Description.

The Fischer's lovebird has a green back, chest, and wings. Their necks are a golden yellow and as it progresses upward it becomes darker orange. The top of the head is olive green, and the beak is bright red. The upper surface of the tail has some purple or blue feathers. It has a white circle of bare skin (eye-ring) around its eyes. Young birds are very similar to the adults, except for the fact that they are duller and the base of their mandible has brown markings. They are one of the smaller lovebirds, about 14 cm (5.5 in) in length and 43-58g weight.  While most Fischer's lovebirds are green, several color variations have been bred. The blue variation is predominant; lacking yellow, it has a bright blue back, tail, and chest, a white neck, a pale grey head and a pale pink beak. This mutation was first bred by R. Horsham in South Africa in 1957. There is a yellow mutation, which first appeared in France. These birds are typically pale yellow with an orange face and a red beak. Lutino (a mutation that is yellow in color), pied, black or dark eyed white, cinnamon, white, and albino mutations have also been bred.

Sexual morphism.

Fischer's lovebirds show no sexual dimorphism; therefore, it is impossible to tell whether an individual is male or female through plumage alone.  The sexes of "Agapornis fischeri" appear the same, and are distinguished with certainty through DNA testing, and less certainly by their habits in perching. Generally, females sit with their legs farther apart than males because the female pelvis is wider.

Distribution and habitat.

Fischer's lovebird are native to a small area of east-central Africa, south and southeast of Lake Victoria in northern Tanzania. In drought years, some birds move west into Rwanda and Burundi seeking moister conditions. They live at elevations of 1,100-2,200m (3,600-7,200 ft  in small flocks. They live in isolated clumps of trees with grass plains between them. The population is estimated to be between 290,000-1,000,000, with low densities outside of protected areas due to capture for the pet trade; export licenses were suspended in 1992 to halt any further decline in the species. Although they have been observed in the wild in Puerto Rico, they are probably the result of escaped pets, and no reproduction has been recorded. Around 100 mating pairs can be found in the wild between Porches and Armacao de Pera and Lagoa area in the Algarve region of Portugal.

Behaviour.

Fischer's lovebird has a fast flight, and the sound of their wings as they fly can be heard. Like all Lovebirds, they are very vocal and when they do make noise they have a high-pitched chirp and can be very noisy.

Food and feeding.

Fischer's lovebirds eat a wide variety of foods, including seeds and fruit. They sometimes are pests to farmers, as they eat their crops such as maize and millet.

Breeding.

Fischer's lovebirds, like other lovebirds in the genus Agapornis, mate for life. The term lovebird arose from the strong bonds that mates make with one another. When separated, the physical health of each individual will suffer. Mates like to be in physical contact as much as possible.The breeding season is January through April and June through July. The nest is in a hole in a tree 2 to 15 metres above the ground. The eggs are white and there are usually four or five in a clutch, but there could be as few as three or as many as eight. The female incubates the eggs for 23 days, and the chicks fledge from the nest about 38–42 days after hatching.

Aviculture.

Fischer's lovebirds are difficult birds to keep healthy in captivity. They are active birds that need a lot of room. When confined to a cage their health tends to suffer.

Personality.

Lovebirds are seen as charming and affectionate by their owners. Though they're not as cuddly as many parrots, they enjoy spending time with their owners, and require regular interaction.  As with many parrots, lovebirds are intelligent and inquisitive birds. In captivity, they like to investigate around the house, and have been known to figure out ways to escape from their cages, and to find hiding places where they may get stuck, and where it may be difficult to locate them.  Lovebirds are avid chewers, with strong beaks. They can enjoy "preening" the hair and clothing of their owners, and chewing on clothing, buttons, watches, and jewelry. They may also, especially the females, chew up paper and weave it into their tails, which they will carry back to their cages to make nests. Female lovebirds are supposedly more aggressive than the males but both can make fine pets with patience and correct training.  Lovebirds (in general) are not known for their talking ability, although there are some lovebirds that do learn words - the females are usually the ones that do this. As is the case when many smaller parrots, the "voice" of lovebirds is high-pitched and raspy and it may be difficult to understand their speech.  Lovebirds are very vocal birds, making loud, high-pitched noises that can be a nuisance to neighbors. They make noise all day, but especially at certain times of day. However, Fischer's are not quite as loud as some other lovebird varieties, and while they cheep frequently, they do not scream like the larger parrots. Their noise level increases substantially when they are engaged in pre-mating rituals.

Health problems.

Fischer's lovebirds, like many captive birds, can suffer from feather-plucking and infections as a result of their obsessive biting of feathers and feet due to high levels of stress. This is more likely to occur with single lovebirds than those kept in pairs or groups.One hypothesis is that they suffer from hormonal problems caused by changing light levels and the inability to perform things Fischer's lovebirds in the wild would naturally perform, such as building a nest, socialising in groups, flying high and foraging. Another hypothesis is that it is caused by a pathogen. Treatments usually involve antibiotics for the wounds, some way to stop them from continuing the biting of the area and a change of environment. The Elizabeth collar may also be used, though wearing them is extremely stressful both to the bird wearing the collar and to the birds around it, and some lovebirds may start feather-plucking as a result of the stress.  Lovebirds require a varied daily diet. Female lovebirds may suffer from egg-binding due to mineral imbalance, an often fatal condition in which an eggshell does not harden and gets caught in the reproductive tract.

Fischer's lovebird ("Agapornis fischeri") is a small parrot species of the genus "Agapornis". They were originally discovered in the late 19th century, and were first bred in the United States in 1926. They are named after German explorer Gustav Fischer.


History.

In 1716, Grand Vizier Damat Ali gathered a 150,000 strong Ottoman army at Belgrade, at the core of which were 40,000 Janissaries, 20,000 Sipahi, and 10,000 Tatars, together with some renegade Kuruc cavalry. They crossed the Sava at Zemun at the end of July, and moved on the right bank of the Danube towards Sremski Karlovci (in the Habsburg territory). The Tatars, with Moldavians and Kurucs drove into Transylvania, but the Transylvanian forces were no match for the Tatars.  The commander of the Austrian forces, Prince Eugene of Savoy, decided to engage the Ottomans at Petrovaradin. He had arranged for the construction of a fortified encampment within the Petrovaradin fortress there, and set the 83,300 strong Imperial army on the march from their quarters in Futog. There was an 8,000 man garrison in the fortress consisting primarily of Serbs. In the Austrian army served Croatian and Hungarian infantry and cavalry regiments (approx. 42,000 men), Serbian border soldiers in the Vojvodina and the auxiliaries from Württemberg.  On August 2, the first skirmish between the Imperial vanguard and Ottoman horsemen occurred. By the next day, the Grand Vizier had already reached Petrovaradin and immediately dispatched 30,000 Janissaries against the imperial positions. They dug saps and began to bombard the fortress.  The core of the Imperial army only crossed the Danube on the night of August 5 by two pontoon bridges after which they encamped.

The battle and its effects.

At 7 o'clock on the morning of August 5, Prince Eugene began the Austrian offensive. While the right flank under Prince Alexander von Württemberg stormed an Ottoman artillery battery, the Imperials rode into trouble in the center: deployment through the small gate of the Petrovaradin fortress proceeded slowly. The Janissaries went on the counter-attack immediately and forced the imperial army back into the fortress. Prince Eugene sealed off the central incursion with additional troops and sent his cavalry into the Ottoman flanks, by which means they were encircled. The Grand Vizier could not manage to break the encirclement with his sipahis nor could he regroup his troops. The Tatars even pulled back without engaging in combat.  After the defeated Ottomans were wiped out, Prince Eugene personally led his troops against the Grand Vizier's encampment. Supported by the guns of six frigates of the Danube fleet, the battle had been won by two o'clock, with the Grand Vizier himself among the slain. Barely 50,000 Ottomans returned to Belgrade. Soon, from Constantinople came a messenger from the Sultan with order of execution of Damat Ali. He is buried at the Belgrade Fortress, Kalemegdan, in the tomb known as "Damad Ali Pašino Turbe".  After the war, a church commemorating this event was built on Tekije, on the hill over battlefield, and is dedicated to Our Lady of Tekije, also known as "Our Lady of the Snows". The church is special, because it has both Catholic and Orthodox altars and both Christian denominations use it. The site is a place of pilgrimage on every August 5.  After Petrovaradin, Prince Eugene turned against Timișoara (in Ottoman territory) and captured it despite great resistance and desperate attempts by the Ottomans to relieve the town. Eventually, they admitted defeat and signed a treaty with Austria and her ally Venice.  At the place of the battlefield at the hill Vezirac in Petrovaradin the monument that honors the victory of Austrian army was erected in 1902. It was designed by Zagreb architect Herman Bollé.

The Battle of Petrovaradin or Peterwardein was a decisive victory for the Imperial Army of the Holy Roman Emperor in the war between the Archduchy of Austria of the Holy Roman Empire and the Ottoman Empire (1716–1718), at Petrovaradin (then part of Military Frontier, Archduchy of Austria; today part of Novi Sad, Vojvodina, Serbia).


Family.

She was born in Arolsen, capital of Waldeck principality, in Germany. She was the sister of Friedrich, last reigning Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont; Marie, the first wife of William II of Württemberg; and of Emma, Queen consort of William III of the Netherlands (and mother of Queen Wilhelmina).

Marriage.

Along with Emma and a third sister, Pauline, Helena was considered as a second wife for their distant cousin William III of the Netherlands. She later met with another distant cousin Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany, youngest son of Queen Victoria, at the suggestion of his mother. The two became engaged in November 1881.  On 27 April 1882, Leopold and Helena married in St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. After their wedding, Leopold and Helena resided at Claremont House. The couple had a brief, but happy marriage, ending in the hemophiliac Leopold's death from a fall in Cannes, France, in March 1884. At the time of Leopold's death, Helena was pregnant with their second child.  The couple had two children:

Personality and social work.

