Biography.

Teresa Stolz was born Tereza Stolzová (Tereza is sometimes seen in diminutive versions such as "Teresina", "Teresie" or "Terezie") in Kostelec nad Labem in the Austrian Empire in 1834. This is now in the Czech Republic. She studied under Josef Neruda then at the Prague Conservatoire under Giovanni Battista Gardigiani.  She was expelled from the Conservatoire in October 1851 but continued her study with Vojtěch Čaboun. She moved to Trieste to be with her brother, and where she studied with Luigi Ricci (who had conducted the 1848 premiere of Giuseppe Verdi's "Il corsaro" and later became her brother-in-law).  She made her debut in Tiflis in 1857 and also appeared in Odessa, Constantinople, Nice, Granada and other places. In 1864 she went to Italy, where she was a pupil of Francesco Lamperti in Milan. She made her European debut in Turin in 1864. She appeared regularly at La Scala, Milan, between 1865 and 1877. She created the role of Leonora in the revised version of Verdi's "La forza del destino" in Milan on 27 February 1869. She was the first to sing the title role of "Aida" in Italy (La Scala, 8 February 1872; also its European premiere). Verdi did not attend the world premiere in Cairo the previous December, and considered the Milan performance, in which he was heavily involved at every stage, to be its real premiere.  Stolz was also the soprano soloist at the premiere of Verdi's "Requiem" on 22 May 1874. She also appeared in the "Requiem" under Verdi's direction at the Royal Albert Hall in London in 1875. She reprised "Aida" under Verdi in Vienna in 1875 and in Paris in 1876. Other roles included the title roles in Donizetti's "Lucrezia Borgia", Bellini's "Norma", and Verdi's "Giovanna d'Arco"; Mathilde in Rossini's "Guillaume Tell", Alice in Meyerbeer's "Robert le diable", Amelia in "Un ballo in maschera", Gilda in "Rigoletto" and Desdemona in "Otello". Her career took her to such places such as Moscow, St Petersburg, Cairo, the major Italian opera houses, as well as Vienna, Paris and London.

Private life.

She was the mistress and later the fiancée of the conductor and composer Angelo Mariani. That relationship ended around 1871 but there were a number of complicating factors that led up to it. Mariani had formerly been a good friend of Verdi's, but they parted company in 1871 after Mariani's indecision when he was asked by Verdi to conduct the premiere of "Aida" in Cairo. Stolz was accused of having an affair with Verdi, but whether this charge is true cannot be said with certainty. Verdi did spend an unusual amount of time working with her leading up to the Milan premiere of "Aida" in 1872. Mariani died of cancer in 1873. On 4 September 1875, a Florence newspaper, the "Rivista indipendente", published the first of five articles with intimate details of her private life, and accused her of immoral relations with both the late Mariani and with Verdi.  What can be said with confidence is that Stolz's break with Mariani came with the encouragement of both Verdi and his second wife Giuseppina Strepponi, the supposedly wronged party, who had herself previously referred in her letters to the "continual deception" of Stolz. It was a very complicated affair, made even more complicated by the publication of supposed letters by Strepponi which referred to "my dear friend Teresina... who has always behaved as a faithful friend should". These letters are now known to be forgeries; and the exact truth of the matter has been debated ever since. Stolz became Verdi's companion after Strepponi's death in 1897,  She died in Milan in 1902, the year after Verdi, and is buried there. A hall in Kostelec is named after her.

Family.

She had identical twin elder sisters, Francesca (Fanny) and Ludmila (Lidia), both singers. They both lived openly with her former teacher, the conductor and composer Luigi Ricci, who married Ludmila, but maintained a relationship with Francesca. By Ludmila, Ricci had a daughter Adelaide (Lella) Ricci, who was also a singer. Lella (Teresa's niece) became pregnant (possibly to Bedřich Smetana), but had an abortion and died as a result of complications, aged 21.  By Francesca, Luigi Ricci had a son, also Luigi Ricci (Teresa's nephew), who was a conductor and composer. He inherited Teresa Stolz's estate, and changed his name to Luigi Ricci-Stolz.  Her grand-nephew through a different part of the Stolz line was the composer Robert Stolz.

References.

Notes Sources

Teresa Stolz (born 2 June 1834, Elbekosteletz (Czech: Kostelec nad Labem), Bohemia – died 23 August 1902, Milan) was a Bohemian soprano, long resident in Italy, who was associated with significant premieres of the works of Giuseppe Verdi, and may have been his mistress. She has been described as "the Verdian dramatic soprano par excellence, powerful, passionate in utterance, but dignified in manner and secure in tone and control".


Life and career.

Early years.

Clara Reisenberg was born in Vilnius, then in the Russian Empire, to a family of Lithuanian Jews. She had two elder sisters, Anna and Nadia. Early in her childhood she emerged as a violin prodigy. At the age of four, she became the youngest ever student at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory, where she studied under the prominent violinist Leopold Auer. After the October Revolution the family moved back to Vilnius, and then to Warsaw, before obtaining visas and leaving for the United States in 1921.  In America, Rockmore enrolled at the Curtis Institute of Music. As a teenager, tendinitis affected her bow arm, attributed to childhood malnutrition, and resulted in her giving up the violin. However, after meeting fellow immigrant Léon Theremin and being introduced to his electronic instrument, the theremin, she became its most prominent player. She performed widely and helped Theremin to refine his instrument.

Career.

Rockmore made orchestral appearances in New York and Philadelphia and went on coast-to-coast tours with Paul Robeson, but it was not until 1977 that she released a commercial recording called "The Art of the Theremin". The album, which was produced by Bob Moog and Shirleigh Moog, featured Rockmore's theremin playing with piano accompaniment by her sister Nadia. Rockmore’s approach to theremin playing emphasized physical and emotional control.  As she described it herself in an interview: "You must not only hit a note, but you must hit the center of it. You cannot register any of your internal emotion at all. You cannot shake your head, for instance, or sway back and forth on your feet. That would change your tone."

Personal life and death.

Although Léon Theremin had proposed to her once, she married attorney Robert Rockmore, and thereafter used his name professionally. They had no children.  She died in New York City on May 10, 1998, aged 87. Although her health had been in rapid decline for almost a year, she declared her determination to live to see the birth of her great-grandniece, who was born just two days before her death.

Contributions to the theremin.

Rockmore's classical training gave her an advantage over the many other theremin performers of the time. The intonation control she acquired as a violinist and her innate absolute pitch were both helpful in playing the instrument.  She had extremely precise, rapid control of her movements, important in playing an instrument that depends on the performer's motion and proximity rather than touch. She developed a unique technique for playing the instrument, including a fingering system that allowed her to perform accurately fast passages and large note leaps without the more familiar portamento, or glide, on theremin.  She also discovered that she could achieve a steadier tone and control the vibrato by keeping the tips of her right-hand thumb and forefinger in contact.

Developmental influence.

Rockmore saw limitations of the original instrument and helped to develop the theremin to fulfill her needs. Working together with Léon Theremin her suggestions and changes included increasing the sensitivity of the theremin's volume control to facilitate rapid staccato, lowering the profile of the instrument so the performer is more visible, increasing the sensitivity of the pitch antenna, and increasing range from three octaves to five.

Public influence.

By the time Rockmore was playing large scale public concerts, such as New York City's Town Hall in 1938, she was becoming increasingly known for impressing critics with her artistry of the theremin during a time in which much of the general public had come to rather negative conclusions of what was possible on the instrument.  These performances with world class orchestras were also critical in establishing “electronic and experimental music as a viable art form in the public imagination.”  Clara owned an RCA theremin given to her and substantially modified by Theremin. Through his modifications, the instrument's normal 5 to 5.5 octave playable range was expanded by 1.5 octaves. Theremin made several other customizations including improvements to tonal quality and its responsiveness to hand movements. The tubes are also customized and labeled in Theremin's own writing.  This instrument was later restored by Robert Moog in October 1998; it can be viewed at the Clara Rockmore exhibit in the Artist's Gallery of the Musical Instruments Museum in Phoenix, Arizona and is on long-term loan to the museum by Peter Sherman of the Reisenberg family.

References.

Notes Bibliography

Clara Reisenberg Rockmore (9 March 1911 – 10 May 1998) was a classical violin prodigy and a virtuoso performer of the theremin, an electronic musical instrument. She was the sister of pianist Nadia Reisenberg.


Paleobiology.

Behavior.

Fossil deposits dominated by large numbers of ceratopsids from individual species suggest that these animals were at least somewhat social. However, the exact nature of ceratopsid social behavior has historically been controversial. In 1997, Lehman argued that the aggregations of many individuals preserved in bonebeds originated as local "infestations" and compared them to similar modern occurrences in crocodiles and tortoises. Other authors, such as Scott D. Sampson, interpret these deposits as the remains of large "socially complex" herds. Modern animals with mating signals as prominent as the horns and frills of ceratopsians tend to form these kinds of large, intricate associations. Sampson found in previous work that the centrosaurine ceratopsids did not achieve fully developed mating signals until nearly fully grown. He finds commonality between the slow growth of mating signals in centrosaurines and the extended adolescence of animals whose social structures are ranked hierarchies founded on age-related differences. In these sorts of groups young males are typically sexually mature for several years before actually beginning to breed, when their mating signals are most fully developed. Females, by contrast do not have such an extended adolescence.  Other researchers who support the idea of ceratopsid herding have speculated that these associations were seasonal. This hypothesis portrays ceratopsids as living in small groups near the coasts during the rainy season and inland with the onset of the dry season. Support for the idea that ceratopsids formed herds inland comes from the greater abundance of bonebeds in inland deposits than coastal ones. The migration of ceratopsids away from the coasts may have represented a move to their nesting grounds. Many African herding animals engage in this kind of seasonal herding today. Herds would also have afforded some level of protection from the chief predators of ceratopsids, tyrannosaurids.

Diet.

Ceratopsids were adapted to processing high-fiber plant material with their highly derived dental batteries and advanced dentition. They may have utilized fermentation to break down plant material with a gut microflora. Mallon et al. (2013) examined herbivore coexistence on the island continent of Laramidia, during the Late Cretaceous. It was concluded that ceratopsids were generally restricted to feeding on vegetation at, or below, the height of 1 meter.

Physiology.

Ceratopsians probably had the "low mass-specific metabolic rat[e]" typical of large bodied animals.

Sexual dimorphism.

