Early life.

Bryher was born in September 1894 in Margate. Her father was the shipowner and financier John Ellerman, who at the time of his death in 1933, was the richest Englishman who had ever lived. He lived with her mother Hannah Glover, but did not marry her until 1908.  Bryher traveled in Europe as a child, to France, Italy and Egypt. At the age of fourteen she was enrolled in a traditional English boarding school and at around this time her mother and father married. On one of her travels, Ellerman journeyed to the Isles of Scilly off the southwestern coast of Great Britain and acquired her future pseudonym from her favourite island, Bryher.  During the 1920s, Bryher was an unconventional figure in Paris. Among her circle of friends were Ernest Hemingway, James Joyce, Gertrude Stein, Sylvia Beach and Berenice Abbott. Her wealth enabled her to give financial support to struggling writers, including Joyce and Edith Sitwell. She also helped with finance for Sylvia Beach's bookshop Shakespeare and Company and certain publishing ventures, and started a film company Pool Group. She also helped provide funds to purchase a flat in Paris for the destitute Dada artist and writer Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven.

Lifelong relationship and later life.

Bryher knew from an early age that she was lesbian. In 1918 she met and became involved in a same-sex relationship with poet Hilda Doolittle (better known by her initials, H.D.). The relationship was an open one, with both taking other partners. In 1921 she entered into a marriage of convenience with the American author Robert McAlmon, whom she divorced in 1927.  That same year she married Kenneth Macpherson, a writer who shared her interest in film and who was at the same time H.D.'s lover. In Burier, Switzerland, overlooking Lake Geneva, the couple built a Bauhaus-style structure that doubled as a home and film studio, which they named Kenwin. They formally adopted H.D.'s young daughter, Perdita. In 1928, H.D. became pregnant with Macpherson's child, but chose to abort the pregnancy. Bryher divorced MacPherson in 1947; she and Doolittle no longer lived together after 1946, but continued their relationship until Doolittle's death in 1961.

Filmmaking and film criticism.

Bryher, H.D., and Macpherson formed the film magazine "Close Up", and the Pool Group. Only one "POOL" film, "Borderline" (1930), starring H.D. and Paul Robeson, survives in its entirety. In common with the "Borderline" novellas, it explores extreme psychic states and their relationship to surface reality. Bryher herself plays an innkeeper.  Bryher's most notable non-fiction work was "Film Problems of Soviet Russia" (1929). In "Close Up" she compared Hollywood unfavorably with Soviet filmmaking, arguing that the studio system had "lowered the standards" of cinema. Her writings also helped to bring Sergei Eisenstein to the attention of the British public.

World War II and after.

In a 1933 article in "Close up" entitled "What Shall You Do in the War?", Bryher wrote about the situation of Jews in Germany, urging readers to take action. Starting that year, her home in Switzerland became a "receiving station" for refugees; she helped more than 100 people escape Nazi persecution before she began to fear for her own safety and returned to the UK. This experience influenced her 1965 "Science Fantasy" novel "Visa for Avalon", about a group of people trying to escape an unnamed country for a place called Avalon on the eve of revolution.  From 1940 to 1946 she lived in London with H.D. and supervised the literary magazine "Life and Letters To-day". She later wrote a memoir of these years entitled "The Days of Mars", as well as a novel, "Beowulf" (1948), set during the Blitz.  Starting in 1952, she wrote a series of historical novels. Most are set in Britain during various eras; "Roman Wall" (1954) and "The Coin of Carthage" (1963) are set in the Roman Empire; "Ruan" (1960) is set in a post-Arthurian Britain. They are well researched and vivid, typically set in times of turmoil and often seen from the perspective of a young man. "Ruan" portrays the adventures of a Druid Novice who yearns to escape the confines of his surroundings and upbringing to become a sea captain.  Acclaimed in her own time, her historical novels have now fallen out of print but used copies are readily available. Since 2000, "Visa for Avalon", her early semi-autobiographical novels "Development" and "Two Selves", her memoir "The Heart to Artemis", and her historical novel "The Player's Boy" have been republished.

Bryher (2 September 1894 – 28 January 1983) was the pen name of the English novelist, poet, memoirist, and magazine editor Annie Winifred Ellerman, of the Ellerman ship-owning family.


Quattroporte I (AM107, 1963–1969).

The original Maserati Quattroporte ("Tipo AM107") was built between 1963 and 1969. It was a large saloon powered by V8 engines—both firsts for a series production Maserati automobile.