According to the memoirs of Helena's daughter, Princess Alice of Albany, Helena was very intelligent, had a strong sense of duty, and a genuine love of welfare work. Queen Victoria, initially worried that Helena might turn out to be a stereotypically-remote German Princess, remarked in a letter to her eldest daughter, German Crown Princess Victoria, that she was pleased Helena liked 'to go among the people.' The Queen soon came to regard her young daughter-in-law with great respect and affection, notwithstanding her initial concerns upon hearing from the match-making Vicky that Helena was an "intellectual", being unusually well-educated for a princess. Before her marriage, Helena's father had made her superintendent of the infant schools in his principality, and in this position the Princess had devised the pupils' educational curriculum. Helena particularly enjoyed solving mathematical problems and reading philosophy: during their tragically brief marriage, Prince Leopold proudly introduced his wife to the circle of academics he'd befriended at Oxford University. Helena maintained these friendships for the rest of her life.  In 1894, Helena was one of the founders of the Deptford Fund. Originally dedicated to helping find alternative work for women and girls employed in the dangerous cattle slaughter business, the Fund soon expanded, with many projects instigated to help the local community. In 1899 Helena opened the Albany Institute. This later expanded into a combined community/performance centre with the theatre venue known as the Albany Empire. A centre of 1970s anti-fascist activity and Rock Against Racism, the Empire and Institute buildings were destroyed in an arson attack in 1978. A new Albany Theatre was opened by the Princess of Wales in 1982 and the Deptford Fund continues to this day.  Helena was also involved in several hospital charities and with those dedicated to ending human trafficking. During World War I, she organised much of her charity work along with that of her sister-in-law Princess Beatrice and husband's niece Princess Marie-Louise to avoid the not-uncommon problem of conflicting (and sometimes misguided) royal war-work projects.

Later life.

After Leopold's death, Helena and her two children, Alice and Charles Edward, continued to reside at Claremont House. After the death of her nephew, the Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in 1899, Helena's sixteen-year-old son was selected as the new heir to the German duchy, and was parted from his mother and sister in order to take up residence there. When the First World War broke out 14 years later, Charles Edward found himself fighting in the German Army. As a result, he was stripped of his British titles by an act of Parliament in 1917. By contrast, her daughter Alice remained in England and by marriage to Prince Alexander of Teck in 1904 became a sister-in-law of Queen Mary, consort of King George V.  In 1901, it was speculated that Helena would marry Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery.  Helena died on 1 September 1922 of a heart attack in Hinterriss in Tyrol, Austria, while visiting her son.  Through her son Charles Edward, Helena is the great-grandmother of Carl XVI Gustav, the current King of Sweden.

Princess Helena of Waldeck and Pyrmont (Helene Friederike Auguste; later Duchess of Albany; 17 February 1861 – 1 September 1922), who became a member of the British royal family by marriage, was the fifth daughter and child of George Victor, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont and his first wife, Princess Helena of Nassau.


Inspiration.

From 1907 to 1908 Marg studied at Académie Matisse, Paris, and founded the Matisse School in Paris with her husband, Oskar Moll, in 1908 to educate and promote the modernist aesthetics in arts including Matisse's form of art. In 1908, Marg and her husband met Henri Matisse. In the same year, Matisse painted his famous portrait of Greta Moll, now located in the National Gallery in London. When Marg began to work with Matisse, she concentrated more heavily on sculpture, perfecting her technique and using all sorts of sculpting materials.

Personal life.

She was born in Mühlhausen. She attended the Stadelsches Institut in Frankfurt am Main from 1903 to 1905 and studied under painter Hans Volker in Wiesbaden. She also studied painting in Bavaria under Oskar Moll, whom she later married. Additionally, Marg studied sculpture under Louise Schmidt in Frankfurt am Main. In 1905, Marg traveled to Rome and later studied at Lovis Corinth's famous school for women in Berlin from 1906 to 1907. Margarethe married Oskar Moll, a professor and director at the Breslau Academy, and became known as the Director's Wife due to her husband's position. Margarethe and Oskar had two daughters: Melita, born in 1908, and Brigitte, born in 1918. Marg lived in several cities throughout her life, including Berlin, where she lived from 1908 to 1919, and Breslau, where she moved in 1919 and remained until 1932. In 1934 she returned to Berlin and lived there throughout World War II. Though her family hid from the Nazis during the war, the Molls built a house in Berlin in 1943 designed by the German architect Hans Scharoun. The Molls filled their home with paintings by Matisse, Fernand Léger, Georges Braque, and Picasso. Their home, along with many of Marg's works, was destroyed by the bombing of Berlin in 1943. Marg traveled to Europe and the United States after Oskar died in 1947. She lived in both Düsseldorf and Munich after 1952.

Art.

Marg painted and sculpted her entire life but her sculpting style over time changed from Matisse-like figurative arts to a much more modern form of art like Constantin Brâncuși’s works. Her works incorporated various styles of German art, including Expressionism and Bauhaus style. She experienced these forms of art as the wife of Oskar Moll, who was the director of Breslau Academy. Marg once took an "Eheferien", German for a vacation from marriage and went to Paris to finish some of her works in 1928, as stated in her autobiographical notes. Marg wanted to separate her works from her husband's, but at times they did exhibit their works together. Her earliest exhibitions of art were with other artists like the Novembergruppe in Berlin and with Oskar Schlemmer, a Breslau artist at the Galerie Flechtheim in 1931. Her works were bought by museums throughput Germany, but many of them were later removed and destroyed by the Nazis. One of her sculptures, “The Dancer” was found in ruins during excavation for a new train station in Berlin, along with 10 other works. Her work was a victim of Hitler's campaign against so-called degenerate art. Marg's sculpture is featured at Berlin's Neues Museum in Germany.

Recognition and legacy.

After her husband's death in 1947, she exhibited her works several times. She traveled to the United States where she was recognized as an artist who pushed the importance of modern art in Germany and throughout the world. In 1950 she met famous sculptor Henry Moore. In 1951, she became a member of the Women's International Art Club in London and received a medal. She continued to work with GEDOK, an organization that helped female artists exhibit their work freely from 1930 to 1970. She was awarded a Groupe 1940 medal in Paris. When she was 70, she gave lectures at Wayne State University in Detroit. By the 1950s her works were being exhibited along with her husband's paintings. She died in Munich, Germany in 1977.

Marg Moll (born Margarethe Haeffner; 2 August 1884 – 15 March 1977) was a German sculptor, painter, and author. She stated once that she would rather do sculptures because she tried to avoid competition between her and her husband, a painter.


History.

EUROSAI was set up in 1990 with 30 members (the SAIs of 29 European States and the European Court of Auditors). Now membership stands at 50 SAIs (the SAIs of 49 European States and the European Court of Auditors). Although EUROSAI is the junior of INTOSAI’s seven Regional Working Groups, the idea of a European organisation of SAIs dates back to the foundation of INTOSAI in 1953. The first active steps towards the establishment of EUROSAI took place in 1974 during the VIII INTOSAI Congress in Madrid (1974). Between 1975 and 1989 the SAIs of Italy and Spain, counting on the Contact Committee of Heads of SAIs of the European Economic Community countries, paved the way for EUROSAI by preparing the initial drafts of EUROSAI Statutes. In June 1989 the XIII INTOSAI Congress, held in Berlin, adopted the “Berlin Declaration” comprising the agreement of creating the European organisation of SAIs. In November 1990, the Constitutive Conference and the first Congress of EUROSAI were held in Madrid (Spain). During this event, the first EUROSAI President and Governing Board were elected, the Statutes were debated and approved, and the headquarters and permanent Secretariat were established.

Tasks.

The objectives of the organisation, defined in Article 1 of its Statutes, are to promote professional cooperation among SAI members and other organizations, to encourage the exchange of information and documentation, to advance the study of public sector audit, to stimulate the creation of university professorships in this subject and to work towards the harmonisation of terminology in the field of public sector audit.

Bodies.

EUROSAI undertakes its activity through three bodies, i.e. the Congress, the Governing Board and the Secretariat.

Congress.

According to the organisation’s Statutes, the EUROSAI Congress is the supreme authority of the organisation and consists of all its members. It is convened every three years. Up to now, the following congresses have taken place: The next Congress will be held in the Czech Republic in 2020.

Governing Board.

According to the Statutes, the EUROSAI Governing Board is composed of eight members: four full-fledged members (Heads of the SAIs that hosted the last two ordinary sessions of Congress, Head of the SAI to hold the next regular session of Congress, and Secretary General of EUROSAI), and four members elected by the Congress for a period of six years (two members renewable every three years). The Heads of SAIs that are part of the INTOSAI Governing Board and are EUROSAI members also participate in the Governing Board, as observers.

Secretariat.

The Secretariat is held permanently by the SAI of Spain (Tribunal de Cuentas), which is also the EUROSAI headquarters.

Strategic Plan.

The VIII EUROSAI Congress in Lisbon adopted the EUROSAI Strategic Plan 2011-2017. This first strategic plan defines the organisation’s mission, vision and values:  It is based on 4 strategic goals that reflect the needs and priorities of the organisation’s membership:  The current model has been designed in accordance with the principles of good governance and effective communication. This model also reflects the strategic goals, encourages the widest possible involvement of the member SAIs in the work of the organisation, and builds strong links among all EUROSAI bodies that are involved in implementing the strategic plan.

EUROSAI - European Organization of Supreme Audit Institutions - is one of the seven regional working groups of the International Organization of Supreme Audit Institutions (INTOSAI).


SS service.

NSDAP #: 4 691 488 - (Joined 1 May 1937) SS #: 257 146 - (Joined, 1 October 1935)  Ostendorff joined the army in 1925. In 1933 and 1934, he helped form an SA military training school, and then transferred to the Luftwaffe. Moving to the SS-Verfügungstruppe in 1935, he was an instructor at an SS school until April 1938. Ostendorff then transferred to the new "SS-Standarte "Der Führer"". With the forming of the first SS division on 10 October 1939, that became SS Division Das Reich, he was appointed divisional chief of staff and held the post until June 1942. Ostendorff was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross on 13 September 1941 for leading a counter-attack against the village of Ushakovo in the vicinity of Smolensk which dominated the important Yelnya-Dorogobuzh road. The village was recaptured and the danger of a Soviet breakthrough was eliminated. Ostendorff led "Kampfgruppe Das Reich" on the Eastern front from February to June 1942, earning the German Cross in Gold. When Paul Hausser formed the initial SS corps in June 1942, he selected Ostendorff as his chief of staff. He held the post with "SS-Generalkommando" (later II SS Panzer Corps) until November 1943. Promoted to Oberführer for his actions at Kharkov, he was next given a divisional command. Ostendorff was assigned command of the SS Division Götz von Berlichingen, assuming command in January 1944. During the fighting in Normandy, Ostendorff was seriously wounded near Carentan on 16 June 1944. Resuming command on 21 October 1944, he remained the division's commander until transferred in late November 1944.  Ostendorff was promoted to Gruppenführer on 1 December 1944 and became chief of staff for Heinrich Himmler's Army Group Oberrhein from 2 December 1944 to 22 January 1945. His final posting was to SS Division Das Reich as divisional commander, assuming command on 10 February 1945, and led the division until seriously wounded on 9 March 1945 during the fighting in Hungary. Werner Ostendorff died at a field hospital in Bad Aussee on 1 May 1945.

