Etymology.

The word "palimpsest" derives from the Latin "palimpsestus", which derives from the Ancient Greek παλίμψηστος ("palímpsēstos", "again scraped"), a compound word that literally means "scraped clean and ready to be used again". The Ancient Greeks used wax-coated tablets, like scratch-pads, to write on with a stylus, and to erase the writing by smoothing the wax surface and writing again. This practice was adopted by Ancient Romans, who wrote (literally scratched on letters) on wax-coated tablets, which were reuseable; Cicero's use of the term "palimpsest" confirms such a practice.

Development.

Because parchment prepared from animal hides is far more durable than paper or papyrus, most palimpsests known to modern scholars are parchment, which rose in popularity in Western Europe after the 6th century. Where papyrus was in common use, reuse of writing media was less common because papyrus was cheaper and more expendable than costly parchment. Some papyrus palimpsests do survive, and Romans referred to this custom of washing papyrus.  The writing was washed from parchment or vellum using milk and oat bran. With the passing of time, the faint remains of the former writing would reappear enough so that scholars can discern the text (called the "scriptio inferior", the "underwriting") and decipher it. In the later Middle Ages the surface of the vellum was usually scraped away with powdered pumice, irretrievably losing the writing, hence the most valuable palimpsests are those that were overwritten in the early Middle Ages.  Medieval codices are constructed in "gathers" which are folded (compare "folio", "leaf, page" ablative case of Latin folium), then stacked together like a newspaper and sewn together at the fold. Prepared parchment sheets retained their original central fold, so each was ordinarily cut in half, making a quarto volume of the original folio, with the overwritten text running perpendicular to the effaced text.

Modern decipherment.

Faint legible remains were read by eye before 20th-century techniques helped make lost texts readable. To read palimpsests, scholars of the 19th century used chemical means that were sometimes very destructive, using tincture of gall or, later, ammonium bisulfate. Modern methods of reading palimpsests using ultraviolet light and photography are less damaging.  Innovative digitized images aid scholars in deciphering unreadable palimpsests. Superexposed photographs exposed in various light spectra, a technique called "multispectral filming", can increase the contrast of faded ink on parchment that is too indistinct to be read by eye in normal light. For example, multispectral imaging undertaken by researchers at the Rochester Institute of Technology and Johns Hopkins University recovered much of the undertext (estimated to be more than 80%) from the "Archimedes Palimpsest". At the Walters Art Museum where the palimpsest is now conserved, the project has focused on experimental techniques to retrieve the remaining text, some of which was obscured by overpainted icons. One of the most successful techniques for reading through the paint proved to be X-ray fluorescence imaging, through which the iron in the ink is revealed. A team of imaging scientists and scholars from the United States and Europe is currently using spectral imaging techniques developed for imaging the "Archimedes Palimpsest" to study more than one hundred palimpsests in the library of Saint Catherine's Monastery in the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt.

Recovery.

A number of ancient works have survived only as palimpsests. Vellum manuscripts were over-written on purpose mostly due to the dearth or cost of the material. In the case of Greek manuscripts, the consumption of old codices for the sake of the material was so great that a synodal decree of the year 691 forbade the destruction of manuscripts of the Scriptures or the church fathers, except for imperfect or injured volumes. Such a decree put added pressure on retrieving the vellum on which secular manuscripts were written. The decline of the vellum trade with the introduction of paper exacerbated the scarcity, increasing pressure to reuse material.  Cultural considerations also motivated the creation of palimpsests. The demand for new texts might outstrip the availability of parchment in some centers, yet the existence of cleaned parchment that was never overwritten suggests that there was also a spiritual motivation, to sanctify pagan text by overlaying it with the word of God, somewhat as pagan sites were overlaid with Christian churches to hallow pagan ground.  Texts most susceptible to being overwritten included obsolete legal and liturgical ones, sometimes of intense interest to the historian. Early Latin translations of Scripture were rendered obsolete by Jerome's Vulgate. Texts might be in foreign languages or written in unfamiliar scripts that had become illegible over time. The codices themselves might be already damaged or incomplete. Heretical texts were dangerous to harbor—there were compelling political and religious reasons to destroy texts viewed as heresy, and to reuse the media was less wasteful than simply to burn the books.  Vast destruction of the broad quartos of the early centuries took place in the period which followed the fall of the Western Roman Empire, but palimpsests were also created as new texts were required during the Carolingian Renaissance. The most valuable Latin palimpsests are found in the codices which were remade from the early large folios in the 7th to the 9th centuries. It has been noticed that no entire work is generally found in any instance in the original text of a palimpsest, but that portions of many works have been taken to make up a single volume. An exception is the "Archimedes Palimpsest" (see below). On the whole, early medieval scribes were thus not indiscriminate in supplying themselves with material from any old volumes that happened to be at hand.

Famous examples.

About sixty palimpsest manuscripts of the Greek New Testament have survived to the present day. Uncial codices include:  Porphyrianus, Vaticanus 2061 (double palimpsest), Uncial 064, 065, 066, 067, 068 (double palimpsest), 072, 078, 079, 086, 088, 093, 094, 096, 097, 098, 0103, 0104, 0116, 0120, 0130, 0132, 0133, 0135, 0208, 0209.  Lectionaries include:

In textual studies, a palimpsest () is a manuscript page, either from a scroll or a book, from which the text has been scraped or washed off so that the page can be reused for another document. Pergamene (now known as parchment) was made of lamb, calf, or goat kid skin (best made in ancient Pergamon) and was expensive and not readily available, so in the interest of economy a pergamene often was re-used by scraping off the previous writing. In colloquial usage, the term "palimpsest" is also used in architecture, archaeology, and geomorphology to denote an object made or worked upon for one purpose and later reused for another, for example a monumental brass the reverse blank side of which has been re-engraved.


History.

Simple non-coiled springs were used throughout human history, e.g. the bow (and arrow). In the Bronze Age more sophisticated spring devices were used, as shown by the spread of tweezers in many cultures. Ctesibius of Alexandria developed a method for making bronze with spring-like characteristics by producing an alloy of bronze with an increased proportion of tin, and then hardening it by hammering after it was cast.  Coiled springs appeared early in the 15th century, in door locks. The first spring powered-clocks appeared in that century and evolved into the first large watches by the 16th century.  In 1676 British physicist Robert Hooke postulated Hooke's law, which states that the force a spring exerts is proportional to its extension.

Types.

Springs can be classified depending on how the load force is applied to them: They can also be classified based on their shape: The most common types of spring are:  Other types include :

Physics.

Hooke's law.

As long as not stretched or compressed beyond their elastic limit, most springs obey Hooke's law, which states that the force with which the spring pushes back is linearly proportional to the distance from its equilibrium length: where  Coil springs and other common springs typically obey Hooke's law. There are useful springs that don't: springs based on beam bending can for example produce forces that vary nonlinearly with displacement.  If made with constant pitch (wire thickness), conical springs have a variable rate. However, a conical spring can be made to have a constant rate by creating the spring with a variable pitch. A larger pitch in the larger-diameter coils and a smaller pitch in the smaller-diameter coils forces the spring to collapse or extend all the coils at the same rate when deformed.

Simple harmonic motion.

Since force is equal to mass, "m", times acceleration, "a", the force equation for a spring obeying Hooke's law looks like:  The mass of the spring is small in comparison to the mass of the attached mass and is ignored. Since acceleration is simply the second derivative of x with respect to time, This is a second order linear differential equation for the displacement formula_4 as a function of time. Rearranging: the solution of which is the sum of a sine and cosine: formula_7 and formula_8 are arbitrary constants that may be found by considering the initial displacement and velocity of the mass. The graph of this function with formula_9 (zero initial position with some positive initial velocity) is displayed in the image on the right.

Theory.

In classical physics, a spring can be seen as a device that stores potential energy, specifically elastic potential energy, by straining the bonds between the atoms of an elastic material.  Hooke's law of elasticity states that the extension of an elastic rod (its distended length minus its relaxed length) is linearly proportional to its tension, the force used to stretch it. Similarly, the contraction (negative extension) is proportional to the compression (negative tension).  This law actually holds only approximately, and only when the deformation (extension or contraction) is small compared to the rod's overall length. For deformations beyond the elastic limit, atomic bonds get broken or rearranged, and a spring may snap, buckle, or permanently deform. Many materials have no clearly defined elastic limit, and Hooke's law can not be meaningfully applied to these materials. Moreover, for the superelastic materials, the linear relationship between force and displacement is appropriate only in the low-strain region.  Hooke's law is a mathematical consequence of the fact that the potential energy of the rod is a minimum when it has its relaxed length. Any smooth function of one variable approximates a quadratic function when examined near enough to its minimum point as can be seen by examining the Taylor series. Therefore, the force—which is the derivative of energy with respect to displacement—approximates a linear function.  Force of fully compressed spring  where

Zero-length springs.

"Zero-length spring" is a term for a specially designed coil spring that would exert zero force if it had zero length; if there were no constraint due to the finite wire diameter of such a helical spring, it would have zero length in the unstretched condition. That is, in a line graph of the spring's force versus its length, the line passes through the origin. Obviously a coil spring cannot contract to zero length, because at some point the coils touch each other and the spring can't shorten any more. Zero length springs are made by manufacturing a coil spring with built-in tension (A twist is introduced into the wire as it is coiled during manufacture. This works because a coiled spring "unwinds" as it stretches.), so if it "could" contract further, the equilibrium point of the spring, the point at which its restoring force is zero, occurs at a length of zero. In practice, zero length springs are made by combining a "negative length" spring, made with even more tension so its equilibrium point would be at a "negative" length, with a piece of inelastic material of the proper length so the zero force point would occur at zero length.  A zero length spring can be attached to a mass on a hinged boom in such a way that the force on the mass is almost exactly balanced by the vertical component of the force from the spring, whatever the position of the boom. This creates a horizontal "pendulum" with very long oscillation period. Long-period pendulums enable seismometers to sense the slowest waves from earthquakes. The LaCoste suspension with zero-length springs is also used in gravimeters because it is very sensitive to changes in gravity. Springs for closing doors are often made to have roughly zero length, so that they exert force even when the door is almost closed, so they can hold it closed firmly.