History.

The task of styling the Quattroporte was given to Turinese coachbuilder Pietro Frua, who drew inspiration from a special 5000 GT (chassis number 103.060) which he had designed in 1962 for Prince Karim Aga Khan. While the design was by Frua, body construction was carried out by Vignale.

Series I (1963–1966).

The Quattroporte was introduced at the October–November 1963 Turin Motor Show, where a pre-production prototype was on the Maserati stand next to the Mistral coupé. Regular production began in 1964. The Tipo 107 Quattroporte joined two other grand tourers, the Facel Vega and the Lagonda Rapide, capable of traveling at speeds of up to on the new motorways in Europe. It was equipped with a 4.1-litre () V8 engine, rated at DIN at 5,000 rpm, and equipped with either a five-speed ZF manual transmission or a three-speed Borg Warner automatic on request. Maserati claimed a top speed of. The car was also exported to the United States, where federal regulations mandated twin round headlamps in place of the single rectangular ones found on European models.  Between 1963 and 1966, 230 units were made.

Series II (1966–1969).

In 1966, Maserati revised the Tipo 107, adding the twin headlights already used on the U.S. model. A leaf-sprung solid axle took place of the previous De Dion tube. The interior was completely redesigned, including the dashboard which now had a full width wood-trimmed fascia. In 1968 alongside the 4.1-litre a 4.7-litre version became also available ("AM107/4700"), developing DIN. Top speed increased to a claimed, making the Quattroporte 4700 the fastest four-door sedan in the world at the time.  Around 500 of the second series were made, for a total of 776 "Tipo 107" Quattroportes. Production ended in 1969.

Specifications.

The first generation of the Quattroporte had a steel unibody structure, complemented by a front subframe. Front suspension was independent, with coil springs and hydraulic dampers. Rear suspension used a coil sprung De Dion tube featuring inboard brakes on the first series, later changed to a more conventional Salisbury leaf sprung solid axle with a single trailing link on the second series. On both axles there were anti-roll bars. Brakes were solid Girling discs all around. A limited slip differential was optional.

Engines.

The long lived quad cam, all-aluminium Maserati V8 engine made its début on the Quattroporte. It featured two chain-driven overhead camshafts per bank, 32 angled valves, hemispherical combustion chambers, inserted cast iron wet cylinder liners, and was fed through an aluminium, water-cooled inlet manifold by four downdraft twin-choke Weber carburetors—initially 38 DCNL 5 and 40 DCNL 5 on 4200 and 4700 cars respectively, later changed to 40 DCNF 5 and 42 DCNF 5 starting from December 1968. ! Model! Engine! Peak power! Peak torque! Top speed

The Maserati Quattroporte () is a four-door full-size luxury sports saloon produced by Italian automobile manufacturer Maserati. The name translated from Italian literally means "four doors". The car is currently in its sixth generation, with the first generation introduced in 1963.


Early life.

Petra Laurentien Brinkhorst was born in Leiden on 25 May 1966, the daughter of the former Dutch minister of Economic Affairs, Laurens Jan Brinkhorst and Jantien Brinkhorst-Heringa. She has one brother. She is known by her middle name, Laurentien, a portmanteau of her parents' given names.  Princess Laurentien started primary school in Groningen. Her family then moved to The Hague, where she completed her primary education. She spent four years at the Christelijk Gymnasium Sorghvliet, and a year at the Eerste Vrijzinnige Christelijk Lyceum, both in The Hague. In 1984, she passed the Baccalauréat A examinations at the Lycée français in Tokyo. Her father was working in Japan at the time, being the Permanent Envoy of the European Union.  Princess Laurentien studied History at the University of Groningen, where she received her "propaedeuse" in 1986. After this she studied at College of Queen Mary of the University of London where she received her Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree in Political Science in 1989 and subsequently at the University of California, Berkeley, where she obtained her Master of Journalism (MJ) degree in 1991.

Interests and activities.

Princess Laurentien has a long record of fighting against illiteracy in the Netherlands, which is now to be considered a negligible issue. In 2009, she was designated UNESCO Special Envoy on "Literacy for Development" in recognition of her "outstanding commitment to the promotion of education and her profound dedication to the Organization's ideals and objectives". In 2010 she was co-recipient of the Major Bosshardt Prize for her work in combating illiteracy.

Marriage and children.