Personal life.

Werner Ostendorff was a son of the Prussian "Regierungsvizepräsident" Ernst Ostendorff. Married in October 1935, he and his wife had two sons and a daughter.

Werner Ostendorff (15 August 1903 – 1 May 1945) was a German SS-general during World War II who served as chief of staff of the II SS Panzer Corps and divisional commander of the SS Division Das Reich. He died of wounds in May 1945.


Early life.

Marozia was born about 890. She was the daughter of the Roman consul Theophylact, Count of Tusculum, and of Theodora, the real power in Rome, whom Liutprand of Cremona characterized as a "shameless whore... [who] exercised power on the Roman citizenry like a man."  At the age of fifteen, Marozia became the mistress of Theophylact's cousin Pope Sergius III, whom she knew when he was bishop of Portus. The two had a son, John (the later Pope John XI). That, at least, is the story found in two contemporary sources, the "Liber Pontificalis" and the "Antapodosis sive Res per Europam gestae" (958–62), by Liutprand of Cremona (c. 920–72). But a third contemporary source, the annalist Flodoard (c. 894–966), says John XI was brother of Alberic II, the latter being the offspring of Marozia and her husband Alberic I. Hence John too may have been the son of Marozia and Alberic I.  Marozia married Alberic I, duke of Spoleto, in 909, and their son Alberic II was born in 911 or 912. By the time Alberic I was killed at Orte in 924, the Roman landowners had won complete victory over the traditional bureaucracy represented by the papal curia. Rome was virtually under secular control, the historic nadir of the papacy.

Guy of Tuscany.

In order to counter the influence of Pope John X (whom the hostile chronicler Liutprand of Cremona alleges was another of her lovers), Marozia subsequently married his opponent Guy of Tuscany, who loved his beautiful wife as much as he loved power. Together they attacked Rome, arrested Pope John X in the Lateran, and jailed him in the Castel Sant'Angelo. Either Guy had him smothered with a pillow in 928 or he simply died, perhaps from neglect or ill treatment. Marozia seized power in Rome in a "coup d'état". The following popes, Leo VI and Stephen VII, were both her puppets. In 931 she even managed to impose her son as pontiff, under the name of John XI. John was only twenty-one at the time.

Hugh of Arles, and death.

When her husband died in 929, Marozia negotiated a marriage with his half-brother Hugh of Arles, who had been elected King of Italy. Hugh was already married, but had that marriage annulled so that Hugh and Marozia could be wed. Alberic II, Marozia's son, led the opposition to the rule of Marozia and Hugh. After deposing them in 932, at the very wedding ceremonies, Alberic II imprisoned his mother until her death. Hugh escaped the city.  Marozia would remain in prison for some 5 years before she died. Marozia may well have had the misfortune of having eloquent detractors: the "Liber Pontificalis" and the chronicle of Liutprand of Cremona are the main sources for the details of her life. Although given the level of widespread violence and corruption of the period, there was more than likely little to be exaggerated.  Alberic II was in his turn father of Octavian, who became Pope John XII in 955. Popes Benedict VIII, John XIX, Benedict IX, and antipope Benedict X of the House of Tusculani were also Marozia's descendants. By Guy of Tuscany she had a daughter named Berta Theodora, who never married.

Marozia, born Maria and also known as Mariuccia or Mariozza ( 890 – 937), was a Roman noblewoman who was the alleged mistress of Pope Sergius III and was given the unprecedented titles "senatrix" ("senatoress") and "patricia" of Rome by Pope John X.


Historical foundations.

After a series of structural adjustment loans and debt restructuring led by the International Monetary Fund in the late 20th century, Latin America experienced a significant increase in inequality. Between 1990 and 1999, the Gini coefficient rose in almost every Latin American country. Volatile prices and inflation led to dissatisfaction. In 2000, only 37% of Latin Americans were satisfied with their democracies (20 points less than Europeans and 10 points less than sub-Saharan Africans). In this context, a wave of left-leaning socio-political movements on behalf of indigenous rights, "cocaleros", labor rights, women's rights, land rights and educational reform emerged to eventually provide momentum for the election of socialist leaders. Socialism of the 21st century draws on indigenous traditions of communal governance and previous Latin America socialist and communist movements, including those of Salvador Allende, Fidel Castro, Che Guevara, the Zapatista Army of National Liberation and the Sandinista National Liberation Front.

Theoretical tenets.

According to Dieterich, this form of socialism is revolutionary in that the existing society is altered to be qualitatively different, but the process itself should be gradual and non-violent, instead utilising participatory democracy to secure power, education, scientific knowledge about society and international cooperation. Dieterich suggests the construction of four basic institutions within the new reality of post-capitalist civilisation:

Latin American application.

Regional integration.

The model of socialism of the 21st century encourages economic and political integration among nations in Latin America and the Caribbean. This is often accompanied with opposition to North American influence. Regional organizations like ALBA, CELAC, Mercosur and UNASUR promote cooperation with Latin America and exclude North American countries. ALBA is most explicitly related to socialism of the 21st century while other organizations focus on economic integration, ALBA promotes social, political and economic integration among countries that subscribe to democratic socialism. Its creation was announced in direct opposition to George W. Bush's attempts to establish a Free Trade Area of the Americas that included the United States. In 2008, ALBA introduced a monetary union using the SUCRE as its regional currency.

Bolivarian process.

Former Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez called the process of social reforms in Venezuela the Bolivarian process. This approach is more heavily influenced by the theories of Istvàn Mészáros, Michael Lebowitz and Marta Harnecker (who was Chávez's adviser between 2004 and 2011) than by those of Heinz Dieterich. The process draws its name from Latin American liberator Simón Bolívar and is a contemporary example of Bolivarianism.

"Buen vivir".

Often translated to good living or living well, the concept of "buen vivir" is related to the movement for indigenous rights and rights of nature. It focuses on the living sustainably as the member of a community that includes both human beings and Nature. "Buen vivir" is enshrined in Ecuador's new constitution as an alternative to neoliberal development. The constitution outlines a set of rights, one of which is the rights of nature. In line with the assertion of these rights, "buen vivir" seeks to change the relationship between nature and humans to a more bio-pluralistic view, eliminating the separation between nature and society. This approach has been applied to the Yasuní-ITT Initiative. "Buen vivir" is sometimes conceptualised as collaborative consumption in a sharing economy and the term is used to look at the world in way sharply differentiated from natural, social or human capital.

Criticism.

Authoritarianism.

Critics claim that socialism of the 21st century in Latin America acts as a façade for authoritarianism. The charisma of figures like Hugo Chávez and mottoes like "Country, Socialism, or Death!" have drawn comparisons to the Latin American dictators and "caudillos" of the past. According to Steven Levitsky of Harvard University: "Only under the dictatorships of the past [...] were presidents reelected for life", with Levitsky further stating that while Latin America experienced democracy, citizens opposed "indefinite reelection, because of the dictatorships of the past". Levitsky then noted: "In Nicaragua, Venezuela and Ecuador, reelection is associated with the same problems of 100 years ago". "The Washington Post" also stated in 2014 that "Bolivia's Evo Morales, Daniel Ortega of Nicaragua and the late Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez [...] used the ballot box to weaken or eliminate term limits".  In 2015, "The Economist" stated that the Bolivarian Revolution in Venezuela—now under Nicolás Maduro after Chávez's death in 2013—was devolving from authoritarianism to dictatorship as opposition politicians were jailed for plotting to undermine the government, violence was widespread and opposition media shut down. Western media coverage of Chávez and other Latin American leaders from the 21st-century socialist movement has been criticised as unfair by their supporters and leftist media critics.

Economics.

The sustainability and stability of economic reforms associated with governments adhering to socialism of the 21st century have been questioned. Latin American countries have primarily financed their social programs with extractive exports like petroleum, natural gas and minerals, creating a dependency that some economists claim has caused inflation and slowed growth. For the Bolivarian government of Venezuela, their economic policies led to shortages in Venezuela, a high inflation rate and a dysfunctional economy. However, the Chávez and Maduro governments have attributed Venezuela's economic problems to the decline in oil prices, sanctions imposed by the United States and economic sabotage by the opposition.  In 2015, Venezuela's economy was performing poorly—the currency had collapsed, it had the world's highest inflation rate and its GDP shrank into an economic recession. A 2017 NACLA analysis stated that "reductions in poverty and inequality during the Chávez years were real, but somewhat superficial. [...] [S]tructural poverty and inequality, such as the quality of housing, neighborhoods, education, and employment, remained largely unchanged".

Populism.

Although democratic socialist intellectuals have welcomed a socialism of the 21st century, they have been sceptical of Latin America's examples. While citing their progressive role, they argue that the appropriate label for these governments is populist rather than socialist.

Socialism of the 21st century () is an interpretation of socialist principles first advocated by German sociologist and political analyst Heinz Dieterich and taken up by a number of Latin American leaders. Dieterich argued in 1996 that both free-market industrial capitalism and 20th-century socialism have failed to solve urgent problems of humanity like poverty, hunger, exploitation, economic oppression, sexism, racism, the destruction of natural resources and the absence of a truly participative democracy. Socialism of the 21st century has democratic socialist elements, but it primarily resembles Marxist revisionism.


Personal data.

Nagel was born on October 27, 1946, in Canton, Illinois, to parents Ivan R. Nagel (1912–2008) and Helene M. Nagel (; 1914–2004). He had one sibling, sister Janice, who predeceased him. He was married to fellow astronaut Linda M. Godwin of Jackson, Missouri. They had two daughters. His hobbies included sport flying, amateur radio operations and music. His wife's father, Mr. James M. Godwin, resides in Oak Ridge, Missouri.

Education.

Nagel graduated from Canton High School, Canton, Illinois, in 1964; received a Bachelor of Science degree in Aeronautical and Astronautical Engineering (high honors) from the University of Illinois in 1969, and a Master of Science degree in Mechanical Engineering from California State University, Fresno, in 1978.

Flight experience.

