Early life.

Princess Charlotte was born on 29 September 1766 at Buckingham House, London, to British monarch, King George III and Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. She was christened on 27 October 1766 at St James's Palace by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Secker, and her godparents were her paternal aunts Caroline Matilda and Louisa and Caroline Matilda's husband King Christian VII of Denmark. The Duke of Portland, Lord Chamberlain, and the Dowager Countess of Effingham, stood proxy for the King and Queen of Denmark.  Charlotte was officially designated as Princess Royal on 22 June 1789. After the birth of three sons in a row, her parents were delighted to have a Princess in the nursery. Like all of her siblings, Charlotte was inoculated, in her case, in December 1768 along with her brother William. As the eldest daughter of the monarch, Charlotte was assumed to be destined for an important marriage on the continent, and her education was considered to be of the utmost importance, beginning when she was only eighteen months old. Since French was the official language in every European court, the little Princess was given a Frenchwoman to be her tutor, in order that she should have no accent. Her memory was another of her beginning subjects. She was taught to recite little verses and stories, and as a result had an almost uncanny ability to recall detail for the rest of her life. Her early childhood was not all scholarly pursuits. When she was almost three years old, she took place in her first tableau dressed like Columbine, where she danced with her seven-year-old brother George, Prince of Wales. She was not a naturally musical child and later abhorred such displays of children, declaring that they made children vain and self-important. This did not stop her parents from continuing to show her off. In late 1769, she and the Prince of Wales were once again displayed, this time to the public in a "junior drawing room" in St James's Palace. Charlotte was dressed in a Roman toga and lay on a sofa. Though this type of thing was common in German courts, it was considered vulgar in England, where in reaction a London mob drove a hearse into the Palace courtyard. Afterward, the Prince of Wales told Lady Mary Coke that the whole event had made Charlotte "terribly tired". Wisely, the King and Queen decided to never repeat the experience.  Though she was the eldest daughter, Charlotte was constantly compared to her sister Augusta Sophia, only two years younger than she. When Augusta was a month old, Lady Mary Coke called her "the most beautiful baby I have ever seen" while Charlotte was "very plain". Passing judgment once again three years later, Charlotte was now "the most sensible agreeable child I ever saw, but in my opinion far from pretty" while Augusta was still "rather pretty". Although the Princess Royal was never as beautiful as her younger sister, she did not share in Augusta's primary flaw: painful shyness, though Charlotte did suffer from a stammer that her attendant Mary Dacres tried to help her young charge overcome. In 1770, the cluster of the three eldest princesses was completed with the birth of Princess Elizabeth, the seventh child. For the time being the family remained comparatively small (there were fifteen royal children in all), and Charlotte was fortunate in having parents who preferred spending time with their numerous children to spending all their time at court and took her education seriously. However, given the frequency with which children were being produced and the troubles that plagued George III's reign, Charlotte's childhood was not as utopian as her parents planned it to be.  Like her siblings, the Princess Royal was educated by tutors and spent most her childhood at Buckingham House, Kew Palace, and Windsor Castle, where her wet nurse was Frances, wife of James Muttlebury.

Marriage.

On 18 May 1797, the Princess Royal was married at the Chapel Royal, St James's Palace, London, to Frederick, Hereditary Prince of Württemberg, the eldest son and heir apparent of Frederick II Eugene, Duke of Württemberg and his wife, Margravine Sophia Dorothea of Brandenburg-Schwedt.  The younger Frederick succeeded his father as the reigning Duke of Württemberg on 22 December 1797. Duke Frederick II had two sons and two daughters by his first marriage to the late Princess Augusta (3 December 1764 – 27 September 1788), the daughter of Duke Karl II of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and Princess Augusta of Great Britain (the elder sister of George III); Princess Augusta was also the elder sister of Caroline of Brunswick, the estranged wife of the future George IV (then Prince of Wales). The marriage between Duke Frederick and the Princess Royal produced one child: a stillborn daughter on 27 April 1798.

Württemberg.

In 1800, the French army occupied Württemberg and the Duke and Duchess fled to Vienna. The following year, Duke Frederick concluded a private treaty that ceded Montbéliard to France and brought him Ellwangen in exchange two years later. He assumed the title Elector of Württemberg on 25 February 1803. In exchange for providing France with a large auxiliary force, Napoleon recognized the Elector as King of Württemberg on 26 December 1805. Electress Charlotte became queen when her husband formally ascended the throne on 1 January 1806 and was crowned as such on the same day at Stuttgart, Germany.  Württemberg seceded from the Holy Roman Empire and joined Napoleon's short-lived Confederation of the Rhine. However, the newly elevated king's alliance with France technically made him the enemy of his father-in-law, George III. George III, incensed by his son-in-law's assumption of the title and his role as one of Napoleon's most devoted vassals, accordingly refused to address his daughter as "Queen of Württemberg" in correspondence. In 1813, King Frederick changed sides and went over to the Allies, where his status as the brother-in-law of the Prince Regent (later George IV) helped his standing. After the fall of Napoleon, he attended the Congress of Vienna and was confirmed as king. He died in October 1816.

Dowager Queen.

The Dowager Queen of Württemberg continued to live at the Ludwigsburg Palace, near Stuttgart, and received visits from her younger siblings, the Duke of Kent, the Duke of Sussex, the Duke of Cambridge, the Landgravine of Hesse-Homburg, and Princess Augusta Sophia. She was a godmother (by proxy) at the christening of her niece, Princess Victoria of Kent (the future Queen Victoria), in 1819. In 1827, she returned to Britain for the first time since her wedding in 1797 in order to have surgery for dropsy.  She died at Ludwigsburg Palace on 6 October 1828 and is buried in its royal vault.

Titles, styles, honours and arms.

Arms.

As a daughter of the sovereign, Charlotte had use of the arms of the kingdom, differenced by a "label argent of three points, the centre point bearing a rose gules, the outer points each bearing a cross gules".

Charlotte, Princess Royal (Charlotte Augusta Matilda; 29 September 1766 – 5 October 1828), was Queen of Württemberg as the wife of King Frederick I. She was the first daughter and fourth child of King George III of the United Kingdom and his wife, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.


Specifications.

After developing a successful gasoline-powered two-stroke piston engine in 1873, Benz focused on developing a motorized vehicle while maintaining a career as a designer and manufacturer of stationary engines and their associated parts.  The Benz Patent-Motorwagen was a three-wheeled automobile with a rear-mounted engine. The vehicle contained many new inventions. It was constructed of steel tubing with woodwork panels. The steel-spoked wheels and solid rubber tires were Benz's own design. Steering was by way of a toothed rack that pivoted the unsprung front wheel. Fully elliptic springs were used at the back along with a beam axle and chain drive on both sides. A simple belt system served as a single-speed transmission, varying torque between an open disc and drive disc. The first Motorwagen used the Benz single-cylinder four-stroke engine with trembler coil ignition. This new engine produced at 250 rpm in the Patent-Motorwagen, although later tests by the University of Mannheim showed it to be capable of at 400 rpm. It was an extremely light engine for the time, weighing about. Although its open crankcase and drip oiling system would be alien to a modern mechanic, its use of a pushrod-operated poppet valve for exhaust would be quite familiar. A large horizontal flywheel stabilized the single-cylinder engine's power output. An evaporative carburettor was controlled by a sleeve valve to regulate power and engine speed. The first model of the Motorwagen had not been built with a carburettor, rather a basin of fuel soaked fibers that supplied fuel to the cylinder by evaporation.  Benz later made more models of the Motorwagen: model number 2 had engine, and model number 3 had engine, allowing the vehicle to reach a maximum speed of approximately. The chassis was improved in 1887 with the introduction of wooden-spoke wheels, a fuel tank, and a manual leather shoe brake on the rear wheels.

Bertha Benz's Trip.

Bertha Benz, Karl's wife, whose dowry financed their enterprise, was aware of the need for publicity. She took the Patent-Motorwagen No. 3 and drove it on the first long-distance internal combustion automobile road trip to demonstrate its feasibility. That trip occurred in early August 1888, when she took her sons Eugen and Richard, fifteen and fourteen years old, respectively, on a ride from Mannheim through Heidelberg, and Wiesloch, to her maternal hometown of Pforzheim.

The Benz Patent-Motorwagen ("patent motorcar"), built in 1885, is widely regarded as the world's first production automobile, that is, a vehicle designed to be propelled by an internal combustion engine. The original cost of the vehicle in 1885 was 600 imperial German marks, approximately 150 US dollars (). The vehicle was awarded the German patent number 37435, for which Karl Benz applied on 29 January 1886. Following official procedures, the date of the application became the patent date for the invention once the patent was granted, which occurred in November of that year.


Etymology.

The name "saskatoon" derives from the Cree inanimate noun "misâskwatômina" ("misâskwatômin" "NI sg", saskatoonberry, "misâskwatômina" "NI pl" saskatoonberries). The city of Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, is named after this berry.  The species name "alnifolia" is a feminine adjective. It is a compound of the Latin word for "alder",, and the word for "leaf",.

Description.

It is a deciduous shrub or small tree that most often grows to, rarely to, in height. Its growth form spans from suckering and forming colonies to clumped.  The leaves are oval to nearly circular, long and broad, on a leaf stem, margins toothed mostly above the middle. The foliage is browsed by deer and livestock.  As with all species in the genus "Amelanchier", the flowers are white, with five quite separate petals. In "A. alnifolia", they are about across, and appear on short racemes of three to 20 somewhat crowded together, in spring while the new leaves are still expanding.  The fruit is a small purple pome in diameter, ripening in early summer in the coastal areas and late summer further inland. They are eaten by wildlife including birds, squirrels and bears. It is also a larval host to the pale tiger swallowtail, two-tailed swallowtail, and the western tiger swallowtail.

Varieties.

The three varieties are:

Cultivation and uses.

