goal in the Reyno de Navarra Stadium, to begin a 1–1 draw against Sevilla FC. He finished the season with four goals from 35 games, the last being the only one in a win over rivals Real Zaragoza on 10 February 2008, in first-half added time.  On 5 October 2008, Plašil was sent off in the first half of a 0–1 home loss to Racing de Santander for handball from Ezequiel Garay's shot, although he missed the penalty kick. He again totalled four goals in 32 games, concluding on 31 May 2009 with an equaliser in a 2–1 home win over Real Madrid.

Bordeaux.

On 9 June 2009, French champions Bordeaux signed Plašil on a four-year deal for an estimated €3 million. He made his debut for Bordeaux when they won the 2009 Trophée des Champions.  On 31 May 2013, Plašil captained Bordeaux in its 3–2 defeat of Evian in the 2013 Coupe de France Final at the Stade de France.  On 2 September 2013, Plašil signed on loan for Serie A club Catania. He played 29 times for the Sicilians, scoring on 29 September to open a 2–0 win over Chievo, their first win of the season.  On 7 June 2017, Plašil extended his contract for one more year. Six months later, he was one of three "Girondins" sent off in a 2–1 loss at fourth-tier US Granville in the last 64 of the cup; he received a five-match ban for dissent.  In July 2019, Plašil retired at the age of 37. He immediately joined the coaching staff at Bordeaux's reserve team in the Championnat National 3.

International career.

Plašil made his debut for the Czech Republic on 31 March 2004, replacing Martin Jiránek for the final 21 minutes of a 2–1 friendly loss to the Republic of Ireland at Lansdowne Road. In his next game on 2 June he scored his first goal in a 3–1 friendly win over Bulgaria. He was selected for UEFA Euro 2004 in Portugal where his team reached the semi-finals; his lone appearance was a 2–1 win that eliminated neighbours Germany on 23 June at the Estádio José Alvalade. He started in what BBC Sport called an "under-strength" Czech team, making way for Karel Poborský with 20 minutes remaining.  He started all three of the Czechs' group games at the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany, their first since partition, where they were eliminated at the expense of eventual champions Italy. Plašil played 13 times in qualification for UEFA Euro 2008, scoring to cap a 3–0 win over Germany in the Allianz Arena on 17 October 2007 that qualified his team to the finals in Austria and Switzerland; it was Joachim Löw's first defeat as national manager. In the final tournament, Plašil started each game in Group A and scored to put the Czechs 2–0 up against Turkey in the last game, which they eventually lost 3–2 to be eliminated.  Plašil played every minute of the Czech Republic's campaign at UEFA Euro 2012 in Poland and Ukraine, where they were eliminated 1–0 by Portugal in the quarter-finals. He was called up for his fourth time at the continental championship when he was chosen for UEFA Euro 2016 in France. On 5 June in a pre-tournament friendly, he won his 100th cap in a 2–1 home friendly loss to South Korea. He started all three group matches at the tournament as the Czech national team exited with two losses and a draw.

Jaroslav Plašil (; born 5 January 1982) is a Czech former professional footballer who played as a midfielder. He spent most of his career in France with Monaco and Bordeaux, making 411 Ligue 1 appearances. He played 367 total times for the latter, and captained them to victory in the 2012–13 Coupe de France. He also played two seasons with Osasuna in Spain and one on loan to Catania in Italy.


Plot.