Nagel received his commission in 1969 through the Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps (AFROTC) program at the University of Illinois. He completed Undergraduate Pilot Training at Laredo Air Force Base, Texas, in February 1970, and subsequently reported to Luke Air Force Base, Arizona, for F-100 training. From October 1970 to July 1971, Nagel was an F-100 pilot with the 68th Tactical Fighter Squadron at England Air Force Base, Louisiana. He served a 1-year tour of duty as a T-28 instructor for the Laotian Air Force at Udon RTAFB, Udon Thani, Thailand, prior to returning to the United States in October 1972 to assume A-7D instructor pilot and flight examiner duties at England Air Force Base, Louisiana.  Nagel attended the USAF Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base, California, from February 1975 to December 1975. In January 1976, he was assigned to the 6512th Test Squadron located at Edwards. As a test pilot, he worked on various projects which included flying the F-4 and A-7D.  He logged 12,600 hours flying time—9,640 hours in jet aircraft.

NASA career.

Nagel became a NASA astronaut in August 1979. His technical assignments included: backup T-38 chase pilot for STS-1; support crew and backup entry spacecraft (CAPCOM) for STS-2; support crew and primary entry CAPCOM for STS-3; software verification at the Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory (SAIL) and the Flight Simulation Laboratory (FSL); representing the Astronaut Office in the development of a crew escape system for the Space Shuttle; Acting Chief of the Astronaut Office. With the completion of his fourth flight, Nagel had logged a total of 723 hours in space. Nagel retired from the Air Force, effective February 28, 1995. He retired from the Astronaut Office, effective March 1, 1995, to assume the full-time position of Deputy Director for Operations Development, Safety, Reliability, and Quality Assurance Office, Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas. In September 1996, Nagel transferred to Aircraft Operations Division where he performs duties as a Research Pilot. Nagel was a veteran of four space flights (STS-51-G and STS-61-A in 1985, STS-37 in 1991, and STS-55 in 1993) as described below:

Spaceflight experience.

Nagel first flew as a Mission Specialist on STS-51G, which launched from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on June 17, 1985. The crew aboard the Shuttle "Discovery" deployed communications satellites for Mexico (Morelos), the Arab League (Arabsat), and the United States (AT&T Telstar). They used the Remote Manipulator System (RMS) to deploy and later retrieve the SPARTAN satellite which performed 17 hours of x-ray astronomy experiments while separated from the Space Shuttle. In addition, the crew activated the Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF), six "Getaway Specials," participated in biomedical experiments, and conducted a laser tracking experiment as part of the Strategic Defense Initiative. After completing approximately 170 hours of space flight, "Discovery" landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on June 24, 1985.  Nagel then flew as pilot on STS-61A, the West German D-1 Spacelab mission, which launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on October 30, 1985. This mission was the first in which payload activities were controlled from outside the United States. More than 75 scientific experiments were completed in the areas of physiological sciences, materials processing, biology, and navigation. After completing 111 orbits of the Earth, Shuttle "Challenger" landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California on November 6, 1985. On his third flight, Nagel was Commander of STS-37, which launched into orbit on April 5, 1991, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, and landed on April 11, 1991, at Edwards Air Force Base, California. During this mission the crew aboard the Shuttle "Atlantis" deployed the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory for the purpose of exploring gamma ray sources throughout the universe. The crew and conducted the first scheduled space walk in more than five and one-half years, and the first successful unscheduled space walk to free a stuck antenna on the satellite. Nagel also served as Commander of STS-55, the German D-2 Spacelab mission. After launching on April 26, 1993, on the Shuttle "Columbia"; the crew landed 10 days later on May 6, 1993, at Edwards Air Force Base, California. During the ambitious mission 89 experiments were performed in many disciplines such as materials processing, life sciences, robotics, technology, astronomy and earth mapping.  In total, he logged 723 hours in space.

Post-NASA career.

In 2011, Nagel and his wife Linda moved to Columbia, Missouri, where they both were teaching at the University of Missouri. Nagel was a retention specialist in the College of Engineering and instructor in the Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Department, specializing in aerospace propulsion; Godwin was a professor in the physics department, specializing in astronomy.  Specifically he worked at the University of Missouri College of Engineering. There he served as an instructor in the University's Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Department.

Organizations.

Life member of the Order of Daedalians and Alpha Delta Phi; and honorary member of Phi Eta Sigma, Sigma Tau, Tau Beta Pi, and Sigma Gamma Tau.

Special honors.

Awarded the Air Force Distinguished Flying Cross and the Air Medal with 7 Oak Leaf Clusters; and for Undergraduate Pilot Training, recipient of the Commander's Trophy, the Flying Trophy, the Academic Trophy, and the Orville Wright Achievement Award (Order of Daedalians); also presented the Air Force Meritorious Service Medal (1978).  Recipient of 4 NASA Space Flight Medals, (1985, 1991, 1993), NASA Exceptional Service Medals (1988, 1989), NASA Outstanding Leadership Medal (1992), AAS Flight Achievement Award, STS-37 Crew (1992), Outstanding Alumni Award (University of Illinois, 1992), NASA Distinguished Service Medal (1994), Distinguished Alumni Award (California State University, Fresno, 1994), Lincoln Laureate (State of Illinois, 1994).

Death.

Nagel died in Columbia, Missouri from advanced melanoma on August 21, 2014. He was 67 years old.

Steven Ray Nagel (October 27, 1946 – August 21, 2014), (Col, USAF), was an American astronaut, aeronautical and mechanical engineer, test pilot, and a United States Air Force pilot. In total, he logged 723 hours in space. After NASA, he worked at the University of Missouri College of Engineering as an instructor in its Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Department.


Early life.

Maria Teresa was born in Palazzo Colonna in Rome, the daughter of King Victor Emmanuel I of Sardinia and of his wife, Archduchess Maria Teresa of Austria-Este. She had a twin sister Maria Anna. The two princesses were baptised by Pope Pius VII. Their godparents were their maternal grandparents, Archduke Ferdinand of Austria-Este and his wife Maria Beatrice Ricciarda d'Este. In the Museo di Roma can be seen a painting of the baptism.  Maria Teresa spent the majority of her childhood in Cagliari on the island of Sardinia, where her family had taken refuge from the armies of Napoleon I of France. In 1814 her father was restored to rule in Piedmont and the family returned to Turin. She had hoped to marry her cousin Charles Albert of Savoy who in 1817 married Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria, a daughter of the Duke of Tuscany.

Marriage.

On 5 September 1820, in Lucca, Maria Teresa married Charles Louis, Prince of Lucca.  They had two children:  Maria Teresa was beautiful, tall, regal with a noble and melancholic expression. Charles Louis, Prince of Lucca was handsome and they were said to be the best looking royal couple of their time. However they were mismatched. She was a deeply religious woman committed to her Catholic faith. Charles Louis lived largely for his own pleasure often ignoring his governmental responsibilities. They lived most of their married life apart from each other. "Even if there was no love", Charles Louis later commented, "there was respect".  On 13 March 1824, Charles Louis' mother died, and he succeeded her as Duke Charles I of Lucca; Maria Teresa became "Duchess of Lucca". Neglected by her husband who had numerous affairs, she turned increasingly towards religion and grew disdainful of court life and entertainments, to which her husband was attached. He sometimes dragged her in his travels and in 1829 she accompanied him visiting the court of Saxony. Their relationship, cold from the beginning, deteriorated quickly with time.

Later life.

Eventually she retired completely from the court of Lucca, settling permanently first in Villa di Marlia and later to her villa at Pianore, where surrounded by priest and nuns, she dedicated her life to religion. After 1840 she lived in complete religious seclusion in Pianore. She was very attached to her own Sardinian family and lived a life dedicated to religion. She surrounded herself by her confessor and her homeopathic doctors. Her husband visited her but he commented that her weak intellect and lack of sensitivity "would enable her to live a century ". She had little influence over their son who, in 1845, married princess Louise Marie Thérèse d'Artois, a daughter of the Duke of Berry and the only sister of the French legitimate pretender the Count of Chambord.  On 17 December 1847, the Empress Marie Louise died, and, in accordance with the Congress of Vienna, Charles exchanged the duchy of Lucca for that of Parma, becoming Duke Charles II of Parma; Maria Teresa became "Duchess of Parma" but only for few months. The revolution broke out in March 1848. In March 1849 Charles abdicated as duke of Parma and was succeeded by their son, Charles III.  Maria Teresa lived mostly at her villa at Viareggio, particularly after the assassination of her son in 1854. There she built a chapel as a memorial for her son. Later she lived in a villa in San Martino in Vignale on the hills just north of Lucca served only by her confessor and the administrator of the property. The villa is still called "Tenuta Maria Teresa" in her honor. There she died in 1879 as a result of cerebral arteriosclerosis. She was buried in the Verano cemetery in Rome, dressed in the habit of the Third Order of St. Dominic.

Maria Teresa of Savoy, (Maria Teresa Fernanda Felicitas Gaetana Pia; 19 September 1803 – 16 July 1879) was Duchess consort of Parma and Piacenza by marriage to Charles II, Duke of Parma (Duke Charles I of Lucca).


Biography.

Early life.

Zofia Kossak was the daughter of Tadeusz Kossak, who was the twin brother of painter Wojciech Kossak, and granddaughter of painter Juliusz Kossak. She married twice. In 1923, following the death of her first husband Stefan Szczucki in Lwiw, she settled in the village of Górki Wielkie in Cieszyn Silesia where in 1925 she married Zygmunt Szatkowski.

Activism.

She was associated with the Czartak literary group, and wrote mainly for the Catholic press. Her best-known work from that period is "The Blaze", a memoir of the Russian Revolution of 1917. In 1936, she received the prestigious Gold Laurel ("Złoty Wawrzyn") of the Polish Academy of Literature. Kossak-Szczucka's historical novels include "Beatum scelus" (1924), "Złota wolność" (Golden Liberty, 1928), "Legnickie pole" ("The Field of Legnica", 1930), "Trembowla" (1939), "Suknia Dejaniry" ("The Gift of Nessus", 1939). Best known are "Krzyżowcy" ("Angels in The Dust", 1935), "Król trędowaty" ("The Leper King", 1936), and "Bez oręża" ("Blessed are The Meek", 1937) dealing with the Crusades and later "Francis of Assisi", translated into several languages. She also wrote "Z miłości" ("From Love", 1926) and "Szaleńcy boży" ("God's Madmen", 1929), on religious themes.

World War II.

Press activities.