According to Scott D. Sampson, if ceratopsids were to have sexual dimorphism modern ecological analogues suggest it would be in their mating signals like horns and frills. No convincing evidence for sexual dimorphism in body size or mating signals is known in ceratopsids, although was present in the more primitive ceratopsian "Protoceratops andrewsi" whose sexes were distinguishable based on frill and nasal prominence size. This is consistent with other known tetrapod groups where midsized animals tended to exhibit markedly more sexual dimorphism than larger ones. However, if there were sexually dimorphic traits they may have been soft tissue variations like colorations or dewlaps that would not have been preserved as fossils.

Evolution.

Scott D. Sampson has compared the evolution of ceratopsids to that of some mammal groups: both were rapid from a geological perspective and precipitated the simultaneous evolution of large body size, derived feeding structures, and "varied hornlike organs."

Paleoecology.

The chief predators of ceratopsids were tyrannosaurids.  There is evidence for an aggressive interaction between a "Triceratops" and a "Tyrannosaurus" in the form of partially healed tyrannosaur tooth marks on a "Triceratops" brow horn and squamosal (a bone of the neck frill); the bitten horn is also broken, with new bone growth after the break. It is not known what the exact nature of the interaction was, though: either animal could have been the aggressor. Since the "Triceratops" wounds healed, it is most likely that the "Triceratops" survived the encounter and managed to overcome the "Tyrannosaurus". Paleontologist Peter Dodson estimates that in a battle against a bull "Triceratops", the "Triceratops" had the upper hand and would successfully defend itself by inflicting fatal wounds to the "Tyrannosaurus" using its sharp horns.

Classification.

The clade Ceratopsidae was in 1998 defined by Paul Sereno as the group including the last common ancestor of "Pachyrhinosaurus" and "Triceratops"; and all its descendants. In 2004, it was by Peter Dodson defined to include "Triceratops", "Centrosaurus", and all descendants of their most recent common ancestor.

Ceratopsidae (sometimes spelled Ceratopidae) is a family of marginocephalian dinosaurs including "Triceratops", "Centrosaurus", and "Styracosaurus". All known species were quadrupedal herbivores from the Upper Cretaceous, mainly of Western North America and are characterized by beaks, rows of shearing teeth in the back of the jaw, and elaborate nasal horns and a thin parietal-squamosal shelf that extends back and up into a frill. The group is divided into two subfamilies. The Chasmosaurinae are generally characterized by long, triangular frills and well-developed brow horns. The Centrosaurinae had well-developed nasal horns or nasal bosses, shorter and more rectangular frills, and elaborate spines on the back of the frill.


Life.

Born to an aristocratic family in 1891 in Riga, Latvia, then part of the Russian Empire. She was given the name Elizaveta Pilenko. Her father died when she was a teenager, and she embraced atheism. In 1906 her mother moved the family to St. Petersburg, where she became involved in radical intellectual circles. In 1910 she married a Bolshevik by the name of Dmitriy Kuz'min-Karavaev. During this period of her life she was actively involved in literary circles and wrote much poetry. Her first book, Scythian Shards (Скифские черепки), was a collection of poetry from this period. By 1913 her marriage to Dimitriy had ended and the latter subsequently became Eastern Orthodox.  Through a look at the humanity of Christ — "He also died. He sweated blood. They struck his face" — she began to be drawn back into Christianity. She moved—now with her daughter, Gaiana—to the south of Russia where her religious devotion increased.  Furious at Leon Trotsky for closing the Socialist-Revolutionary Party Congress, she planned his assassination, but was dissuaded by colleagues, who sent her to Anapa. In 1918, after the Bolshevik Revolution, she was elected deputy mayor of Anapa in Southern Russia. When the anti-communist White Army took control of Anapa, the mayor fled and she became mayor of the town. The White Army put her on trial for being a Bolshevik. However, the judge was a former teacher of hers, Daniel Skobtsov, and she was acquitted. Soon the two fell in love and were married.  Soon, the political tide was turning again. In order to avoid danger, Elizaveta, Daniel, Gaiana, and Elizaveta's mother Sophia fled the country. Elizaveta was pregnant with her second child. They traveled first to Georgia (where her son Yuri was born) and then to Yugoslavia (where her daughter Anastasia was born). Finally they arrived in Paris in 1923. Soon Elizaveta was dedicating herself to theological studies and social work.  In 1926, Anastasia died of influenza. Gaiana was sent away to Belgium to boarding school. Soon, Daniel and Elizaveta's marriage was falling apart. Yuri ended up living with Daniel, and Elizaveta moved into central Paris to work more directly with those who were most in need.  Her bishop encouraged her to take vows as a nun, something she did only with the assurance that she would not have to live in a monastery, secluded from the world. In 1932, with Daniel Skobtov's permission, an ecclesiastical divorce was granted, and she took monastic vows. She took the religious name "Maria". Her confessor was Father Sergei Bulgakov. Later, Fr. Dmitri Klepinin would be sent to be the chaplain of the house.  Mother Maria made a rented house in Paris her "convent". It was a place with an open door for refugees, the needy and the lonely. It also soon became a center for intellectual and theological discussion. In Mother Maria these two elements — service to the poor and theology — went hand-in-hand.

Death.

After the Fall of France in 1940, Jews began approaching the house asking for baptismal certificates, which Father Dimitri would provide them. Many Jews came to stay with them. They provided shelter and helped many to flee the country. Eventually the house was closed down. Mother Maria, Fr. Dimitri, Yuri and Sophia were all arrested by the Gestapo. Fr. Dimitri and Yuri both died at the Dora concentration camp.  Mother Maria was sent to the Ravensbrück concentration camp. On Holy Saturday, 1945, she was sent to the Gas Chamber. According to eyewitnesses, she voluntarily took the place of another who had been chosen for execution.

Canonization.

Mother Maria was glorified (canonized a saint) by act of the Holy Synod of the Ecumenical Patriarchate on 16 January 2004. The glorification of Mother Maria, together with Fr. Dimitri, Yuri, and Ilya Fondaminsky took place at the Cathedral of Saint Alexander Nevsky in Paris on 1 and 2 May 2004. Their feast day is 20 July.

Legacy.

Her life is dramatized in a Soviet film starring Lyudmila Kasatkina.  According to Metropolitan Anthony (Bloom) of Sourozh: "Mother Maria is a saint of our day and for our day; a woman of flesh and blood possessed by the love of God, who stood face to face with the problems of this century."

Example of poetry.

In July, 1942, when the order requiring Jews to wear the yellow star was published, she wrote a poem entitled "Israel":

Maria Skobtsova (20 [8 Old Calendar] December 1891 in Riga – 31 March 1945 in Ravensbrück concentration camp, Germany), known as "Mother Maria" (), Saint Mary (or Mother Maria) of Paris, born "Elizaveta Yurievna Pilenko" (), "Kuzmina-Karavayeva" () by her first marriage, "Skobtsova" () by her second marriage, was a Russian noblewoman, poet, nun, and member of the French Resistance during World War II. She has been canonized a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church.


Club career.

Born in Sušice, Czechoslovakia, he began his career with his hometown club TJ Sušice and also played for TJ Klatovy before joining Slavia Prague in 2003. Pekhart played and scored in the final of the UEFA Under-17 Championship in Luxembourg for his country against Russia.  Pekhart joined Tottenham Hotspur during the summer of 2006.  In August 2008, Pekhart joined Championship side Southampton on loan until January 2009. He made his first league appearance as a substitute on 14 September, away against Queens Park Rangers which Southampton lost 4–1. He scored his only league goal for Southampton in a 2–2 home draw against Ipswich. He returned to Spurs in January 2009 and on transfer deadline day Pekhart returned to his old club Slavia Prague on a year long loan until January 2010.  On 12 January 2010, FK Jablonec confirmed the signing of Pekhart on a three-and-a-half-year deal for an undisclosed fee. However, after just half of the following season, he moved on loan to fellow Gambrinus liga side Sparta Prague as part of a deal with 1. FC Nürnberg, who he joined on 1 July 2011.  On 28 August 2014, Pekhart signed a three-year deal with the German second league side FC Ingolstadt 04.  Pekhart moved to AEK Athens on 1 February 2016. On 4 February 2016, he made his debut with the club, in an away 1–1 draw against Iraklis at Kaftanzoglio Stadium.  On 21 July 2017, Pekhart signed with Hapoel Be'er Sheva for three years. On 13 August of the following year, he agreed to a two-year deal with Segunda División side UD Las Palmas.  On 10 February 2020, Pekhart agreed to a two and a half year deal with Ekstraklasa side Legia Warsaw.

International career.

Pekhart has represented his country at youth international level. In 2007, he represented his country in the FIFA Under-20 World Cup in Canada as the youngest player in the squad having just turned 18. He played in all seven matches of the tournament, including the final against Argentina in which the Czechs finished runners up after Mauro Zárate scored the winning goal four minutes from full-time for Argentina.  He made his debut for the Czech Republic on 22 May 2010 in a match against Turkey.

Honors.

Czech Republic U17

Tomáš Pekhart (born 26 May 1989) is a Czech professional footballer who plays as a forward for Polish club Legia Warsaw. He has represented the Czech Republic at both junior and senior level.


History.