A spring is an elastic object that stores mechanical energy. Springs are typically made of spring steel. There are many spring designs. In everyday use, the term often refers to coil springs.


Structure.

The mucosa of organs are composed of one or more layers of epithelial cells that secrete mucus, and an underlying lamina propria of loose connective tissue. The type of cells and type of mucus secreted vary from organ to organ and each can differ along a given tract.  Mucous membranes line the digestive, respiratory, and reproductive tracts and are the primary barrier between the external world and the interior of the body; in an adult human the total surface area of the mucosa is about 400 square meters while the surface area of the skin is about 2 square meters. They are at several places contiguous with skin: at the nostrils, the lips of the mouth, the eyelids, the ears, the genital area, and the anus. Along with providing a physical barrier, they also contain key parts of the immune system and serve as the interface between the body proper and the microbiome.

Mucus lake.

In the mucosa, there are mucus-filled colloid areas and a few basophilic glandular elements. The cells are in spaces filled with mucus appearing as "lakes".

Examples.

Some examples include:

Development.

Developmentally, the majority of mucous membranes are of endodermal origin. Exceptions include the palate, cheeks, floor of the mouth, gums, lips and the portion of the anal canal below the pectinate line, which are all ectodermal in origin.

Function.

Two of its functions is to keep the tissue moist (for example in the respiratory tract, including the mouth and nose). It also plays a role in absorbing and transforming nutrients. Mucous membranes also protect the body from itself; for instance mucosa in the stomach protects it from stomach acid, and mucosa lining the bladder protects the underlying tissue from urine. In the uterus, the mucous membrane is called the endometrium, and it swells each month and is then eliminated during menstruation.

Nutrition.

Niacin and vitamin A are essential nutrients that help maintain mucous membranes.

A mucous membrane or mucosa is a membrane that lines various cavities in the body and covers the surface of internal organs. It consists of one or more layers of epithelial cells overlying a layer of loose connective tissue. It is mostly of endodermal origin and is continuous with the skin at various body openings such as the eyes, ears, inside the nose, inside the mouth, lip, vagina, the urethral opening and the anus. Some mucous membranes secrete mucus, a thick protective fluid. The function of the membrane is to stop pathogens and dirt from entering the body and to prevent bodily tissues from becoming dehydrated.


Description.

The crossing includes the network arch bridge which carries road and rail over the Fehmarn Sound. Construction began in 1958 and the bridge was opened on April 30, 1963. The main span is above the sea, which allows shipping to pass through. The bridge is constructed of steel and is wide; are used by Deutsche Bahn for a single rail track, part of the Lübeck–Puttgarden railway, the rest for a pedestrian walkway and two-lane roadway. The two steel arches, from which the central span is suspended by cables, are braced with steel cross-beams. The arches are in length and reach above the main deck of the bridge. The bridge was designed by engineers G. Fischer, T. Jahnke und P. Stein from the firm Gutehoffnungshütte Sterkrade AG, Oberhausen-Sterkrade. Architect Gerd Lohmer helped with the architectural design.

Route and ferry changes.

At the same time as the opening of the bridge, changes were made to ferry services. The previous ferry service to the island of Fehmarn was discontinued. The service from Großenbrode Quay, Germany to Gedser, Denmark, crossing both Fehmarn Sound and the Fehmarn Belt, was replaced with a new service from Puttgarden (on Fehmarn) to Rødby, Denmark crossing just the Fehmarn Belt. The new bridge and ferry changes brought about a substantial time saving for both road and rail traffic along the so-called Vogelfluglinie (literally "bird flight line") from Hamburg to Copenhagen.

Historic monument.

The Fehmarn Sound bridge was declared an historic monument in 1999 by the State Office for Protection of Historical Monuments of Schleswig-Holstein in Kiel, and has since become a symbol of both Fehmarn and Schleswig-Holstein.

Cold War explosive charges.

As the bridge was built during the Cold War, six explosive vaults were embedded below the approach road on the mainland side to be used in case of invasion. Their location is given away even today by six square asphalt patches. The vaults were connected to a control point about away in Heinrichsruh.

Future.

A Fehmarn Belt Tunnel is decided, between Denmark and Germany, with four lanes (2+2) and double track railway. But according to the agreement between the two countries, the Fehmarn Sound bridge can remain as it is, one lane per direction and a single railway track.  In december 2012 a study was published saying that the bridge could not cope with the increased railway traffic expected after the tunnel opening.  It has been considered to build a replacement, or to keep the bridge for road traffic and build a rail connection, maybe a Fehmarn Sound tunnel. The state as historic monument has to be considered.

The Fehmarn Sound Bridge () connects the German island of Fehmarn in the Baltic Sea with the German mainland near Großenbrode.


Geography.

It is located in the Upper Styrian region, on the western end of the Aichfeld basin, stretching along the Mur River from Judenburg down to Knittelfeld in the east. The broad valley is bound by the Niedere Tauern range in the north and the Noric Alps (Lavanttal Alps) in the south.  The municipal area also comprises the cadastral communities of Tiefenbach and Waltersdorf, a former municipality incorporated in 1963.

History.

Archaeological findings indicate that the area was settled at least since the days of the Celtic kingdom of Noricum. Judenburg itself was first mentioned in a 1074 staple right deed as, a market town within the estates of Eppenstein Castle, the ancestral seat of the Bavarian Eppensteiner noble family, who ruled as Styrian margraves in the 11th century. The name literally means "Jews' Borough", referring to the town's origin as a trading outpost on the route from the Mur Valley across the Obdach Saddle mountain pass to Carinthia, in which Jews played an important role, being represented in the city's coat of arms.  Upon the extinction of the Eppensteiner dynasty in 1122, the estates passed to the Styrian Otakars and in 1192 to the House of Babenberg, Dukes of Austria since 1156. Judenburg received town privileges in 1224 and the right to collect tolls in 1277. The town grew to an important commercial centre for iron ore mined at nearby Eisenerz, but also for valeriana celtica used in perfumes during the 13th and 14th century. Judenburg was even granted a valeriana trade monopoly by the Habsburg emperor Frederick III in 1460. After several pogroms, all Jews were expelled from the Duchy of Styria by order of Emperor Maximilian I in 1496. Following his breakthrough in Italy, General Napoléon Bonaparte made his headquarters at Judenburg and it was there, on the night of 7–8 April 1796, that he signed the Truce of Judenburg with the Austrians.  In the beginning of the 20th century, the town was one of the centres of Austria–Hungary's steel industry and also a garrison town of the Austro-Hungarian Army. From 1910 to 1914 one of the first trolleybusses in Austria connected Judenburg station with the town's centre. Today, little remains of the former industry, but Judenburg remains an industrial and trade centre. In May 1918 town was site of a failed military mutiny.  In 1938 with the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany Judenburg became part of the Third Reich. Due to the presence of the word ("Jew") in the town's name a number of possible new names were suggested, including (after, the German name for the Swiss pine tree) and (in honour of Adolf Hitler). However the planned renaming was indefinitely postponed after the outbreak of war and ultimately never happened.  During the Second World War, a subcamp of Mauthausen concentration camp was located nearby, where a displaced persons' reception centre was established after the war. Judenburg was also one of several towns that saw the handover of Cossacks to the Red Army.

Politics.

Seats in the municipal assembly () elections:

International relations.

Twin towns - Sister cities.

Judenburg is a member of the Douzelage, a unique town twinning association of 24 towns across the European Union. This active town twinning began in 1991 and there are regular events, such as a produce market from each of the other countries and festivals. Discussions regarding membership are also in hand with three further towns (Agros in Cyprus, Škofja Loka in Slovenia, and Tryavna in Bulgaria).

Judenburg is a historic town in Styria, Austria. It is the administrative centre of the Murtal district, which was created on 1 January 2012 from the former Judenburg District and former Knittelfeld District. Until 31 December 2011, it was the capital of the Judenburg District.


Origins.

The term was coined by Herbert A. Simon. In "Models of Man", Simon points out that most people are only partly rational, and are irrational in the remaining part of their actions. In another work, he states "boundedly rational agents experience limits in formulating and solving complex problems and in processing (receiving, storing, retrieving, transmitting) information". Simon describes a number of dimensions along which "classical" models of rationality can be made somewhat more realistic, while sticking within the vein of fairly rigorous formalization. These include:  Simon suggests that economic agents use heuristics to make decisions rather than a strict rigid rule of optimization. They do this because of the complexity of the situation.

Model extensions.

As decision-makers have to make decisions about how and when to decide, Ariel Rubinstein proposed to model bounded rationality by explicitly specifying decision-making procedures. This puts the study of decision procedures on the research agenda.  Gerd Gigerenzer opines that decision theorists have not really adhered to Simon's original ideas. Rather, they have considered how decisions may be crippled by limitations to rationality, or have modeled how people might cope with their inability to optimize. Gigerenzer proposes and shows that simple heuristics often lead to better decisions than theoretically optimal procedures.  Huw Dixon later argues that it may not be necessary to analyze in detail the process of reasoning underlying bounded rationality. If we believe that agents will choose an action that gets them "close" to the optimum, then we can use the notion of "epsilon-optimization", which means we choose our actions so that the payoff is within epsilon of the optimum. If we define the optimum (best possible) payoff as formula_1, then the set of epsilon-optimizing options S(ε) can be defined as all those options s such that:  formula_2.  The notion of strict rationality is then a special case (ε=0). The advantage of this approach is that it avoids having to specify in detail the process of reasoning, but rather simply assumes that whatever the process is, it is good enough to get near to the optimum.  From a computational point of view, decision procedures can be encoded in algorithms and heuristics. Edward Tsang argues that the effective rationality of an agent is determined by its computational intelligence. Everything else being equal, an agent that has better algorithms and heuristics could make "more rational" (more optimal) decisions than one that has poorer heuristics and algorithms. Tshilidzi Marwala and Evan Hurwitz in their study on bounded rationality observed that advances in technology (e.g. computer processing power because of Moore's law, artificial intelligence and big data analytics) expand the bounds that define the feasible rationality space. Because of this expansion of the bounds of rationality, machine automated decision making makes markets more efficient.