On New Year's Eve, Detroit Police Department's Sergeant Jake Roenick, veteran cop Jasper O'Shea and secretary Iris Ferry are the only people on site at the soon-to-be-closed Precinct 13. Roenick, a former Marine, is deskbound and abusing alcohol and prescription drugs, blaming himself for a botched undercover operation eight months prior that resulted in the deaths of two members of his team. Psychiatrist Alexandra Sabian is treating a reluctant and dismissive Roenick at the station.  Crime lord Marion Bishop is arrested when he kills an undercover police officer. Two Sheriff's Department Deputies are transferring Bishop with three other criminals: addict ex-lawyer Beck, petty crook Anna, and counterfeiter Smiley. When a raging snowstorm shuts down the roads, the transport bus is directed to the nearby Precinct 13.  Masked gunmen cut off the Precinct's communication, attack the station, kill the Deputies and demand Bishop be handed over to them. The lawmen believe the attackers are Bishop's men. When they kill one of the attackers, they discover he is from a crew of undercover officers led by Captain Marcus Duvall of Precinct 21. Rather than trying to avenge the cop that Bishop murdered, they are actually Bishop's crooked partners in crime. Bishop balked when Duvall and his crew demanded a larger cut, so Duvall and his men (starting with the original dead cop) are trying to kill Bishop before he can testify about their involvement.  Heavily outnumbered and outgunned, Roenick sets free and arms the prisoners to bolster the defense of the station. Roenick and Bishop forge an uneasy truce between cops and criminals, as both groups know they will be killed by Duvall to protect his secret. Their combined efforts repel several more attacks.  Off-duty cop Capra, who has been partying and wants to make a move on Iris, returns to the station. Duvall's men shoot at him, but he makes it into the Precinct. Beck believes that Capra is a plant for Duvall, but Roenick vouches for him. Beck doesn't believe him and tries to attempt a mutiny, but Bishop sides with Roenick and forcefully reminds Beck that Roenick is in charge. With Capra's vehicle outside the front door, Beck and Smiley secretly plan to make a break for it. At the same time, the rest of the defenders are also planning to use the vehicle, with Anna and Dr. Sabian volunteering to be the driver and "gunman" in an effort to get help. Beck and Smiley happen to sneak out first, both getting killed by Duvall's men, inadvertently providing a distraction for Anna and Sabian to get away. Duvall had anticipated this and hidden Kahane, his second in command, in the back seat. Kahane kills Anna, then Duvall kills Sabian after she refuses to give intel on Precinct 13's defenders.  With only five defenders left alive, Roenick and Bishop decide to take action instead of waiting for another attack. When someone inside unlocks the back door, they suspect Capra to be a mole for Duvall and put him in handcuffs.  The storm eases just enough to allow Duvall to call in some corrupt SWAT officers by helicopter, who land on the roof of Precinct 13. The defenders set fire to the station to cover their escape and flee through a utilities tunnel underneath the building. Emerging from the tunnel, they find themselves surrounded by the corrupt policemen. The real Duvall insider is revealed to be O'Shea, and Duvall prepares to execute the rest. Bishop secretly plants a flash bang grenade on O'Shea, killing him. In the confusion Iris and Capra flee in Duvall's truck. When Kahane shoots out their tires and moves in for the kill, Iris manages to kill him with his own knife.  Roenick and Bishop are chased into a small urban forest, where they work together to survive the final confrontation with Duvall and his remaining men. Duvall wounds both of them before Roenick finally manages to kill Duvall. Bishop, more mobile of the two, takes Roenick's gun and flees, with Roenick promising to personally arrest him in the future. When Iris arrives with police, fire and medical services, Roenick claims that only he and the dead cops are present – giving Bishop a head start. Roenick and Iris leave the forest as the sun rises. Iris mentions to Roenick that he was like a totally different person through the whole encounter. Roenick, smiling, replies, "Yeah? Well get used to it."

Production.

"Assault on Precinct 13" was mostly filmed on location in Detroit, as well as in Ontario, Canada (Toronto and Hamilton).

Critical reception and box office.

The film received mixed to positive reviews from critics, with a 59% positive rating on "Rotten Tomatoes", the site's critical consensus being "This remake has been praised by some as an expertly made B-movie, and dismissed by others as formulaic", and a metascore of 54 on "Metacritic".  "Assault on Precinct 13" was not financially successful, and was widely considered a box office failure; made on a budget of $30 million, it went on to earn $35.3 million worldwide.

Assault on Precinct 13 is a 2005 French-American action thriller film directed by Jean-François Richet and starring Ethan Hawke and Laurence Fishburne. The cast also includes John Leguizamo, Maria Bello, Ja Rule, Drea de Matteo, Brian Dennehy, Aisha Hinds and Gabriel Byrne. It is a loose remake of John Carpenter's 1976 film of the same name, with an updated plot.


Biography.