During the German occupation of Poland, she worked in the underground press: from 1939 to 1941, she co-edited the underground newspaper "Polska żyje" ("Poland Lives"). In 1941, she co-founded the Catholic organization "Front Odrodzenia Polski" ("Front for the Rebirth of Poland"), and edited its newspaper, "Prawda" ("The Truth"). In the underground, she used the code name "Weronika".

"Protest!".

In the summer of 1942, when the liquidation of the Warsaw Ghetto began, Kossak-Szczucka published a leaflet entitled "Protest," of which 5,000 copies were printed. In the leaflet, she described in graphic terms the conditions in the Ghetto, and the horrific circumstances of the deportations then taking place. "All will perish... Poor and rich, old, women, men, youngsters, infants, Catholics dying with the name of Jesus and Mary together with Jews. Their only guilt is that they were born into the Jewish nation condemned to extermination by Hitler."  The world, Kossak-Szczucka wrote, was silent in the face of this atrocity. "England is silent, so is America, even the influential international Jewry, so sensitive in its reaction to any transgression against its people, is silent. Poland is silent... Dying Jews are surrounded only by a host of Pilates washing their hands in innocence." Those who are silent in the face of murder, she wrote, become accomplices to the crime. Kossak-Szczucka saw this largely as an issue of religious ethics. "Our feelings toward Jews have not changed," she wrote. "We do not stop thinking of them as political, economic and ideological enemies of Poland." But, she wrote, this does not relieve Polish Catholics of their duty to oppose the crimes being committed in their country.  She co-founded the Provisional Committee to Aid Jews ("Tymczasowy Komitet Pomocy Żydom"), which later turned into the Council to Aid Jews ("Rada Pomocy Żydom"), codenamed Żegota, an underground organization whose sole purpose was to save Jews in Poland from Nazi extermination. In 1985, she was posthumously named one of the Righteous Among the Nations by Yad Vashem.  Regarding Kossak-Szczucka's "Protest", Robert D. Cherry and Annamaria Orla-Bukowska wrote in the introduction to "Rethinking Poles and Jews": "Without at all whitewashing her antisemitism in the document, she vehemently called for active intercession on behalf of the Jews - precisely in the name of Polish Roman Catholicism and Polish patriotism. The deportations from the Warsaw Ghetto precipitated her cofounding of Żegota that same year - an Armia Krajowa (AK, Home Army) unit whose sole purpose was to save Jews."

Arrest.

On September 27th 1943 Kossak-Szczucka in Warsaw was arrested by a German street patrol. The Germans, not realising who she was, sent her first to the prison at Pawiak and then to Auschwitz II-Birkenau concentration camp. In April 1944 when her true identity became known, she was sent back to Warsaw for interrogation and sentenced to death. End July 1944 she was released through the efforts of the Polish underground and participated in the Warsaw Uprising.

Post-war.

At the end of World War II, a communist regime began to establish itself in Poland. In June 1945, Kossak was called in by Jakub Berman, the new Polish Minister of the Interior, who was Jewish. He strongly advised her to leave the country immediately for her own protection, knowing what his government would do to political enemies, and also knowing from his brother, Adolf Berman, what Kossak had done to save Jewish lives. Kossak escaped to the West, but returned to Poland in 1957.  Kossak-Szczucka published "Z otchłani" ("From the Abyss", 1946), based on her experiences of Auschwitz. "Dziedzictwo" (1956–67) is about the Kossak family. "Przymierze" ("The Covenant", 1951) tells the story of Abraham. Kossak-Szczucka also wrote books for children and teenagers, including "Bursztyn" (1936) and "Gród nad jeziorem" ("Settlement by the Lake", 1938).  In 1964 she was one of the signatories of the so-called Letter of 34 to Prime Minister Józef Cyrankiewicz regarding freedom of culture.  In 1982 the Yad Vashem Institute in Jerusalem recognised Zofia Kossak as a Righteous Among Nations. In 2009, the National Bank of Poland issued a coin posthumously commemorating the work of Kossak, Irena Sendler and Matylda Getter in helping Jews (see Żegota). In 2018 Zofia Kossak was awarded the highest Polish order, the Order of the White Eagle.  Zofia's daughter, Anna Szatkowska (15 March 1928, Górki Wielkie – 27 February 2015), wrote a book about her experience during the Warsaw Uprising.

Works.

She has been an author many works, a number of which have been translated into English.  Selected works:

Zofia Kossak-Szczucka (; 10 August 1889 – 9 April 1968) was a Polish writer and World War II resistance fighter. She co-founded two wartime Polish organizations: Front for the Rebirth of Poland and Żegota, set up to assist Polish Jews to escape the Holocaust. In 1943, she was arrested by the Germans and sent to Auschwitz Concentration Camp, but survived the war.


Early life.

Princess Wilhelmine Marie was born the daughter of Crown Prince Frederick by his wife and first cousin Princess Marie Sophie of Hesse-Kassel. Her father Frederick was the only son of King Christian VII of Denmark. He had been appointed regent at the age of 16 in 1784 because his father, King Christian VII, had major psychological problems and was mentally incapable of functioning as king. Within two months of Wilhelmine Marie's birth, her grandfather died of a cerebral aneurysm and her father became king. At the time of her death, she was the last surviving grandchild of Christian VII.

First marriage.

Since her father had no surviving legitimate sons, Wilhelmine Marie was a very desirable bride. Among her suitors was the future Oscar I of Sweden of the then newly established Bernadotte dynasty. On 1 November 1828 in Copenhagen, she married Prince Frederick of Denmark, the future King Frederick VII. The engagement had been made official in 1826. Prince Frederick was a direct male-line descendant of King Frederick V by his second Queen Juliana Maria of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. The marriage united the two lines of the Royal House, which had been in a strained relationship since 1814, and was very popular: the public celebrations were unusually vivid, with illuminations, poems, public festivities and a foundation, Vilhelmine-Stiftelsen, for the benefit of providing brides with a suitable equipment. The marriage soon turned out to be an unhappy one. That was not least because of Frederick's debauched lifestyle with infidelity and heavy drinking. It was said that Wilhelmine, although good hearted and mild, lacked character and was unable to gain any influence on Frederick, and that Frederick deeply hurt her "female feelings". Her unhappy marriage was also a cause of concern for her parents, who felt sorry for her. The couple were separated in 1834, and divorced in 1837.

Second marriage.

In Amalienborg Palace on 19 May 1838 she married second Karl, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, eldest brother of the future King Christian IX of Denmark, and took residence in Kiel. Her second marriage was said to have been very happy. Both her marriages were childless. Many believe that she was barren as there are no records of her having any miscarriages or stillbirths.  During the First Schleswig War (1848–1851), her spouse actively sided against Denmark. That caused Wilhelmine's relations with the Danish Royal family to be severed for some time. During the war, she resided in Dresden. In 1852 there was a reconciliation and she again enjoyed a close relationship with her family in Copenhagen, returning to Denmark with Karl, often living at Louisenlund Castle. Her status as the daughter of a well-loved King helped her to regain her popularity among the Danish people. Her consort never did. In 1870, she took residence in Glücksburg Castle, where she lived the rest of her life. Karl died in 1878. Wilhelmine spent her old age isolated, as she had difficulty communicating in social life after she lost her hearing, but she spent a lot of time on charity and became popular in Glücksburg because of this. She was reportedly sorry for Denmark's loss of the duchies in 1864 and happy over the new royal dynasty in Denmark.

Princess Wilhelmine Marie of Denmark and Norway (; ) (18 January 1808, Kiel, Duchy of Holstein – 30 May 1891 in Glücksburg, Schleswig-Holstein, Prussia, Germany) was a Princess of Denmark by birth, as daughter of King Frederick VI. She married her agnatic second cousin, the future King Frederick VII of Denmark, but the marriage ended in divorce.


Family and early life.

Her paternal grandparents were George I of Greece and Olga Konstantinovna of Russia. Her maternal grandparents were Friedrich III, German Emperor, and his Empress consort Victoria. Victoria was a daughter of Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom.  Irene was born in Athens, preceded in birth by three brothers, George (1890), Alexander (1893) and Paul (1901), and one sister, Helen (1896). Another sister, Katherine was born in 1913. In 1927, her brother, George, announced her engagement to Prince Christian of Schaumburg-Lippe, a nephew of Christian X of Denmark, but no marriage occurred.

Marriage.

On 1 July 1939, Princess Irene married Prince Aimone, Duke of Spoleto (b. 9 March 1900 in Florence, Italy) They had one child:  In March 1942 Irene, who was a trained nurse, headed a Red Cross hospital train going to Russia to repatriate wounded Italian soldiers. After a difficult journey, she returned to Florence the following month. Prince Aimone became the 4th Duke of Aosta on 3 March 1942, following the death of his elder brother, Amedeo. On 18 May 1941, taking the name Tomislav II, he was proclaimed King of the Independent State of Croatia, a puppet state of fascist Germany and Italy, but he never set foot on the territory of the state and abdicated in 1943.  After the Allied armistice with the Kingdom of Italy, the princess was interned by the Germans at the Hotel Ifen in Hirschegg, Austria, July 1944, along with her infant son, her sister-in-law and two nieces. They were liberated by the French in May 1945.  After the war and the 1946 plebiscite which ended the monarchy in Italy, the family went into exile. Prince Aimone died on 29 January 1948 in Buenos Aires. Upon his death, his son Amedeo succeeded him as the 5th Duke of Aosta. In June 1948, the family was allowed to return to Italy, and Irene spent the rest of her life living outside of Florence.  Princess Irene died on 15 April 1974 in Fiesole, Italy after fighting a long illness.

References.

Edward Hanson, The Wandering Princess: Princess Helene of France, Duchess of Aosta (1871-1951) [Fonthill, 2017].

Princess Irene of Greece and Denmark () (13 February 1904 – 15 April 1974) was the fifth child and second daughter of Constantine I of Greece and his wife, the former Princess Sophie of Prussia. She was a member of the royal families of Greece and Italy. From 1941 to 1943 she was also officially Queen Consort of Croatia.


Geography.

Rapa Iti is located at. It is shaped roughly like a Greek final sigma (ς), with a well-protected central bay, surrounded by a ring of relatively high mountains. The whole island appears very much to be the peak of a sinking volcano, with the bay as the caldera. The area of the main island is 38.5 km. Little Rapa Tauturau is an offshore island.  Its main town, Ahuréi (or Ha'uréi), lies on the southern shore of that bay, which is called the Baie d'Ahuréi. A smaller village, 'Area, is located on the northern shore of the bay. The people are Polynesian. Former times' warfare is indicated by 28 extant ridgetop forts. Today Rapa is home to the Tahitian Choir, in which a third of the island's population sing traditional songs.  Although sometimes considered part of the Austral Islands, Rapa Iti and the Bass Islands have a different geological, linguistic and cultural history.