The exact founding date of Emden is unknown, but it has existed at least since the 8th century. Older names for Emden are Amuthon, Embda, Emda, Embden and Embderland. Town privilege and the town's coat of arms, the "Engelke up de Muer" (The Little Angel on the Wall) was granted by Emperor Maximilian I in 1495.  In the 16th century, Emden briefly became an important centre for the Protestant Reformation under the rule of Countess Anna von Oldenburg who was determined to find a religious "third way" between Lutheranism and Catholicism. In 1542 she invited the Polish noble John Laski (or "Joahannes a Lasco") to become pastor of a Protestant church at Emden; and for 7 years he continued to spread the new religion around the area of East Frisia. However, in 1549 following pressure from the Emperor Charles V, the Countess was forced to ask Laski to leave for England and the experiment came to an end. Nevertheless, the legacy was important for the reformation in the Netherlands.  At the end of the 16th century Emden experienced a period of great prosperity. Due to the Spanish blockade of Flemish and Brabant ports at the start of the Dutch Revolt, Emden became the most important transshipment port on the North Sea. Thousands of Protestant refugees came from Flanders and the Duchy of Brabant to the Protestant city Emden to escape persecution by the Spanish rulers of the Low Countries. During this period, the predominantly Calvinist Emden came into conflict with the Lutheran counts of East Friesland. The Emden Revolution in 1595 resulted in Emden becoming a distinct city-state. With the support of the Dutch Republic, Emden became a free government city under the protection of the Dutch Republic. The Brabantian dialect became the official language of trade and civil administration.  Emden was a very rich city during the 17th century, due to large numbers of Dutch and Flemish immigrants such as Diederik Jansz. Graeff. It was a centre of reformed Protestantism at that time. The political theorist Johannes Althusius served as Syndic from 1604 to 1638.  In 1744 Emden was annexed by Prussia. In 1752 Frederick the Great chartered the Emden Company to trade with Canton, but the company was ruined when Emden was captured by French forces in 1757 during the Seven Years' War. [The city was recaptured by Anglo-German forces in 1758 and for the rest of the conflict was used as a major supply base by the British to support the ongoing war in Westphalia.  During the Napoleonic French era, Emden and the surrounding lands of East Frisia were part of the short-lived Kingdom of Holland.  Industrialization started at around 1870, with a paper mill and a somewhat bigger shipyard. At the end of the 19th century, a big canal, the Dortmund-Ems Canal was constructed, which connected Emden with the Ruhr area. This made Emden the "seaport of the Ruhr area", which lasted until the 1970s. Coal from the south was transported to the North Sea port, and imported iron ore was shipped via the canal towards Rhine and the Ruhr. The last iron ore freighter was moored in the port of Emden in 1986.  In 1903, a large shipyard ("Nordseewerke", "North Sea Works") was founded and was in operation until 2010.  The city centre was almost completely wiped out as a result of Allied bombing raids during the Second World War, destroying nearly all historic buildings. The RAF first bombed Emden on 31 March 1940. The most severe bombing took place on 6 September 1944, when roughly 80 percent of all houses in the city centre were destroyed. In the collective memory of the city, this date still plays an important role. The shipyard area was largely untouched – the British targeted the civilian areas, apparently in response to the bombing of Coventry by the "Luftwaffe". The reconstructed city was opened on 6 September 1962, exactly 18 years after the bombing.

Economy.

The main industries in Emden are automobile production and shipbuilding. Volkswagen runs a large production plant which builds the Volkswagen Passat car and which employs around 10,000 people. Emden harbor is also one of the three main ports for car shipping in Europe (together with Zeebrugge in Belgium and Bremerhaven in Germany). More than 850,000 cars were imported and exported in 2005. The "Nordseewerke" shipyard, a subsidiary of ThyssenKrupp, employs around 1,400 dockers and specializes in conventional submarines. It also produces different kinds of cargo ships as well as ships for special purposes such as icebreakers, dredgers and other ships of that type.  Another important economic sector is tourism, mainly as a day trip destination for tourists staying in the surrounding villages on the North Sea coastline.  A university of applied sciences ("Fachhochschule") was opened in 1973. At present, around 4.240 students are enrolled, most of them studying for technical degrees.  The airline Ostfriesische Lufttransport has its headquarters in Emden.

Sports.

The highest playing association football club is BSV Kickers Emden. The capacity of the stadium is 7,200, due to safety objections of the German Football Association. In 1994, some 12,000 spectators followed a match against the reserves squad of Hamburger SV, which remains the record. In that season, Kickers Emden finished top of the 3rd League, but were not promoted to the Second League as they lost the promotion round.  Since Emden is not only located close to the North Sea, but also to the river Ems and various small rivers and canals, boat sports are very popular among inhabitants and tourists.

Ships and places named after the city.

Three German light cruisers were named after the city, two of which served in World War I and the third in World War II. Today, the fifth navy ship named after the city is in service.  A deep sea spot in the Pacific Ocean close to the Philippines is named after the first ship, and is therefore called "Emdentief" in German. The spot (10,400 m deep) was sounded in the 1920s (in 1920, 1923 or 1928—sources vary).  In addition, the village of Emden, Illinois in the United States was named after Jacob Emden due to the large number of emigrants from Emden to the village in northwestern Logan County, Illinois. Another namesake city in the USA is the unincorporated town of Embden, North Dakota (the b added to correct the pronunciation).

International relations.

Emden is twinned with:

Emden () is an independent city and seaport in Lower Saxony in the northwest of Germany, on the river Ems. It is the main city of the region of East Frisia and, in 2011, had a total population of 51,528.


Background and education.

Lord Spencer was born at Wimbledon Park, London, the son of John Spencer, 1st Earl Spencer, and his wife Margaret Georgiana Poyntz, daughter of Stephen Poyntz, and was baptised there on 16 October 1758. His godparents were King George II, the Earl Cowper (his grandmother's second husband) and his great-aunt the Dowager Viscountess Bateman. His sister Lady Georgiana Spencer married the Duke of Devonshire and became a famed Whig hostess. He was educated at Harrow School from 1770 to 1775 and he won the school's "Silver Arrow" (an archery prize) in 1771. He then attended Trinity College, Cambridge, from 1776 to 1778 and graduated with a Master of Arts. He acceded to the earldom upon the death of his father in 1783.

Political career.

Lord Spencer was Whig Member of Parliament for Northampton from 1780 to 1782 and Whig MP for Surrey from 1782 to 1783. He was sworn of the Privy Council in 1794 and served under William Pitt the Younger as Lord Privy Seal in 1794 and as First Lord of the Admiralty from 1794 to 1801. He was later Home Secretary from 1806 to 1807 under Lord Grenville in the Ministry of All the Talents.

Other public positions.

Lord Spencer was also High Steward of St Albans from 1783 to 1807, Mayor of St Albans in 1790, President of the Royal Institution from 1813 to 1825 and Commissioner of the Public Records in 1831. He became a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1780 and a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London in 1785. He was appointed to the Order of the Garter in 1799. On 18 February 1793, he was appointed a deputy lieutenant of Northamptonshire.

Book collecting.

Spencer was known for his interest in literature and particularly in early examples of printing. He was the instigator and first President of the Roxburghe Club (an exclusive bibliophilic club), founded in 1812.  His collection of tens of thousands of volumes, which included the most nearly complete collection of Aldine editions ever brought together, was put up for sale in 1892 and acquired by Enriqueta Rylands for the John Rylands Library and it was catalogued by Alice Margaret Cooke. The manuscripts of Spencer's collection are relatively few; one of them has pasted into it the St Christopher blockprint dated 1423. From 1789 to 1818 Earl Spencer employed Tomaso d'Ocheda, an Italian, as his librarian; d'Ocheda had until 1789 been the librarian of Pierre-Antoine Bolongaro-Crevenna.  When Napoleon was in the process of the secularization of religious houses in southern Germany, Spencer used local British agent and Benedictine monk, Alexander Horn, to acquire many of their rare books and manuscripts.  The Rev. Thomas Frognall Dibdin was a Church of England clergyman and bibliographer. The first of his numerous bibliographical works was his "Introduction to the Knowledge of Editions of the Classics" (1802), which brought him under the notice of Earl Spencer, to whom he owed much important aid in his bibliographical pursuits. The rich library at Althorp was thrown open to him; he spent much of his time in it, and in 1814–1815 published his "Bibliotheca Spenceriana". As the library was not open to the general public, the information given in the "Bibliotheca" was found very useful, but since its author was unable even to read the characters in which the books he described were written, the work was marred by the errors which more or less characterize all his productions. In 1818 Dibdin was commissioned by Earl Spencer to purchase books for him on the continent, an expedition described in his sumptuous "Bibliographical, Antiquarian and Picturesque Tour in France and Germany" (1821). He was also the author of "Aedes Althorpianae", an account of Althorp giving many details of Earl Spencer's library.

Family.

Lord Spencer married Lady Lavinia Bingham (1762–1831), daughter of Charles Bingham, 1st Earl of Lucan, on 6 March 1781. They had nine children:  Lady Spencer died in June 1831, aged 68. Lord Spencer survived her by three years and died in November 1834, aged 76, at Althorp, and was buried in the nearby village of Great Brington on 19 November of that year.

Spencer jacket.

The Spencer, a type of short jacket from which the UK military mess jacket is derived, is named for George Spencer, reportedly because he had a tail-coat adapted after its tails were burned by coals from a fire.

George John Spencer, 2nd Earl Spencer, (1 September 1758 – 10 November 1834), styled Viscount Althorp from 1765 to 1783, was a British Whig politician. He served as Home Secretary from 1806 to 1807 in the Ministry of All the Talents. He was the 3rd paternal great grandfather of Diana, Princess of Wales.


Early life.

Hallam Tennyson was born in Chapel House, a house his father was renting in Twickenham, Surrey. His parents were Emily (née Sellwood) and Alfred Tennyson. Tennyson's early childhood was spent at Farringford House on the Isle of Wight, which his father began renting in 1853 and bought in 1856. He was educated at Marlborough College and Trinity College, Cambridge. Tennyson's career aspirations ended when his parents' age and ill-health obliged him to leave Cambridge to become their personal secretary. The idea of going into politics was also abandoned.  It was partly for Hallam's benefit that Alfred Tennyson accepted a peerage in 1884, the year Hallam married Audrey Boyle (after being disappointed in his love for Mary Gladstone, daughter of William Ewart Gladstone). On his father's death in 1892, he inherited the title Baron Tennyson, and also the role of official biographer. His "Tennyson: a Memoir" was published in 1897.

Governor of South Australia.

Like his famous father, Tennyson was an ardent imperialist, and in 1883 he had become a council member of the Imperial Federation League, a lobby group set up to support the imperialist ideas of the Colonial Secretary, Joseph Chamberlain. It was this connection, as well as the Tennyson name, that led Chamberlain to offer Tennyson the position of Governor of South Australia in 1899. He was still in this position in May 1902, when the Governor-General of Australia, the Earl of Hopetoun, suddenly announced his intention to resign.

Governor-General of Australia.

Tennyson was the senior state governor at the time of Hopetoun's announcement, and thus became Administrator of the Government upon his departure from Australia on 17 July 1902. There were some doubts about his ability to fill the job on a permanent basis since he had little experience of politics. But he had made a good impression in Australia through his modesty and frugality, unlike the ostentatiously imperious Hopetoun. In January 1903 he accepted the post for, at his own suggestion, a one-year appointment only.  The new Governor-General was popular and got on with Australians far better than his predecessor had done. But problems arose through the ambiguity of his position. The Prime Minister, Alfred Deakin, insisted that the Governor-General's official secretary must be appointed and paid by the Australian government. The British government objected (privately) because this would mean that the Governor-General could not carry out what was seen in London as his broader role in supervising the Australian government. Tennyson shared this view.  As a result, relations between Deakin and Tennyson grew tense. Deakin correctly suspected that Tennyson was reporting on him to London and trying to interfere on matters of policy, such as the naval agreement between Britain and Australia. For this reason Deakin did not encourage Tennyson to seek an extension of his one-year term. None of this was known to the public and Tennyson left Australia in January 1904 to universal expressions of approval.