Levytsky was born on November 18, 1859 in the settlement of Tysmenytsia of today's Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast into the family of a Greek Catholic priest. He was the oldest child of Rev. Antin Levytsky (b. ab. 1832 - d. 1909), who was in particular the priest in Nyzhniv and Constancia Kozorowska Levytska (b. ab. 1843 - d. 17 Feb. 1900). After finishing the Stanislaviv gymnasium he studied at Law faculties of Lviv and Vienna Universities. In 1884 he was awarded the Doctor's degree in law, and in 1890 opened the barrister's office in Lviv.  Kost Levytsky took active part in public and political life in his student years, he was one of the leaders of Academic Fraternity, the Circle of Law. From the first years of his barrister's practice K. Levytsky was a practical advocate of the rights and freedoms of people. He united his professional activity with that in the sphere of Ukrainian enterprises, he was a co-founder and leading figure in the economic associations Zorya, People's trade, Dniester, Province Credit Union. At the same time he was a well-known scientist in law, translated foreign laws into Ukrainian, worked with Ukrainian law terminology; he had published German-Ukrainian Law Dictionary, a series of popular works in law for the broad circles of Galician people, founded such professional editions as Chasopys pravnycha (Law periodical) and Zhyttia i pravo (Life and Law) and was their editor.

Political career.

Kost Levytsky was a patriarch of Ukrainian political life, leader of the land's first political organization Narodna Rada (People's Council, 1885), a cofounder and a head of Ukrainian National Democratic Party. In 1907 he was elected an ambassador of the Austrian parliament, in 1908, that of Galician Sejm, headed the ambassador's clubs. He fought for the national aspirations of Ukrainian people. K. Levytsky was the author of the conception of the national movement development through evolution, organic work and broad political work in masses; he was the adherent of the strategic course for Galicia autonomy as the first step to ward statehood. He favoured development of the mass Ukrainian societies, units of intellectuals, peasants, youths, the Sokil-Sich movement.

First World War and its aftermath.

At the onset of the World War I he headed the Supreme Ukrainian Council (1914) in Vienna, which defined Tsarist Russia as the main enemy of the nation, and called Ukrainians to the struggle against it for the restoration of a united Ukrainian state.  In 1916, as a prosecutor for the Austro-Hungarian Empire, he played a role in the sentencing to death of Ukrainian Russophiles, and sent others to imprisonment in Talerhof.  In Autumn 1918, in the course of disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian empire K. Levytsky became a member of the Ukrainian National Council, which announced formation of the Ukrainian state on October 19, and on November 1 the Council headed a victorious armed uprising in Lviv, Galicia and Bukovyna, which resulted in formation of the West Ukrainian People's Republic (ZUNR). Being an experienced public and political figure, K. Levytsky headed the first government – State Secretariate – which developed under the war the state and army formation activity for independence against Poland.  After K. Levytsky's resignation in December 1918 he was a head of the commission on elaboration of the election reform, a representative in the affairs of press and propaganda, in foreign affairs; he also headed diplomatic missions of ZUNR which were sent to Riga (1920), Geneva (1921), he was a member of the ZUNR delegation in Genoa (1922), headed a Committee of political emigration. After the government self-liquidation in 1923, in accordance with the decision of the League of Nations on annexation of Eastern Galicia, he returned to Lviv.  In the years between wars he was a member of the Central Committee of the Ukrainian National Democratic Association (1925–1939), was a director of Centrobank, head of the Union of Ukrainian Barristers, author of fundamental scientific works including "The History of the Liberation Struggles of the Galician Ukrainians Since the War of 1914–1918" (Parts I–III. – Lviv, 1929–1930), "The Great Derangement: On the History of Ukrainian State in March–November 1918 on the Basis of Recollections and Documents" (Lviv, 1931).

Second World War and the independent Ukrainian state.

After the Soviet Army entered Western Ukraine, in September 1939 (according to the secret part of Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact), he was arrested by the People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs and incarcerated in Lubyanka prison in Moscow. Joseph Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev, Vyacheslav Molotov, and Lavrentiy Beria were involved in the proceedings concerning his case. In the spring of 1941, he was released and returned to Lviv. After the start of Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union, an independent Ukrainian State was proclaimed on June 30, 1941. Levytsky headed the State Representative Body – a Council of Seniors (Ukrainian National Council). He worked to curb the excesses of the occupational regime, carried on negotiations with the administration of "Distrikt Galizien", petitioned to end groundless repressions, and pleaded for the release of prisoners, often with positive results.

Death.