Relationship to behavioral economics.

Bounded rationality implies the idea that humans take reasoning shortcuts that may lead to suboptimal decision-making. Behavioral economists engage in mapping the decision shortcuts that agents use in order to help increase the effectiveness of human decision-making. One treatment of this idea comes from Cass Sunstein and Richard Thaler's "Nudge". Sunstein and Thaler recommend that choice architectures are modified in light of human agents' bounded rationality. A widely cited proposal from Sunstein and Thaler urges that healthier food be placed at sight level in order to increase the likelihood that a person will opt for that choice instead of a less healthy option. Some critics of "Nudge" have lodged attacks that modifying choice architectures will lead to people becoming worse decision-makers.

Influence on social network structure.

Recent research has shown that bounded rationality of individuals may influence the topology of the social networks that evolve among them. In particular, Kasthurirathna and Piraveenan have shown that in socio-ecological systems, the drive towards improved rationality on average might be an evolutionary reason for the emergence of scale-free properties. They did this by simulating a number of strategic games on an initially random network with distributed bounded rationality, then re-wiring the network so that the network on average converged towards Nash equilibria, despite the bounded rationality of nodes. They observed that this re-wiring process results in scale-free networks. Since scale-free networks are ubiquitous in social systems, the link between bounded rationality distributions and social structure is an important one in explaining social phenomena.

Bounded rationality is the idea that rationality is limited, when individuals make decisions, by the tractability of the decision problem, the cognitive limitations of the mind, and the time available to make the decision. Decision-makers, in this view, act as satisficers, seeking a satisfactory solution rather than an optimal one.


Early life.

Puzo was born in the Hell's Kitchen area of New York City into a poor family from Pietradefusi, Province of Avellino, Campania, Italy. Many of his books draw heavily on his heritage. After graduating from the City College of New York, he joined the US Army Air Forces in World War II. Because of his poor eyesight, he was not allowed to undertake combat duties, but he was made a public relations officer stationed in Germany. Puzo then returned to New York where he attended the New School for Social Research then Columbia University.

Author.

In 1950, his first short story, "The Last Christmas," was published in "American Vanguard". After the war, he wrote his first book, "The Dark Arena", which was published in 1955.  During the 1950s and the early 1960s, Puzo worked as a writer/editor for publisher Martin Goodman's Magazine Management Company. Puzo, along with other writers like Bruce Jay Friedman, worked for the company line of men's magazines, pulp titles like "Male", "True Action", and "Swank". Under the pseudonym Mario Cleri, Puzo wrote World War II adventure features for "True Action".  Puzo's most famous work, "The Godfather" (1969), was encouraged by a suggestion of the publisher of his "The Fortunate Pilgrim" (1965), who thought that if there had been more Mafia in that book, it would have been more successful. A story outline was prepared and presented to the publisher, who rejected it. After several publishers were approached, Putnam editors met with him without having read the outline. He told them a few stories, and the project was approved. With the advance, he got on with the project. He had heard anecdotes about Mafia organizations during his time in pulp journalism.  He said in an interview with Larry King that the critical reception of his previous two books, without the monetary success to follow, made the issue all the more important in the next work to support his five children on a government clerk's salary. He was looking to write something that would appeal to the masses. He found his audience with the novel, which became the top bestseller for months on the "New York Times" Best Seller List. The book was later developed into the film "The Godfather", directed by Francis Ford Coppola. The film received three awards of the eleven Oscar category nominations, including Puzo's Oscar for Best Adapted Screenplay. Coppola and Puzo then collaborated on sequels to the original film, "The Godfather Part II" and "The Godfather Part III".  Puzo wrote the first draft of the script for the 1974 disaster film "Earthquake", but he was unable to continue working on it because of his commitment to "The Godfather Part II". Puzo also wrote the original screenplay for Richard Donner's "Superman", which then also included the plot for "Superman II", as they were originally written as one film. He also collaborated on the stories for the 1982 film "A Time to Die" and the 1984 Francis Ford Coppola film "The Cotton Club".  In 1991, Puzo's speculative fiction "The Fourth K" was published; it hypothesizes a member of the Kennedy family who becomes President of the United States early in the 2000s.  Puzo never saw the publication of his penultimate book, "Omertà", but the manuscript was finished before his death, as was the manuscript for "The Family". However, in a review originally published in the "San Francisco Chronicle", Jules Siegel, who had worked closely with Puzo at Magazine Management Company, speculated that "Omertà" may have been completed by "some talentless hack." Siegel also acknowledged the temptation to "rationalize avoiding what is probably the correct analysis – that [Puzo] wrote it and it is terrible."

Death.

Puzo died of heart failure on July 2, 1999 at his home on Manor Lane in West Bay Shore, New York. His family now lives in East Islip, New York.

Works.

Short stories.

All short stories, except "The Last Christmas", were written under the pseudonym Mario Cleri.

Mario Gianluigi Puzo (; October 15, 1920 – July 2, 1999) was an American author, screenwriter and journalist. He is known for his crime novels about the Italian-American mafia, most notably "The Godfather" (1969), which he later co-adapted into a trilogy directed by Francis Ford Coppola. He received the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay for the first film in 1972 and "Part II" in 1974. Puzo also wrote the original screenplay for the 1978 "Superman" film. His final novel, "The Family", was released posthumously in 2001.


Life.

Baskerville was born in the village of Wolverley, near Kidderminster in Worcestershire and baptised on 28 January at Wolverley church. At the time of his birth this was considered the year 1706; it would now be considered early 1707. Baskerville established an early career teaching handwriting and is known to have offered his services cutting gravestones (a demonstration slab by him survives in the Library of Birmingham) before making a considerable fortune from the manufacture of lacquerwork items (japanning).  He practised as a printer in Birmingham, England. Baskerville was a member of the Royal Society of Arts, and an associate of some of the members of the Lunar Society. He directed his punchcutter, John Handy, in the design of many typefaces of broadly similar appearance. In 1757, Baskerville published a remarkable quarto edition of Virgil on wove paper, using his own type. It took three years to complete, but it made such an impact that he was appointed printer to the University of Cambridge the following year. John Baskerville printed works for the University of Cambridge in 1758 and, although an atheist, printed a splendid folio Bible in 1763. His typefaces were greatly admired by Benjamin Franklin, a fellow printer. Baskerville's work was criticised by jealous competitors and soon fell out of favour, but since the 1920s many new fonts have been released by Linotype, Monotype, and other type foundries – revivals of his work and mostly called 'Baskerville'. Emigre released a popular revival of this typeface in 1996 called Mrs Eaves, named for Baskerville's wife, Sarah Eaves. Baskerville's most notable typeface Baskerville represents the peak of transitional type face and bridges the gap between Old Style and Modern type design.  Baskerville also was responsible for significant innovations in printing, paper and ink production. He worked with paper maker James Whatman to produce a smoother whiter paper which showcased his strong black type. Baskerville also pioneered a completely new style of typography adding wide margins and leading between each line.

Death and interments.

Baskerville died in January 1775 at his home, "Easy Hill". He requested that his body be placed  However, in 1821 a canal was built through the land and his body was placed on show by the landowner until Baskerville's family and friends arranged to have it moved to the crypt of Christ Church, Birmingham. Christ Church was demolished in 1897 so his remains were then moved, with other bodies from the crypt, to consecrated catacombs at Warstone Lane Cemetery. In 1963 a petition was presented to Birmingham City Council requesting that he be reburied in unconsecrated ground according to his wishes.  Baskerville House was built on the grounds of "Easy Hill". In 1947, BBC radio broadcast a radio play about his burial, named "Hic Jacet: or The Corpse in the Crescent" by Neville Brendon Watts. The original recording was not preserved but a performance was staged by students at the Birmingham School of Acting in 2013 at the Typographic Hub Centre of Birmingham City University.

Commemoration.

A Portland stone sculpture of the Baskerville typeface, "Industry and Genius", in his honour stands in front of Baskerville House in Centenary Square, Birmingham. It was created by local artist David Patten.

Gallery.

Some examples of volumes published by Baskerville.

John Baskerville (baptised 28 January 1707 – 8 January 1775) was an English businessman, in areas including japanning and papier-mâché, but he is best remembered as a printer and type designer.


Life.

The year of Arnulf's birth is unknown, but it is said that he was the namesake of other Arnulfs born around the time of the reign of the seventh century bishop Arnulf of Metz and the Carolingian king Arnulf of Carinthia. Arnulf was the son of Margrave Luitpold of Bavaria and Cunigunde, herself a member of the Ahalolfing dynasty, daughter of Berthold I, the count palatine of Swabia. Her brother Erchanger assumed the Swabian ducal title in 915.  Under the weak rule of the East Frankish king Louis the Child, Margrave Luitpold had already achieved a strong position in the Bavarian lands, succeeding the Wilhelminer margraves. He ruled over extended estates along the Danube with Regensburg (Ratisbon), and in the adjacent Nordgau.

Duke of Bavaria.