History.

Rapa Iti was first settled by Polynesians, most likely in the 13th century. Their Polynesian dialect developed into what is today the Rapa language over the centuries. It is believed that the depletion of natural resources on the island resulted in warfare, and the inhabitants lived in up to 14 fortified settlements ("pa" or "pare", a type of fort) on peaks and clifftops. It is considered that the oldest of these is Morongo Uta, which was developed.  The first European to visit Rapa Iti was George Vancouver on 22 December 1791; he named the island Oparo. Contact with Europeans brought liquor and disease, and between 1824 and 1830 over three quarters of the natives died. Peruvian slavers raided the island as well. When a handful of their victims were returned to the island, they brought with them smallpox, which caused an epidemic. In 1826, there were almost 2000 inhabitants; forty years later, there were fewer than 120.  The independent island kingdom was declared a French protectorate in 1867. The British established a coaling station on the island, which prompted France to formally annex it on 6 March 1881. Subsequently, the native monarchy was abolished and the last queen, the daughter or Parima, was deposed on 18 June 1887.  Thor Heyerdahl, notably, made excavations in Morongo Uta, seeking links between Rapa Iti and Rapa Nui (Easter Island).

Climate.

As Rapa is well south of the Tropic of Capricorn, it doesn't have a tropical climate. Rather, its climate is closer to the oceanic and humid subtropical classifications. The island is devoid of coconuts due to the cool temperatures in winter, during which time, the temperature can drop below 9 °C (48 °F) at night. The summer is very mild but seldom very hot. Overall, Rapa is very windy, characteristic of the oceanic and subtropical influence. It receives about 2,500 mm of annual rainfall.

Environment.

The Manatau French Polynesian Reserve is a special French Polynesian Reserve to protect the animals and ridgetop forts of an area of southern Rapa. It is located near South Ahuréi.  The island is home to the endemic and vulnerable Rapa fruit dove which is threatened by habitat loss, predation by feral cats and hunting. Its population was estimated in 1989–90 at 274 individual birds. Other birds include the near threatened Murphy's petrel, the endangered Newell's shearwater, both of which nest there in small numbers, and the vulnerable bristle-thighed curlew which is a non-breeding visitor while migrating. Because of its significance for these species the island has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International.

Administration.

The commune of Rapa consists of the island of Rapa Iti and the four uninhabited Marotiri rocks.

Rapa, sometimes called Rapa Iti (Little Rapa, to distinguish it from "Rapa Nui" (Big Rapa), a name for Easter Island), is the largest and only inhabited island of the Bass Islands in French Polynesia. An older name for the island is Oparo. The total land area including offshore islets is. At the 2017 census it had a population of 507. The island rises to elevation at Mont Perahu. Its main town is Ahuréi.


Life.

Early years.

Born in Nomeny in the Duchy of Bar, Louise was the third daughter and youngest child of Nicholas of Lorraine, Duke of Mercœur, and Countess Marguerite d'Egmont. She was the only surviving child of her parents; her older siblings, two sisters and one brother, died in infancy.  Louise's mother died shortly before her first birthday in 1554, and her father quickly remarried in 1555 Princess Joanna of Savoy-Nemours, and gave Louise a solid classical education and introduced her to Nancy's court at the age of ten. Joanna of Savoy-Nemours died in 1568 and Louise's father contracted his third and last marriage in 1569 with Princess Catherine of Lorraine-Aumale.  At the age of 20, Louise was described as a beautiful and delicate tall, blonde girl with a white complexion, light brown eyes (veiled by a slight myopia), with a slender and refined silhouette. Her upbringing reportedly resulted in her personality being quiet, dutiful and pious.

The marriage proposal of Henry III.

Louise would first meet Henry in the autumn of 1573, when Henry, Duke of Anjou, was on his way to Krakow, the capital of his new kingdom, Poland-Lithuania. She attracted Henry's interest during a celebration in honor of Henry's election as King of Poland-Lithuania.  Following the death of Charles IX of France, Henry of Poland-Lithuania succeeded him under the name of Henry III of France and returned clandestinely to France. Louise was with her family traveling to Reims for Henry's coronation, when Philippe Hurault de Cheverny and Michel Du Guast arrived to make Henry's marriage proposal.

Queen of France.

Louise and Henry's wedding took place at the Cathedral of Reims in a ceremony celebrated by Charles, Cardinal de Bourbon two days after Henry's coronation, 15 February 1575. At the end of the month, the new Queen of France made her official entry to Paris with her husband.  Described as a "sweet and virtuous" young woman, Louise reportedly immediately and deeply fell in love with her husband, a feeling that never changed, despite the difficulties, tragedies, his infidelities and finally death. Being a pious a very simple person, she is said to have suffered terribly because of the conflicts between her family (the Houses of Guise and Lorraine and in particular between her brother Philippe Emmanuel, Duke of Mercœur) and her husband during the Wars of Religion.  Thanks to her calm personality, Louise duly accepted her husband's eccentricities: for example, Henry III loved to dress her in elegant dresses and made her into something of a fashion doll; she readily accepted this because she was happy for his attention. Coming from a simple upbringing in the country, Louise was given Jeanne de Dampierre as "Première dame d'honneur" to guide her in court protocol and manners, and Louise de la Béraudière as "Dame d'atour" to guide her in fashion and appearance to make her a Queen consort able to meet Henry III's idea of presentation, and they were both reported to have succeeded very well with their task. The King's interest in pampering Louise was used by his enemies against him; he was called "Hair-dresser to his Wife" in a libelous pamphlet.  The marriage did not produce children — apparently Louise was pregnant at the beginning of her marriage, but had a miscarriage in May 1575; however this is an unconfirmed rumor, as no pregnancy was ever officially announced. The Queen blamed herself for this and as a result became thin, suffering bouts of depression. Between 1579 and 1586, both she and her husband made numerous pious offerings and pilgrimages, especially to Chartres and spa treatments in the hope of having an heir. As a result, the heir presumptive was (after the death of the King's brother Francis, Duke of Anjou in 1584) the controversial Henry III of Navarre, a fact which placed additional pressure upon both Louise and her husband. In 1584, there were rumors that Henry III would divorce her, but they proved to be untrue. According to Brantôme, Louise was at one point advised by a lady-in-waiting, that because her marriage would not result in children, it would be wise to use a different method to accomplish this (referring to another biological father), but the Queen took deep offense at this advice and refused to listen.  As Queen consort, Louise was given a great representational role by Henry and often in his company, participating in ceremonies, parties, and receptions at his side, and performing representational tasks, such at the opening session of the Estates General and when she placed the foundation stone to Pont Neuf with her husband on 31 May 1578. She was never involved in state affairs except in a purely ceremonial sense: she attended the Council of the King, received ambassadors in her own chambers, and officiated over the opening of parliament when it was required that she perform such tasks for ceremonial reasons, but she never used these tasks to actually participate in politics.  Louise was popular among the public for her beauty and charitable personality. Due to this popularity, in 1588 she proved a moral symbolic support for the royal cause when she remained in Paris with her mother-in-law after the King had fled from the capital during his conflict with the Duke of Guise.

Queen Dowager.

After the assassination of her husband by the Dominican Jacques Clément on 1 August 1589, Louise fell into a state of permanent depression and began to dress in white, the traditional mourning colour of French queens, being nicknamed the "White Queen". As a dower land, she received the Duchy of Berry during her lifetime. She was working to rehabilitate the memory of her husband, who had been excommunicated after the assassination of the Cardinal of Guise. On 6 September 1589, barely a month after the death of her husband, Louise asked Henry IV to clear her late husband's name, and on 20 January 1594, she officially demanded the rehabilitation of Henry III at a ceremony in Nantes.  Following her husband's death and for the next 11 years, Louise lived at the Château de Chenonceau, which she received as inheritance from her mother-in-law; she installed her room on the second floor, and she covered the walls with black. The decor was rather somber with the attributes ordinarily reserved for mourning: crosses, shovels and tips of the burial, cornucopia shedding tears. This black and silver decoration was reproduced on the curtains of the bed and the windows. But the castle being mired in debts and having not itself a huge pension, she bequeathed it to her niece Françoise of Lorraine, the only surviving child and heiress of her brother, who later married César, Duke of Vendôme (illegitimate son of Henri IV and Gabrielle d'Estrées).  Louise died in the Château de Moulins in Moulins, Allier on 29 January 1601 and all her property was distributed or used to pay her debts. In September 1603, a papal bull ordered the construction of a Convent of Capuchins in Paris to bury her, which was done on 20 March 1608. Her remains, found in October 1805, are located since 1817 in the royal crypt of Saint Denis Basilica. She was the only Queen consort prior to the French Revolution to actually be buried in a tomb bearing her name in Saint-Denis.

Louise of Lorraine (French: Louise de Lorraine) (30 April 1553 – 29 January 1601), was Queen consort of France and briefly Queen consort of Poland and Grand Duchess consort of Lithuania by marriage to Henry III of France. As a Dowager Queen, she also held the title of Duchess of Berry from 1589 until her death.


Storage.

Local shared objects contain data stored by individual websites. Data is stored in the Action Message Format. With the default settings, the Flash Player does not seek the user's permission to store local shared objects on the hard disk. By default, a SWF application running in Flash Player from version 9 to 11 (as of Sept 1, 2011) may store up to of data to the user's hard drive. If the application attempts to store more, a dialog asks the user whether to allow or deny the request.  Adobe Flash Player does not allow third-party local shared objects to be shared across domains. For example, a local shared object from "www.example.com" cannot be read by the domain "www.example.net". However, the first party website can always pass data to a third party via some settings found in the dedicated XML file and passing the data in the request to the third party. Also, third party LSOs are allowed to store data by default. By default LSO data is shared across browsers on the same machine. As an example:  This is distinct from cookies which have directory isolated storage paths for saved cookies while LSOs use a common directory path for all browsers on a single machine.

Application to games.

Flash games may use LSO files to store the user's personal game data, such as user preferences and actual game progress. Backing up files such as these requires some technical understanding of software. However, both browser updates and programs designed to remove unused files may delete this data.  To prevent cheating, games may be designed to render LSO files unusable if acquired from another location.

Privacy concerns.