Kost Levytsky died on November 12, 1941 and was buried at in Lviv.

Kost Levytsky (; 1859 – 1941) was a Ukrainian politician. He was a founder of the Ukrainian National Democratic movement and the leader of the State Representative Body of the Ukrainian government declared on June 30, 1941


Life.

Master E. S. probably came from southwestern Germany or Switzerland, as did the engraver called the Master of the Playing Cards. This view rests mainly on stylistic comparisons with the contemporary painting of that region. Although evidence indicates that he was most active in the Upper Rhine region, there also is evidence that he visited Mainz, to the south on the Rhine at the confluence of the Main River opposite Wiesbaden, a major economic and cultural centre.  None of the attempts to match documented persons with his initials have met with general acceptance. The term master meant someone who had completed an apprenticeship and ran his own workshop, as E. S. clearly did. Marriage and employing apprentices to learn the skills could sometimes also be requirements.  E. S. probably came from a background and training as a goldsmith, rather than as a painter. He sometimes used goldsmith punches in his prints (for example, to make the circles on the borders of the clothes in the "Delilah" print above) and some works are clearly designs for metalwork. He was the first printmaker to sign his prints with an engraved monogram, which was standard practice on significant pieces of metalwork. He engraved two images of Saint Eligius, the patron-saint of goldsmiths. He liked to fill his engravings with decorative detail, sometimes overloading the composition, and only slowly does a sense of volume or recession develop in his work.  Since his earliest prints show a practiced use of the burin, he is presumed to have worked as a goldsmith for some years before beginning printmaking. His date of birth is estimated on this basis. His level of production of prints probably means that he worked on these only during his later years. Another important printmaker and goldsmith, Israhel van Meckenem, was probably his leading assistant at the end of his career and forty-one of his plates passed to him, being reworked by van Meckenem.

Work.

Shestack divides the engravings of E. S. into three stylistic periods: around 1450, up to 1460, and after 1460. During the second period he made significant technical developments. Firstly, deeper incisions with the burin, which allowed more impressions to be taken from each plate, although the number still may have been limited to about sixty or so, before wear on the plate began to show and reworking was necessary for it to be used again. His use of hatching (parallel lines) and cross-hatching to depict shading and volume, steadily grew more sophisticated and his figure-drawing became more confident, sometimes overconfident. Many figures of this period have contorted poses even when at rest. In works from the third period, his figures are more relaxed and flat surfaces are given prominence in the compositions.  Many faces of his subjects have a rather pudding-like appearance, and are overly-large for their bodies, which diminishes the quality of otherwise, fine works. Much of his work still has great charm, and the secular and comic subjects he engraved are rarely found in the surviving painting of the period.  Lehrs catalogues three hundred and eighteen engravings by E. S. and of these, ninety-five are unique, and fifty exist in only two impressions (copies). There are a further thirty-eight engravings by his probable assistant, Israhel van Meckenem, which are considered to be copies of engravings by E. S. which have not survived. In total, Shestack estimates, there may have been about five hundred engravings by E. S.  Hind notes the influence of the Master of the Playing Cards on the work of Master E. S. He adds that "E. S. does not rank high as an artist, but on the technical side he was one of the greatest influences in the progress of the art of engraving."

Drawings.

Two very fine drawings, universally accepted as works by E. S., are in Berlin and the Louvre, but there are others which are disputed. The composition of the "Baptism of Christ" (picture at right), which is in the Louvre, was turned into two engravings by E. S., in doing which he complicated the compositions, filling empty spaces with new detail. Shestack considers that this reveals that his compositional method, here and perhaps commonly, was to begin by copying accurately a painting or other work by someone else. He then, in working on the engraving, introduced extra detail in a goldsmith's style.

"Ars Moriendi".

He produced a series of eleven engravings for the "Ars moriendi" ("The Art of Dying"), a very popular devotional work. These were no doubt intended to be inserted into a manuscript copy of the book. The very controversial question of whether these were copies of woodcut versions of the same compositions in blockbooks was effectively solved in 1942, when Fritz Saxl published a set of manuscript illuminations using the same compositions found in the London library of the Wellcome Institute. These clearly predated all printed versions, all of which now can be seen to be derived from no doubt different versions of manuscript drawings in the same tradition. It has also been suggested that E. S. later designed the woodcuts for the earliest of the blockbooks, which are now seen as being created later than his engravings.