Together with numerous Bavarian nobles, Arnulf's father was killed in the 907 Battle of Pressburg (Bratislava), when the Bavarian "Heerbann" under his command suffered a crushing defeat in a campaign against the Hungarian forces of Grand Prince Árpád. After the death of his father, Arnulf succeeded him in his Bavarian lands, and soon after he assumed the title of a "Duke of Bavaria" as ruler of the estates around Regensburg. An energetic and combative man, he received broad support by the local nobles, however, already during his ascension in to dukedom, he was faced with constant raids from the Hungarians. These attacks had laid waste the East Frankish lands of Bavaria, Saxony, and Thuringia.  Besieged by frequent Hungarian raids and desperate to raise funds to finance a re-organized defense, Arnulf strengthened his power through confiscation of church lands and the secularization of numerous monastery estates, which earned him the nickname "the Bad" by medieval chroniclers. In several skirmishes he was able to force back the Hungarian invaders and he defeated a small force in 913 with the support by his Swabian relatives. Having re-established the stem duchy of Bavaria, he eventually negotiated a truce with the Hungarian princes, who thereafter largely passed through Bavaria on their raids into other German duchies.

Imperial politics.

Duke Arnulf pursued a policy of independence from the East Frankish kings. Though in 911 he participated in the election of King Conrad I of Germany in 911; in Conrad's conflict with Erchanger of Swabia he backed his Swabian uncle and later challenged Conrad's Saxon successor, King Henry the Fowler. The dispute was only temporarily settled when in 913 Arnulf’s widow mother Cunigunda married King Conrad.  In 916 Conrad's forces invaded Bavaria, attacking and pillaging Regensburg. These attacks drove Arnulf into exile with his former enemies in Hungary. In September, the king convoked a church council in Hohenaltheim, attended by the Bavarian episcopate, which summoned Arnulf and his younger brother Berthold on the grounds of excommunication at Regensburg on 1 November. It is more than likely that Arnulf and his family never appeared at the convocation, or that the council meeting was never held. As a result, they remained exiled among the Hungarians. In January 917, King Conrad, angered at the situation, called for the execution of his rebellious Swabian brother-in-law, Erchanger and his brother Berthold, giving Arnulf more pause for concern.  In 919, the death of Conrad I allowed Arnulf to return to Bavaria and expel the king’s forces. Conrad I being childless, the throne was open to Arnulf, again. On his return, according to the "Annales iuvavenses", in 920, "Baiuarii sponte se reddiderunt Arnolfo duci et regnare ei fecerunt in regno teutonicorum" ("the Bavarians freely submitted themselves to Duke Arnulf and asked him to reign within the realm of the Germans"). The 919 ascension of Henry the Fowler would bring forth a battle for the throne; however, whether the Bavarians, with some other East Franks, actually elected Arnulf anti-king in opposition to Henry has not been conclusively established.  In any case, Arnulf's "reign" was short-lived; King Henry I turned out to be a strong opponent and defeated him in two campaigns in 921. When Arnulf was besieged by Henry in Regensburg, the duke entered into peace negotiations and recognized the sovereignty of the German king. King Henry confirmed Arnulf's autonomous rule over Bavaria, including the right of investiture and several important regalia, in return for Arnulf's renunciation of his royal claim.

Later years.

Arnulf accompanied King Henry I on his 928 campaign against Duke Wenceslaus of Bohemia. In 935 he launched an attack against King Hugh of Provence to obtain the Iron Crown of Lombardy for his eldest son Eberhard, which only resulted in defeat. After King Henry had died in 936, the Duke attended the coronation of his son Otto as King of the Romans at Aachen Cathedral.  Duke Arnulf died in his Regensburg residence on 14 July 937; he was succeeded by his son Eberhard, who nevertheless was deposed by King Otto in 938. Arnulf is buried at St. Emmeram's Abbey. A commemorative plaque in tribute to him was attached to the Walhalla memorial in 1842.

Marriage and children.

Historians believed Arnulf was married to Judith of Friuli, a member of the Unruoching dynasty, daughter of Count Eberhard of Friuli (d. 866). The dates, however, do not match up. Judith of Friuli died ca. 881. This would have made a marriage between a boy (or at least young) Arnulf and an elder Judith, who was supposed to have produced several children 23 years or so after her death. More likely, therefore, is that he was married to Judith of Sülichgau (born ca. 888), daughter of Margrave Eberhard's grandson Count Eberhard of Sülichgau (d. after 889) and Gisela of Verona.  They had the following children:

Arnulf (birth unknown; died 14 July 937), also known as the Bad () or the Evil ("der Böse"), a member of the Luitpolding dynasty, held the title of Duke of Bavaria from about 907 until his death in 937.


History.

Phagocytosis was first noted by Canadian physician William Osler (1876), and later studied and named by Élie Metchnikoff (1880, 1883).

In immune system.

Phagocytosis is one of the main mechanisms of the innate immune defense. It is one of the first processes responding to infection, and is also one of the initiating branches of an adaptive immune response. Although most cells are capable of phagocytosis, some cell types perform it as part of their main function. These are called 'professional phagocytes.' Phagocytosis is old in evolutionary terms, being present even in invertebrates.

Professional phagocytic cells.

Neutrophils, macrophages, monocytes, dendritic cells, osteoclasts and eosinophils can be classified as professional phagocytes. The first three have the greatest role in immune response to most infections.  The role of neutrophils is patrolling the bloodstream and rapid migration to the tissues in large numbers only in case of infection. There they have direct microbicidal effect by phagocytosis. After ingestion, neutrophils are efficient in intracellular killing of pathogens. Neutrophils phagocytose mainly via the Fcγ receptors and complement receptors 1 and 3. The microbicidal effect of neutrophils is due to a large repertoire of molecules present in pre-formed granules. Enzymes and other molecules prepared in these granules are proteases, such as collagenase, gelatinase or serine proteases, myeloperoxidase, lactoferrin and antibiotic proteins. Degranulation of these into the phagosome, accompanied by high reactive oxygen species production (oxidative burst) is highly microbicidal.  Monocytes, and the macrophages that mature from them, leave blood circulation to migrate through tissues. There they are resident cells and form a resting barrier. Macrophages initiate phagocytosis by mannose receptors, scavenger receptors, Fcγ receptors and complement receptors 1, 3 and 4. Macrophages are long-lived and can continue phagocytosis by forming new lysosomes.  Dendritic cells also reside in tissues and ingest pathogens by phagocytosis. Their role is not killing or clearance of microbes, but rather breaking them down for antigen presentation to the cells of the adaptive immune system.

Initiating receptors.

Receptors for phagocytosis can be divided into two categories by recognised molecules. The first, opsonic receptors, are dependent on opsonins. Among these are receptors that recognise the Fc part of bound IgG antibodies, deposited complement or receptors, that recognise other opsonins of cell or plasma origin. Non-opsonic receptors include lectin-type receptors, Dectin receptor, or scavenger receptors. Some phagocytic pathways require a second signal from pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) activated by attachment to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPS), which leads to NF-κB activation.

Fcγ receptors.

Fcγ receptors recognise IgG coated targets. The main recognised part is the Fc fragment. The molecule of the receptor contain an intracellular ITAM domain or associates with an ITAM-containing adaptor molecule. ITAM domains transduce the signal from the surface of the phagocyte to the nucleus. For example, activating receptors of human macrophages are FcγRI, FcγRIIA, and FcγRIII. Fcγ receptor mediated phagocytosis includes formation of protrusions of the cell called a 'phagocytic cup' and activates an oxidative burst in neutrophils.

Complement receptors.

These receptors recognise targets coated in C3b, C4b and C3bi from plasma complement. The extracellular domain of the receptors contains a lectin-like complement-binding domain. Recognition by complement receptors is not enough to cause internalisation without additional signals. In macrophages, the CR1, CR3 and CR4 are responsible for recognition of targets. Complement coated targets are internalised by'sinking' into the phagocyte membrane, without any protrusions.

Mannose receptors.

Mannose and other pathogen-associated sugars, such as fucose, are recognised by the mannose receptor. Eight lectin-like domains form the extracellular part of the receptor. The ingestion mediated by the mannose receptor is distinct in molecular mechanisms from Fcγ receptor or complement receptor mediated phagocytosis.

Phagosome.

Engulfment of material is facilitated by the actin-myosin contractile system. The phagosome is the organelle formed by phagocytosis of material. It then moves toward the centrosome of the phagocyte and is fused with lysosomes, forming a phagolysosome and leading to degradation. Progressively, the phagolysosome is acidified, activating degradative enzymes.  Degradation can be oxygen-dependent or oxygen-independent.  Leukocytes generate hydrogen cyanide during phagocytosis, and can kill bacteria, fungi, and other pathogens by generating several other toxic chemicals.  Some bacteria, for example "Treponema pallidum", "Escheria coli" and "Staphylococcus aureus", are able to avoid phagocytosis by several mechanisms.

In apoptosis.

Following apoptosis, the dying cells need to be taken up into the surrounding tissues by macrophages in a process called efferocytosis. One of the features of an apoptotic cell is the presentation of a variety of intracellular molecules on the cell surface, such as calreticulin, phosphatidylserine (from the inner layer of the plasma membrane), annexin A1, oxidised LDL and altered glycans. These molecules are recognised by receptors on the cell surface of the macrophage such as the phosphatidylserine receptor or by soluble (free-floating) receptors such as thrombospondin 1, GAS6, and MFGE8, which themselves then bind to other receptors on the macrophage such as CD36 and alpha-v beta-3 integrin. Defects in apoptotic cell clearance is usually associated with impaired phagocytosis of macrophages. Accumulation of apoptotic cell remnants often causes autoimmune disorders; thus pharmacological potentiation of phagocytosis has a medical potential in treatment of certain forms of autoimmune disorders.

In protists.

In many protists, phagocytosis is used as a means of feeding, providing part or all of their nourishment. This is called phagotrophic nutrition, distinguished from osmotrophic nutrition which takes place by absorption.  As in phagocytic immune cells, the resulting phagosome may be merged with lysosomes containing digestive enzymes, forming a phagolysosome. The food particles will then be digested, and the released nutrients are diffused or transported into the cytosol for use in other metabolic processes.  Mixotrophy can involve phagotrophic nutrition and phototrophic nutrition.

Phagocytosis () is the process by which a cell uses its plasma membrane to engulf a large particle (≥ 0.5 μm), giving rise to an internal compartment called the phagosome. It is one type of endocytosis.


Description.