Retirement.

Tennyson spent the rest of his life at Farringford, serving as deputy Governor of the Isle of Wight from 1913. His wife died in 1916, and in 1918 he re-married to Mary Emily (May) Prinsep (1853–1931). She was the daughter of Charles Robert Prinsep, born in India and later the owner of a large nutmeg plantation in Singapore. Tennyson was May Prinsep's second husband; her first husband was Andrew Hichens. The National Portrait Gallery has eight photographs of May Prinsep, taken by her relation Julia Margaret Cameron on the Isle of Wight.  Tennyson bequeathed many of his father's notebooks to Trinity College in 1924. Tennyson died at Farringford in December 1928.

Hallam Tennyson, 2nd Baron Tennyson, (11 August 1852 – 2 December 1928) was a British aristocrat who served as the second Governor-General of Australia, in office from 1903 to 1904. He was previously Governor of South Australia from 1899 to 1902.


History.

The Place Dauphine was laid out in 1607–10, when the Place Royale was still under construction. It was among the earliest city-planning projects of Henri IV, and was on a site created from part of the western garden of the walled enclave known as the Palais de la Cité (because the Capetian kings had lived there long ago, before the Louvre was built). There had been a pavilion, the Maison des Etuves, located in the garden's western wall which overlooked two riverine islets, scarcely more than mudbanks at the time. One islet was incorporated into filled land which extended the Île de la Cité to the west to form the middle section, the "terre-plein", of the Pont Neuf (completed in 1606) and, on the downstream side of the bridge, a platform supporting an equestrian statue of Henri IV (installed in 1614). The second islet was removed. The Place Dauphine was to occupy the western part of the garden and the vacant land which had been created between it and the bridge.  Approximately 3 acres of land was conveyed to on 10 March 1607 with instructions to execute a project according to a general plan in which the houses would adhere to a specified and repetitious facade. The development consisted of two components: a triangular square and a row of houses across from the base of the triangle on the eastern side of the rue de Harlay, with returns extending further east along the quais. There were two entrances to the square: one in the middle of the eastern range and the second at the western point, opening onto the Pont Neuf. The western ("downstream") gateway was formed by paired pavilions facing the bridge and the statue of Henri IV on its other side.  The last of the houses to be constructed (at the southeast corner of the square) was finished in 1616. Originally all were built with more or less the specified facades, which were similar to those at the Place Royale, although the houses were more modest. Each repeating unit comprised on the ground floor two arcaded shopfronts dressed with stone between which a narrow door opened into a passage to an interior court with a steep staircase leading to two residential floors above. These were faced with brick and limestone quoins, chaînes, and tablets. At the top was an attic floor with a steep slate roof and dormers, similar to the Place Royale, except that each range at the Place Dauphine was covered by a single roof, and the dormers "gave no hint of separate houses". In fact, behind the facades, the houses themselves, built by separate buyers, varied with regard to plan and area.  Since its construction, almost all of the houses surrounding the square have been raised in height, given new facades, rebuilt, or replaced with imitations of the originals. Only two retain their original appearance, those flanking the entrance facing the Pont Neuf. In 1792 during the Revolution the Place Dauphine was renamed Place Thionville, a name it retained until 1814. The former eastern range, heavily damaged by fire during the fighting of the Paris Commune of 1871, was swept aside to open the view toward the Palais de Justice.

Metro station.

The Place Dauphine is:

References.

Notes  Sources

The Place Dauphine is a public square located near the western end of the Île de la Cité in the first arrondissement of Paris. It was initiated by Henry IV in 1607, the second of his projects for public squares in Paris, the first being the Place Royale (now the Place des Vosges). He named it for his son, the Dauphin of France and future Louis XIII, who had been born in 1601. From the "square", actually triangular in shape, one can access the middle of the Pont Neuf, a bridge which connects the left and right banks of the Seine by passing over the Île de la Cité. A street called, since 1948, Rue Henri-Robert, forty metres long, connects the Place Dauphine and the bridge. Where they meet, there are two other named places, the Place du Pont-Neuf and the Square du Vert-Galant.


Plot.

Mitchie Torres (Demi Lovato) is a young musician aspiring to be a singer. Mitchie wants to go to a summer music camp named "Camp Rock". Since her family cannot afford the tuition, Mitchie's mother, Connie Torres (Maria Canals-Barrera), arranges to cater food for the camp, thus allowing Mitchie to attend. In return, Mitchie must help her mother out in the kitchen.  Meanwhile, Shane Gray (Joe Jonas), the spoiled and arrogant lead singer of the popular music trio Connect 3, has been assigned to be in charge of dance classes for one month at Camp Rock by his bandmates Nate Gray (Nick Jonas) and Jason Gray (Kevin Jonas) and is forced to record a song with the winner of Final Jam. Shane overhears Mitchie singing and falls in love with her voice, but Mitchie leaves before Shane can figure out it was her, causing him to obsess over finding the mysterious singer.  During Opening Jam, Mitchie learns that many of the campers have notable roots and is embarrassed that she was only able to come to the camp because of her mother's catering service. She convinces Tess Tyler (Meaghan Martin), a girl known for her famous mother and her popularity, and her friends, Peggy (Jasmine Richards) and Ella (Anna Maria Perez de Tagle), that her mother is the president of Hot Tunes TV China. Tess, impressed, invites Mitchie to bunk with her group.  When Mitchie overhears Shane's new song, she compliments him. Shane, doubtful that his record label and his fans would accept the song, begins to fall for Mitchie. In the cafeteria, Tess and Caitlyn begin to throw spaghetti at each other and Mitchie gets in the middle of the fight. Brown (Daniel Fathers), the owner of the camp, breaks the fight up, and Tess frames Caitlyn for the incident. Brown punishes Caitlyn by having her work in the kitchen and Mitchie, who is worried that Caitlyn will learn her secret, does not defend her.  When Mitchie accidentally enters the kitchen while Caitlyn is working, Caitlyn learns about Mitchie's secret. At Pajama Jam, Mitchie supports Caitlyn when Tess attempts to upstage her show. Mitchie and Caitlyn reconcile.  Shane spreads the word that he is searching for a girl with "the voice". When Tess sees Mitchie and Shane rowing together, she becomes jealous and, after finding out about Mitchie's secret, tells the entire camp. Shane says that Mitchie deceived him to get close to him just because he is famous.  Tess learns that Mitchie is the girl Shane is looking for. In order to get rid of Mitchie, on the eve of Final Jam, Tess frames Mitchie and Caitlyn for stealing her charm bracelet. Brown bans them from all camp activities until the end of Final Jam.  At Final Jam, Brown announces that the winner of Final Jam, as decided by the judges, Connect 3, will not only win a trophy, but a chance to record with Shane. Peggy and Ella lose their patience with Tess, stand up to her, and leave her group. Ella performs "Hasta La Vista" with Barron (Jordan Francis) and Sander (Roshon Fegan). Tess realizes her mom is attending and starts to perform "2 Stars", however she stumbles when her mom has to take a call during her performance. Peggy reveals her real name is Margaret Dupree and performs "Here I Am". Tess apologizes to Peggy and Ella. As Brown announces the end of Final Jam, the spotlights turn on, and he allows Mitchie to perform, saying he was hoping they would catch on: as their performance was not in the lineup and was technically after "the end of Final Jam". Mitchie starts to perform "This Is Me", Shane realizes Mitchie was the voice from before, and he soon joins in. Backstage, Tess tells Mitchie and Caitlyn she told Brown that they didn't steal her bracelet, and Mitchie and Shane reconcile. Peggy is announced as the winner of Final Jam. The entire camp sing "We Rock". Caitlyn shows Mitchie, Tess, Peggy, and Ella the recording studio she built in her garage, and they perform "Our Time Is Here".

Production.

"Camp Rock" was filmed between September and October 2007 at YMCA Camp Wanakita in Haliburton, Ontario, and Kilcoo Camp in Minden, Ontario.

Soundtrack.

The "Camp Rock" soundtrack was released on June 17, 2008 by Walt Disney Records and was performed by the film's cast. It debuted at #3 on the "Billboard" 200 album charts, selling over 188,000 units in its first week. The album was certified Platinum by the RIAA and sold over 1,257,000 copies to date. In Brazil, the album was certified Platinum by the ABPD and sold over 60,000 copies until 2009.

Reception.

Ratings.

"Camp Rock" premiered on the Disney Channel on June 20, 2008, with 8.86 million viewers. Its June 21 showing on ABC had 3.47 million viewers, and its June 22 showing on ABC Family had 3.73 million viewers.  Its Disney Channel Italy premiere received 1.14 million viewers in September 2008.

Home media.

The DVD and Blu-ray release for the film, titled "Camp Rock: Extended Rock Star Edition", was released on August 19, 2008. It was released in November in other countries. It was released on December 1, 2008, in the UK only on DVD.  Both the DVD and Blu-ray release contain the following bonus features.  There were some hidden bonus features throughout parts of the "Camp Rock: Extended Rock Star Edition" DVD. According to the "Camp Rock" section of movieman'sguide, there is another easter egg, but it is possibly untrue. In their words, "...and a short easter egg in the Music Video part of the disc (keep pressing down until you see a Pink Guitar)".

Merchandise.

Merchandise of the film is sold at Target, Claires, and Limited Too. They include clothing (such as pajamas, T-shirts, and underwear), bags (tote bags, backpacks, etc.), bedding collection, toys, and dolls of the characters. Play Along Toys, so far, has only released dolls of Mitchie and Shane. On May 13, 2008, Disney published "Camp Rock: The Junior Novel", by Lucy Ruggles, the novelization of the film. Target retail stores sell "special editions" of the novel, hardcover books that include photos.

Camp Rock is a 2008 Disney Channel Original Movie directed by Matthew Diamond and starring Demi Lovato, Joe Jonas, Meaghan Martin, Maria Canals-Barrera, Daniel Fathers, and Alyson Stoner. It is about Mitchie (Demi Lovato), a young girl aspiring to be a singer, and her time at Camp Rock, a summer music camp, where she will discover friends, adversaries, romance, and her voice.


History.