Master E. S. (c. 1420 – c. 1468; previously known as the "Master of 1466") is an unidentified German engraver, goldsmith, and printmaker of the late Gothic period. He was the first major German artist of old master prints and was greatly copied and imitated. The name assigned to him by art historians, "Master E. S.", is derived from the monogram, E. S., which appears on eighteen of his prints (variants appear on others). The title, Master, is used for unidentified artists who operated independently. He was probably the first printmaker to place his initials on his work.


Life.

Volkonskaya had a sister Sophia. At the age of eighteen Mariya married Prince Sergey Volkonsky, who was older. Popularly known in Irkutsk as the Princess of Siberia, she founded a local hospital and opened a concert hall, in addition to hosting musical and cultural soirees in her home. In Irkutsk Mariya had a blue and white timber mansion.  The Volkonskys had four children; two died at early age. The eldest one, Nikolay (2 January 1826 – 17 January 1828) was born before the exile and died in St Petersburg after his mother's departure for Siberia. The second child named Sophia died on her birth day (1 July 1830), while Mikhail (1832–1909) and Yelena Princess Kotchoubey-Rakhmanoff (1835–1916) survived into the 20th century.  A number of literary works, including Alexander Pushkin's "Eugene Onegin" and Nikolay Nekrasov's poem "Russian Women" were dedicated to Volkonskaya. A passage in "Eugene Onegin" reads:  In 1922, it was proved that Volkonskaya was the subject of six poems by Pushkin (written in 1820, 1822, 1824, 1825, 1828 and 1829). Pushkin also dedicated a few lines to the sudden passing of Volkonskaya's little son, Nikolai. However, Pushkinist Mikhail Gershenzon rebutted the view that Pushkin was in love with Mariya. Volkonskaya herself died of heart problems on the estate of her son-in-law Nikolay Arkadievich Kotchoubey (the Ukrainian village Voronki).  In September 2001 photos of the Decembrist Volkonsky family, their relatives and other Decembrists were ceremonially handed over to the Russian State Historical Museum by Signora Elena Cicognani of Rome, "née" Princess Elena Vadimovna Volkonskaya, great-granddaughter of Mikhail (1832–1909), in the presence of her cousin Andrew (Andrey Sergeievich) Kotchoubey of New York, great-grandson of Yelena Molchanov-Kotchoubey-Rakhmanoff (1835–1916).

Princess Maria Nikolaevna Volkonskaya ("née" Raevskaya; ; December 25, 1805August 10, 1863) was the youngest daughter of the Russian general Nikolay Raevsky and Sophia Konstantinova, granddaughter of Mikhail Lomonosov. In 1825 Maria married the future Decembrist Major General Prince Sergey Grigorievich Volkonsky. When Volkonsky was arrested and exiled to Siberia, she followed him into exile on the condition that her children born after her departure to Siberia would be forever struck from the noble estate and become bonded laborers (); the threat, however, was not put into practice.


Gameplay.

"Garry's Mod" is a physics-based sandbox game and its base game mode has no set objectives. The player is able to spawn non-player characters, ragdolls, and props, and interact with them by various means. Using the physics gun, ragdolls and props can be picked up, rotated, and frozen in place. The tool gun is a multi-purpose item for various tasks, such as welding and constraining props together, and altering the facial expressions of ragdolls.

User-created content.

"Garry's Mod" includes the functionality to modify the game by developing scripts written in the Lua programming language. Notable mods include "Spacebuild", "Wiremod", "Elevator: Source", "DarkRP", "Prop Hunt", and "Trouble in Terrorist Town". Specialised servers, known as Fretta servers, rotate between custom game modes every fifteen minutes. "Garry's Mod" version 12 introduced the "Toybox" section, through which the player could browse and install user-created mods. In "Garry's Mod" version 13, this was mostly replaced with support for the Steam Workshop.

Fretta Contest.