The oppositely arranged leaves are pinnate with 5–9 leaflets (or, rarely, 3 or 11). Each leaf is long, and the leaflets have serrated margins. They bear large clusters of small white or cream-colored flowers in late spring; these are followed by clusters of small black, blue-black, or red berries (rarely yellow or white).

Color.

Elderberries are rich in anthocyanidins that combine to give elderberry juice an intense blue-purple coloration that turns reddish on dilution with water. These pigments are used as colorants in various products, and "elderberry juice color" is listed by the USFDA as allowable in certified organic food products. In Japan, elderberry juice is listed as an approved "natural color additive" under the Food and Sanitation Law. Fibers can be dyed with elderberry juice (using alum as a mordant) to give a light "elderberry" color.

Toxicity.

Although the cooked berries (pulp and skin) of most species of "Sambucus" are edible, the uncooked berries and other parts of plants from this genus are poisonous. Leaves, twigs, branches, seeds, roots, flowers, and berries of "Sambucus" plants produce cyanogenic glycosides, which have toxic properties. Ingesting a sufficient quantity of cyanogenic glycosides from berry juice, flower tea, or beverages made from fresh leaves, branches, and fruit has been shown to cause illness, including nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, and weakness. In August 1983, a group of 25 people in Monterey County, California, became suddenly ill by ingesting elderberry juice pressed from fresh, uncooked "Sambucus mexicana" berries, leaves, and stems. The density of cyanogenic glycosides is higher in tea made from flowers (or leaves) than from the berries.  The seeds of "Sambucus callicarpa" are poisonous and may cause vomiting or diarrhea.

Taxonomy.

The taxonomy of the genus "Sambucus", originally described by Carl Linnaeus and hence its botanical authority, has been complicated by its wide geographical distribution and morphological diversity. This has led to overdescription of the species and infraspecific taxa (subspecies, varieties or forms). The name comes from the Greek word "sambuce", an ancient wind instrument, in reference to the removal of pith from the twigs to make whistles.  Species recognized in this genus are:

Distribution and habitat.

The genus occurs in temperate to subtropical regions of the world. More widespread in the Northern Hemisphere, its Southern Hemisphere occurrence is restricted to parts of Australasia and South America. Many species are widely cultivated for their ornamental leaves, flowers and fruit.

Habitat.

Elder commonly grows near farms and homesteads. It is a nitrogen-dependent plant and thus is generally found near places of organic waste disposal. Elders are often grown as a hedgerow plant in Britain since they take very fast, can be bent into shape easily and grow quite profusely, thus having gained the reputation of being 'an instant hedge'. It is not generally affected by soil type or pH level and will virtually grow anywhere sufficient sunlight is available.

Ecology.

In Northern California, elderberries are a food for migrating band-tailed pigeons. Elders are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including brown-tail, buff ermine, dot moth, emperor moth, engrailed moth, swallow-tailed moth and the V-pug. The crushed foliage and immature fruit have a strong fetid smell. Valley elderberry longhorn beetles in California are very often found around red or blue elderberry bushes. Females lay their eggs on the bark. The pith of elder has been used by watchmakers for cleaning tools before intricate work.

Cultivation.

Traditional uses of "Sambucus" involved berries, seeds, leaves, and flowers or component extracts. Ornamental varieties of "Sambucus" are grown in gardens for their showy flowers, fruits and lacy foliage which support habitat for wildlife. Of the many native species, three are used as ornamentals, "S. nigra", "S. canadensis" and "S. racemosa".

Uses.

Nutrition.

Raw elderberries are 80% water, 18% carbohydrates, and less than 1% each of protein and fat (table). In a 100 gram amount, elderberries supply 73 calories and are a rich source of vitamin C, providing 43% of the Daily Value (DV). Elderberries also have moderate contents of vitamin B6 (18% DV) and iron (12% DV), with no other nutrients in significant content (table).

Dietary supplement.

Elderberry fruit or flowers are used as dietary supplements to prevent or provide relief from minor diseases, such as flu, colds, constipation, and other conditions, often served as a tea, extract, or in a capsule. There is insufficient research to establish its effectiveness for such uses, or its safety profile.

Traditional medicine.

Although practitioners of traditional medicine have used elderberry over centuries, there is no high-quality clinical evidence that such practices provide any benefit.

Other.

The flowers of "Sambucus nigra" are used to produce elderflower cordial. St-Germain, a French liqueur, is made from elderflowers. Hallands Fläder, a Swedish akvavit, is flavoured with elderflowers.  Hollowed elderberry twigs have traditionally been used as spiles to tap maple trees for syrup.  The fruit of "S. callicarpa" is eaten by birds and mammals. It is inedible to humans when raw but can be made into wine.  Elderberry twigs and fruit are employed in creating dyes for basketry. These stems are dyed a very deep black by soaking them in a wash made from the berry stems of the elderberry.

In popular culture.

Folklore related to elder trees is extensive and can vary according to region. In some traditions, the elder tree is thought to ward off evil and give protection from witches, while other beliefs say that witches often congregate under the plant, especially when it is full of fruit. If an elder tree was cut down, a spirit known as the Elder Mother would be released and take her revenge. The tree could only safely be cut while chanting a rhyme to the Elder Mother.  Made from the branch of an elder tree, the Elder Wand plays a pivotal role in the final book of the "Harry Potter" series, which was nearly named "Harry Potter and the Elder Wand" before author J. K. Rowling decided on "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows".

Sambucus is a genus of flowering plants in the family Adoxaceae. The various species are commonly called elder or elderberry. The genus was formerly placed in the honeysuckle family, Caprifoliaceae, but was reclassified as Adoxaceae due to genetic and morphological comparisons to plants in the genus "Adoxa".


Origin.

The first appearances of the ichthys symbol, in Christian art and literature date to the 2nd century AD. The symbol's use among Christians had become popular by the late 2nd century, and its use spread widely in the 3rd and 4th centuries. In the early Church, the Ichthys symbol held "the most sacred significance", and Christians used it to recognize churches and other believers through this symbol because they were persecuted by the Roman Empire. The Ichthys symbol is also a reference to "the Holy Eucharist, with which the miracle of the multiplication of the loaves and fishes had such intimate connection both in point of time and significance." While many Christians hang a cross necklace or rosary inside their vehicles, "the fish sticker on the car is a more conscious symbol of a witnessing Christian—significantly, unlike the former, it is on the outside of the car for everyone to see".

Symbolic meaning.

(), or also with a lunate sigma, is an acronym or acrostic for ; contemporary Koine, which translates into English as 'Jesus Christ, Son of God, [Our] Savior'.  This explanation is given among others by Augustine in his Civitate Dei, where he notes that the generating sentence "" has 27 letters, i.e. 3 × 3 × 3, which in that age indicated power. (This suggestion is obviously spurious as the phrase has 26 letters, resulting from Augustine's ignorance of Greek.) Augustine quotes also an ancient text from the Sibylline oracles whose verses are an acrostic of the generating sentence.  The statement "Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior" affirmed the belief of early Christians in the twofold nature, of Jesus Christ being both fully human and fully divine. The belief in Jesus Christ being true Man and true God completes the Most Holy Trinity, that is the basic article of the Christian faith.  A fourth century A.D. adaptation of "ichthys" as a wheel contains the letters superimposed such that the result resembles an eight-spoked wheel.  Egon Friedell speculates in his "Cultural History of Antiquity", that the symbol of the fish may refer to the astrological age of pisces, which started at around the time of the establishment of Christianity. Thus, the symbol may have been used to symbolise the starting of a new age.

In the Gospels.

Fish are mentioned and given symbolic meaning several times in the Gospels. Several of Jesus' 12 Apostles were fishermen. He commissions them with the words "I will make you fishers of men". (Mark 1: 16-18)  Having been resurrected, Jesus is offered some grilled fish in Luke 24:41-43.  At the feeding of the five thousand, a boy is brought to Jesus with "five small loaves and two fish". The question is asked, "But what are they, among so many?" Jesus multiplies the loaves and fish to feed the multitude. In Matthew 13:47-50, the Parable of Drawing in the Net, Jesus compares the angels separating the righteous from the wicked at the end of this world to fishers sorting out their catch, keeping the good fish and throwing the bad fish away. In John 21:11, it is related that the disciples fished all night but caught nothing. Jesus instructed them to cast the nets on the other side of the boat, and they drew in 153 fish. In Matthew 17:24-27, upon being asked if his Teacher pays the temple (or two-drachma) tax, Simon Peter answers yes. Christ tells Peter to go to the water and cast a line, saying that a coin sufficient for both of them will be found in the fish's mouth. Peter does this and finds the coin.  The fish is also used by Jesus to describe "the Sign of Jonah". (Matthew 12:38-45) This is symbolic of Jesus's resurrection, upon which the entire Christian faith is based. (1 Corinthians 15:1-58)

In the Book of Tobit.

In the Deuterocanonical Book of Tobit, by Raphael the Archangel's order, the young cousin and future spouse of Sarah captures a fish while it tries to swallow his feet, washing in the river Tigris. Then he is instructed how to offer it, in order to be saved from the daemon Asmodeus.

Early church.

According to tradition, ancient Christians, during their persecution by the Roman Empire in the first few centuries after Christ, used the fish symbol to mark meeting places and tombs, or to distinguish friends from foes:  There are several other hypotheses as to why the fish was chosen. Some sources indicate that the earliest literary references came from the recommendation of Clement of Alexandria to his readers (Paedagogus, III, xi) to engrave their seals with the dove or fish. However, it can be inferred from Roman monumental sources such as the Cappella Greca and the Sacrament Chapels of the catacomb of St. Callistus that the fish symbol was known to Christians much earlier.

The ichthys or ichthus (), from the Greek "ikhthýs" ( 1st cent. AD Koine Greek, "fish") is a symbol consisting of two intersecting arcs, the ends of the right side extending beyond the meeting point so as to resemble the profile of a fish. The symbol was adopted by early Christians as a secret symbol. It is now known colloquially as the "sign of the fish" or the "Jesus fish".