The engagement of Prince Constantijn and Laurentien Brinkhorst was announced on 16 December 2000. The civil marriage was conducted by Wim Deetman, the mayor of the Hague, in the Oude Raadzaal, Javastraat, the Hague, on 17 May 2001. The church wedding took place two days later on 19 May in the Grote of St Jacobskerk, with Reverend Carel ter Linden officiating.  Prince Constantijn and Princess Laurentien have three children: Eloise (b. 2002), Claus-Casimir (b. 2004), and Leonore (b. 2006).  Prince Constantijn, Princess Laurentien, and their children recently (2015) moved from Brussels to The Hague.

Titles, styles, and honours.

Titles and styles.

Laurentien's full title and style is: "Her Royal Highness" Princess Petra Laurentien of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, Mrs. van Amsberg.  Laurentien was not legally created a princess, but custom allows a wife to use her husband’s titles. All children of the marriage hold the titles Count or Countess of Orange-Nassau and "Jonkheer" or "Jonkvrouw van Amsberg".  By Royal Decree of 15 January 2003, nr. 36, Princess Laurentien was granted her own personal standard.

Princess Laurentien of the Netherlands (née "Petra Laurentien Brinkhorst"; born 25 May 1966) is the wife of Prince Constantijn and sister-in-law of King Willem-Alexander and Queen Máxima.


History.

Old Melrose.

An earlier monastery was founded by, then later dedicated to, Saint Aidan of Lindisfarne on a site about two miles (3 km) east of Melrose Abbey. This was shortly before his death in 651 at Bamburgh. Set in a bend of the River Tweed, a graveyard marks the site. Saint Cuthbert, who grew up nearby, trained at Old Melrose abbey. He was prior from 662 before he moved to Lindisfarne (Holy Island). The visionary Dryhthelm was also a monk there in the early eighth century. The abbey site was raided by Kenneth I of Scotland in 839.

Cistercian abbey.

Melrose was the first Cistercian abbey in Scotland. King David I wanted the new abbey to be built on the same site, but the Cistercians insisted that the land was not good enough for farming and selected the current site. It was said to have been built in ten years. The church of the convent was dedicated to St. Mary (like all Cistercian houses) on 28 July 1146. The abbey became the mother church of the order in Scotland. Its first community came from Rielvaux, the Yorkshire house colonized from Cîteaux.  In the 12th century, around Melrose, the Cistercians implemented new farming techniques and marketed Melrose wool throughout the great trading ports across northern Europe. A town slowly grew up around the abbey. During a time of famine four thousand starving people were fed by the monastery for three months.  The monastery had 100 monks, exclusive of the abbot and dignitaries. The privileges and possessions of the abbey were very extensive. Its founder David endowed it with the lands of Melrose, Eildon, and other places; and the right of fishery on the River Tweed. Succeeding monarchs increased its property. The house was famed for its wealth, for many of its abbots were men of distinction and honour. Waltheof of Melrose, stepson of King David and at one time prior of Kirkham, was abbot of Melrose from 1148-1159. He endowed Melrose with a reputation for sanctity and learning which placed it on a par with houses such as Fountains and Rievaulx and made it the premier abbey in Scotland. The tomb of St. Waltheof, in the chapter house, later became the focus of pilgrimage.  One of the earliest accounts of the settlement reached at Runnymede is found in the "Chronicle of Melrose Abbey". Melrose was located on one of the main roads running from Edinburgh to the south making it particularly vulnerable to attack. In 1322, the town was attacked by the army of Edward II, and much of the abbey was destroyed. It was rebuilt by order of King Robert the Bruce, with Sir James Douglas being principal auditor of finance for the project. In 1385, the abbey was burned by the army of Richard II of England, "partly because of support for the Avignon Pope Clement VII" he forced the army of Robert II of Scotland back to Edinburgh. It was rebuilt over a period of about 100 years—construction was still unfinished when James IV visited in 1504.  From 1541, the abbacy was held by a series of commendators. In 1544, as English armies raged across Scotland in an effort to force the Scots to allow the infant Mary, Queen of Scots to marry the son of Henry VIII, the abbey was again badly damaged and was never fully repaired. This led to its decline as a working monastery. The last abbot was James Stuart (the illegitimate son of James V), who died in 1559. In 1590, Melrose's last monk died.  The abbey withstood one final assault, and some of its walls still show the marks of cannon fire after having been bombarded by Oliver Cromwell's troops during the English Civil War. In 1618, a portion of the abbey's church was converted into a parish church for the surrounding town. A plain vault was inserted into the crossing, removing the original ribbed vaulting in the central section. It was used until 1810 when a new church was erected in the town. In 1812, a stone coffin was exhumed from the aisle in the abbey's south chancel. Some speculated the remains were those of Michael Scot, the philosopher and "wizard."  At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Sir Walter Scott was appointed Sheriff-Depute of Roxburghshire. In 1822, with the financial assistance of the Duke of Buccleuch, Sir Walter supervised the extensive repair work that was to preserve the ruins. In 1918, the duke gave the ruins to the state, by which time the abbey had undergone further restoration and repair. It is now in the care of Historic Environment Scotland.