In late 2009, Facepunch launched the "Fretta Contest", a competition in which people were to develop "Garry's Mod" game modes using the proprietary Fretta programming framework, with the winner to be natively added to the game. The winner of this contest was "Trouble in Terrorist Town" ("TTT"), wherefore it was added to the game in July 2010, alongside another Fretta game, "Dogfight: Arcade Assault". "TTT" assigns players to three groups: Traitors, Detectives, and Innocents. Detectives are known to all players, whereas Traitors are only known to other Traitors and otherwise appear as Innocents. While Traitors attempt to eliminate all other players, Innocents and Detectives need to co-operate to identify and eliminate all Traitors. To do the latter, Detectives are given special equipment, such as DNA scanners that can trace a dead player's killer.

"GMod Tower".

In July 2009, four developers working under the name "PixelTail Games" opened a "Garry's Mod" server called "GMod Tower". "GMod Tower" was a network of servers, designed as a social media platform for users to play minigames with friends and socialise in a hub area. Within hours of the server's opening, the website for "GMod Tower" reached two million views. "GMod Tower" temporarily shut down between January 2012 and April that year. PixelTail later expanded "GMod Tower" into "Tower Unite", a standalone game. When the game launched into early access in April 2016, "GMod Tower" was shut down permanently.

Machinima.

"Garry's Mod" has also been used as the basis for user-made machinima. One of the more notable examples is "Half-Life: Full-Life Consequences", a machinima of a poorly-written fanfic in the "Half-Life" universe written in 2008 by a user named Squirrelking, whom "The Verge" named the "Cormac McCarthy of terrible fan fiction". YouTube user Djy1991 used "Garry's Mod" to animate the fanfic, using literal interpretation of some of the work's typographical errors and awkward grammar.

Development and release.

"Garry's Mod" was created by the video game programmer Garry Newman. He started developing games under the studio name Facepunch Studios after dropping out of college, at the time out of a room in his parents' house. He did this as a hobby, simultaneous to his occupation as a PHP programmer for a dating website, from which he was later fired when he launched his own such website. His first game was "Facewound", described as ""Mario" with guns", while "Garry's Mod" later came about as a side-project in the form of a mod for the Source game engine and principally the game "Half-Life 2". Newman soon found more enjoyment in developing "Garry's Mod" than in developing "Facewound", so development on "Facewound" was mostly halted (and put on indefinite hiatus in 2004) to focus on "Garry's Mod". The first iteration of the mod, version 1, was released on 24 December 2004. Initial feedback was polarised, with some criticising the mod for its similarity to an existing mod, "JBMod". However, the increasing positive reception led Newman to continue development. Through 2004 and 2005, Newman released several updated versions of "Garry's Mod", adding new features along the way and culminating in version 9.0.4 on 27 November 2005. Out of Newman's one-man operation grew a team of multiple people for a remake of the mod as a standalone game.  Valve, the developers of Source, contacted Newman to suggest a commercial, standalone release of the mod through their digital distribution service Steam, which Newman initially rejected. Valve and Facepunch later struck a publishing agreement wherein Valve would release "Garry's Mod" onto Steam at a price of, while the two companies would equally share profits. The last free version of "Garry's Mod" remained available for download, rechristened as the demo to the retail game. The standalone game was released on 29 November 2006. Despite the game no longer being a mod, Valve and Facepunch stuck with the ""Garry's Mod"" name, which Newman later cited as a mistake, stating that he should have called it ""Sandbox"" instead. Because "Garry's Mod" still required a separate Source-based game to function properly, a bundle including "Garry's Mod" and Valve's "" was also released. A port of the Microsoft Windows version for Mac OS X was released on 23 September 2010. Support for Kinect, a full-body motion tracking peripheral, was added to the Windows version in December 2012. When "Garry's Mod" was moved over to Valve's SteamPipe content delivery system, with the move completed on 5 June 2013, an experimental Linux client was also introduced.

Reception.

In 2005, "Garry's Mod" was awarded "PC Mod of the Year" by "GameSpy". In 2017, Brendan Caldwell of "Rock, Paper, Shotgun" described the game as a "must-own sandbox game", and "PCGamesN" included it in its 2019 list of "best sandbox games on PC".

Commercial performance.

In its first day, "Garry's Mod" sold 5,729 copies, and 312,541 by early December 2008. Further sales milestones were reached with 770,628 copies sold by late October 2010, 1 million by July 2011, 1.4 million by March 2012, 3.5 million by July 2013, 6 million by September 2014, and 10 million by January 2016. By December 2019, Newman estimated that the game sold about 1.5 million copies annually, and stated that it had achieved over 15 million sales in total.  Sales of the game attributed for revenues of by December 2008, by March 2013, and by February 2014. The game's success allowed Facepunch to grow further, eventually branching out into other games, such as "Rust".