Seedlings are planted with between rows and between plants. An individual bush may bear fruit 30 or more years.  Saskatoons are adaptable to most soil types with exception of poorly drained or heavy clay soils lacking organic matter. Shallow soils should be avoided, especially if the water table is high or erratic. Winter hardiness is exceptional, but frost can damage blooms as late as May. Large amounts of sunshine are needed for fruit ripening.  With a sweet, nutty taste, the fruits have long been eaten by Canada's aboriginal people, fresh or dried. They are well known as an ingredient in pemmican, a preparation of dried meat to which saskatoon berries are added as flavour and preservative. They are used in saskatoon berry pie, jam, wines, cider, beers, and sugar-infused berries similar to dried cranberries used for cereals, trail mix, and snack foods.  In 2004, the British Food Standards Agency suspended saskatoon berries from retail sales pending safety testing; the ban eventually was lifted after pressure from the European Union.

Diseases and pests.

"A. alnifolia" is susceptible to cedar-apple rust, "entomosporium" leaf spot, fireblight, brown rot, "cytospora" canker, powdery mildew, and blackleaf. Problem insects include aphids, thrips, mites, bud moths, Saskatoon sawflies, and pear slug sawflies.

Nutrients.

Saskatoon berries contain significant amounts of total dietary fiber, riboflavin and biotin, and the dietary minerals, iron and manganese, a nutrient profile similar to the content of blueberries.

Polyphenols.

Also similar in composition to blueberries, saskatoons have total polyphenol content of 452 mg per 100 g (average of 'Smoky' and 'Northline' cultivars), flavonols (61 mg) and anthocyanins (178 mg), although others have found the phenolic values to be either lower in the 'Smoky' cultivar or higher. Quercetin, cyanidin, delphinidin, pelargonidin, petunidin, peonidin, and malvidin were present in saskatoon berries.

Amelanchier alnifolia, the saskatoon, Pacific serviceberry, western serviceberry, alder-leaf shadbush, dwarf shadbush, chuckley pear, or western juneberry, is a shrub with edible berry-like fruit, native to North America from Alaska across most of western Canada and in the western and north-central United States. Historically, it was also called pigeon berry. It grows from sea level in the north of the range, up to elevation in California and in the Rocky Mountains, and is a common shrub in the forest understory.


Legal status.

The "communauté de communes" was created by a statute of the French Parliament enacted on February 6, 1992. The statute was modified by the Chevènement Law of 1999.  Unlike the "communautés d'agglomération" and the "communautés urbaines", "communautés de communes" are not subjected to a minimum threshold of population to come into existence. The only constraint is geographical continuity.  According to the "" (general law over regional administrative structures), a "communauté de communes" is a public establishment of inter-communal cooperation (EPCI), formed by several French municipalities, which cover a connected territory without enclave.  In 1999 when the Chevènement Law regulatory modifications came into force, "communautés de communes" already in existence that did not meet the criterion of geographical continuity were left untouched.  The communes involved build a space of solidarity with a joint project of development, infrastructure building, etc.

Constitutional.

The "communautés de communes" are currently funded by local taxes:  The is a modified version of the tax whereby a proportion of the monies levied by the "communautés des communes" is paid back to the individual communes. The is sometimes presented as an unfair burden on the economy or even as a device for exporting jobs outside France, and it has been subject to a series of reforms over the years but central government undertakings to abolish it (and presumably to replace it) have yet to come to fruition. If they do, funding of the "communautés de communes" will change fundamentally.  A "communauté de communes" is administered by a council "(conseil communautaire)" made up of delegates from the municipal councils of each member commune. The number of seats allocated to each commune reflects the size of the commune. A member commune must have at least one seat on the council, and no individual commune may have more than half of the seats on the "conseil communautaire".

Objectives.

Article 5214-16 of the CGCT requires the "communauté de communes" to exercise its responsibilities in the following policy areas:  The "communauté de communes" may also choose to exercise its responsibilities in at least one of the following six policy areas:  The "communauté de communes" may define its own personnel requirements and appoint appropriately qualified employees. In addition, and subject to départemental agreement it may exercise directly powers and responsibilities in certain social policy areas which are more normally handled at the départemental level.  Subject to these requirements, it is for the communes themselves to determine precisely which competences they will delegate to the "communauté de communes": they will do this based on their view of the individual commune's best interests. Once powers and responsibilities have been delegated to the "communauté de communes", they shall be exercised collectively through the "communauté de communes" and may no longer be exercised independently by individual member communes.  In 2008 there were 2,393 "communautés de communes" in France. Of these, roughly 1,000 had been in existence for less than a year. New "communautés" are currently being created at a more rapid rate than in the early years. Nevertheless, there are still many rural communes that have not joined one of these groupings.

A communauté de communes (, "community of communes") is a federation of municipalities (communes) in France. It forms a framework within which local tasks are carried out together. It is the least-integrated form of "intercommunality".


Life.

Early life.

Anne Henriette and her older twin sister Princess Louise Élisabeth were born at the Palace of Versailles on 14 August 1727, to Louis XV of France and queen Maria Leszczyńska. While the birth of the twins was considered a political disappointment, because the Salic Law disqualified them as heirs to the throne and the succession was thus still unsolved after their birth, their father, the King was delighted, and commented that after all talk of him not being able to be a father, he was now the father of two.  Along with her twin, she was baptised at Versailles on 27 April 1737. Henriette was named after her paternal great-great grandmother Henrietta, Duchess of Orleans, with Louis Henri, Duke of Bourbon and Louise Anne de Bourbon as her godparents. As the legitimate daughter of the king, she was a "fille de France", but as the younger of the twins, she was referred as "Madame Seconde"; as an adult, she became known as "Madame Henriette", or only "Madame", as the eldest daughter of the king present in Versailles after the marriage of her sister.  The eldest children of Louis XV, the twins Élisabeth and Henriette, Marie-Louise, Adélaïde and their brother, the Dauphin of France, were raised in Versailles under the supervision of the Governess of the Children of France, Marie Isabelle de Rohan, "duchesse de Tallard", while their younger siblings, Victoire, Sophie, Therese and Louise, were sent to be raised at the Abbey of Fontevraud in June 1738.  In 1739, her twin moved to Spain to marry the Infante Philip, a younger son of King Philip V. Henriette was reportedly despondent about being separated from her twin.

Adult life.

One of the reasons why her younger sisters were sent away from Versailles to be raised was the high expense of raising royal French children, who were allowed to participate in court life as well as arrange their own festivities even in childhood; those kept at court participated in court life from the age of twelve. From 1744 onward, Henriette and Adelaide accompanied their father to the Opera in Paris, and from 1746, they hunted with him five days a week. In 1744, Henriette and Adelaide were officially transferred from the royal nursery and the King created their own household, the Household of the "Mesdames aînées" ('Elder Mesdames') and appointed two ladies-in-waiting ("dame pour accompagner Mesdames"); two years later, they were given their own "dame d'honneur".  Henriette was considered to be a beauty and prettier than her elder twin. She was described as gentle and melancholic to her temperament, reserved but intensely loyal, and gifted in music. She was evidently the favorite child of her father, and it was said that she had no enemies at court.  Despite her beauty, no serious marriage negotiations was ever meade for Henriette. In 1740, Louis François, Prince of Conti took the opportunity to suggest a marriage between himself and Henriette when he became alone with the king during a hunt, explaining that he believed that he could make Henriette happy, and that such a marriage would mean that she would never have to leave her father and France; but the king did not react favorably to the proposal.  Henriette reportedly fell mutually in love with her cousin, Louis Philippe, "duc de Chartres", the heir to the House of Orléans, and reportedly wished to marry him. The King initially liked the idea, but changed his mind, not wanting the house of Orleans too close to the throne, and the plans were finnally discontinued in 1743, when the duke de Chartres married someone else, and Henriette remained unmarried.  Her twin Élisabeth, who was described as ambitious, was not satisfied as the spouse of a prince without a throne; she kept in contact with the French court through correspondence, and had already by 1740 established a net of contacts there to assist her in her ambition to obtain independent power positions for herself and her spouse "worthy of the birth of both"; Henriette was one of her most fervent champions in this issue. Otherwise regarded as habitually apathetic about politics, Henriette was reportedly passionately devoted to working for the political ambition of her twin, as was her younger sister Adelaide and her sister-in-law Infanta Maria Teresa Rafaela of Spain; the powerful Noailles and Maurepas allied with the queen to achieve the same, and the French ambassador at Madrid, Monseigneur Vaurdal, Archbishop of Rheims.  Henriette, as well as her siblings, disliked their father's extramarital liaisons because they caused their father to neglect their mother, and their discontent with their father's adultery was directed toward his mistresses, notably Madame de Pompadour, who from 1745 onward was their father's official mistress at court and influential upon the affairs of state. With her brother, the Dauphin Louis, and her sister, "Madame Adélaïde", she called the powerful mistress, "Maman Putain" ("Mother Whore"). When Louise Élisabeth returned from Parma for a year-long visit to Versailles in 1748, she and "Madame de Pompadour" became close friends, which led to a temporary estrangement between the sisters.  In 1747, her brother Louis was forced to marry Maria Josepha of Saxony, Dauphine of France, against his will shortly after the death of his beloved first spouse, Maria Teresa Rafaela, in childbirth. This caused Louis to initially be hostile toward Maria Josepha, even more so when his only child with the Spanish Infanta died at the age of two, but she eventually managed to win his affection, upon the advice of Henriette.

Death.