Robert the Bruce.

Robert the Bruce's heart is said to have been buried in the church, perhaps brought back from a crusade with the body of Lord Douglas in either 1330 or 1331. The position was marked by a small metal plaque.  In 1996, an archaeological excavation on the site unearthed a conical lead container and an engraved copper plaque that read "The enclosed leaden casket containing a heart was found beneath Chapter House floor, March 1921, by His Majesty's Office of Works." The casket was investigated by AOC archaeology in Leith and contained a still recognisable human heart in a thick black liquor. As there are no records of anyone else's heart being buried at Melrose it was presumed to be that of Robert the Bruce. The container was reburied at Melrose Abbey on 22 June 1998 under a memorial stone.  There is no way to prove conclusively whether the heart belonged to King Robert. There is no record of any other heart being buried on the site; however, the Chapter House would be an unusual location for a king's heart to be buried: most high-status burials would have happened next to the altar.

Description.

The abbey is laid out on a traditional east-west axis. The west section is almost wholly absent other than its foundations. The eastern section is more intact. A graveyard serving the local community lies to the south and south-east of the abbey. The majority of stones date from the 19th century. The abbey is the only Scottish abbey to still retain some of its original floor tiles. The northern cloisters are equally erased to foundation level.

Tributes.

Sir Walter Scott described Melrose Abbey in one of his poems, "The Lay of the Last Minstrel, Canto Second".  A Presbyterian congregation in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, has built what may be the last Gothic cathedral in the U.S. and patterned it after Melrose Abbey. The church, Kirk in the Hills, completed in 1958, is located on a lakeside setting north of Detroit.

Tourism.

The abbey is part of five other abbeys and historic sights through Scotland on Borders Abbeys Way walk. In 2018 the site received 58,286 visitors.

St Mary's Abbey, Melrose is a partly ruined monastery of the Cistercian order in Melrose, Roxburghshire, in the Scottish Borders. It was founded in 1136 by Cistercian monks at the request of King David I of Scotland and was the chief house of that order in the country until the Reformation. It was headed by the abbot or commendator of Melrose. Today the abbey is maintained by Historic Environment Scotland as a scheduled monument.


Garden plan.

The grounds of the "Jardin des plantes" include four buildings containing exhibited specimens. These buildings are officially considered as museums following the French law (they are labelled "musée de France") and the French Museum of Natural History calls them "galeries" (French for 'galleries'):  In addition to the gardens and the galleries, there is also a small zoo, the "ménagerie du Jardin des plantes", founded in 1795 by Bernardin de Saint-Pierre from animals of the "ménagerie royale de Versailles", the menagerie at Versailles, which was dismantled during the French Revolution.  The "Jardin des plantes" maintains a botanical school, which trains botanists, constructs demonstration gardens, and exchanges seeds to maintain biotic diversity. About 4,500 plants are arranged by family on a one hectare (10,000 m2) plot. Three hectares are devoted to horticultural displays of decorative plants. An Alpine garden has 3,000 species with world-wide representation. Specialized buildings, such as a large Art Deco winter garden, and Mexican and Australian hothouses display regional plants, not native to France. The Rose Garden, created in 1990, has hundreds of species of roses and rose trees.

History.

Founded in 1626, the garden was not planted by Guy de La Brosse, Louis XIII's physician, until 1635 as a medicinal herb garden. It was originally known as the Jardin du Roi. In 1640 it opened to the public. After a period of decline, Jean-Baptiste Colbert took administrative control of the gardens. Dr. Guy-Crescent Fagon was appointed in 1693, and he surrounded himself with a team of experienced botanists, including Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, Antoine de Jussieu, Antoine Laurent de Jussieu and his son Adrien-Henri.  The holdings include 6,963 specimens of the herbarium collection of Joseph Tournefort, donated on his death to the Jardin du Roi.  The Comte de Buffon became the curator in 1739 and he expanded the gardens greatly, adding a maze, the labyrinth, which remains today. In 1792 the Royal Menagerie was moved to the gardens from Versailles.