Formerly a ballroom and piano factory, Bateau Lavoir was squatted and divided into 20 small workshops in 1889. Distributed along a corridor, small rooms were linked without heating and with a single point of water. The name "Le Bateau-Lavoir" was coined by French poet Max Jacob. The building was dark and dirty, almost seeming to be scrap pile rather than a dwelling. On stormy days, it swayed and creaked, reminding people of washing-boats on the Seine River, hence the name.  The building stands on a small cobblestone square that was known as Place Ravignan. In 1911, it was rechristened Place Émile Goudeau for Émile Goudeau (1849–1906), a popular novelist, poet, and journalist who founded Les Hydropathes, a renowned and famous literary club. The square now has a Wallace fountain and is planted with horse chestnut trees.  Maxime Maufra (1863–1918) was the first noted artist to take up residence in Bateau-Lavoir, around 1890. Kees van Dongen and Pablo Picasso took up residence between 1900 and 1904. After 1904 more artists and writers moved in, including Otto van Rees, Amedeo Modigliani, Pierre Mac Orlan, Juan Gris, André Salmon, Pablo Gargallo, Max Jacob and Pierre Reverdy.  It became an unofficial club that included artists Henri Matisse, Georges Braque, André Derain, Raoul Dufy, Marie Laurencin, Modigliani, Jean-Paul Laurens, Maurice Utrillo, Jacques Lipchitz, María Blanchard, Jean Metzinger and Louis Marcoussis; writers Guillaume Apollinaire, Alfred Jarry, Jean Cocteau, Gustave Coquiot, Cremnitz (Maurice Chevrier), Paul Fort, André Warnod, Raymond Radiguet, and Gertrude Stein; actors Charles Dullin, Harry Baur, and Gaston Modot; and art dealers Ambroise Vollard,, Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, and Berthe Weill.  While residing at the Bateau-Lavoir Picasso painted works such as "Garçon à la pipe" ("Boy with a Pipe") in 1905, and one of his most noted works, "Les Demoiselles d'Avignon" in 1907, considered by art historians as a proto-Cubist painting (the precursor of a movement that became known as Cubism).  Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914, creative artists living at the Bateau-Lavoir and in the neighbourhood began moving elsewhere, mainly to Montparnasse.

Notable events.

In 1908, a celebration banquet for Henri Rousseau was organised in Picasso's studio in the Bateau-Lavoir.  One night, Amedeo Modigliani destroyed a number of his friends' paintings while in an alcoholic rage in the Bateau-Lavoir, according to memoirs of his daughter, Jeanne.

In popular culture.

The Le Bateau-Lavoir is a featured setting in the 2018 season of "Genius", which focuses on the life and art of Pablo Picasso.  It is also featured in the 1995 Eric Rohmer film "Les Rendez-vous de Paris".

The Bateau-Lavoir ("Washhouse Boat") is the nickname of a building in the Montmartre district of the 18th arrondissement of Paris that is famous in art history as the residence and meeting place for a group of outstanding early 20th-century artists, men of letters, theatre people, and art dealers. It is located at No. 13 Rue Ravignan at Place Emile Goudeau, just below the Place du Tertre.


Abstract definition.

Abstractly, a charge is any generator of a continuous symmetry of the physical system under study. When a physical system has a symmetry of some sort, Noether's theorem implies the existence of a conserved current. The thing that "flows" in the current is the "charge", the charge is the generator of the (local) symmetry group. This charge is sometimes called the Noether charge.  Thus, for example, the electric charge is the generator of the U(1) symmetry of electromagnetism. The conserved current is the electric current.  In the case of local, dynamical symmetries, associated with every charge is a gauge field; when quantized, the gauge field becomes a gauge boson. The charges of the theory "radiate" the gauge field. Thus, for example, the gauge field of electromagnetism is the electromagnetic field; and the gauge boson is the photon.  The word "charge" is often used as a synonym for both the generator of a symmetry, and the conserved quantum number (eigenvalue) of the generator. Thus, letting the upper-case letter "Q" refer to the generator, one has that the generator commutes with the Hamiltonian ["Q", "H"] = 0. Commutation implies that the eigenvalues (lower-case) "q" are time-invariant: = 0.  So, for example, when the symmetry group is a Lie group, then the charge operators correspond to the simple roots of the root system of the Lie algebra; the discreteness of the root system accounting for the quantization of the charge. The simple roots are used, as all the other roots can be obtained as linear combinations of these. The general roots are often called raising and lowering operators, or ladder operators.  The charge quantum numbers then correspond to the weights of the highest-weight modules of a given representation of the Lie algebra. So, for example, when a particle in a quantum field theory belongs to a symmetry, then it transforms according to a particular representation of that symmetry; the charge quantum number is then the weight of the representation.

Examples.

Various charge quantum numbers have been introduced by theories of particle physics. These include the charges of the Standard Model:  Charges of approximate symmetries:  Hypothetical charges of extensions to the Standard Model:  In supersymmetry:  In conformal field theory:  In gravitation:

Charge conjugation.

In the formalism of particle theories, charge-like quantum numbers can sometimes be inverted by means of a charge conjugation operator called C. Charge conjugation simply means that a given symmetry group occurs in two inequivalent (but still isomorphic) group representations. It is usually the case that the two charge-conjugate representations are complex conjugate fundamental representations of the Lie group. Their product then forms the adjoint representation of the group.  Thus, a common example is that the product of two charge-conjugate fundamental representations of SL(2,C) (the spinors) forms the adjoint rep of the Lorentz group SO(3,1); abstractly, one writes  That is, the product of two (Lorentz) spinors is a (Lorentz) vector and a (Lorentz) scalar. Note that the complex Lie algebra sl(2,C) has a compact real form su(2) (in fact, all Lie algebras have a unique compact real form). The same decomposition holds for the compact form as well: the product of two spinors in su(2) being a vector in the rotation group O(3) and a singlet. The decomposition is given by the Clebsch–Gordan coefficients.  A similar phenomenon occurs in the compact group SU(3), where there are two charge-conjugate but inequivalent fundamental representations, dubbed formula_4 and formula_5, the number 3 denoting the dimension of the representation, and with the quarks transforming under formula_4 and the antiquarks transforming under formula_5. The Kronecker product of the two gives  That is, an eight-dimensional representation, the octet of the eight-fold way, and a singlet. The decomposition of such products of representations into direct sums of irreducible representations can in general be written as  for representations formula_10. The dimensions of the representations obey the "dimension sum rule":  Here, formula_12 is the dimension of the representation formula_10, and the integers formula_14 being the Littlewood–Richardson coefficients. The decomposition of the representations is again given by the Clebsch–Gordan coefficients, this time in the general Lie-algebra setting.

In physics, a charge is any of many different quantities, such as the electric charge in electromagnetism or the color charge in quantum chromodynamics. Charges correspond to the time-invariant generators of a symmetry group, and specifically, to the generators that commute with the Hamiltonian. Charges are often denoted by the letter "Q", and so the invariance of the charge corresponds to the vanishing commutator formula_1, where H is the Hamiltonian. Thus, charges are associated with conserved quantum numbers; these are the eigenvalues "q" of the generator "Q".


Design and development.

The first version of the aircraft entered service in 1959 as the T2J-1. It was redesignated the T-2A in 1962 under the joint aircraft designation system. The two-seat trainer was powered by one Westinghouse J34-WE-46/48 turbojet. The aircraft was subsequently redesigned, and the single engine was replaced with two Pratt & Whitney J60-P-6 turbojets in the T-2B. The T-2C was fitted with two thrust General Electric J85-GE-4 turbojets. The T-2D and T-2E were export versions for the Venezuelan Air Force and Hellenic Air Force, respectively. The T-2 Buckeye (along with the TF-9J Cougar) replaced the T2V-1/T-1A SeaStar, though the T-1 continued in some uses into the 1970s.  The Buckeye was designed as a low-cost, multistage trainer. Its straight wing was similar to that used on the FJ-1 Fury and its cockpit controls were similar to the propeller-driven T-28C Trojan. The T-2's performance was between that of the U.S. Air Force's Cessna T-37 Tweet and the U.S. Navy's TA-4J Skyhawk. While it had no built-in armament, the T-2 could accommodate two.50-inch gun pods, practice bombs, or 2.75-inch rockets beneath the wings.  All T-2 Buckeyes were manufactured by North American at Air Force Plant 85, located just south of Port Columbus Airport in Columbus, Ohio. A total of 609 aircraft were built during the production run. The name Buckeye refers to the state tree of Ohio, as well as the mascot of The Ohio State University.  Every jet-qualified Naval Aviator and virtually every Naval Flight Officer from the late 1950s until 2004 received training in the T-2 Buckeye, a length of service spanning four decades. The aircraft first exited the Naval Aviator strike pipeline (where it saw its final carrier landings) in 2004, and the Naval Flight Officer tactical jet pipeline in 2008. In the Naval Aviator strike pipeline syllabus and the Naval Flight Officer strike and strike fighter pipeline syllabi, the T-2 has been replaced by the near-sonic McDonnell Douglas T-45 Goshawk (the U.S. Navy version of the BAE Systems Hawk), which is more comparable to other high-performance, subsonic trainers, or the supersonic U.S. Air Force Northrop T-38 Talon. More recently, the T-2 has been used as a director aircraft for aerial drones. Several T-2 Buckeyes, although still retaining their USN markings, are now registered as civilian-owned aircraft with FAA "N" numbers; they regularly appear at airshows.

The North American T-2 Buckeye was the United States Navy's intermediate training aircraft, intended to introduce U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps student naval aviators and student naval flight officers to jets. It entered service in 1959, and was replaced by the McDonnell Douglas T-45 Goshawk in 2008.


Background of the problem.

When making a TLS connection, the client requests a digital certificate from the web server. Once the server sends the certificate, the client examines it and compares the name it was trying to connect to with the name(s) included in the certificate. If a match occurs, the connection proceeds as normal. If a match is not found, the user may be warned of the discrepancy and the connection may abort as the mismatch may indicate an attempted man-in-the-middle attack. However, some applications allow the user to bypass the warning to proceed with the connection, with the user taking on the responsibility of trusting the certificate and, by extension, the connection.  However it may be difficult — or even impossible, due to lack of a full list of all names in advance — to obtain a single certificate that covers all names a server will be responsible for. A server that is responsible for multiple hostnames is likely to need to present a different certificate for each name (or small group of names). Since 2005, CAcert has run experiments on different methods of using TLS on virtual servers. Most of the experiments are unsatisfactory and impractical. For example, it is possible to use "subjectAltName" to contain multiple domains controlled by one person in a single certificate. Such "unified communications certificates" must be reissued every time the list of domains changes.  Name-based virtual hosting allows multiple DNS hostnames to be hosted by a single server (usually a web server) on the same IP address. To achieve this, the server uses a hostname presented by the client as part of the protocol (for HTTP the name is presented in the host header). However, when using HTTPS, the TLS handshake happens before the server sees any HTTP headers. Therefore, it is not possible for the server to use the information in the HTTP host header to decide which certificate to present and as such only names covered by the same certificate can be served from the same IP address.  In practice, this means that an HTTPS server can only serve one domain (or small group of domains) per IP address for secured and efficient browsing. Assigning a separate IP address for each site increases the cost of hosting, since requests for IP addresses must be justified to the regional Internet registry and IPv4 addresses are now exhausted. The result is that many websites are effectively constrained from using secure communications over IPv4. IPv6 address space is not exhausted, so websites served using IPv6 are unaffected by this issue.