Taxonomy.

The European green woodpecker was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his "Systema Naturae" under its current binomial name "Picus viridis". The type locality is Sweden. The scientific name is derived from the Latin "picus", meaning "woodpecker", and "viridis" meaning "green". It is member of the order Piciformes and the woodpecker family Picidae.  There are three subspecies, with subtle and mostly clinal differences between them.  The Iberian green woodpecker ("Picus sharpei") and Levaillant's woodpecker ("Picus vaillantii") were formerly considered as subspecies of the European green woodpecker. They are now treated as separate species based on the results of two molecular phylogenetic studies published in 2011.

Description.

The European green woodpecker measures in length with a wingspan. Both sexes are green above and pale yellowish green below, with yellow rump and red crown and nape; the moustachial stripe has a red centre in the male but is solid black in the female. The lores and around the white eye are black in both male and female, except in the Iberian race "P. v." subsp. "sharpei", in which it is dark grey and males have only a lower black border to the moustache. Juveniles are spotty and streaked all over; the moustache is dark initially, though juvenile males can show some red feathers by early June or usually by July or August.  Moult takes place between June and November with the first flight feathers being lost around the time the young fledge. Juveniles moult quickly after fledging and gain their adult plumage between August and November.  Although the European green woodpecker is shy and wary, it is usually its loud calls, known as yaffling, which first draw attention. It 'drums' rarely (a soft, fast roll), but often gives a noisy "kyü-kyü-kyück" while flying. The song is a loud series of 10–18 'klü' sounds which gets slightly faster towards the end and falls slightly in pitch. The female makes a thinner "pü-pü-pü-pü-pü-pü-pü". The flight is undulating, with 3–4 wingbeats followed by a short glide when the wings are held by the body.  It can be distinguished from the similar, but smaller, grey-headed woodpecker by its yellowish, not grey, underparts, and the black lores and facial'mask'. In Europe, its green upperparts and yellow rump can lead to confusion with the grey-headed woodpecker or possibly the female golden oriole, though the latter is smaller and more slender with narrower wings and longer tail. The closely related, very similar Levaillant's woodpecker occurs only in north-west Africa.

Distribution and habitat.

More than 75% of the range of the European green woodpecker is in Europe, where it is absent from some northern and eastern parts and from Ireland, Greenland and the Macaronesian Islands, but otherwise distributed widely. Over half of the European population is thought to be in France and Germany, with substantial numbers also in United Kingdom, Sweden, Russia, Croatia, Romania and Bulgaria. It also occurs in western Asia.  The European green woodpecker has a large range and an Estimated Global Extent of Occurrence of between 1 million to 10 million square kilometres, and a population in the region of 920,000 to 2.9 million birds. Populations appear to be stable, so the species is considered of Least Concern. The species is highly sedentary and individuals rarely move more than around 500 m between breeding seasons.  A combination of old deciduous trees for nesting, and nearby feeding grounds with plenty of ants, is essential. This is usually found in semi-open landscapes with small woodlands, hedges, scattered old trees, edges of forests and floodplain forests. Suitable habitats for foraging include grassland, heaths, plantations, orchards and lawns.

Behaviour.

Breeding.

The nesting hole is larger but similar to those of the other woodpeckers. It may be a few feet above the ground or at the top of a tall tree; oaks, beeches, willows and fruit trees are the preferred nest trees in western and central Europe, and aspens in the north. The hole may be excavated in sound or rotten wood, with an entrance hole of. The cavity inside may be 150 mm wide and up to deep and the work is performed mostly by the male over 15–30 days. Some tree holes are used for breeding for more than 10 years, but not necessarily by the same pair.  There is a single brood of four to six white eggs, measuring and weighing each, of which 7% is shell. After the last egg is laid, they are incubated for 19–20 days by both parents taking shifts of between 1.5 and 2.5 hours. The chicks are naked and altricial at hatching and fledge after 21–24 days.

Food and feeding.

The main food of the European green woodpecker is ants of the genera "Lasius" and "Formica" for which it spends much of its time foraging on the ground, though other insects and small reptiles are also taken occasionally. The bird's distinctive, elongated, cylindrical droppings often consist entirely of ant remains. At ant nests, it probes into the ground and licks up adult ants and their larvae. They have tongues that wrap to the back of their head. Green woodpeckers will often forage in short grazed or mown permanent grasslands where the availability of ant nests is high.  A study of a nest in Romania found that 10 species of ant were fed to the chicks. During the first 10 days, the young received an average of each, from days 10–20,, and from day 20,. The seven chicks consumed an estimated 1.5 million ants and pupae before leaving the nest.  The beak is relatively weak and used for pecking in soft wood only. In common with other woodpecker species, the green woodpecker's tongue is long (10 cm) and has to be curled around its skull. It lacks the barbs of the Dendrocopos woodpeckers and black woodpecker, but is made sticky by secretions from the enlarged salivary glands. Heavy, prolonged snow cover makes feeding difficult for the green woodpecker and can result in high mortality, from which it may take 10 years for the population to recover. Ant nests can be located under the snow; one bird was observed to dig 85 cm to reach a nest.

In culture.

'Professor Yaffle', the wooden bookend character in the 1974 children's animation series "Bagpuss", was based loosely upon the green woodpecker. 'Yaffle' was among many English folk names for the European green woodpecker relating to its laughing call; others include laughing Betsey, yaffingale, yappingale and Jack Eikle. Other names, including rain-bird, weather cock and wet bird, suggest its supposed ability to bring on rain. The species has been the subject of postage stamps from several countries. The European green woodpecker is associated with Woodpecker Cider, an image of the bird is used on the merchandise. The woodpecker was the totem of the Italic tribe of the Picentes, and features of the coat of arms and flag of the Italian region of the Marches.

The European green woodpecker ("Picus viridis") is large green woodpecker with a bright red crown and a black moustache. Males have a red centre to the moustache stripe which is absent in females. It is resident across much of Europe and the western Palearctic but in Spain and Portugal it is replaced by the similar Iberian green woodpecker ("Picus sharpei").


Origins.

Although the term "mind map" was first popularized by British popular psychology author and television personality Tony Buzan, the use of diagrams that visually "map" information using branching and radial maps traces back centuries. These pictorial methods record knowledge and model systems, and have a long history in learning, brainstorming, memory, visual thinking, and problem solving by educators, engineers, psychologists, and others. Some of the earliest examples of such graphical records were developed by Porphyry of Tyros, a noted thinker of the 3rd century, as he graphically visualized the concept categories of Aristotle. Philosopher Ramon Llull (1235–1315) also used such techniques.  The semantic network was developed in the late 1950s as a theory to understand human learning and developed further by Allan M. Collins and M. Ross Quillian during the early 1960s. Mind maps are similar in structure to concept maps, developed by learning experts in the 1970s, but differ in that mind maps are simplified by focusing around a single central key concept.

Popularization.

Buzan's specific approach, and the introduction of the term "mind map", arose during a 1974 BBC TV series he hosted, called "Use Your Head". In this show, and companion book series, Buzan promoted his conception of radial tree, diagramming key words in a colorful, radiant, tree-like structure.  Buzan says the idea was inspired by Alfred Korzybski's general semantics as popularized in science fiction novels, such as those of Robert A. Heinlein and A. E. van Vogt. He argues that while "traditional" outlines force readers to scan left to right and top to bottom, readers actually tend to scan the entire page in a non-linear fashion. Buzan's treatment also uses then-popular assumptions about the functions of cerebral hemispheres in order to explain the claimed increased effectiveness of mind mapping over other forms of note making.

Research.

Effectiveness.

Cunningham (2005) conducted a user study in which 80% of the students thought "mindmapping helped them understand concepts and ideas in science". Other studies also report some subjective positive effects on the use of mind maps. Positive opinions on their effectiveness, however, were much more prominent among students of art and design than in students of computer and information technology, with 62.5% vs 34% (respectively) agreeing that they were able to understand concepts better with mind mapping software. Farrand, Hussain, and Hennessy (2002) found that spider diagrams (similar to concept maps) had limited, but significant, impact on memory recall in undergraduate students (a 10% increase over baseline for a 600-word text only) as compared to preferred study methods (a 6% increase over baseline). This improvement was only robust after a week for those in the diagram group and there was a significant decrease in motivation compared to the subjects' preferred methods of note taking. A meta study about concept mapping concluded that concept mapping is more effective than "reading text passages, attending lectures, and participating in class discussions". The same study also concluded that concept mapping is slightly more effective "than other constructive activities such as writing summaries and outlines". However, results were inconsistent, with the authors noting "significant heterogeneity was found in most subsets". In addition, they concluded that low-ability students may benefit more from mind mapping than high-ability students.

Features.

Joeran Beel and Stefan Langer conducted a comprehensive analysis of the content of mind maps. They analysed 19,379 mind maps from 11,179 users of the mind mapping applications (now ) and MindMeister. Results include that average users create only a few mind maps (mean=2.7), average mind maps are rather small (31 nodes) with each node containing about three words (median). However, there were exceptions. One user created more than 200 mind maps, the largest mind map consisted of more than 50,000 nodes and the largest node contained ~7,500 words. The study also showed that between different mind mapping applications (Docear vs MindMeister) significant differences exist related to how users create mind maps.

Automatic creation.

There have been some attempts to create mind maps automatically. Brucks & Schommer created mind maps automatically from full-text streams. Rothenberger et al. extracted the main story of a text and presented it as mind map. And there is a patent about automatically creating sub-topics in mind maps.

Tools.

Mind-mapping software can be used to organize large amounts of information, combining spatial organization, dynamic hierarchical structuring and node folding. Software packages can extend the concept of mind-mapping by allowing individuals to map more than thoughts and ideas with information on their computers and the Internet, like spreadsheets, documents, Internet sites and images. It has been suggested that mind-mapping can improve learning/study efficiency up to 15% over conventional note-taking.