Henriette died of smallpox in 1752 at the age of twenty-four. In February of that year, she had felt somewhat unwell and tired, but when the king asked her to accompany him on a sledge ride, she gave no signs of her discomfort, and accepted the invitation anyway. She was badly affected by the chilly weather, and died after just three days of illness. Her family was described as being in a "state of stupefaction over the rapidity of the illness."  Louis XV reacted with "violent" despair upon her death and gave order of the highest honors around her funeral; in order to enhance the public mourning, her remains were placed at the Tuileries instead of Versailles prior to the funeral, dressed in one of her finest dresses and made up so to appear alive. The public funeral reception was however not to the king's taste, as the public "drank, laughed and amused themselves", which was taken as a sign of the diminishing reputation of the monarchy. At the time, the public interpreted the death of Henriette as a sign of divine disapproval of the king's lifestyle.  Her heart was interred in the Abbey of Val-de-Grace, while her remains were buried at the Basilica of Saint Denis, along with her sister Elisabeth. Her tomb, like other royal tombs at Saint-Denis, was destroyed during the French Revolution.  Madame Campan later wrote about her: "Madame Henriette, twin sister of the Duchess of Parma, was much regretted, for she had considerable influence over the King’s mind, and it was remarked that if she had lived she would have been assiduous in finding him amusements in the bosom of his family, would have followed him in his short excursions, and would have done the honours of the 'petits soupers' which he was so fond of giving in his private apartments."

Anne "Henriette" of France(14 August 1727 – 10 February 1752) was a French princess, the twin of Louise Élisabeth of France, and the second child of King Louis XV of France and queen consort Marie Leszczyńska.


Life and career.

Némirovsky was born Irina Lvivna Nemirovska () in 1903 in Kiev, then Russian Empire, the daughter of a wealthy banker, Léon (Lev) Némirovsky. Her volatile and unhappy relationship with her mother became the heart of many of her novels.  Her family fled the Russian Empire at the start of the Russian Revolution in 1917, spending a year in Finland in 1918 and then settling in Paris, where Némirovsky attended the Sorbonne and began writing when she was 18 years old.  In 1926, Némirovsky married Michel Epstein, a banker, and had two daughters: Denise, born in 1929; and Élisabeth, in 1937.  In 1929, she published "David Golder", the story of a Jewish banker unable to please his troubled daughter, which was an immediate success, and was adapted to the big screen by Julien Duvivier in 1930, with Harry Baur as David Golder. In 1930 her novel "Le Bal", the story of a mistreated daughter and the revenge of a teenager, became a play and a movie.  The "David Golder" manuscript was sent by post to the "Grasset" publisher with a poste restante address and signed "Epstein". H. Muller, a reader for "Grasset" immediately tried to find the author but couldn't get hold of him/her. "Grasset" put an ad in the newspapers hoping to find the author, but the author was busy: she was having her first child, Denise. When Némirovsky finally showed up as the author of "David Golder", the unverified story is that the publisher was surprised that such a young woman was able to write such a powerful book.  Although she was widely recognized as a major author – even by some anti-Semitic writers like Robert Brasillach – French citizenship was denied to the Némirovskys in 1938.  Némirovsky was of Russian-Jewish origin, but was baptized into the Roman Catholic Church in 1939 and wrote in "Candide" and "Gringoire", two magazines with ultra-nationalist tendencies. After the war started, "Gringoire" was the only magazine that continued to publish her work, thus "guarantee[ing] Némirovsky's family some desperately needed income".  By 1940, Némirovsky's husband was unable to continue working at the bank, and Némirovsky's books could no longer be published, because of her Jewish ancestry. Upon the Nazis' approach to Paris, they fled with their two daughters to the village of Issy-l'Evêque (the Némirovskys initially sent them to live with their nanny's family in Burgundy, while staying on in Paris themselves; they had already lost their Russian home and refused to lose their home in France), where Némirovsky was required to wear the Yellow star.  On 13 July 1942, Némirovsky (then 39) was arrested as a "stateless person of Jewish descent" by policemen employed by Vichy France. As she was being taken away, she told her daughters, "I am going on a journey now." She was brought to a convoy assembly camp at Pithiviers, and on 17 July 1942, together with 928 other Jewish deportees, transported to German concentration camp Auschwitz. Upon her arrival there two days later, her forearm was marked with an identification number. She died a month later of typhus. On 6 November 1942, her husband, Michel Epstein, was sent to Auschwitz and immediately sent to the gas chambers.

Rediscovery.

Némirovsky is now best known as the author of the unfinished "Suite Française" (Denoël, France, 2004, ; translation by Sandra Smith, Knopf, 2006, ), two novellas portraying life in France between 4 June 1940 and 1 July 1941, the period during which the Nazis occupied most of France. These works are considered remarkable because they were written during the actual period itself, and yet are the product of considered reflection, rather than just a journal of events, as might be expected considering the personal turmoil experienced by the author at the time.  Némirovsky's older daughter, Denise, kept the notebook containing the manuscript for "Suite Française" for fifty years without reading it, thinking it was a journal or diary of her mother's, which would be too painful to read. In the late 1990s, however, she made arrangements to donate her mother's papers to a French archive and decided to examine the notebook first. Upon discovering what it contained, she instead had it published in France, where it became a bestseller in 2004. It has since been translated into 38 languages and as of 2008 has sold 2.5 million copies.  The original manuscript has been given to the "Institut mémoires de l'édition contemporaine" (IMEC), and the novel has won the Prix Renaudot – the first time the prize has been awarded posthumously.  Némirovsky's surviving notes sketch a general outline of a story arc that was intended to include the two existing novellas, as well as three more to take place later during the war and at its end. She wrote that the rest of the work was "in limbo, and what limbo! It's really in the lap of the gods since it depends on what happens."  In a January 2006 interview with the BBC, her daughter, Denise, said, "For me, the greatest joy is knowing that the book is being read. It is an extraordinary feeling to have brought my mother back to life. It shows that the Nazis did not truly succeed in killing her. It is not vengeance, but it is a victory."

Controversy.

Several reviewers and commentators have raised questions regarding Némirovsky's conversion to Catholicism, her generally negative depiction of Jews in her writing and her use of ultra-nationalist publications to provide for her family. A criticism of her work by Ruth Franklin was published in "The New Republic" and stated that: Némirovsky was the very definition of a self-hating Jew. Does that sound too strong? Well, here is a Jewish writer who owed her success in France "entre deux guerres" in no small measure to her ability to pander to the forces of reaction, to the fascist right. Némirovsky's stories of corrupt Jews – some of them even have hooked noses, no less! – appeared in right-wing periodicals and won her the friendship of her editors, many of whom held positions of power in extreme-right political circles. When the racial laws in 1940 and 1941 cut off her ability to publish, she turned to those connections to seek special favors for herself, and even went so far as to write a personal plea to Marshal Pétain.  Myriam Anissimov's introduction to the French edition of "Suite Française" describes Némirovsky as a "self-hating Jew," due to the fact that Némirovsky's own situation as a Jew in France is not at all seen in the work. The paragraph was omitted from the English edition.  A long article in "The Jewish Quarterly" argued that there had been an "abdication of critical responsibility in exchange for the more sensational copy to be had from Némirovsky’s biography" by most reviewers in the British press.

"Fire in the Blood".

In 2007 another novel by Némirovsky was published, after a complete manuscript was found in her archives by two French biographers. "Chaleur du sang" – translated to English by Sandra Smith as "Fire in the Blood" – is a tale of country folk in a Burgundy village, based on Issy-l'Évêque where Némirovsky and her family found temporary refuge while hiding from the Nazis.

Biography.

A biography of Némirovsky was published in 2006. The book, "" was written by Jonathan Weiss.

External links.

"'Critical reviews of "Suite Française"

Irène Némirovsky (; 24 February 1903 – 17 August 1942) was a novelist of Ukrainian Jewish origin who was born in Kiev, Ukraine under the Russian Empire. She lived more than half her life in France, and wrote in French, but was denied French citizenship. Arrested as a Jew under the racial laws – which did not take into account her conversion to Roman Catholicism – she died at Auschwitz at the age of 39. Némirovsky is best known for the posthumously published "Suite française".


Biography.

Sokolov is a Canadian citizen and has lived the larger part of his life so far in the United States and Canada. During the Second World War, his father, Major Vsevolod Sokolov, worked as a military attaché at the Soviet embassy in Canada. In 1946 Major Sokolov (agent "Davey") was deported from Canada in relation to spying activity. After returning to the Soviet Union in 1946 and growing up there, Sokolov did not fit into the Soviet system. In 1965 he was discarded from a military university, probably because he had tried to flee the country. After that he studied journalism at Moscow State University from 1966 to 1971. Shortly after his first daughter was born in 1974 his first marriage ended.  Sokolov made several attempts to flee from Soviet Union. He was caught while crossing the Iranian border, and only his father's connections helped him to avoid long imprisonment.  He met his second wife, the Austrian-born Johanna Steindl while she was teaching German at the University in Moscow. She smuggled the text of his first novel into the West. Only after she started a hunger strike in the Stephansdom in Vienna, Austria, in 1975, was Sokolov allowed to leave the Soviet Union. Sokolov left Vienna in late 1976 for the United States after his first novel had been published. In early 1977, Johanna Steindl gave birth to Sokolov's son, who has become a journalist. He also had a second daughter named Maria Goldfarb, born in New York in 1986, who has become an artist. Sasha Sokolov later married again several times and is now married to the US rower Marlene Royle.  His second novel, "Between Dog and Wolf," builds even more on the particularities of the Russian language and was deemed untranslatable for many years. Thus, it has become a much lesser success than "A School for Fools", which has been translated into many languages. However, in late 2016, "Between Dog and Wolf" was translated into English by Alexander Boguslawski, a longtime friend of Mr. Sokolov, and published by Columbia University Press. Sokolov's 1985 novel, "Palisandriia," was translated as "Astrophobia" and published by Grove Press in the US in 1989. The complete manuscript of his fourth book is said to have been lost when the Greek house it had been written in burnt down. Sokolov, who leads a rather reclusive life, says that he keeps writing, but doesn't want to be published any more.

Sasha Sokolov (born Александр Всеволодович Соколов/"Alexander Vsevolodovitch Sokolov" on November 6, 1943, in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada) is a paradoxical writer of Russian literature.


Functionality.