How SNI fixes the problem.

SNI addresses this issue by having the client send the name of the virtual domain as part of the TLS negotiation's ClientHello message. This enables the server to select the correct virtual domain early and present the browser with the certificate containing the correct name. Therefore, with clients and servers that implement SNI, a server with a single IP address can serve a group of domain names for which it is impractical to get a common certificate.  SNI was added to the IETF's Internet RFCs in June 2003 through RFC 3546, "Transport Layer Security (TLS) Extensions". The latest version of the standard is RFC 6066.

Security implications (ESNI).

The desired hostname is not encrypted, so an eavesdropper can see which site is being requested. This helps security companies provide a filtering feature and governments implement censorship. While domain fronting was used as a workaround, now both Google and AWS have taken action to disallow this - and it's therefore becoming less of an alternative.  As of mid 2018, an upgrade called Encrypted SNI (ESNI) is being rolled out in an "experimental phase" to address this risk of domain eavesdropping.  Support for ESNI was incorporated into Firefox Nightly in October 2018. While the mainline Firefox browser supports ESNI, it requires using DNS-over-HTTPS to be enabled.  In March 2020, ESNI was renamed to ECHO (Encrypted Client Hello); it went on to be renamed once again to ECH in May 2020.

Implementation.

In 2004, a patch for adding TLS/SNI into OpenSSL was created by the EdelKey project. In 2006, this patch was then ported to the development branch of OpenSSL, and in 2007 it was back-ported to OpenSSL 0.9.8 (first released in 0.9.8f).  For an application program to implement SNI, the TLS library it uses must implement it and the application must pass the hostname to the TLS library. Further complicating matters, the TLS library may either be included in the application program or be a component of the underlying operating system. Because of this, some browsers implement SNI when running on any operating system, while others implement it only when running on certain operating systems.

Server Name Indication (SNI) is an extension to the Transport Layer Security (TLS) computer networking protocol by which a client indicates which hostname it is attempting to connect to at the start of the handshaking process. This allows a server to present multiple certificates on the same IP address and TCP port number and hence allows multiple secure (HTTPS) websites (or any other service over TLS) to be served by the same IP address without requiring all those sites to use the same certificate. It is the conceptual equivalent to HTTP/1.1 name-based virtual hosting, but for HTTPS. The desired hostname is not encrypted in the original SNI extension, so an eavesdropper can see which site is being requested.


History.

The cooperative was founded in 1898 as the E.d.K. ("Einkaufsgenossenschaft der Kolonialwarenhändler im Halleschen Torbezirk zu Berlin", "Purchasing Cooperative of Colonial Goods Retailers in the Hallesches Tor district of Berlin"). In 1911, it was renamed as Edeka - a phonetic expansion of the previous abbreviation. The Edekabank was founded in 1914 and, from 1923, central billing was introduced.  After the Second World War, the reconstruction of the store network was led from the new Hamburg central offices. In 1972, the cooperatives changed structure and formed twelve regional companies, the umbrella corporation and the Edekabank converting from a cooperative to a public limited company.  In 2001, the Edeka own brand "Gut & Günstig" was founded.  Christmas 2015 the company attracted worldwide attention with the highly sentimental TV commercial "#heimkommen", about a lonely grandfather desperate to reunite with his family for Christmas. Intended only for the German public, it reached over 43 million views worldwide on YouTube by December 18, 2015, and became a cultural phenomenon, with nearly 62 million views by June 2019.

Brand names.

Operational names of these stores include: Stores not operating under the Edeka brand, but belonging to the group nonetheless:  It also has holdings in Denmark.  Edeka also operates a number of companies providing related services, for example the "Edekabank".

Controversies.

A 2019 Mother's Day online commercial showing a series of clips of fathers interacting with their children incompetently, followed by shots of caring mothers with their children, and the punchline "Mum, thank you for not being dad," was criticized widely for its clichéd portrayal of the roles of mothers and fathers.  Stevie Schmiedel, a gender researcher and founder of the German branch of the feminist lobby organization "Pinkstinks," which campaigns against sexism in advertising, commented: "Maybe the advertisers really thought they were doing something good for women on Mother's Day. But everything went wrong. The commercial is pseudo-progressive. It divides and intensifies the fight between the sexes. A poisoned Mother's Day present."  Edeka was officially reprimanded by the "Deutscher Werberat", the German advertising standards regulator, for breaching advertising standards by "reinforcing 1950's gender stereotypes," and while "ironic exaggeration is permissible, gender stereotyping is not." The authority also cited the large number of complaints and the debate about the commercial on social media, saying this showed that viewers either did not understand that it was meant to be ironical, or that they felt the ironic use of stereotypes was not acceptable to them.

The Edeka Group is the largest German supermarket corporation, holding a market share of 20.3%. Founded in 1898, it consists today of several cooperatives of independent supermarkets all operating under the umbrella organisation "Edeka Zentrale AG & Co KG", with headquarters in Hamburg. There are approximately 4,100 stores with the Edeka nameplate that range from small corner stores to hypermarkets. On November 16, 2007, Edeka reached an agreement with Tengelmann (known as A&P in the US) to purchase a 70% majority stake in Tengelmann's "Plus" discounter store division, which was then merged into Edeka's "Netto" brand, with some 4,200 stores by 2018. Under all brands the company operated a total of 13,646 stores at the end of 2017.


Biography.

Hausner was born in Lemberg, then the capital of Galicia, a province of Austria-Hungary (now Ukraine), to Polish-Jewish economist rabbi and Zionist Bernard Hausner, who was later member of Polish Sejm (parliament). He immigrated to Mandatory Palestine from Poland in 1927, when his father took the post of Economic Advisor to the Polish Government first in Haifa and later in Tel-Aviv. Hausner attended high school in Tel Aviv before studying philosophy at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and then law at the Jerusalem Law School. He spoke Polish, Hebrew, Yiddish, English and German.  He was a member of the Haganah, during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War he served in the Etzioni Brigade. After the conflict he worked as a military prosecutor, and then as president of the military court.  In 1960, he was appointed Attorney General, but resigned from the post in 1963 and pursued a career in politics. He was elected to the Knesset in 1965 as a member of the Independent Liberals, having previously been active in the Progressive Party (the Independent Liberals were a breakaway group of mostly Progressive Party members following the party's merger into Gahal). He was re-elected in 1969 and 1973, and resigned from the Knesset upon being appointed a Minister without Portfolio in 1974 as part of Golda Meir's cabinet. Re-elected in 1977 as the only member of the party, he lost his seat in the 1981 elections when the party failed to cross the electoral threshold.  He was also the chairman of the council of Yad Vashem (1969–1989).  He was married with Judith, they had two children: Tamar and Amos, His daughter is Tami Raveh-Hausner, chairwoman of HaHadashot 12, she is married to advocate Yehuda Raveh.

Gideon Hausner (, 26 September 1915 – 15 November 1990) was an Israeli jurist and politician. Between 1960 and 1963, he served as Attorney General and was later elected to the Knesset and served in the cabinet.


Association team allocation.

A total of 76 teams participated in the 2009–10 Champions League, from 52 UEFA associations (Liechtenstein organises no domestic league competition). Associations are allocated places according to their 2008 UEFA country coefficient, which takes into account their performance in European competitions from 2003–04 to 2007–08.  Below is the qualification scheme for the 2009–10 UEFA Champions League:

Distribution.

Since the winners of the 2008–09 UEFA Champions League, Barcelona, obtained a place in the group stage through their domestic league placing, the reserved title holder spot in the group stage was effectively vacated. To compensate:

Teams.

League positions of the previous season shown in parentheses.

Round and draw dates.

All draws held at UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland unless stated otherwise.

Qualifying phase.

In a new system for the Champions League, there are two separate qualifying tournaments. The Champions Path (which start from the first qualifying round) is for clubs which won their domestic league and did not automatically qualify for the group stage, while the Non-Champions Path (which start from the third qualifying round) is for clubs which did not win their domestic league and did not automatically qualify for the group stage.  In the qualifying phase and the play-off round, teams play against each other over two legs on a home-and-away basis.  The draw for the first and second qualifying rounds, conducted by UEFA President Michel Platini and UEFA General Secretary David Taylor, was held on 22 June 2009, and the draw for the third qualifying round, conducted by UEFA Competitions Director Giorgio Marchetti and Head of Club Competitions Michael Heselschwerdt, was held on 17 July 2009. For the draws, clubs were separated into seeded and unseeded teams based on their club coefficient. Because the draws for the second and third qualifying rounds took place before the previous round was completed, the teams were seeded assuming the seeded side in the previous round would be victorious.

First qualifying round.

The first legs were played on 30 June and 1 July, and the second legs were played on 7 and 8 July 2009.

Second qualifying round.

The first legs were played on 14 and 15 July, and the second legs were played on 21 and 22 July 2009.  Partizan's 8–0 win over Rhyl in the second leg equalled the record for the largest margin of victory in the current Champions League format. , the second leg between Stabæk and Tirana was under investigation by UEFA and German authorities for possible match-fixing.

Third qualifying round.

The third qualifying round was split into two separate sections: one for champions and one for non-champions. The first legs were played on 28 and 29 July, and the second legs were played on 4 and 5 August 2009. The losing teams in both sections entered the play-off round of the 2009–10 UEFA Europa League.

Play-off round.

An extra qualifying round, the play-off round, was introduced from this season. The teams were split into two separate sections: one for champions and one for non-champions. The draw for the play-off round, conducted by UEFA General Secretary David Taylor and UEFA Competitions Director Giorgio Marchetti, was held on 7 August 2009. For the draw, clubs were separated into seeded and unseeded teams based on their club coefficient. The first legs were played on 18 and 19 August, and the second legs were played on 25 and 26 August 2009. The losing teams in both sections entered the group stage of the 2009–10 UEFA Europa League.

Group stage.