Successor.

Newman stated in September 2015 that a sequel to "Garry's Mod" was in early development, with Newman looking to include virtual reality content and chose a name other than ""Garry's Mod 2"" for it. Newman later announced "Sandbox" (stylized as "S&box"), a sandbox game using Unreal Engine 4, in September 2017 as a potential spiritual successor to "Garry's Mod". In December 2019, Newman announced that development on the game had been paused. He resumed development in March 2020, announcing that "Sandbox" would be shifted to the Source 2 engine.

Garry's Mod (often abbreviated as GMod) is a sandbox game developed by Facepunch Studios and published by Valve. The game was created by Garry Newman as a mod for Valve's Source game engine and released in December 2004, before being expanded into a standalone release and published by Valve in November 2006. Ports of the original Microsoft Windows version for Mac OS X and Linux followed in September 2010 and June 2013, respectively. The base game mode of "Garry's Mod" has no set objectives and provides the player with a world to freely manipulate. Other game modes, notably "Trouble in Terrorist Town", are created by other developers as mods and are installed separately, by means such as the Steam Workshop. As of January 2016, "Garry's Mod" has sold 10 million copies.


Life.

Heinrich the Younger of Poděbrady was a son of King George of Podebrady of Bohemia from his second marriage with Johana of Rožmitál. He received a humanist training and participated in knightly tournaments. His father, George, was King of Bohemia, but this crown was not heritable. George persuaded Emperor Frederick III in 1459 to appoint his eldest son Victor to Imperial Count. In 1462, Frederick also appointed Henry the Younger and his elder brother Henry the Elder to Imperial Count. Earlier, George had appointed his three sons Count of Glatz and enfeoffed them with the County of Glatz and the Duchy of Münsterberg. In 1465 he also enfeoffed them with the Duchy of Opava, which he had acquired in 1464.  In 1471, Henry the Younger married Catherine, the daughter of William III, Landgrave of Thuringia. His father died soon thereafter. Although Henry had stood at his father's side politically and religiously when he was young, he then turned to the Catholic faith. George's successor King Vladislas II undertook to protect George's sons and to take over their debts. George's sons initially ruled his territories together, but in 1472, the inheritance was split. Henry the Younger received Poděbrady, Kostomlaty nad Labem and possessions in Silesia. From his mother he inherited Lichnice Castle, Melnik and Teplice.  At the state convention of Benešov in 1472, Henry was elected as the provincial administrator on the recommendation of his mother, who also took part. Unlike his mother, however, he sided with the Hungarian king, Matthias Corvinus. The reason for this was probably that Vladislas repaid his debts only slowly, while Matthias Corvinus did so without hesitation. In 1475, Henry sold the Lordship of Kolín, which he had received from his older brother Victor, for ducats to Matthias Corvinus, who stationed his Hungarian occupation troops there. After Henry appointed the Corvinus supported and despot Racek Kocovský as the administrator of Konopiště, Vladislas's supporters aligned with those of Matthias Corvinus. In 1478 it came to a reconciliation between Henry and Vladislas under the Treaty of Brno.  Henry prepared the agreement to appointment Vladislas as King of Bohemia and played a significant role in resolving various religious and legal disputes Bohemia. In 1488 he chose the side of the Silesian princes who rebelled against Matthias Corvinus. After the rebellion was suppressed, he had to assign his inherited possessions of Poděbrady and Kostomlaty to John Corvinus, an illegitimate son of Matthias Corvinus. Henry was, however, granted a life interest in these possessions.  Henry the Younger died in 1492 at the Poděbrady Castle. His body was transferred to Kłodzko () and buried in the Franciscan monastery founded by his brother Henry the Elder. In 1558 he and eight other members of the Poděbrady family who had been buried there as well, were reburied in the church in Kłodzko. His main heir was Henry the Elder, who also took care of Henry's widow and her children.

Literary activity.