As with HTTP cookies, local shared objects can be used by web sites to collect information on how people navigate them, although users have taken steps to restrict data collection. Online banks, merchants, or advertisers may use local shared objects for tracking purposes.  On 10 August 2009, "Wired" magazine reported that more than half of the top websites used local shared objects to track users and store information about them but only four of them mentioned it in their privacy policy. "Flash cookies are relatively unknown to web users," it said, "even if a user thinks they have cleared their computer of tracking objects, they most likely have not." The article further says that some websites use Flash cookies as hidden backups, so that they can restore HTTP cookies deleted by users.  According to the "New York Times", by July 2010 there had been at least five class-action lawsuits in the United States against media companies for using local shared objects.  In certain countries, it is illegal to track users without their knowledge and consent. For example, in the United Kingdom, customers must consent to use of cookies/local shared objects: Local shared objects were the first subject to be discussed in the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) roundtable in January 2010. FTC Chairman Jon Leibowitz has been talking with Adobe about what it describes as "the Flash problem."

User control.

Users can disable local shared objects using the "Global Storage Settings panel" of the online Settings Manager at Adobe's website. However, this places a permanent flash cookie on the computer, informing all other websites that the user does not want flash cookies stored on their computer. Users can opt out of LSOs from specified sites from Flash Player's "Settings", accessed by right-clicking the Player, or using the "Website Storage Settings" panel; the latter also allows users to delete local shared objects.  Users may also delete local shared objects either manually or using third-party software. For instance, CCleaner, a standalone computer program for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X, allows users to delete local shared objects on demand. There is also a Firefox add-on, Clear Flash Cookies, which will automatically clear out all LSOs each time the browser is restarted.  Since version 10.3 of Flash, the Online Settings Manager (letting users configure privacy and security permissions via Adobe's website) is superseded by the Local Settings Manager on Windows, Mac, and Linux platforms. It can be accessed via the Windows Control Panel or Mac OS System Preferences. Users of other operating systems still use the Adobe Online Settings Manager. Since at least April 2012 (v 11.2.202.233), updating by downloading a new Flash version resets the security and privacy settings to the defaults of allowing local storage and asking for media access again, which may be against users' wishes.

Browser control.

Browser control refers to the web browser's ability to delete local shared objects and to prevent the creation of persistent local shared objects when privacy mode is enabled. As for the former, Internet Explorer 8, released on March 19, 2009, implements an API that allows browser extensions to co-operate with the browser and delete their persistent data stored when user issues a "Delete Browsing History" command. However, two years passed since its introduction until Adobe, on March 7, 2011, announced that Flash Player v10.3, which was still in development at the time, supports co-operating with Internet Explorer 8 or later to delete local shared objects.  Also on January 5, 2011, Adobe Systems, Google Inc., and Mozilla Foundation finalized a new browser API (dubbed "NPAPI ClearSiteData"). This will allow browsers implementing the API to clear local shared objects. Four months later, Adobe announced that Flash Player 10.3 enables Mozilla Firefox 4 and "future releases of Apple Safari and Google Chrome" to delete local shared objects, so since version 4, Firefox treats LSOs the same way as HTTP cookies - deletion rules that previously applied only to HTTP cookies now also apply to LSOs. This caused loss of data and backward-incompatible flash application behavior for those Firefox and Flash users who used HTTP cookies and Flash local shared objects for different goals. Mainly this affected flash gamers, who rely on Flash LSOs to store saved games. The resulting support requests cannot be solved favorably for Mozilla Firefox users without changes to the browser, because of the introduced equivalence between HTTP and flash cookies. Currently, the workaround in use is to either configure the browser to never clear history data and cookies, or to revert the part of the changes affecting this use case, using third-party patches.  As for the behavior in browser's privacy mode, Adobe Flash Player 10.1, released on June 10, 2010, supports the privacy modes of Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, and Safari. Local shared objects created in privacy are discarded at the end of the session. Those created in a regular session are also not accessible in privacy mode.

File locations.

The default storage location for local shared objects is operating system-dependent, and depends on the flash plugin being NPAPI or PPAPI.

NPAPI, ActiveX and standalone projector.

On Microsoft Windows NT 5.x and 6.x, they are stored in:  On Mac OS X, they are stored in:  On Linux or Unix, they are stored in:  For Linux and Unix systems, if the open-source Gnash plugin is being used instead of the official Adobe Flash, they will instead be found at:

PPAPI.

When using Google Chrome the location for the Pepper Flash (PPAPI) storage is:

A local shared object (LSO), commonly called a Flash cookie (due to its similarity with an HTTP cookie), is a piece of data that websites which use Adobe Flash may store on a user's computer. Local shared objects have been used by all versions of Flash Player (developed by Macromedia, which was later acquired by Adobe Systems) since version 6.


History and architecture.

Middle Ages to 18th century.

Tourists are told that Tverskaya Street existed as early as the 12th century. Its importance for the medieval city was immense, as it connected Moscow with its superior, and later chief rival, Tver. At that time, the thoroughfare crossed the Neglinnaya River. The first stone bridge across the Neglinnaya was set up in 1595.  In the 17th and 18th centuries, Tverskaya Street was renowned as the centre of Moscow's social life. The nobility considered it fashionable to settle in this district. Among the Palladian mansions dating from the reign of Catherine the Great are the residence of the mayor of Moscow (1778–82, rebuilt in ), and the English Club (1780s). The mayor's residence among a number of other historic buildings was moved about 14 meters for the widening of the Gorky Street during Stalin's time. On the square before it stands a statue of the legendary founder of Moscow, Yuri Dolgoruky, erected for the city's 800th anniversary.  During the imperial period, the importance of the thoroughfare was highlighted by the fact that it was through this street that the tsars arrived from the Northern capital to stay at their Kremlin residence. Several triumphal arches were constructed to commemorate coronation ceremonies. In 1792, the Tverskaya Square was laid out before the residence of the governor of Moscow as a staging ground for mass processions and parades. In 1947, the square was decorated with an equestrian statue of Prince Yury Dolgoruky, founder of Moscow.

19th century.

During Pushkin's time, the Tverskaya was lined with five churches. The poet wove his impressions from the street into the following stanza of "Eugene Onegin":  Towards the end of the 19th century, the street was reconstructed, with stately neoclassical mansions giving way to grandiose commercial buildings in an eclectic mixture of historical styles. A characteristic edifice of the time is the eclectic Hotel National, Moscow (1901-1903), whose interior is a landmark of Russian Art Nouveau. In 1888 the actor, theatre director and founder of the Moscow Art Theatre, Constantin Stanislavski, rented the Ginzburg House on the street and had it converted into a luxurious clubhouse with its own large stage and several exhibition rooms, in order to house his newly formed Society of Art and Literature. The Society gave its last performance there on 3 January 1891 and the building burnt down on the night of January 10.

Modern history.

Between the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the rise of Stalinist architecture in mid-1930s, the street acquired three modernist buildings - constructivist Izvestia Building by Grigory Barkhin (1925–1927, Pushkin Square), Central Telegraph Building (1927-29, 7 Tverskaya), a modernist masterpiece by Ivan Rerberg, and a stern "black cube" of the Lenin Institute in Tverskaya Square (1926) by Stepan Chernyshyov. The street was renamed in 1932 for Maxim Gorky, the Russian writer and revolutionary admired by both Vladimir Lenin and Josef Stalin.  Further expansion occurred in line with Joseph Stalin's 1935 master plan. During that period, all the churches and most other historic buildings were torn down in order to widen the street and replace low-rise buildings with larger, early Stalinist apartment blocks and government offices. Arkady Mordvinov, who handled this ambitious project, retained some historical buildings, like the ornately decorated Savvinskoye Podvorye by Ivan Kuznetsov. This building was moved to a new foundation North from the new street line, and is now completely enclosed inside Mordvinov's Stalinist block at 6, Tverskaya Street.  The project was only partially completed before World War II; more Stalinist blocks appeared in the 1940s and 1950s, still leaving a lot of 19th-century buildings. Most of them were torn down later, with a few exceptions like Yermolova Theatre still standing. Hotel Intourist, a 22-story tower built in 1970, was demolished in 2002 and replaced by the Ritz-Carlton Hotel Moscow.  When Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev assumed power, he encouraged a return to the country's old Russian names. Thus, the street's name became "Tverskaya Street" again, after a 55-year interlude as Gorky Street.

Layout and functions.

Tverskaya Street runs from the Manege Square through the Tverskoy District and the crossing with the Boulevard Ring, known as Pushkin Square, to the Garden Ring. Its extension, First Tverskaya-Yamskaya Street, continues further on Northwest right up to Belorussky Rail Terminal (Tverskaya Zastava Square), changing its name again into Leningradsky Prospekt. It keeps the same direction before diverging into Volokolamskoye Shosse and Leningradskoye Shosse ("Leningrad Highway").  Tverskaya Street is the most expensive shopping street in Moscow and Russia. According to an index published by global real estate company Colliers International in 2008, it is now the third most expensive street in the world, based on commercial rental fees. It is the center of the city's nightlife and entertainment.

Reconstruction plan, 2007-2009.

Plans for the reconstruction of the Tverskaya radius into a grade-separated freeway, already under way in remote parts of the route (see Leningradsky Prospekt Reconstruction for a complete schedule), have been authorized for Tverskaya Zastava and Pushkin Square in April, 2007, to be completed in 2009. Work is already underway at the first location. Both squares will acquire complex multi-level, grade-separated crossings and underground shopping malls, despite objections from preservationists and traffic experts.

Tverskaya Street (), known between 1935 and 1990 as Gorky Street (), is the main radial street in Moscow. The street runs Northwest from the central Manege Square in the direction of Saint Petersburg and terminates at the Garden Ring, giving the name to Tverskoy District. The route continues further as First Tverskaya-Yamskaya Street, Leningradsky Avenue and Leningradskoye Highway.


Subject.