Delicious used a non-hierarchical classification system in which users could tag each of their bookmarks with freely chosen index terms (generating a kind of folksonomy). A combined view of everyone's bookmarks with a given tag was available; for instance, the URL http://delicious.com/tag/wiki displayed all of the most recent links tagged "wiki". Its collective nature made it possible to view bookmarks added by other users.  Delicious also allowed users to group links with similar topics together to form a "Stack", and include title and descriptions for the Stack page. Stacks could be worked on collaboratively with other users, and could be followed and shared with other users. Stacks were added in September 2011 and removed in July 2012.  Delicious had a "hotlist" on its home page and "recent" pages, which helped to make the website a conveyor of Internet memes and trends. Users could also explore stacks on the home page by navigating categories such as Arts & Design or Education.  Delicious was one of the most popular social bookmarking services. Many features contributed to this, including the website's simple interface, its human-readable URL scheme, a novel domain name, a simple REST-like API, and RSS feeds for web syndication.  Use of Delicious was free and a user could download his or her own data through the site's API in an XML or JSON format, or export it to a standard Netscape bookmarks format.  All bookmarks posted to Delicious were publicly viewable by default, although users could mark specific bookmarks as private, and imported bookmarks were private by default. The public aspect was emphasized; the site was not focused on storing private ("not shared") bookmark collections. Delicious linkrolls, tagrolls, network badges, RSS feeds, and the site's daily blog posting feature could be used to display bookmarks on weblogs.

History.

The precursor to Delicious was Muxway, a link blog that had grown out of a text file that Schachter maintained to keep track of links related to Memepool. In September 2003, Schachter released the first version of Delicious. In March 2005, he left his day job to work on Delicious full-time, and in April 2005 it received approximately $2 million in funding from investors including Union Square Ventures and Amazon.com.  When Delicious was first launched, it was the first use of the term "tag" in the modern sense, and it was the first explicit opportunity where website users were given the ability to add their own tags to their bookmarks so that they could more easily search for them at a later time. This major breakthrough was not much noticed as most thought the application at the time "cool" but obvious.  Yahoo acquired Delicious on December 9, 2005. Various guesses suggest it was sold for somewhere between US$15 million and US$30 million. In 2018, Schachter said the actual number was "definitely less" than US$30 million.  On December 16, 2010, an internal slide from a Yahoo meeting leaked, indicating that Delicious would be "sunsetted" in the future, which seemed to mean "shut down". Later Yahoo clarified that they would be selling Delicious, not ending it. This news resulted in Delicious users looking for alternative sites. This benefited Pinboard, also a bookmarking site, which saw a huge surge of traffic and activity on its site. Various other services such as Google Bookmarks and Spabba also offered bookmarks migration tools to allow users to migrate and safeguard their bookmarks out of Delicious.  On April 27, 2011, Delicious announced the site was sold to Avos Systems, a company created by Chad Hurley and Steve Chen. Unbeknownst to members, Yahoo continued to operate the site until September 2011.  On September 26, 2011, Delicious launched its completely new version 3.0 design in beta. This redesign came in as a surprise to many of its users, with many features being disabled, removed or temporarily unavailable. AVOS Systems removed the Delicious Support Forum and had advised users that communication with Avos should take place via email. Reaction from users was overwhelmingly negative.  On November 9, 2011, AVOS Systems announced that they had acquired the link-saving service, Trunk.ly. Trunk.ly offered to automatically save all links that users have "liked" on Facebook, Twitter and LinkedIn. This acquisition led to the launch of Twitter Connector on Delicious on March 2, 2012.  On May 8, 2014, Science, Inc. announced it had acquired the Delicious website from AVOS, without acquiring staff. Science, Inc. is a "technology investment and advisory firm", which said it intended to keep the site "largely as is".  On January 11, 2016, the Delicious blog announced ownership had transitioned to a new company formed between Science and of Domainersuite.  On June 1, 2017, Pinboard acquired Delicious. The service was shut down and became read-only on June 15, and its users have been encouraged to subscribe to the Pinboard service.

Delicious under Avos Systems.

After being purchased by AVOS Systems on April 27, 2011, Delicious went through significant UI redesigns and became more social.  On September 26, 2011, Delicious launched its completely new version 3.0 design in beta. Delicious added a new feature called Stacks that allows users to group multiple related links into a single page, and customize the Stack by adding title, description and a featured image.  On December 13, 2011, Delicious continued its work to redesign its site, including UI changes to link-saving page and Stacks page. The new design, especially for the Stacks page, was similar to the design of another popular social photo-sharing website Pinterest.  On January 20, 2012, Delicious added more social features into its Stacks page, allowing users to collaborate on the same Stack, as a public Stack or a private Stack among a group of users. The users can also comment on a stack and create a stack as a response to the original stack. This new social feature was considered as a good step against competitor such as Pinterest which did not offer private boards at the time.  On March 2, 2012, Delicious continued its effort to be more social, by providing a Twitter Connector that allows users to connect their Twitter accounts to their Delicious accounts. This new feature allowed tweeted links to be automatically saved into the Delicious account.  On July 20, 2012, Delicious reversed its position on the Stacks feature. All Stacks created by members were converted to tags in early August, 2012, without any loss of member data. This was part in response to AVOS's direction for Delicious and partly from feedback from Delicious members, many of whom felt that Stacks were trying to emulate features of the visual bookmarking site, Pinterest.

Name.

The "del.icio.us" domain name was a well-known example of a domain hack, an unconventional combination of letters to form a word or phrase.  In an interview Schachter explained how he chose the name: "I'd registered the domain when.us opened the registry, and a quick test showed me the six letter suffixes that let me generate the most words. In early discussions, a friend referred to finding good links as 'eating cherries' and the metaphor stuck, I guess."  On September 6, 2007, Schachter announced the website's name would change to "Delicious" when the site would be redesigned. The new design went live on July 31, 2008. In January 2016, changes to the website were announced, including a move back to "del.icio.us".  On April 24, 2016, Delicious transitioned back to "del.icio.us".

Delicious (stylized del.icio.us) was a social bookmarking web service for storing, sharing, and discovering web bookmarks. The site was founded by Joshua Schachter and Peter Gadjokov in 2003 and acquired by Yahoo! in 2005. By the end of 2008, the service claimed more than 5.3 million users and 180 million unique bookmarked URLs. Yahoo sold Delicious to AVOS Systems in April 2011, and the site relaunched in a "back to beta" state on September 27 that year. In May 2014, AVOS sold the site to Science Inc. In January 2016 Delicious Media, a new alliance, reported it had assumed control of the service.


Models.

Optimum currency area with stationary expectations.

Published by Mundell in 1961, this is the most cited by economists. Here asymmetric shocks are considered to undermine the real economy, so if they are too important and cannot be controlled, a regime with floating exchange rates is considered better, because the global monetary policy (interest rates) will not be fine tuned for the particular situation of each constituent region.  The four often cited criteria for a successful currency union are:  Additional criteria suggested are:

Optimum currency area with international risk sharing.

Here Mundell tries to model how exchange rate uncertainty will interfere with the economy; this model is less often cited.  Supposing that the currency is managed properly, the larger the area, the better. In contrast with the previous model, asymmetric shocks are not considered to undermine the common currency because of the existence of the common currency. This spreads the shocks in the area because all regions share claims on each other in the same currency and can use them for dampening the shock, while in a flexible exchange rate regime, the cost will be concentrated on the individual regions, since the devaluation will reduce its buying power. So despite a less fine tuned monetary policy the real economy should do better.  Mundell's work can be cited on both sides of the debate about the euro. However, in 1973 Mundell himself constructed an argument on the basis of the second model that was more favorable to the concept of a (then-hypothetical) shared European currency.

Applications.

European Union.

OCA theory has been most frequently applied to discussions of the euro and the European Union. Many have argued that the EU did not actually meet the criteria for an OCA at the time the euro was adopted, and attribute the Eurozone's economic difficulties in part to continued failure to do so. Europe does indeed score well on some of the measures characterising an OCA (such as symmetry of shocks). By looking at the correlation of a region's GDP growth rate with that of the entire zone, the Eurozone countries show slightly greater correlations compared to the U.S. states. However, it has lower labour mobility than the United States, possibly due to language and cultural differences. In O'Rourke's paper, more than 40% of U.S. residents were born outside the state in which they live. In the Eurozone, only 14% people were born in a different country than the one in which they live. In fact, the U.S. economy was approaching a single labor market in the nineteenth century. However, for most parts of the Eurozone, such levels of labour mobility and labor market integration remain a distant prospect. Furthermore, the U.S. economy, with a central federal fiscal authority, has stabilization transfers. When a state in the U.S. is in recession, every $1 drop in that state’s GDP would have an offsetting transfer of 28 cents. Such stabilizing transfers are not present in both the Eurozone and EU; thus, they cannot rely on fiscal federalism to smooth out regional economic disturbances. The European crisis, however, may be pushing the EU towards more federal powers in fiscal policy.

United States.

Michael Kouparitsas (Chicago Fed) considered the United States as divided into the eight regions of the Bureau of Economic Analysis, (Far West, Rocky Mountain, Plains, Great Lakes, Mideast, New England, Southwest, and Southeast). By developing a statistical model, he found that five of the eight regions of the country satisfied Mundell's criteria to form a single Optimal Currency Area. However, he found the fit of the Southeast and Southwest to be questionable. He also found that the Plains would not fit into an optimal currency area.

Criticism.

Keynesian.

The notion of a currency that does not accord with a state, specifically one "larger" than a state – formally, of an international monetary authority without a corresponding fiscal authority – has been criticized by Keynesian and Post-Keynesian economists, who emphasize the role of deficit spending by a government (formally, fiscal authority) in the running of an economy, and consider using an international currency without fiscal authority to be a loss of "monetary sovereignty".  Specifically, Keynesian economists argue that fiscal stimulus in the form of deficit spending is the most powerful method of fighting unemployment during a liquidity trap. Such stimulus may not be possible if states in a monetary union are not allowed to run sufficient deficits.  The Post-Keynesian theory of Neo-Chartalism holds that government deficit spending creates money, that ability to print money is fundamental to a state's ability to command resources, and that "money and monetary policy are intricately linked to political sovereignty and fiscal authority". Both of these critiques consider the transactional benefits of a shared currency to be minor compared to these drawbacks, and more generally place less emphasis on the "transactional" function of money (a medium of exchange) and greater emphasis on its use as a unit of account.