A mind map is a diagram used to visually organize information. A mind map is hierarchical and shows relationships among pieces of the whole. It is often created around a single concept, drawn as an image in the center of a blank page, to which associated representations of ideas such as images, words and parts of words are added. Major ideas are connected directly to the central concept, and other ideas branch out from those major ideas.


Taxonomy.

Research history.

The type specimen, Mauer 1 (a jawbone), was discovered by worker Daniel Hartmann in Mauer, to the southeast of Heidelberg, Germany, and was described in 1907 by German anthropologist Otto Schoetensack. He noted a lack of a distinct chin, but conceded that it had clearly belonged to a human form due to the humanlike teeth. More fossils were subsequently found in Steinheim an der Murr, Germany (the Steinheim skull); Arago, France (Tautavel Man); Petralona, Greece; and Ciampate del Diavolo, Italy.  In 1921, a skull, Kabwe 1, was discovered by Swiss miner Tom Zwiglaar in Kabwe, Zambia (Zambia at the time was called Northern Rhodesia), and was tentatively assigned to a new species, "H. rhodesiensis", by English palaeontologist Arthur Smith Woodward. Kabwe 1 dates to around 300,000 years ago. In 1976, the 600,000 year old Bodo cranium was discovered in the Middle Awash, Ethiopia, but was classified into "H. heidelbergensis" as "H. rhodesiensis" was beginning to fall out of favour. The 400,000 year old Tanzanian Ndutu cranium has been classified as an "archaic "H. sapiens"". The South African Saldanha cranium, or Elandsfontein cranium, discovered in 1954 was assigned to "H. heidelbergensis".  The Chinese Dali Man and Maba Man could represent Asian "H. heidelbergensis".  In 1992, the 350,000 year old Sima de los Huesos site in the Sierra de Atapuerca in northern Spain was discovered, which ha since yielded 5,500 bones belonging to perhaps 32 individuals, about 90% of known "H. heidelbergensis" remains. These individuals are thought to represent the immediate ancestors to Neanderthals or are themselves early Neanderthals. In 1994, Boxgrove Man was discovered near the English Channel in association with hundreds of hand axes dating to 524–478,000 years ago.

Classification.

"H. heidelbergensis" is generally considered to have been the direct ancestor to modern humans (though African members are alternatively classified as "H. rhodesiensis" or archaic "H. sapiens"), Neanderthals, and Denisovans. This would make "H. heidelbergensis" a chronospecies. "H. heidelbergensis" has also been described as a potential polytypic species, with different populations possibly being sufficiently different enough to qualify as being different subspecies. The transitional forms for both species is obscured by a large gap in the fossil record about 400–300,000 years ago. Thus, the timing of the replacement of "H. heidelbergensis" by descendant species is generally a matter of convention. Similarly, the timing of the derivation of "H. heidelbergensis" from an ancestor species is also unclear. The oldest identified "H. heidelbergensis" fossils date to about 600,000 years ago. Stone tools discovered in 2005 from Pakefield, Suffolk, indicate human activity in England 700,000 years ago, and at the time these tools were assumed to have been created by a transitional form between "H. heidelbergensis" and the older European human "H. antecessor". However, enamel proteome analysis suggests that "H. antecessor" is not ancestral to "H. heidelbergensis", but closely related nonetheless. "H. heidelbergensis" may instead derive from African or European "H. erectus", which also existed contemporaneously.  Until the 1990s, "H. heidelbergensis" was commonly classified as a subspecies of "H. erectus" ("H. e. heidelbergensis"). With the discovery of more complete remains, "H. heidelbergensis" has since become accepted as a unique species. The paleontology institute at Heidelberg University, where the type specimen has been kept since 1908, changed the label from the subspecies to the species classification in 2015.

Morphology.

The average brain capacity of 10 "H. heidelbergensis" specimens from across Africa and Eurasia was. Kabwe 1 has been estimated at. For comparison, the average brain capacity for contemporaneous "H. erectus" was, and modern humans for males and for females.  Male "H. heidelbergensis" averaged about tall and, and females and. An analysis of 27 limb bones Sima de los Huesos calculated an average size of about in height, which is similar to the average for Neanderthals and pre-industrial modern humans. According to South African palaeoanthropologist Lee Rogers Berger, tibiae and femora remains indicate that the average height 400–350,000 years ago reached during a grassland expansion which supported larger prey items.

Behavior.

A biface nicknamed "Excalibur" from Sima de los Huesos is hypothesised to have been a grave good, which, if correct, would be the oldest evidence of funerary practices.  The morphology of the outer and middle ear suggests they had an auditory sensitivity similar to modern humans. They were probably able to differentiate between many different sounds. Dental wear analysis suggests they were as likely to be right-handed as modern people.  An archeological site in Schöningen, Germany contained eight exceptionally-well preserved roughly-400,000-year-old spears for hunting, and various other wooden tools. Five-hundred-thousand-year-old hafted stone points used for hunting are reported from Kathu Pan 1 in South Africa, tested by way of use-wear replication. This find could mean that modern humans and Neanderthals inherited the stone-tipped spear, rather than developing the technology independently.  No forms of art have been uncovered. Red ochre, a mineral that can be used to mix a red pigment which is useful as a paint, has been found at Terra Amata in France and Bečov in the Czech Republic, but the dating of these pigments to the Middle Pleistocene is contested.  The Schöningen spears are eight wooden throwing spears, dated to before 300,000 years ago, discovered between 1994 and 1998 in the open-cast lignite mine, in Schöningen, county Helmstedt, Germany, together with thousands of animal bones. They are regarded as the first direct evidence for active hunting by "H. heidelbergensis" (pre-Neanderthals).

Language.

Steven Mithen believes that "H. heidelbergensis", like its descendant "H. neanderthalensis", acquired a pre-linguistic system of communication.  "Homo heidelbergensis" is thought to have been the first ancestor of modern humans not to have air sacs, which are laryngeal diverticula involved in vocalization. The loss of air sacs may have contributed to humans' ability to develop vocal language. Ancestors such as "Australopithecus afarensis" did have air sacs, as do other great apes. Furthermore, there is evidence that "Homo heidelbergensis" was right-handed. Handedness is associated with the development of language among hominins. Considering this evidence, scientists have hypothesized about the speaking capabilities of the species. A recent study that compared the speech frequency of humans and chimpanzees reported that "H. heidelbergensis" speech abilities more closely resemble those of modern-day humans. More specifically, "the Atapuerca SH hominins show[ed] a bandwidth that [wa]s slightly displaced and considerably extended to encompass the frequencies that contain relevant acoustic information in human speech."

Pathology.

The earliest documented case of odontogenic orbital cellulitis, a severe eye infection that develops from an abscess in the mouth, occurred in "H. heidelbergensis".

Homo heidelbergensis is an extinct species or subspecies of archaic humans in the genus "Homo", which radiated in the Middle Pleistocene from about 700,000 to 300,000 years ago. The derivation of "H. sapiens" from "H. rhodesiensis" has often been proposed, but is obscured by a fossil gap from 400–260 kya. The species was originally named "Homo heidelbergensis" due to the skeleton's first discovery near Heidelberg, Germany.


Overview.

Architecturally, JSP may be viewed as a high-level abstraction of Java servlets. JSPs are translated into servlets at runtime, therefore JSP is a Servlet; each JSP servlet is cached and re-used until the original JSP is modified.  JavaServer Pages can be used independently or as the view component of a server-side model–view–controller design, normally with JavaBeans as the model and Java servlets (or a framework such as Apache Struts) as the controller. This is a type of Model 2 architecture.  JSP allows Java code and certain predefined actions to be interleaved with static web markup content, such as HTML. The resulting page is compiled and executed on the server to deliver a document. The compiled pages, as well as any dependent Java libraries, contain Java bytecode rather than machine code. Like any other.jar or Java program, code must be executed within a Java virtual machine (JVM) that interacts with the server's host operating system to provide an abstract, platform-neutral environment.  JSPs are usually used to deliver HTML and XML documents, but through the use of OutputStream, they can deliver other types of data as well.  The Web container creates JSP implicit objects like request, response, session, application, config, page, pageContext, out and exception. JSP Engine creates these objects during translation phase.

Syntax.

JSP pages use several delimiters for scripting functions. The most basic is <%... %>, which encloses a JSP "scriptlet." A scriptlet is a fragment of Java code that is run when the user requests the page. Other common delimiters include <%=... %> for "expressions," where the scriptlet and delimiters are replaced with the result of evaluating the expression, and "directives", denoted with <%@... %>.  Java code is not required to be complete or self-contained within a single scriptlet block. It can straddle markup content, provided that the page as a whole is syntactically correct. For example, any Java "if/for/while" blocks opened in one scriptlet must be correctly closed in a later scriptlet for the page to successfully compile. This allows code to be intermingled and can result in poor programming practices.  Content that falls inside a split block of Java code (spanning multiple scriptlets) is subject to that code. Content inside an "if" block will only appear in the output when the "if" condition evaluates to true. Likewise, content inside a loop construct may appear multiple times in the output, depending upon how many times the loop body runs.  The following would be a valid for loop in a JSP page:  Counting to three:
 <% for (int i=1; i<4; i++) { %> OK.
 The output displayed in the user's web browser would be:

Expression Language.

Version 2.0 of the JSP specification added support for the Expression Language (EL), used to access data and functions in Java objects. In JSP 2.1, it was folded into the Unified Expression Language, which is also used in JavaServer Faces.  An example of EL syntax:

Additional tags.

The JSP syntax add additional tags, called JSP actions, to invoke built-in functionality. Additionally, the technology allows for the creation of custom JSP "tag libraries" that act as extensions to the standard JSP syntax. One such library is the JSTL, with support for common tasks such as iteration and conditionals (the equivalent of "for" and "if" statements in Java.)

Compiler.