The painting portrays a "fête galante"; an amorous celebration or party enjoyed by the aristocracy of France during the Régence after the death of Louis XIV, which is generally seen as a period of dissipation and pleasure, and peace, after the sombre last years of the previous reign.  The work celebrates love, with many cupids flying around the couples and pushing them closer together, as well as the statue of Venus (the goddess of sexual love). There are three pairs of lovers in the foreground. While the couple on the right by the statue are still engaged in their passionate tryst, another couple rises to follow a third pair down the hill, although the woman of the third pair glances back fondly at the goddess’s sacred grove. At the foot of the hill, several more happy couples are preparing to board the golden boat at the left. With its light and wispy brushstrokes, the hazy landscape in the background does not give to any clues about the season, or whether it is dawn or dusk.  It has often been noted that, despite the title, the people on the island seem to be leaving rather than arriving, especially since they have already paired up. Many art historians have come up with a variety of interpretations of the allegory of the voyage to the island of love. Watteau himself purposely did not give an answer. In the ancient world, Cythera, one of the Greek islands, was thought to be the birthplace of Venus, goddess of love. Thus, the island became sacred to the goddess and love. However, the subject of Cythera may have been inspired by certain 17th century operas or an illustration of a minor play. In Florent Carton Dancourt's "Les Trois Cousines" (The Three Cousins), a girl dressed as a pilgrim steps out from the chorus line and invites the audience to join her on a voyage to the island, where everyone will meet their ideal partner.

History.

It was around 1717 that Watteau painted his first, more literal version of the theme, which nonetheless bears a compositional similarity to the Louvre painting. This work is now in the Städtische Galerie im Städelschen Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt-am-Main.  When Watteau was accepted as a member of the Academy in 1714, he was expected to present the customary reception piece. Although he was given unusual freedom in choosing a subject for his painting, his failure to submit a work brought several reprimands. Meanwhile, Watteau worked on numerous private commissions that his rising reputation brought him. Finally, in January 1717, the Academy called Watteau to task, and in August of that year he presented his painting, which had been painted quickly in the preceding eight months. Once submitted, the painting caused the Academy to invent a new classification for it, since the subject was so striking and new. This resulted in the fête galantes (elegant fêtes or outdoor entertainments), a genre subsequently practiced by imitators of Watteau, such as Jean-Baptiste Pater and Nicolas Lancret. While the creation of the new category acknowledged Watteau as the originator of the genre, it also prevented him being recognised as history painter, the highest class of painter, and the only one from which the academy's professors were drawn. Charles-Antoine Coypel, the son of its then director, later said: "The charming paintings of this gracious painter would be a bad guide for whoever wished to paint the Acts of the Apostles."

Popularity.

In years after Watteau’s death, his art fell out of fashion. During the French Revolution, some eighty years after the work was painted, his depictions of lavishly set pastoral escapades were associated with the old days of the monarchy and a frivolous aristocracy. This particular piece, which had entered the collection of the Louvre in 1795, was used by art students for target practice; an account by Pierre Bergeret (1782–1863) describes the drawing students throwing bread pellets at it.</ref> In the early 19th century the curator at the Louvre was forced to place it in storage until 1816 in order to protect the painting from angry protesters. It was not until the 1830s that Watteau and the Rococo returned into fashion.

Derivative works.

In 1904 Claude Debussy wrote a piece for solo piano titled "L'Isle Joyeuse", which may have been inspired by the painting; the colorful and brilliant piano writing depicts the ecstasy of the lovers. Four decades later, Debussy's compatriot Francis Poulenc wrote a lively piece for two pianos which took the name of the painting for its title, "L'Embarquement pour Cythere".

On screen.

""Les secrets de la fête galante. Le pèlerinage à l'île de Cythère", film by Alain Jaubert from "Palettes" series (1995).

The Embarkation for Cythera ("L'Embarquement pour Cythère") is a painting by the French painter Jean-Antoine Watteau. It is also known as Voyage to Cythera and Pilgrimage to the Isle of Cythera. Watteau submitted this work to the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture as his reception piece in 1717. The painting is now in the Louvre in Paris. A second version of the work, sometimes called Pilgrimage to Cythera to distinguish it, was painted by Watteau about 1718 or 1719 and is in the Charlottenburg Palace, Berlin.


Economic impact.

The existing Canal du Nord and parallel Canal de Saint-Quentin represent a bottleneck on one of Europe’s principal transport arteries. This is reflected in the current statistics: where the market share of inland water transport measured in tonne-kilometres reaches 18% in the Seine-Oise basin and 14% in Nord-Pas-de-Calais, and even more than 50% on the major waterways of Germany and Benelux, the constraints of carrying capacity on the corridor in France limit the waterway market share to between 3 and 4% (peaking at about 5 million tonnes). Traffic is projected to reach between 15 and 18 million tonnes per year a few years after the waterway has opened.  Analysis by the European Court of Auditors published in 2020, examined the economic case and stated that:  "The Seine-Scheldt inland waterway link was approved on the basis that traffic levels on the Canal Seine Nord Europe by 2060 would be four times as high as the reference situation in 2030 without the Canal. To achieve this a significant increase in freight volumes on the axis across France and Europe is necessary.  However, the statistics from the last decade do not suggest that this will occur. In addition, two specific conditions are necessary, none of which seem particularly realistic in the light of industrial trends over time:  — a fourfold increase – from 2.3 million tonnes per year to 8.1 million tonnes per year – in traditional flows of construction materials moved by inland waterways using the Canal Seine Nord Europe over the 30 years following entry into service. For such a significant modal shift to come about, various accompanying conditions (e.g. tolling) would need to be put in place.  — a massive diversion of containerised road traffic to waterways, resulting in 36 % of freight on the entire traffic axis being shifted onto the waterway. This would require the current proportion of freight carried by waterway on that axis to be multiplied by 38, or the share of container traffic volumes to be three times as high as it currently is for the entire Rhine river."

Environmental impact.

Voies navigables de France, the project authority, sets out the principal environmental impacts on the website dedicated to the project. The CO2 emissions of a barge carrying 1500 tonnes are three times less than those of the fleet of trucks required to move this load. A single push-tow 185 m long can carry 300 containers unloaded in a maritime port, compared to 5 fully loaded trains and 200 trucks.

The Seine–Nord Europe Canal is a projected high-capacity ("grand gabarit") canal in France that would link the Oise River at Compiègne with the Canal Dunkerque-Escaut, east of Arleux. It is the French part of a proposed Seine-Scheldt canal that would ultimately connect the Rhine and Seine basins inland. The stated objective is to expand trade flows in a fuel-efficient and ecologically friendly manner between the Seine basin and Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands, while reducing saturation on the A1 motorway in France and reducing the CO2 emissions in the transport sector within this corridor.


Early life.

Eulalia was born on 12 February 1864 in the Royal Palace of Madrid, the youngest of the five children born to Isabella II during her marriage to Francis de Assisi de Borbón, Duke of Cadiz who survived to adulthood. She was baptised on 14 February 1864 with the names "María Eulalia Francisca de Asís Margarita Roberta Isabel Francisca de Paula Cristina María de la Piedad". Her godparents were Robert I, Duke of Parma, and his sister Princess Margherita.  In 1868, Eulalia and her family were forced to leave Spain in the wake of the revolution. They lived in Paris, where Eulalia was educated. She received her first communion in Rome from Pope Pius IX.  In 1874, Eulalia's brother Alfonso was restored to the throne in place of their mother Queen Isabella II. Three years later, Eulalia returned to Spain. She lived at first in El Escorial with her mother, but later moved to the Alcázar of Seville and then to Madrid.

Marriage and children.

On 6 March 1886, at Madrid, Eulalia married her first cousin Infante Antonio de Orléans y Borbón, Duke di Galliera, son of Antoine, Duke of Montpensier, and his wife, Infanta Luisa Fernanda of Spain. The officiant was Cardinal Zeferino González y Díaz Tuñón, Archbishop of Seville. The wedding was delayed several months on account of the death of Eulalia's brother, King Alfonso XII. Eulalia and Antonio spent their honeymoon at the Palacio Real de Aranjuez.  Eulalia and Antonio had two sons:  After the birth of her younger son, Eulalia lived apart from her husband. She maintained residences in Spain and Paris and visited England frequently.

Visit to the United States.

In May 1893 Eulalia visited the United States; her controversial visit to the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago was particularly well-documented. She traveled first to Puerto Rico, then to Havana, Cuba, and arrived in New York on the 18 of May on the Spanish cruiser Infanta Isabel, before making her way to Washington, D.C., where she was received by President Grover Cleveland at the White House. She then proceeded to New York City. Eulalia was later admitted to membership in the Daughters of the American Revolution as a descendant of King Charles III of Spain.

Publications.

Eulalia was the author of several works that were controversial within royal circles, although she never ceased to have frequent contact with her relatives both in Spain and elsewhere.  In 1912, under the pseudonym "Comtesse de Avila", Eulalia wrote "Au fil de la vie" (Paris: Société française d'Imprimerie et de Librarie, 1911), translated into English as "The Thread of Life" (New York: Duffield, 1912). The book expressed Eulalia's thoughts about education, the independence of women, the equality of classes, socialism, religion, marriage, prejudices, and traditions. Her nephew King Alfonso XIII telegraphed her to demand that she suspend the book's publication until he had seen it and received his permission to publish it. Eulalia refused to comply.  In May 1915, Eulalia wrote an article about the German Emperor William II for "The Strand Magazine". The following month she published "Court Life from Within" (London: Cassell, 1915; reprinted New York: Dodd, Mead, 1915).  In August 1925, Eulalia wrote "Courts and Countries After The War" (London: Hutchinson, 1925; reprinted New York: Dodd, Mead, 1925). In this work she commented on the world political situation and articulated her belief that there could never be peace between France and Germany. She also made a celebrated observation about Benito Mussolini's Italy by reporting that she crossed the Italian frontier and heard the phrase ""Il treno arriva all'orario"" [the train is arriving on time], a boast often cited in connection with the Fascist regime at the time.  In 1935, Eulalia published her memoirs in French, the "Mémoires de S.A.R. l'Infante Eulalie, 1868–1931" (Paris: Plon, 1935). In July 1936, they were published in English as "Memoirs of a Spanish Princess, H.R.H. the Infanta Eulalia" (London: Hutchinson, 1936; reprinted New York: W.W. Norton, 1937).

Death.

On 9 February 1958, Eulalia had a heart attack at her home in Irun. She died there on 8 March and is buried in the Pantheon of the Princes in El Escorial. She was the last surviving grandchild of Ferdinand VII of Spain.

Infanta Eulalia of Spain, Duchess of Galliera (María "Eulalia" Francisca de Asís Margarita Roberta Isabel Francisca de Paula Cristina María de la Piedad) (12 February 1864 – 8 March 1958) was the youngest and last surviving child of Queen Isabella II of Spain and the youngest sister of King Alfonso XII. She authored memoirs that were controversial for their critical perspective and allegations about the political policies of various Spanish and foreign governments.