Self-fulfilling argument.

In Mundell’s first model, countries regard all of the conditions as given, and assuming they have adequate information, they can then judge whether the costs of forming a currency union outweigh the benefits. However, another school of thought argues that some of the OCA criteria are not given and fixed, but rather they are economic outcomes (i.e., endogenous) determined by the creation of the currency union itself.  Consider goods market interaction as an example: if the OCA criteria were applied before the currency union forms, then many countries might exhibit low trade volumes and low market integration; which means that OCA criteria are not met. Thus, the currency union might not be formed based on those current characteristics. However, if the currency union was established anyway, its member-states would trade so much more that, in the end, the OCA criteria would be met. This logic suggests that the OCA criteria can be self-fulfilling. Furthermore, greater integration under the OCA project might also improve other OCA criteria. For example, if goods markets are better connected, shocks will be more rapidly transmitted within the OCA and will be felt more symmetrically.  However, caution should be employed when analysing the self-fulfilling argument. Firstly, the self-fulfilling effect's impact may not be significant. According to a recent study by Richard Baldwin, a trade economist at the Graduate Institute of International Studies in Geneva, the boost to trade within the Eurozone from the single currency is much smaller: between 5% and 15%, with a best estimate of 9%.  The second counter-argument is that further goods market integration might also lead to more specialization in production. Once individual firms can easily serve the whole OCA market, and not just their national market, they will exploit economies of scale and concentrate production. Some sectors in the OCA might end up becoming concentrated in a few locations. The United States is a good example: financial services are centered in New York City, entertainment in Los Angeles, and technology in Silicon Valley. If specialization increases, each country will be less diversified and will face more asymmetric shocks; weakening the case for the self-fulfilling OCA argument.

In economics, an optimum currency area (OCA), also known as an optimal currency region (OCR), is a geographical region in which it would maximize economic efficiency to have the entire region share a single currency.


Martyrdom.

Ecclesiastical historians have claimed that in the last years of Emperor Philip the Arabian (reigned 244–249), during otherwise undocumented festivities to commemorate the millennium of the founding of Rome (traditionally in 753 BC, putting the date about 248), the fury of the Alexandrian mob rose to a great height, and when one of their poets prophesied a calamity, they committed bloody outrages on the Christians, whom the authorities made no effort to protect.  Dionysius, Bishop of Alexandria (247–265), relates the sufferings of his people in a letter addressed to Fabius, Bishop of Antioch, of which long extracts have been preserved in Eusebius' "Historia Ecclesiae". After describing how a Christian man and woman, Metras and Quinta, were seized and killed by the mob, and how the houses of several other Christians were pillaged, Dionysius continues:  At that time Apollonia, "parthénos presbytis" (mostly likely meaning a deaconess) was held in high esteem. These men seized her also and by repeated blows broke all her teeth. They then erected outside the city gates a pile of wood and threatened to burn her alive if she refused to repeat after them impious words (either a blasphemy against Christ, or an invocation of the heathen gods). Given, at her own request, a little freedom, she sprang quickly into the fire and was burned to death.  This brief tale was extended and moralized in Jacobus da Voragine's "Golden Legend" (c. 1260).  Apollonia and a whole group of early martyrs did not await the death they were threatened with, but either to preserve their chastity or because they were confronted with the alternative of renouncing their faith or suffering death, voluntarily embraced the death prepared for them, an action that runs perilously close to suicide, some thought. Augustine of Hippo touches on this question in the first book of "The City of God", apropos suicide:  But, they say, during the time of persecution certain holy women plunged into the water with the intention of being swept away by the waves and drowned, and thus preserve their threatened chastity. Although they quitted life in this wise, nevertheless they receive high honour as martyrs in the Catholic Church and their feasts are observed with great ceremony. This is a matter on which I dare not pass judgment lightly. For I know not but that the Church was divinely authorized through trustworthy revelations to honour thus the memory of these Christians. It may be that such is the case. May it not be, too, that these acted in such a manner, not through human caprice but on the command of God, not erroneously but through obedience, as we must believe in the case of Samson? When, however, God gives a command and makes it clearly known, who would account obedience there to a crime or condemn such pious devotion and ready service?"  The narrative of Dionysius does not suggest the slightest reproach as to this act of St. Apollonia; in his eyes she was as much a martyr as the others, and as such she was revered in the Alexandrian Church. In time, her feast was also popular in the West. A later narrative mistakenly duplicated Apollonia, making her a Christian virgin of Rome in the reign of Julian the Apostate, suffering the same dental fate.

Veneration.

The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches celebrate the feast day of St. Apollonia on February 9, and she is popularly invoked against the toothache because of the torments she had to endure. She is represented in art with pincers in which a tooth is held.  Saint Apollonia is one of the two patron saints of Catania.  William S. Walsh noted that, though the major part of her relics were preserved in the former church of St. Apollonia at Rome, her head at the Basilica di Santa Maria in Trastevere, her arms at the Basilica di San Lorenzo fuori le Mura, parts of her jaw in St. Basil's, and other relics are in the Jesuit church at Antwerp, in St. Augustine's at Brussels, in the Jesuit church at Mechlin, in St. Cross at Liege, in the treasury of the cathedral of Porto, and in several churches at Cologne. These relics consist in some cases of a solitary tooth or a splinter of bone. In the Middle Ages, objects claimed to be her teeth were sold as toothache cures.  There was a church dedicated to her in Rome, near the Basilica di Santa Maria in Trastevere, but it no longer exists. Only its little square, the "Piazza Sant'Apollonia" remains. One of the principal train stations of Lisbon is also named for this saint. There is a statue of Saint Apollonia in the church at Locronan, France. The island of Mauritius was originally named "Santa Apolónia" in her honor in 1507 by Portuguese navigators. A parish church in Eilendorf, a suburb of Aachen, Germany, is named in honor of Saint Apollonia.  The Madonna Della Strada Chapel at Loyola University Chicago contains a stained glass window on the north wall depicting St. Apollonia. The windows along this wall correspond with the colleges of the university at the time the chapel was built. The Loyola University School of Dentistry closed in 1993, but the window in the chapel remains.

Presence in England.

There are 52 known images of her in various English churches that survived the ravages of the 16th-century Commissioners. These are concentrated in Devon and East Anglia. Most of these images are on the panels of rood screens or featured in stained glass with only one being a stone capital (Stokeinteignhead, Devon). She is also depicted in a tapestry of circa 1499 at St. Mary's Guildhall, Coventry.  By county, some of the locations are:  Her image is the side support of the arms of the British Dental Association.

Saint Apollonia () was one of a group of virgin martyrs who suffered in Alexandria during a local uprising against the Christians prior to the persecution of Decius. According to church tradition, her torture included having all of her teeth violently pulled out or shattered. For this reason, she is popularly regarded as the patroness of dentistry and those suffering from toothache or other dental problems. French court painter Jehan Fouquet painted the scene of St. Apollonia's torture in "The Martyrdom of St. Apollonia".


Plot.

Matt Stifler, the younger brother of Steve Stifler, is eager to enter the family business of making porn films so he can prove himself to his older brother. After Matt plays a prank on the school band, the school's guidance counselor Chuck "The Sherminator" Sherman, who attended high school with Steve, decides that a worthwhile punishment would be for Matt to attend band camp. Matt is initially disgruntled by the idea but soon agrees to it, interested in the notorious sexual behavior of band camp girls (citing Jim's marriage and sex life with Michelle as an example).  Upon arrival, Matt is extremely disrespectful to the rules along with everyone at Tall Oaks and even gets his school's band in trouble. Jim's dad, Noah Levenstein, the camp's MACRO (Morale And Conflict Resolution Officer) recommends he start trying to fit in and earn the band's trust. Matt conspires with his nerdy roommate, Ernie, to film the other band members in a bid called 'Bandeez Gone Wild', using hidden cameras.  During a lunch time scuffle Matt accepts a duel with rival band leader Brandon, wherein the performers show off their music skills, with Brandon playing the snare drum, and Matt playing the triangle. When it seems Matt has lost, he leaves the stage and comes back playing the bagpipes, also wearing a kilt, to the tune of "Play That Funky Music" to win the duel. Matt and Elyse later are attracted to each other and share a kiss while watching clouds in the sky. A day before the finals the cheerleading group of East Great Falls arrives and catches Matt in a band camp uniform and teases him by taking a photo and sharing it on the internet. Matt later offers a deal of showing them his film 'Bandeez Gone Wild' in exchange for deleting his uniform photo. While showing the girls his video an odd turn of events occur and Elyse sees the video, and feeling hurt, she leaves.  The various school bands compete for points throughout camp with East Great Falls leading on the last day, but an ill-fated prank by Matt that was intended for the rival team causes the band to lose and Elyse to lose a chance at a scholarship. Once the new term starts, Matt visits with Chuck, who reveals that he and the rest of Steve Stifler's friends really could not stand him, and begins to fix his mistakes by deleting the naked videos he took of others at band camp, reconcile with his band camp buddies and then persuades the school band to play Elyse's piece to the Conservatory head (instrumental of Tal Bachman's aeroplane) ironic of blatant plagiarism, winning Elyse a scholarship (Brandon had been disqualified for plagiarism), and Matt her affection.

Critical Response.

The film has received negative reviews from critics on Rotten Tomatoes with a 17% approval rating based on six reviews.

American Pie Presents: Band Camp is a 2005 American sex comedy film released by Universal Pictures. It is the first installment in "American Pie Presents" film series, a spin-off of the "American Pie" franchise. Tad Hilgenbrinck stars as Matt Stiffler, a troubled student sent to band camp to change his ways. Chris Owen and Eugene Levy reprise their roles from previous "American Pie" films.


Plot.