A JavaServer Pages compiler is a program that parses JSPs, and transforms them into executable Java Servlets. A program of this type is usually embedded into the application server and run automatically the first time a JSP is accessed, but pages may also be precompiled for better performance, or compiled as a part of the build process to test for errors.  Some JSP containers support configuring how often the container checks JSP file timestamps to see whether the page has changed. Typically, this timestamp would be set to a short interval (perhaps seconds) during software development, and a longer interval (perhaps minutes, or even never) for a deployed Web application.

Criticism.

In 2000, Jason Hunter, author of "Java Servlet Programming" described a number of "problems" with JavaServer Pages. Nevertheless, he wrote that while JSP may not be the "best solution for the Java Platform" it was the "Java solution that is most like the non-Java solution," by which he meant Microsoft's Active Server Pages. Later, he added a note to his site saying that JSP had improved since 2000, but also cited its competitors, Apache Velocity and Tea (template language). Today there are several alternatives and a number of JSP-oriented pages in larger web apps are considered to be technical debt.

JavaServer Pages (JSP) is a collection of technologies that helps software developers create dynamically generated web pages based on HTML, XML, SOAP, or other document types. Released in 1999 by Sun Microsystems, JSP is similar to PHP and ASP, but uses the Java programming language.


History and etymology.

Origin of the term.

The term "black humor" (from the French "humour noir") was coined by the Surrealist theorist André Breton in 1935 while interpreting the writings of Jonathan Swift. Breton's preference was to identify some of Swift's writings as a subgenre of comedy and satire in which laughter arises from cynicism and skepticism, often relying on topics such as death.  Breton coined the term for his book "Anthology of Black Humor" ("Anthologie de l'humour noir"), in which he credited Jonathan Swift as the originator of black humor and gallows humor (particularly in his pieces "Directions to Servants" (1731), "A Modest Proposal" (1729), "Meditation Upon a Broomstick" (1710), and in a few aphorisms). In his book, Breton also included excerpts from 45 other writers, including both examples in which the wit arises from a victim with which the audience empathizes, as is more typical in the tradition of gallows humor, and examples in which the comedy is used to mock the victim. In the last cases, the victim's suffering is trivialized, which leads to sympathizing with the victimizer, as analogously found in the social commentary and social criticism of the writings of (for instance) Sade.

Adoption in American literary criticism.

Among the first American writers who employed black comedy in their works were Nathanael West and Vladimir Nabokov, although at the time the genre was not widely known in the US. The concept of black humor first came to nationwide attention after the publication of a 1965 mass-market paperback titled "Black Humor", of which the editor was Bruce Jay Friedman. The paperback was one of the first American anthologies devoted to the concept of black humor as a literary genre. With the paperback, Friedman labeled as "black humorists" a variety of authors, such as J. P. Donleavy, Edward Albee, Joseph Heller, Thomas Pynchon, John Barth, Vladimir Nabokov, Bruce Jay Friedman himself, and Louis-Ferdinand Céline. Among the writers labeled as black humorists by journalists and literary critics are today also Roald Dahl, Kurt Vonnegut, Warren Zevon, Christopher Durang, and Philip Roth. The motive for applying the label black humorist to all the writers cited above is that they have written novels, poems, stories, plays, and songs in which profound or horrific events were portrayed in a comic manner. Comedians like Lenny Bruce, that since the late 1950s have been labeled for using "sick comedy" by mainstream journalists, have also been labeled with "black comedy".

Nature and functions.

Sigmund Freud, in his 1927 essay "Humour" ("Der Humor"), puts forth the following theory of black comedy: "The ego refuses to be distressed by the provocations of reality, to let itself be compelled to suffer. It insists that it cannot be affected by the traumas of the external world; it shows, in fact, that such traumas are no more than occasions for it to gain pleasure." Some other sociologists elaborated this concept further. At the same time, Paul Lewis warns that this "relieving" aspect of gallows jokes depends on the context of the joke: whether the joke is being told by the threatened person themselves or by someone else.  Black comedy has the social effect of strengthening the morale of the oppressed and undermines the morale of the oppressors. According to Wylie Sypher, "to be able to laugh at evil and error means we have surmounted them."  Black comedy is a natural human instinct and examples of it can be found in stories from antiquity. Its use was widespread in middle Europe, from where it was imported to the United States. It is rendered with the German expression "Galgenhumor". The concept of gallows humor is comparable to the French expression "rire jaune" (lit. "yellow laughing"), which also has a Germanic equivalent in the Belgian Dutch expression "groen lachen" (lit. "green laughing").  Italian comedian Daniele Luttazzi discussed gallows humour focusing on the particular type of laughter that it arouses ("risata verde" or "groen lachen"), and said that grotesque satire, as opposed to ironic satire, is the one that most often arouses this kind of laughter. In the Weimar era "Kabaretts", this genre was particularly common, and according to Luttazzi, Karl Valentin and Karl Kraus were the major masters of it.  Black comedy is common in professions and environments where workers routinely have to deal with dark subject matter. This includes police officers, firefighters, ambulance crews, military personnel and funeral directors, where it is an acknowledged coping mechanism. Outsiders can often react negatively to discovering this humor; as a result, there is an understanding within these professions that these jokes should not be shared with the wider public.  A 2017 study published in the journal "Cognitive Processing" concludes that people who appreciate dark humor "may have higher IQs, show lower aggression, and resist negative feelings more effectively than people who turn up their noses at it."

Examples.

There are multiple recorded instances of humorous last words and final statements. For example, author and playwright Oscar Wilde was destitute and living in a cheap boarding house when he found himself on his deathbed. There are variations on what his exact words were, but his reputed were, "Either that wallpaper goes or I do."

Gallows speeches.

Examples of gallows speeches include:

Military.

Military life is full of gallows humor, as those in the services continuously live in the danger of being killed, especially in wartime. For example:

Emergency service workers.

Workers in the emergency services are also known for using black comedy:

Other.

There are several titles such as "It Only Hurts When I Laugh" and "Only When I Laugh", which allude to the punch line of a joke which exists in numerous versions since at least the 19th century. A typical setup is that someone badly hurt (e.g., a Wild West rancher with an arrow in his chest, a Jew crucified by the Romans, etc.) is asked "Does it hurt?" — "I am fine; it only hurts when I laugh."  Ronald Reagan, after being shot by John Hinckley Jr., is reported to have made multiple quips on his way to and inside the emergency room, including "Honey, I forgot to duck" to his wife, "All in all, I'd rather be in Philadelphia" in a note written to his nurse, and perhaps most famously to his doctors, "Please tell me you're Republicans."

Black comedy, also known as black humor, dark comedy, dark humor, or gallows humor, is a style of comedy that makes light of subject matter that is generally considered taboo, particularly subjects that are normally considered serious or painful to discuss. Writers and comedians often use it as a tool for exploring vulgar issues by provoking discomfort, serious thought, and amusement for their audience. Thus, in fiction, for example, the term "black comedy" can also refer to a genre in which dark humor is a core component. Popular themes of the genre include death and violence, discrimination, disease, and human sexuality.


Examples.

The function formula_2 is an antiderivative of formula_3, as the derivative of formula_4 is formula_5. As the derivative of a constant is zero, formula_5 will have an infinite number of antiderivatives, such as formula_7, etc. Thus, all the antiderivatives of formula_5 can be obtained by changing the value of in formula_9, where is an arbitrary constant known as the constant of integration. Essentially, the graphs of antiderivatives of a given function are vertical translations of each other; each graph's vertical location depending upon the value.  More generally, the power function formula_10 has antiderivative formula_11 if, and formula_12 if.  In physics, the integration of acceleration yields velocity plus a constant. The constant is the initial velocity term that would be lost upon taking the derivative of velocity because the derivative of a constant term is zero. This same pattern applies to further integrations and derivatives of motion (position, velocity, acceleration, and so on).

Uses and properties.

Antiderivatives can be used to compute definite integrals, using the fundamental theorem of calculus: if is an antiderivative of the integrable function over the interval formula_13, then:  Because of this, each of the infinitely many antiderivatives of a given function is sometimes called the "general integral" or "indefinite integral" of "f" and is written using the integral symbol with no bounds:  If is an antiderivative of, and the function is defined on some interval, then every other antiderivative of differs from by a constant: there exists a number such that formula_16 for all. is called the constant of integration. If the domain of is a disjoint union of two or more (open) intervals, then a different constant of integration may be chosen for each of the intervals. For instance  is the most general antiderivative of formula_18 on its natural domain formula_19  Every continuous function has an antiderivative, and one antiderivative is given by the definite integral of with variable upper boundary: Varying the lower boundary produces other antiderivatives (but not necessarily all possible antiderivatives). This is another formulation of the fundamental theorem of calculus.  There are many functions whose antiderivatives, even though they exist, cannot be expressed in terms of elementary functions (like polynomials, exponential functions, logarithms, trigonometric functions, inverse trigonometric functions and their combinations). Examples of these are "From left to right, the first four are the error function, the Fresnel function, the trigonometric integral, and the logarithmic integral function."  See also Differential Galois theory for a more detailed discussion.

Techniques of integration.

Finding antiderivatives of elementary functions is often considerably harder than finding their derivatives. For some elementary functions, it is impossible to find an antiderivative in terms of other elementary functions. See the articles on elementary functions and nonelementary integral for further information.  There are various methods available:  Computer algebra systems can be used to automate some or all of the work involved in the symbolic techniques above, which is particularly useful when the algebraic manipulations involved are very complex or lengthy. Integrals which have already been derived can be looked up in a table of integrals.

Of non-continuous functions.

Non-continuous functions can have antiderivatives. While there are still open questions in this area, it is known that:  Assuming that the domains of the functions are open intervals:

In calculus, an antiderivative, inverse derivative, primitive function, primitive integral or indefinite integral of a function is a differentiable function whose derivative is equal to the original function. This can be stated symbolically as formula_1. The process of solving for antiderivatives is called antidifferentiation (or indefinite integration) and its opposite operation is called differentiation, which is the process of finding a derivative.