The draw for the group stage was held at the Grimaldi Forum in Monaco on 27 August 2009. A total of 32 teams were drawn into eight groups of four. Teams were divided into four pots, based on their club coefficient. Clubs from the same pot or the same association cannot be drawn into the same group.  In each group, teams played against each other home-and-away. The matchdays were 15–16 September, 29–30 September, 20–21 October, 3–4 November, 24–25 November, and 8–9 December 2009. The top two in each group advanced to the knockout phase, and the third-placed teams entered the round of 32 of the 2009–10 UEFA Europa League.  Based on Article 7.06 in the UEFA regulations, if two or more teams are equal on points on completion of the group matches, the following criteria are applied to determine the rankings:  AZ, Wolfsburg, Standard Liège, Zürich, APOEL, Rubin Kazan, Unirea Urziceni and Debrecen made their debut in the group stage.

Knockout phase.

In the knockout phase, teams play against each other over two legs on a home-and-away basis, except for the one-match final.  The draw for the round of 16 was held on 18 December 2009, conducted by UEFA General Secretary Gianni Infantino and Giorgio Marchetti, the UEFA Director of Competitions. The eight group winners, which would play the second leg at home, were drawn against the eight group runners-up, with the restriction that teams from the same group or the same association cannot be drawn with each other.  The draws for the quarter-finals, semi-finals and final (to determine the "home" team) was held on 19 March 2010, conducted by Gianni Infantino and Emilio Butragueño, the ambassador for the final in Madrid. From the quarter-finals onwards, there were no seedings, and teams from the same group or the same association may be drawn with each other.

Round of 16.

Starting from this season, the matches in the round of 16 were held over four weeks, instead of the previous two weeks. The first legs were played on 16, 17, 23 and 24 February, and the second legs were played on 9, 10, 16 and 17 March 2010.

Quarter-finals.

The first legs were played on 30 and 31 March, and the second legs were played on 6 and 7 April 2010.

Semi-finals.

The first legs were played on 20 and 21 April, and the second legs were played on 27 and 28 April 2010.

Final.

The final of the 2009–10 UEFA Champions League was played at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium in Madrid on 22 May 2010, between Germany's Bayern Munich and Italy's Internazionale. The stadium, home of Real Madrid, has hosted three previous European Cup finals, in 1957, 1969 and 1980. It was the first time that a UEFA Champions League final has been played on a Saturday night. England's Howard Webb was appointed to referee the Final. The two clubs competing in the Final had each won their domestic league and cup competitions, meaning that the winner became only the sixth club in Europe to have achieved a continental treble, and the first such club from their respective countries. It was also the second consecutive treble, following that of Barcelona in the previous season.

Statistics.

Statistics exclude qualifying rounds and play-off round.

The 2009–10 UEFA Champions League was the 55th season of Europe's premier club football tournament organised by UEFA, and the 18th under the current UEFA Champions League format. The final was played on 22 May 2010, at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium, home of Real Madrid, in Madrid, Spain. The final was won by Italian club Inter Milan, who beat German side Bayern Munich 2–0. Internazionale went on to represent Europe in the 2010 FIFA Club World Cup, beating Congolese side TP Mazembe 3–0 in the final, and played in the 2010 UEFA Super Cup against Europa League winners Atlético Madrid, losing 2–0.


Association team allocation.

A total of 192 teams from 53 UEFA associations participated in the 2009–10 UEFA Europa League. Associations are allocated places according to their 2008 UEFA country coefficient, which takes into account their performance in European competitions from 2003–04 to 2007–08.  Below is the qualification scheme for the 2009–10 UEFA Europa League:

Distribution.

Since the winners of the 2008–09 UEFA Cup, Shakhtar Donetsk, qualified for the 2009–10 UEFA Champions League through domestic performance, the title holder spot reserved for them in the group stage was vacated. As this was the first edition of the Europa League, it was initially unknown whether UEFA would simply disregard the vacant title holder spot and rearrange entries so that one more team would qualify from the play-off round, or replace the title holders' group stage place with that of the top-ranked association's cup winner and move teams from lower rounds appropriately, as the regulations are unclear on this matter. The former set-up was confirmed by UEFA's official list of participants, published on 16 June 2009. As a result, the following changes to the default allocation system were made to compensate for the vacant title holder spot in the group stage:

Redistribution rules.

A Europa League place is vacated when a team qualify for both the Champions League and the Europa League, or qualify for the Europa League by more than one method. When a place is vacated, it is redistributed within the national association by the following rules:

Teams.

The labels in the parentheses show how each team qualified for the place of its starting round:

Round and draw dates.

All draws held at UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland unless stated otherwise.

Qualifying phase.

In the qualifying phase and the play-off round, teams play against each other over two legs on a home-and-away basis.  The draw for the first and second qualifying rounds, conducted by UEFA President Michel Platini and UEFA General Secretary David Taylor, was held on 22 June 2009, and the draw for the third qualifying round, conducted by UEFA Competitions Director Giorgio Marchetti and Head of Club Competitions Michael Heselschwerdt, was held on 17 July 2009. For the draws, clubs were separated into seeded and unseeded teams based on their club coefficient. Because the draws for the second and third qualifying rounds took place before the previous round was completed, the teams were seeded assuming the seeded side in the previous round would be victorious.

First qualifying round.

The first legs were played on 2 July, and the second legs were played on 9 July 2009.

Second qualifying round.

The first legs were played on 14 and 16 July, and the second legs were played on 23 July 2009.  Both the first and second legs between Bnei Yehuda and Dinaburg and between Rapid Wien and Vllaznia were under investigation by UEFA and German authorities for possible match-fixing.

Third qualifying round.

The first legs were played on 28 and 30 July, and the second legs were played on 4 and 6 August 2009.  The first leg between Fenerbahçe and Budapest Honvéd and the second leg between Interblock Ljubljana and Metalurh Donetsk were under investigation by UEFA and German authorities for possible match-fixing.

Play-off round.

The draw for the play-off round, conducted by UEFA General Secretary David Taylor and UEFA Competitions Director Giorgio Marchetti, was held on 7 August 2009. For the draw, clubs were separated into seeded and unseeded teams based on their club coefficient. The first legs were played on 20 August, and the second legs were played on 25 and 27 August 2009.  Note 1: The match was abandoned at 0–2 in the 88th minute after one Dinamo București fan entered the playing field and other fans invaded the running track around the pitch. The UEFA Control and Disciplinary Body awarded a default 0–3 defeat against Dinamo during an emergency meeting on 25 August. After advancing to the group stage, Dinamo were punished by having their first two home matches in the group stage played behind closed doors.

Group stage.

The draw for the group stage was held at the Grimaldi Forum in Monaco on 28 August 2009. A total of 48 teams were drawn into twelve groups of four. Teams were divided into four pots, based on their club coefficient. Clubs from the same pot or the same association cannot be drawn into the same group.  In each group, teams played against each other home-and-away. The matchdays were 17 September, 1 October, 22 October, 5 November, 2–3 December, and 16–17 December 2009. The top two in each group advanced to the knockout phase. If two or more teams are equal on points on completion of the group matches, the following criteria are applied to determine the rankings:  During this stage of the tournament, matches featured five on-field officials – with two additional officials monitoring play around the penalty area as part of a FIFA-sanctioned experiment.

Knockout phase.

In the knockout phase, teams play against each other over two legs on a home-and-away basis, except for the one-match final.  The draw for the round of 32 and round of 16 was held on 18 December 2009, conducted by UEFA General Secretary Gianni Infantino and UEFA Director of Competitions Giorgio Marchetti. In the round of 32, the group winners and the four better third-placed teams from the Champions League group stage, which would play the second leg at home, were drawn against the group runners-up and the other four third-placed Champions League teams, with the restriction that teams from the same group or the same association cannot be drawn with each other. In the round of 16, there were no seedings, and teams from the same group or the same association may be drawn with each other.  The draw for the quarter-finals, semi-finals, and final (to determine the "home" team) was held on 19 March 2010, conducted by UEFA competitions director Giorgio Marchetti and the ambassador for the Hamburg final, Uwe Seeler. Same as the round of 16, there were no seedings, and teams from the same group or the same association may be drawn with each other.

Bracket.

<section begin=bracket />

Round of 32.

The first legs were played on 16 and 18 February, and the second legs were played on 23 and 25 February 2010.

Round of 16.

The first legs were played on 11 March, and the second legs were played on 18 March 2010.

Quarter-finals.

The first legs were played on 1 April, and the second legs were played on 8 April 2010.

Semi-finals.

The first legs were played on 22 April, and the second legs were played on 29 April 2010.

Final.

The final of the 2009–10 UEFA Europa League was played at the HSH Nordbank Arena in Hamburg, Germany, on 12 May 2010. This was the second time the home stadium of Hamburger SV hosted a UEFA final, the first being the second leg of the 1982 UEFA Cup Final. Due to UEFA rules banning corporate sponsorship outside the confederation, the stadium was referred to by UEFA as "Hamburg Arena". The match was won by Atlético Madrid.

Statistics.

Top scorers and assists (excluding qualifying rounds and play-off round):

The 2009–10 UEFA Europa League was the first season of the UEFA Europa League, Europe's secondary club football tournament organised by UEFA. The competition was previously known as the UEFA Cup, which had been in existence for 38 years.


Design and development.

One of the main goals of the RS-68 program was to produce a simple engine that would be cost-effective when used for a single launch. To achieve this, the RS-68 has 80% fewer parts than the multi-launch Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME). The adverse consequences of this simplicity were a significantly lower thrust-to-weight ratio and a 10% lower specific impulse compared to the SSME. The benefit of this simplicity is the RS-68's reduced construction cost.  An RS-68 is part of each Delta IV Common Booster Core. The largest of the launch vehicles, the Delta IV Heavy, uses three CBCs mounted together.  At its maximum 102% thrust, the engine produces in a vacuum and at sea level. The engine's mass is. With this thrust, the engine has a thrust-to-weight ratio of 51.2 and a specific impulse of in a vacuum and at sea level. The RS-68 is gimbaled hydraulically and is capable of throttling between 58% and 102% thrust.  The RS-68A is an updated version of the RS-68, with increased specific impulse and thrust (to over at sea level). The first launch on June 29, 2012, from the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station used three RS-68A engines mounted in a Delta IV Heavy rocket.

Proposed uses.