On Christmas Eve 1989, aspiring filmmaker Mark Cohen, and his roommate, Roger Davis, learn that the rent previously waived by their old friend and landlord, Benjamin "Benny" Coffin III, is due ("Rent"). Their former roommate Tom Collins shows up and gets mugged. Mark and Roger meet with Benny, who tells them he plans to evict the homeless from the nearby lot and build a cyber studio ("You'll See"). He offers them free rent if they get Maureen, Mark's ex-girlfriend, to cancel her protest against his plans, but they refuse.  A street drummer, Angel, finds Collins and they bond since they both have AIDS. Roger, who is HIV-positive and a former drug addict, tries to compose his one last great song ("One Song Glory"). He's visited by his downstairs neighbor, Mimi, an exotic dancer and heroin addict ("Light My Candle").  On Christmas Day, Mark and Roger are visited by Collins and Angel (in drag), bearing gifts ("Today 4 U"). They invite Mark and Roger to attend Life Support, an AIDS support group. Roger turns them down, while Mark goes to fix Maureen's sound equipment. He runs into Joanne, Maureen's new girlfriend, who bonds with him as they discuss Maureen's promiscuity ("Tango: Maureen"). Mark arrives at the Life Support meeting ("Life Support"). He films the meeting for the documentary that he's making about people living with HIV/AIDS.  Mimi visits Roger ("Out Tonight"). Roger, whose ex-girlfriend died of HIV/AIDS, rebukes her advances and throws her out ("Another Day"). The next day, he joins Mark, Collins and Angel at a Life Support meeting ("Will I?"). Leaving the meeting, the group imagines what it would be like to move to Santa Fe, New Mexico ("Santa Fe"). Roger and Mark leave to help Maureen set up for her performance, and Angel and Collins reveal they are falling in love ("I'll Cover You"). Maureen performs her song that calls out Benny for changing who he was when he got married and blames him for trying to shut down the tent city ("Over the Moon"). The performance starts a riot because Benny called in police to make sure the protest stayed peaceful, but it escalated into violence. Once the protest is over, the group goes to The Life Cafe and celebrates Mark selling his riot footage to a local news station ("La Vie Bohème" or "La Vie Bohème A"). Roger and Mimi reveal they are falling for each other, and reveal they are HIV positive ("I Should Tell You"). They share a kiss and continue celebrating with their friends ("Viva La Vie Bohème!" or "La Vie Bohème B").  On New Years Day, Benny has padlocked the apartment, but Angel breaks the lock with a garbage can. Mark takes a job at Buzzline, the television news program that he sold his riot footage to. After another fight, Maureen proposes to Joanne; the relationship ends when Maureen flirts with another woman at the engagement party ("Take Me or Leave Me"). After being persuaded by Mimi, his ex-girlfriend, Benny gives the group back their apartment. Over the following year, Roger grows distrustful of Mimi, and their relationship ends ("Without You"). Angel becomes more ill and dies in Collins' arms. At Angel's funeral, the group goes their separate ways after a bitter argument, although Maureen and Joanne reconcile in the process ("I'll Cover You/Goodbye Love").  Roger sells his guitar, buys a car, and moves to Santa Fe. He returns because he still loves Mimi. Mark quits his job at Buzzline to pursue his own film ("What You Own"). On Christmas Eve 1990, Mark and Roger reunite with Collins, who reveals that he has reprogrammed an ATM to dispense cash when someone inputs the code: A-N-G-E-L. Joanne and Maureen find Mimi on the streets, near death. Mimi and Roger reconcile, and he sings the song that he has written over the past year ("Finale A/Your Eyes"). Mimi appears to die but suddenly awakens. She tells them that she was heading to the light, but Angel told her to go back. As Mark's documentary is shown for the first time, the friends reaffirm that there is "no day but today" ("Finale B").

Critical response.

Review-aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 46% based on reviews from 172 critics, with an average rating of 5.9/10. The site's critic consensus reads, "Fans of the stage musical may forgive "Rent" its flaws, but weak direction, inescapable staginess and an irritating faux-boho pretension prevent the film from connecting on screen." On another review aggregator, Metacritic, the film received a score of 53 out of 100 based on 35 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".

Alternate ending.

In addition to four deleted scenes, the DVD release includes an alternate ending, showing all the main characters (including Benny, who was not present in the other ending) except Angel standing in the positions where they were during the "Seasons of Love" opening, all standing in a line of spotlights, with Angel's spot empty. Later in the scene, he enters from the side and walks down the line to take his place, stopping as he passes Collins to take his hand for a moment. Although this tableau is used in the finale of the musical, it was dropped from the film for fear that audiences may have wondered why Angel had returned or why the characters were lined up on stage again. In the commentary, Chris Columbus adds that he "didn't want audiences to think that everything was okay and Angel was alive again."

Soundtrack.

Rent: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack is the soundtrack album to the 2005 film of the same name. The two-disc soundtrack, containing 28 tracks, was originally packaged in eight different slipcovers, each featuring one of the eight most prominent characters in the film.

Remixes.

In promotion for the film, Warner Brothers had dance remixes of several of the songs commissioned. These were sent to clubs, and were also made of available for purchase on CD and download.

Seasons of Love: The Remixes (CD).

Source:

Seasons of Love: The Remixes (Digital Download).

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Take Me or Leave Me: The Remixes (CD).

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Take Me or Leave Me: The Remixes (Digital Download).

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Rent is a 2005 American musical drama film directed by Chris Columbus. It is an adaptation of the 1996 Broadway musical of the same name, in turn based on Giacomo Puccini's 1896 opera "La Bohème". The film, which features six of the original Broadway cast members reprising their roles, depicts the lives of several Bohemians and their struggles with sexuality, drugs, paying their rent, and life under the shadow of AIDS. It takes place in the East Village of New York City from 1989 to 1990.


Details.

The building is 55 stories high and contains of office space. The tower's architectural spire is tall and was placed on December 15, 2007.  The tower includes three escalators and a total of 52 elevators: 50 to serve the offices and two leading to the New York City Subway's mezzanine below ground, for the 42nd Street–Bryant Park/Fifth Avenue station. As part of the building's construction, a passageway was also built under the north side of 42nd Street connecting with the Times Square–42nd Street/Port Authority Bus Terminal station. The passageway has never been used, but as part of the reconstruction of 42nd Street Shuttle from 2019 to 2022, the passageway would be opened and a new entrance would be built on the north side of 42nd Street between Broadway and Sixth Avenue.  Several buildings were demolished to make way for the tower. Among them was the Hotel Diplomat, a 13-story structure which had occupied the site at 108 West 43rd Street since 1911, and Henry Miller's Theatre, which was rebuilt and reopened at its previous location. The building's tenants include Bank of America as the anchor tenant and Marathon Asset Management, and the tower's platinum LEED rating and modern column-free office space has enticed tenants from all over the city. The Bank of America Tower is considered a worldwide model for green architecture in skyscrapers.  The building's Urban Garden Room at 43rd Street and Sixth Avenue is open to the public as part of the city's privately owned public space (POPS) program.

Environmental features.

The design of the building makes it environmentally friendly, using technologies such as floor-to-ceiling insulated glazing to contain heat and maximize natural light, and an automatic daylight dimming system. The tower also features a greywater system, which captures rainwater for reuse. Bank of America states that the building is made largely of recycled and recyclable materials. Air entering the building is filtered, as is common, but the air exhausted is cleaned as well. Bank of America Tower is the first skyscraper designed to attain a Platinum LEED Certification.  The Bank of America Tower is constructed using a concrete manufactured with slag, a byproduct of blast furnaces. The mixture used in the tower concrete is 55% cement and 45% slag. The use of slag cement reduces damage to the environment by decreasing the amount of cement needed for the building, which in turn lowers the amount of carbon dioxide greenhouse gas produced through the normal cement manufacturing process. Each ton of regular cement produced creates about one ton of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.  Temperature control and the production of some of its energy are accomplished in an environmentally friendly manner for the tower. Insulated glazing reduces thermal loss, lowering energy consumption and increasing transparency. Carbon dioxide sensors signal increased fresh air ventilation when elevated levels of carbon dioxide are detected in the building. Conditioned air for the occupants is provided by multiple air column units located in the tenant space that deliver 50 °F air into a raised access floor plenum. This underfloor air system provides users with the ability to control their own space temperature as well as improving the ventilation effectiveness. When building churn occurs, workstation moves can be performed more easily with lower cost and less product waste. The cooling system produces and stores ice during off-peak hours, and allows the ice to melt to help cool the building during peak load, similar to the ice batteries in the 1995 Hotel New Otani Tokyo in Japan. Ice batteries have been used since absorption chillers first made ice commercially available 150 years ago, before the invention of the electric light bulb.  Water conservation features in the tower include waterless urinals, which are estimated to save of water per year and reduce CO emissions by per year (as calculated with the Pacific Institute water-to-air model). The tower has a 4.6-megawatt cogeneration plant, which provides part of the base-load energy requirements.  "Time" magazine reported in August 2013 that the Bank of America Tower used twice as much energy overall as the Empire State Building, due to the large energy usage in the Bank of America Tower and the comparatively small occupancy rate of the Empire State Building.  In summer 2013, the Durst Organization employed Brooklyn Grange Rooftop Farm to install and maintain two honeybee hives on the building.

Height.

With the architectural spire included, the structural height of the Bank of America Tower is, making it the fifth tallest building in New York City (after One World Trade Center, 432 Park Avenue, 30 Hudson Yards, and the Empire State Building). A formal ruling by the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat confirmed this.

Recognition.

In June 2008, the New York Academy of Sciences launched a podcast that highlights these green features.  In October 2009, the building was featured on episode 100 of the National Geographic Channel television series "MegaStructures".  In June 2010, the Bank of America Tower was the recipient of the 2010 Best Tall Building Americas award by the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat.

Construction incidents.

Materials fell from the building on three occasions:

The Bank of America Tower is a skyscraper in the Midtown area of Manhattan in New York City. It is located at One Bryant Park, on Sixth Avenue between 42nd and 43rd Streets diagonally opposite Bryant Park.