Henry was also active in literature. In his works he dealt with contemporary history, the conversion to Catholicism, property disputes and his political stance. His poems about happiness, virtue, chivalry, and wisdom are in the contemporary style of the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance. He translated several novels and wrote entertaining prose. In his travels with King Matthias Corvinus, he met many humanists. Through him, the works of Giovanni Boccaccio became known in Bohemia. He translated them from German, and even added some of his own.

Henry the Younger of Poděbrady (also: "Henry the Younger of Münsterberg"; or ; or ; 18 May 1452, Prague – 1 July 1492, Poděbrady) was an Imperial Count and Count of Glatz. From 1462 to 1471, he served as Duke of Münsterberg jointly with his older brothers Victor and Henry the Elder. He also ruled Duchy of Opava jointly with his brothers from 1465 to 1472. Henry the Younger, held at times the office of regent of Bohemia and is also known as an author.


Early years.

Kaboré was born in Ouagadougou, the capital city of Burkina Faso, then called Upper Volta. He attended school from 1962 to 1968, when he received his CPS (Certificate of Primary School). On completing this basic education certificate, he attended the Collège Saint Jean-Baptiste de la Salle, a selective school in Ouagadougou. He studied there from 1968 to 1975, passing his "BEPC" or General Certificate ('O' Level) in 1972 and his "baccalauréat" ('A' level) in 1975. He went on to study economics at the University of Dijon, majoring in business administration. There, he completed his BA in 1979 and his Master's in 1980.  Kaboré met his future wife, Sika Bella Kaboré, while both were studying in France. The couple married in 1982 and have three children.

Career.

Banking career.

Kaboré, like his father, Charles Bila Kaboré (who was a government minister under President Maurice Yaméogo), worked as a banker for the International Bank of Burkina (BIB). He was eventually promoted to head Burkina Faso's largest bank during the presidency of Thomas Sankara. In 1984, aged 27, he was named the General Director of the BIB; he remained in that post until September 1989, when he was appointed to the government.

Political career.

He served in the government of Burkina Faso as a Minister, was a Special Adviser of the President, and has been a Deputy in the National Assembly. He became Prime Minister in 1994. When the Congress for Democracy and Progress was formed in early February 1996, Kaboré resigned as Prime Minister and became the new ruling party's First Vice-President, as well as Special Adviser at the Presidency.  On 6 June 2002, he was elected as President of the National Assembly of Burkina Faso, succeeding Mélégué Maurice Traoré. In the May 2007 parliamentary election, Kaboré was re-elected to the National Assembly as the first candidate on the CDP's national list. Following the election, the National Assembly again elected Kaboré as its president. He received 90 votes, while Norbert Tiendrébéogo received 13; there were seven invalid votes.

Resignation from the CDP.

Kaboré, along with a number of other prominent figures in the CDP, announced his resignation from the party on 6 January 2014. Those who resigned said that the party was being run in an undemocratic and damaging manner, and they expressed opposition to plans to amend the constitution to eliminate term limits, which would allow President Blaise Compaoré to stand for re-election in 2015. On 25 January 2014, a new opposition party led by Kaboré, the People's Movement for Progress ("Mouvement du Peuple pour le Progrès", MPP), was founded.

Presidency.

At an MPP convention held at the Ouagadougou "Palais des Sports" on 4–5 July 2015, Kaboré was officially confirmed as the MPP candidate for the presidential elections due to be held on 29 November 2015.  In the election of 29 November 2015, Kaboré won the election in the first round of voting, receiving 53.5% of the vote against 29.7% for the second place candidate, Zephirin Diabré. He was sworn in as President on 29 December 2015. He appointed Paul Kaba Thieba, an economist, as Prime Minister on 7 January 2016. The composition of the new government was announced on 13 January, with Kaboré personally taking charge of the ministerial portfolio for defense and veteran affairs. Jean-Claude Bouda, who previously served as Minister of Youth, was appointed on 20 February 2017 to take over from Kaboré as Minister of Defense.

Roch Marc Christian Kaboré (born 25 April 1957) is a Burkinabé politician and banker and the President of Burkina Faso, in office since 2015. Previously he served as the Prime Minister of Burkina Faso between 1994 and 1996 and President of the National Assembly of Burkina Faso from 2002 to 2012. He also served as President of the Congress for Democracy and Progress (CDP). In January 2014, he left the ruling CDP and joined a new opposition party, the People's Movement for Progress.