In 2006, NASA announced an intention to use five RS-68 engines instead of SSMEs on the planned Ares V. NASA chose the RS-68 because of its lower cost, about $20 million per engine including the cost of NASA's upgrades. The upgrades included a different ablative nozzle to accommodate a longer burn, a shorter start sequence, hardware changes to limit free hydrogen at ignition, and a reduction in the amount of helium used during countdown and flight. Thrust and specific impulse increases would occur under a separate upgrade program for the Delta IV rocket. Later, the Ares V was changed to use six RS-68 engines, designated the RS-68B. Ares V was dropped as part of the cancellation of the Constellation program in 2010. NASA's current successor heavy-lift vehicle, the Space Launch System, will use four RS-25 engines instead.

Human-rating.

In 2008, it was reported that the RS-68 needs over 200 changes to receive a human-rating certification. NASA has stated that those changes include health monitoring, removal of the fuel-rich environment at liftoff, and improving the robustness of its subsystems.

The Aerojet Rocketdyne RS-68 (Rocket System 68) is a liquid-fuel rocket engine that uses liquid hydrogen (LH2) and liquid oxygen (LOX) as propellants in a gas-generator power cycle. It is the largest hydrogen-fueled rocket engine ever flown.


Life.

Early life.

Baouardy was born on 5 January 1846 (the eve of Epiphany) in the Galilean village of Hurfiesh, later moved to I’billin, in Palestine during the Ottoman Empire, to Giries (George) Baouardy and his wife, Mariam Chahine. Mariam was their 13th child and first daughter, and none of her preceding brothers had survived infancy. She was born after the couple made a pilgrimage on foot to Bethlehem, some 70 miles away, out of desperation after the loss of their children. When they were later blessed with the birth of a daughter, they named her after the Virgin Mary, out of gratitude. She was joined by a new brother, Boulos, two years later.  Baouardy was not yet three years old when both her parents died from an illness in 1848, only a few days apart. The siblings were then each taken in by relatives on different sides of her family living in different villages, she was taken by a paternal uncle who lived in the same village, and her brother went to live with a maternal aunt. The brother and sister would never see one another again. She was raised in a loving home in comfortable circumstances. As a child she had a marked spirit of religious fervor, and at the age of five began to fast on Saturdays in honor of the Blessed Virgin.  When Baouardy was eight, her uncle and his wife moved to Alexandria, Egypt, to improve their situation. Five years later, in 1858 when she was aged 13, in keeping with tradition, she was engaged by her uncle to his wife's brother, who lived in Cairo. The night before the wedding, she had a religious experience in which she felt called not to marry but to offer her life to God. Upon being told this the following morning, her uncle flew into a rage and beat her severely. Despite this, and the subsequent ill treatment she began to experience from her uncle, she stayed firm in her decision.  Nonetheless, Baouardy felt depressed and alone. She wrote her brother, then living in Nazareth, asking him to visit her. The young male servant she asked to deliver the letter drew out of her the cause for her sadness. Upon learning of this, he attempted to woo her for himself, inviting her to convert to Islam. She rejected his proposal, which caused the young man to fly into a rage, in which he drew a knife and cut her throat. He then dumped her body in a nearby alley.  Baouardy then experienced what she was convinced was a miracle. As she related later, a "nun dressed in blue" brought her to a grotto which she could never identify, stitched her wounds, and took care of her. Her voice was affected for the rest of her life as a result of the cut, which a French doctor later measured as being 10 cm. (nearly 4 inches) wide. After being cared for by this mysterious figure for a month, she recovered enough to leave and find work as a domestic servant in the home of an Arab Christian family in the city.  After a year, Baourardy decided to try to meet her brother and traveled by caravan to Jerusalem. There she felt inspired to make a vow of perpetual virginity at the Holy Sepulchre. She then took a boat in Jaffa with the intention of heading to Acre. Due to poor weather, however, the boat had to stop at Beirut. Taking this as a sign from God, she disembarked and found work as a maid. After working there she suddenly became blind, a condition that lasted for 40 days, when just as suddenly she recovered her vision. Not long after that, she had a serious fall which seemed to leave her for dead. Her employer cared for her for a month until she recovered, completely healed.

France and Carmel.

In May 1863 a generous patron made it possible for Baouardy to move to Marseille, France, where she became the cook for an Arab family. While there, she felt called to enter a religious order. Rejected by the first groups to which she sought admission, in May 1865 she was accepted as a postulant by the Congregation of the Sisters of St. Joseph of the Apparition, who had communities in the Holy Land and already had several Palestinian candidates. It was at this point that she received the stigmata of Christ.  During the last month of this period of candidacy, the Mistress of novices, Mother Honorine who had drawn Baouardy's life story from her, was replaced by Mother Veronica of the Passion. After two years as a postulant, Baouardy was up for a vote by the community regarding her admission to the congregation. To her dismay, she was rejected by the sisters charged with making the decision.  At that point, Mother Veronica had just received permission to transfer to the Discalced Carmelite monastery at Pau to prepare for her forming a new congregation of Religious Sisters serving in India, the Sisters of the Apostolic Carmel. She invited Baouardy to go with her, writing to the prioress of that community and recommending that they accept the young Arab woman. The prioress accepted Mother Veronica's advice and, in June 1867, both women went together to Pau, where they received the Carmelite religious habit and Baourdy was given the religious name of Mary of Jesus Crucified.  In 1870, Baouardy went with the first group of Carmelite Apostolic Sisters to Mangalore, India. She served there for two years before returning to Pau. It was there she made her profession of solemn vows as a member of the Order in November 1871. In September 1875 she helped to found a new monastery in Bethlehem, the first of the Order in that region, where she lived until her death. During her whole life, she experienced periods of religious ecstasy frequently throughout the day.  In April 1878 Baouardy played an important role in the identification of the Biblical Emmaus thanks to a private revelation. She died on 26 August 1878 in Bethlehem, from cancer which had developed in her bones as a result of the fall she had while working in the monastery, which led to gangrene that spread to her lungs.

Veneration.

The cause of canonization started on 18 May 1927 and would culminate with the decree of heroic virtue on 27 November 1981. Baouardy was beatified by Pope John Paul II on 13 November 1983 and was canonized on 17 May 2015 by Pope Francis. She became the second Greek Catholic to be canonized a saint of the Catholic Church, the first being Josaphat Kuntsevych in 1867.  In I'billin a kindergarten, the Miriam Bawardi Elementary School and a junior high school are named after Baouardy.

Mariam Baouardy (, or Mary of Jesus Crucified, 5 January 1846 – 26 August 1878), was a Discalced Carmelite nun of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church. Born to Greek Catholic Palestinian parents from the town of Hurfiesh in the upper Galilee, she was known for her service to the poor. In addition, she became a Christian mystic who suffered the stigmata, and has been canonized by the Catholic Church.


Career.

Crew Fighters (2002–2003).

As a teenager, Gaskarth was part of a cover band named Crew Fighters. Soon after, he met Jack Barakat, who persuaded him to form and join All Time Low. All Time Low began doing covers of songs by Blink-182 and Green Day. Subsequently, the formation of the band was completed by Zack Merrick (bass, backing vocals) and Rian Dawson (drums, percussion), who also left Crew Fighters to join All Time Low.

All Time Low (2003–present).

Gaskarth started playing music with bandmate Jack Barakat in eighth grade. In ninth grade, they acquired Zack Merrick and Rian Dawson, forming All Time Low in 2003. They signed to Emerald Moon Records in 2004 while still in high school and released their debut EP, "The Three Words to Remember in Dealing with the End". In 2005, they released their debut studio album "The Party Scene".  In 2006 the band signed with Hopeless Records. In 2007, they released a Platinum single "Dear Maria, Count Me In" and in 2008 it was certified 4x Platinum by Billboard. They also released their second studio album "So Wrong, It's Right" in 2007. In 2009, All Time Low released their third studio album "Nothing Personal" which debuted number 4 in Billboard 200. In 2010 the band released two CD/DVD packages, "MTV Unplugged" and the documentary/live concert "Straight to DVD".  In 2011, the band signed with Interscope Records and released their fourth studio album "Dirty Work". In early 2012, the band re-signed with Hopeless Records and released their fifth studio album "Don't Panic". On 7 April 2015, All Time Low released their sixth studio album "Future Hearts" which reached number 2 on Billboard Hot 200 Albums Chart with 75,000 copies sold in its first week, and number 1 in the U.K official Album Charts with 19,400 copies being sold. In 2016, "Straight to DVD 2: Past Present and Future Hearts" was released. This is a sequel to "Straight to DVD", documenting the past four years of the band as well as another live concert. In 2017, the band released a new song entitled "Dirty Laundry" and also reveals that they had left Hopeless Records and has signed with Fueled by Ramen one year prior. On 2 June 2017 the band released its seventh studio album "Last Young Renegade". In the summer of 2018, the band released two new singles, "Everything Is Fine" and "Birthday".  Gaskarth has written songs for/with other bands such as 5 Seconds of Summer, McBusted, and Simple Plan. He has also been a host of the podcast Full Frontal with bandmate Jack Barakat since 2013.

Simple Creatures (2019–present).

On 24 January 2019, Gaskarth announced he was forming a new group with Mark Hoppus of Blink-182 called Simple Creatures. A debut song named "Drug" was released with news of an upcoming EP slated for March. A single named "Strange Love" was also released.

Instruments.

During 2004–2008, Gaskarth used a variety of Gibson SG-X's. Around mid-2013, Gaskarth used a variety of custom-made Paul Reed Smith guitars, most notable the Mira. He stated in a Reddit AMA that he abandoned the instruments due to difficulties replacing parts while overseas. Gaskarth currently uses Fender guitars, most notable the Mustang 90 models, although he has been seen using Telecasters, as well as some of their acoustic models. Gaskarth has also been seen using Gibson electric guitars.

Personal life.

Gaskarth graduated from Dulaney High School in 2006. Gaskarth has two older half-sisters, Jillian and Helen, and had a half-brother, Tom, who died when Gaskarth was 12 due to alcohol poisoning. In memory of him, Gaskarth got a rose tattoo on his left hand, and wrote the song "Lullabies".  Gaskarth married his longtime girlfriend Lisa Ruocco on 9 April 2016.

Vocal style.

Gaskarth has a tenor vocal style. His vocal range is from A2 to C#5.

Discography.

As lead artist.

All Time Low Simple Creatures

Alexander William Gaskarth (born December 14, 1987) is an English singer, songwriter, guitarist, musician and actor. He is best known as the lead vocalist, rhythm guitarist, and primary songwriter for the American rock band All Time Low since its formation in 2003. Alex also hosted the 2015 and 2016 Alternative Press Music Awards along with bandmate Jack Barakat.