Early history.

Sitting at the crest of a long entry drive, the château was designed by the British architect Joseph Paxton. The inspiration for the design of Ferrières was Mentmore Towers in Buckinghamshire, England, the house that Paxton had built for Baron James's cousin, Mayer Amschel de Rothschild. On seeing Mentmore, Baron James is reputed to have summoned Paxton and ordered him to "Build me a Mentmore, but twice the size".  Built in the Neo-Renaissance style inspired by the architecture of the Italian Renaissance, with square towers at each corner, the house sits on a formal terrace that gives way to 1.25 km2 of gardens in a parkland landscaped "à l'anglaise" that was part of a surrounding 30 km2 forest contained in the estate. The showpiece central hall is 120 feet (37 m) long and 60 feet (18 m) high, its roof a full glass skylight. The sculpting of the interior atlas columns and caryatids was by Charles Henri Joseph Cordier, and the decorative painting was supervised by Eugène Lami. The massive library held more than 8,000 volumes. Because lavish entertaining was important, in addition to the private Rothschild apartments, the Château de Ferrières was built with eighty guest suites. Ferrières was inaugurated 16 December 1862 with a gala attended by Napoleon III.  Baron James acquired a vast collection of works of art, and statues adorned a number of the château's rooms. Several of the many sculptures were by Alexandre Falguière and the 18th-century Italian, Antonio Corradini and the Baron's son later added works by René de Saint-Marceaux.  During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71, the Château de Ferrières was seized by the Germans and was the site of negotiations between Otto von Bismarck, Chancellor of the North German Confederation, and the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, Jules Favre. The Germans again seized the château during the occupation of France in World War II, and this time, they looted its vast art collections.  The château remained empty until 1959, when Guy de Rothschild and his new wife, Marie-Hélène de Zuylen van Nyevelt, set about refurbishing it. From 1959, they hosted regular parties at the château, the theme of which would be personally designed by artists or designers such as Yves Saint Laurent. Their parties would mainly consist of aristocrats, but they always included many of her friends from a wider society, such as Brigitte Bardot, Grace Kelly and Audrey Hepburn.

Recent history.

In 1975, Guy de Rothschild and his wife charitably donated the château to the chancellery of the University of Paris.  The property is now used as a school called "École Ferrières" (Ferrières School), which opened in late 2015 and focuses on gastronomy and the hospitality industry. There are also two restaurants on site, named "Le Baron" and "Le Chai".

Château de Ferrières () is a French château built between 1855 and 1859 for Baron James de Rothschild in the Goût Rothschild. Rothschild ownership of the Château de Ferrières was passed down through the male line according to the rule of primogeniture, until it was donated by the family in 1975. Considered to be the largest and most luxurious 19th-century château in France, it is reached from rue Rucherie in Ferrières-en-Brie in the Seine et Marne département of France, about 26 km east of Paris.


Description.

Individuals who experience depersonalization feel divorced from their own personal self by sensing their body sensations, feelings, emotions, behaviors etc. as not belonging to the same person or identity. Often a person who has experienced depersonalization claims that things seem unreal or hazy. Also, a recognition of a self breaks down (hence the name). Depersonalization can result in very high anxiety levels, which further increase these perceptions.  Depersonalization is a subjective experience of unreality in one's self, while derealization is unreality of the outside world. Although most authors currently regard depersonalization (self) and derealization (surroundings) as independent constructs, many do not want to separate derealization from depersonalization.

Prevalence.

Depersonalization is the third most common psychological symptom, after feelings of anxiety and feelings of depression. Depersonalization is a symptom of anxiety disorders, such as panic disorder. It can also accompany sleep deprivation (often occurring when suffering from jet lag), migraine, epilepsy (especially temporal lobe epilepsy, complex-partial seizure, both as part of the aura and during the seizure), obsessive-compulsive disorder, severe stress or trauma, anxiety, the use of recreational drugs especially marijuana, hallucinogens, ketamine, and MDMA, certain types of meditation, deep hypnosis, extended mirror or crystal gazing, sensory deprivation, and mild-to-moderate head injury with little or loss of consciousness (less likely if unconscious for more than 30 mins). Interoceptive exposure is a non-pharmacological method that can be used to induce depersonalization.  In the general population, transient depersonalization/derealization are common, having a lifetime prevalence between 26-74%. A random community-based survey of 1,000 adults in the US rural south found a 1-year depersonalization prevalence rate at 19%. Several studies, but not all, found age to be a significant factor: adolescents and young adults in the normal population reported the highest rate. In a study, 46% of college students reported at least one significant episode in the previous year. In another study, 20% of patients with minor head injury experience significant depersonalization and derealization. Several studies found that up to 66% of individuals in life-threatening accidents report transient depersonalization at minimum during or immediately after the accidents. Depersonalization occurs 2-4 time more in women than in men.  A similar and overlapping concept called ipseity disturbance (ipse is Latin for "self" or "itself") may be part of the core process of schizophrenia spectrum disorders. However, specific to the schizophrenia spectrum seems to be "a "dis"location of first-person perspective such that self and other or self and world may seem to be non-distinguishable, or in which the individual self or field of consciousness takes on an inordinate significance in relation to the objective or intersubjective world" (emphasis in original).  For the purposes of evaluation and measurement depersonalization can be conceived of as a construct and scales are now available to map its dimensions in A study of undergraduate students found that individuals high on the depersonalization/derealization subscale of the Dissociative Experiences Scale exhibited a more pronounced cortisol response in stress. Individuals high on the absorption subscale, which measures a subject's experiences of concentration to the exclusion of awareness of other events, showed weaker cortisol responses.  In general infantry and special forces soldiers, measures of depersonalization and derealization increased significantly after training that include experiences of uncontrollable stress, semi-starvation, sleep deprivation, and lack of control over hygiene, movement, communications, and social interactions.

Pharmacological and situational causes.

Depersonalization has been described by some as a desirable state, particularly by those that have experienced it under the influence of mood-altering recreational drugs. It is an effect of dissociatives and psychedelics, as well as a possible side effect of caffeine, alcohol, amphetamine, and cannabis. It is a classic withdrawal symptom from many drugs.  Benzodiazepine dependence, which can occur with long-term use of benzodiazepines, can induce chronic depersonalization symptomatology and perceptual disturbances in some people, even in those who are taking a stable daily dosage, and it can also become a protracted feature of the benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome.  Lieutenant Colonel Dave Grossman, in his book "", suggests that military training artificially creates depersonalization in soldiers, suppressing empathy and making it easier for them to kill other human beings.  Graham Reed (1974) claimed that depersonalization occurs in relation to the experience of falling in love.

Depersonalization as a psychobiological mechanism.

Depersonalization is a classic response to acute trauma, and may be highly prevalent in individuals involved in different traumatic situations including motor vehicle accidents, emotional and verbal abuse, and imprisonment.  Psychologically depersonalization can, just like dissociation in general, be considered a type of coping mechanism. Depersonalization is in that case unconsciously used to decrease the intensity of unpleasant experience, whether that is something as mild as stress or something as severe as chronically high anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder. The decrease in anxiety and psychobiological hyperarousal helps preserving adaptive behaviors and resources under threat or danger. Depersonalization is an overgeneralized reaction in that it doesn't diminish just the unpleasant experience, but more or less all experience - leading to a feeling of being detached from the world and experiencing it in a more bland way. An important distinction must be made between depersonalization as a mild, short term reaction to unpleasant experience and depersonalization as a chronic symptom stemming from a severe mental disorder such as PTSD or Dissociative Identity Disorder. Chronic symptoms may represent persistence of depersonalization beyond the situations under threat.

Treatment.

Treatment is dependent on the underlying cause, whether it is organic or psychological in origin. If depersonalization is a symptom of neurological disease, then diagnosis and treatment of the specific disease is the first approach. Depersonalization can be a cognitive symptom of such diseases as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer's, multiple sclerosis (MS), or any other neurological disease affecting the brain. For those suffering from depersonalization with migraine, tricyclic antidepressants are often prescribed.  If depersonalization is a symptom of psychological causes such as developmental trauma, treatment depends on the diagnosis. In case of dissociative identity disorder or DD-NOS as a developmental disorder, in which extreme developmental trauma interferes with formation of a single cohesive identity, treatment requires proper psychotherapy, and—in the case of additional (co-morbid) disorders such as eating disorders—a team of specialists treating such an individual. It can also be a symptom of borderline personality disorder, which can be treated in the long term with proper psychotherapy and psychopharmacology.  The treatment of chronic depersonalization is considered in depersonalization disorder.  A recently completed study at Columbia University in New York City has shown positive effects from transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to treat depersonalization disorder. Currently, however, the FDA has not approved TMS to treat DP.  A 2001 Russian study showed that naloxone, a drug used to reverse the intoxicating effects of opioid drugs, can successfully treat depersonalization disorder. According to the study: "In three of 14 patients, depersonalization symptoms disappeared entirely and seven patients showed a marked improvement. The therapeutic effect of naloxone provides evidence for the role of the endogenous opioid system in the pathogenesis of depersonalization." The anti convulsion drug Lamotrigine has shown some success in treating symptoms of depersonalization, often in combination with a Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor and is the first drug of choice at the depersonalisation research unit at King's College London.

Research.

The Depersonalisation Research Unit at the Institute of Psychiatry in London conducts research into depersonalization disorder. Researchers there use the acronym DPAFU (Depersonalisation and Feelings of Unreality) as a shortened label for the disorder.

Depersonalization can consist of a detachment within the self, regarding one's mind or body, or being a detached observer of oneself. Subjects feel they have changed and that the world has become vague, dreamlike, less real, lacking in significance or being outside reality while looking in. Chronic depersonalization refers to depersonalization/derealization disorder, which is classified by the DSM-5 as a dissociative disorder, based on the findings that depersonalization and derealization are prevalent in other dissociative disorders including dissociative identity disorder.


Life.

Born in Saarlouis, Rhenish Prussia, Knorr entered the Prussian Navy in 1856. While serving on the corvette "Danzig", he fought against pirates off the coast of Morocco later that year. In 1859 he was promoted to Unterleutnant. From 1859–62 he sailed with the "Elbe" on an expedition to the Far East. Knorr was promoted to Leutnant in 1862 and Kapitänleutnant in 1865.  On 12 November 1870, during the Franco-Prussian War, Knorr commanded the gunboat in a battle with the French aviso "Bouvet" near Havana, for which he was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class. In 1871 he was promoted to Korvettenkapitän.  Beginning in 1874, Knorr took part in a voyage through the Pacific Ocean to discuss trade negotiations with Tonga on behalf of the German Empire. He was named Kapitän zur See in 1876, Chief of Staff of the Admiralty in 1881, and Konteradmiral in 1883.  As commander of the West African Squadron in December 1884, Knorr intervened in disputes between rival clans in Douala, Cameroon, imposing German sovereignty over the Cameroon Estuary. He was awarded the Order of the Red Eagle for this success. From 1 April 1885 – 4 July 1885 Knorr was Reichskommissar of the German colony of Kamerun. He then commanded a cruiser squadron travelling to Zanzibar and negotiated with its sultan for the acquisition of a strip of German colonial territory.  In 1886 Knorr commanded a cruiser squadron at Samoa. He was promoted to Vizeadmiral in 1889, Admiral in 1893, and Commanding Admiral in 1895. Raised to the German nobility on 18 January 1896, he received the Order of the Black Eagle on 15 June 1898. Knorr retired in 1899 and was appointed an admiral à la suite of the Seeoffizierkorps.  Knorr died in Berlin. Admiral-Knorr-Straße, a street in Saarlouis, is named after him.

Ernst Wilhelm Eduard von Knorr (8 March 1840 – 17 February 1920) was a German admiral of the Kaiserliche Marine who helped establish the German colonial empire.


Plot summary.

The story is set in motion by a family hiking trip, during which Trisha's brother, Pete, and mother constantly squabble about the mother's divorce from their father, as well as other topics. Trisha falls back to avoid listening and is therefore unable to find her family again after she wanders off the trail to take a bathroom break. Trying to catch up by attempting a shortcut, she slips and falls down a steep embankment and ends up hopelessly lost, heading deeper into the heart of the forest. She is left with a bottle of water, two Twinkies, a boiled egg, a tuna sandwich, a bottle of Surge, a poncho, a Game Boy, and a Walkman. She listens to her Walkman to keep her mood up, either to learn of news of the search for her, or to listen to the baseball game featuring her favorite player, and "heartthrob," Tom Gordon.  As she starts to take steps to survive by conserving what little food she has with her and consuming edible flora, Trisha's family return to their car without her and call the police to start a search. The rescuers search in the area around the path, but not as far as Trisha has gone. The girl decides to follow a creek because of what she read in "Little House on the Prairie" (though it soon turns into a swamp-like river), rationalizing that all bodies of water lead eventually to civilization.  As the cops stop searching for the night, she huddles up underneath a tree to rest. Eventually, a combination of fear, hunger, and thirst causes Trisha to hallucinate. She imagines several people from her life, as well as her hero, Tom Gordon, appearing to her. It's left unclear whether increasingly obvious signs of supernatural events in the woods are also hallucinations.  Hours and soon days begin to pass, with Trisha wandering further into the woods. Eventually she begins to believe that she is headed for a confrontation with the God of the Lost, a wasp-faced, evil entity who is hunting her down. Her trial becomes a test of a 9-year-old girl's ability to maintain sanity in the face of seemingly certain death. Racked with pneumonia and near death, she comes upon a road, but just as she discovers signs of civilization, she is confronted by a bear, which she interprets as the God of the Lost in disguise. Facing down her fear, she realizes it is the bottom of the ninth, and she must close the game. In imitation of Tom Gordon, she takes a pitcher's stance and throws her Walkman like a baseball, hitting the bear in the face, and startling it enough to make it back away. A hunter who has come upon the confrontation between girl and beast frightens the beast away and takes Trisha to safety, but Trisha knows that she earned her rescue.  Trisha wakes up in a hospital room. She finds her divorced parents and older brother waiting near her bedside. A nurse tells the girl's family that they must leave so that Trisha can rest because "her numbers are up and we don't want that." Her father is the last to leave. Before he does Trisha asks him to hand her a Red Sox hat (autographed by Tom Gordon) and she points towards the sky, just as Tom Gordon does when he closes a game.

Film adaptation.

Although George A. Romero was attached to write and direct a film adaptation, plans for it stalled in October 2005 before his death.  In August 2019, the project was revived, with Romero's production company still attached. Involved parties with the new production include Chris Romero as producer, "It" producer Roy Lee, Jon Berg of Vertigo Films and Ryan Silbert of Origin Story. The production company is Sanibel Films, the production company of Chris Romero and her late husband George Romero. As of the announcement on August 21, 2019, a writer or director had yet to be announced. Andrew Childs serves as executive producer.

The Girl Who Loved Tom Gordon (1999) is a psychological horror novel by American writer Stephen King. In 2004, a pop-up book adaptation was released with design by Kees Moerbeek and illustration by Alan Dingman. A film adaptation to be produced by Chris Romero was announced in 2019.


Qualified teams.

"6 of the 24 teams subsequently failed to qualify for the 1998 finals: Bolivia, Greece, Ireland, Russia, Sweden and Switzerland."

Qualification process.

The draw was made in New York on 8 December 1991 at Madison Square Garden.  For the first time, three teams qualified from the African zone, because of its performance in the previous tournament. The 24 spots available in the 1994 World Cup were distributed among the continental zones as follows: UEFA, AFC and CAF have a guaranteed number of places, whereas the number of qualifiers from other confederations is dependent on play-offs between OFC's first-placed team and CONCACAF's second-placed team and the winner of this fixture against CONMEBOL's fourth-placed team.  After the first round of 1994 FIFA World Cup finals, the percentage of teams from each confederation that passed through to the round of 16 was as follows:

Tiebreakers.

For FIFA World Cup qualifying stages using a league format, the method used for separating teams level on points is the same for all Confederations. If teams are even on points at the end of group play, the tied teams will be ranked by: For FIFA World Cup qualifying stages using a home-and-away knockout format, the team that has the higher aggregate score over the two legs progresses to the next round. In the event that aggregate scores finish level, the away goals rule is applied, i.e. the team that scored more goals away from home over the two legs progresses. If away goals are also equal, then thirty minutes of extra time are played, divided into two fifteen-minutes halves. The away goals rule is again applied after extra time, i.e. if there are goals scored during extra time and the aggregate score is still level, the visiting team qualifies by virtue of more away goals scored. If no goals are scored during extra time, the tie is decided by penalty shoot-out.

Confederation qualification.

AFC.

Qualification for AFC teams consisted of two rounds. Round one saw the teams divided into 6 groups, each team playing the others in their group twice. The winner of each group then went into a final group where they played each other once.  The qualification process began with 29 national teams vying for two spots. Saudi Arabia and Korea Republic qualified.

CAF.

Qualification for CAF teams also consisted of two rounds. Round one saw the teams divided into 9 groups, each team playing the others in their group twice. The winners of these groups then went into three final groups where they played each other twice.  The qualification process began with 40 national teams vying for three spots. Nigeria, Morocco and Cameroon qualified.

CONCACAF.

There were three rounds of play for CONCACAF teams. Mexico and Canada received byes and advanced to the second round directly. The remaining teams were divided into Caribbean and Central American zones. In the Caribbean zone, 14 teams played in knockout matches on a home-and-away basis to determine three winners advancing to the second round. In the Central American zone, the six teams were paired up to play knockout matches on a home-and-away basis. The winners advanced to the second round.  In the second round, the eight teams were divided into two groups of four teams each. They played against each other on a home-and-away basis. The group winners and runners-up advanced to the final round.  In the final round, the four teams played against each other on a home-and-away basis. The group winner qualified. The runner-up advanced to the CONCACAF–OFC intercontinental play-off. Mexico took the guaranteed spot and Canada qualified for the play-off.

CONMEBOL.

Nine CONMEBOL teams entered the competition (Chile was banned by FIFA due to the 1989 Maracanazo incident). The nine teams were divided into two groups. The teams played against each other on a home-and-away basis. Group A had one guaranteed place and one play-off spot, while Group B had two spots for the finals. Colombia, Brazil and Bolivia qualified automatically and Argentina qualified for the play-off.

OFC.

Qualification for OFC teams consisted of two rounds. Seven teams entered initially and were divided into two groups, but Western Samoa withdrew. The two group winners then played against each other on a home-and-away basis. The winner advanced to the CONCACAF–OFC intercontinental play-off. Australia won the tie and advanced.

UEFA.

38 were initially involved in UEFA qualifying, but Liechtenstein withdrew and Yugoslavia was suspended.  The thirty-six teams were divided into six groups: one group of five teams, four groups of six teams each, and one group of seven teams. The teams played against each other on a home-and-away basis. The group winners and runners-up qualified.  Italy, Switzerland, Norway, Netherlands, Spain, Ireland, Romania, Belgium, Greece, Russia, Sweden, and Bulgaria all qualified.

Inter-confederation play-offs.

For the first time, there were two rounds of play in the inter-confederation play-offs. The teams from CONCACAF and OFC first played each other on a home-and-away basis. The winner then played against the team from CONMEBOL on a home-and-away basis. The winner qualified.

The 1994 FIFA World Cup qualification was a series of tournaments organised by the six FIFA confederations. The 1994 FIFA World Cup featured 24 teams with one place reserved for the host nation, United States, and one place for the defending champions, Germany. The remaining 22 places were determined by a qualification process, in which 147 teams, from the six FIFA confederations, competed. Most of the successful teams were determined within these confederations, with a limited number of inter-confederation play-offs occurring at the end of the process.