The Jardin des plantes (French for "Garden of the Plants"), also known as the Jardin des plantes de Paris () when distinguished from other "jardins des plantes" in other cities, is the main botanical garden in France. The term "Jardin des plantes" is the official name in the present day, but it is in fact an elliptical form of "Jardin royal des plantes médicinales" ("Royal Garden of the Medicinal Plants"), which is related to the original purpose of the garden back in the 17th century.


Early life.

Johann Salvator was born in Florence, the youngest son of Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany and his second wife, Princess Maria Antonia of the Two Sicilies. He was baptized in Florence's Battistero di San Giovanni as "Giovanni Nepomuceno Maria Annunziata Giuseppe Giovanni Batista Ferdinando Baldassare Luigi Gonzaga Pietro Alessandrino Zanobi Antonino". He pursued a career in the Austrian Army and was a good friend of Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria, with both sharing liberal opinions.  After Bulgaria was granted autonomy by the Ottoman Empire, Johann Salvator was an unsuccessful candidate for the throne. Prince Alexander of Battenberg would be elected Prince of Bulgaria in 1879. During the Austro-Hungarian occupation of the Ottoman territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878, he was put in command of a division of the occupying army and won numerous honours.  On 16 October 1889, he resigned his army commission and renounced his title and the privileges he enjoyed as a member of the Austrian Imperial Family. After renouncing his titles he assumed the name "Johann (or John) Orth", the surname Orth derived from the name of a castle he had owned, Schloss Orth.

Disappearance.

In 1889, Johann Salvator married Ludmilla ("Milli") Stubel, an opera dancer in London. Shortly after his marriage, he purchased a ship named the "Santa Margareta", on which he and his wife sailed for South America. In February 1890 he set off from Montevideo, Uruguay, heading for Valparaíso in Chile. He was last seen on 12 July in Cape Tres Puntas, Argentina. It is believed that his ship was lost during a storm off the coast of Cape Horn. He was officially declared dead on 2 February 1911 in Vienna.  In the years following Salvator's disappearance, numerous sightings of him were reported. Rumors persisted that he and his wife sailed to South America and assumed new identities. Several men also came forward claiming to be the "missing Duke". One of the more publicised claims came in May 1945 when a German born lithographer living in Kristiansand, Norway named Alexander Hugo Køhler made a deathbed confession claiming that he was Johann Salvator. Køhler claimed that, as Johann Orth, he "bought" the identity of Alexander Hugo Køhler and assumed his life. Køhler claimed that the real Alexander Hugo Køhler posed as Salvator and it was he who died at sea.

Archduke Johann Salvator of Austria (, ; 25 November 1852 – declared dead in absentia 2 February 1911) was a member of the Tuscan branch of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine. He was Archduke and Prince of Austria, Prince of Hungary, Bohemia and Tuscany. After renouncing those titles, he was known as Johann (John) Orth. He disappeared while sailing with his wife in July 1890 and is believed to have died when his ship encountered a storm near Cape Horn. Salvator was declared dead in absentia in February 1911.


Biography.

Yitzhak Navon was born in Jerusalem to Yosef and Miryam Navon, a descendant of a Sephardic family of rabbis, and had ancestry in Jerusalem going back centuries. On his father's side, he was descended from Sephardi Jews who settled in Turkey, after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492. His ancestors, the Baruch Mizrahi family immigrated from Turkey to Jerusalem in 1670. On his mother's side, he was descended from the renowned Moroccan-Jewish kabbalist rabbi Chaim ibn Attar, who immigrated to then Palestine (land of Israel) and settled in Jerusalem in 1742.  He attended the Doresh Tziyon and Takhemoni elementary schools and the Hebrew University high school.  Navon studied Arabic and Islamic studies at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He taught Hebrew literature for several years. He was fluent in Arabic, Hebrew, Ladino, French and English.  Navon was a member of the Haganah's Arab Intelligence Unit and worked undercover in Jerusalem. During the war, he listened to wiretapped conversations of the British Army. Later he was sent by the Israeli foreign service to Uruguay and Argentina to track down Nazis.  Navon was married to Ofira Navon née Resnikov, who died of cancer in 1993. They had a son, Erez, and an adopted daughter, Naama. Navon died in Jerusalem at the age of 94.

Political career.

In 1951, Navon became the political secretary of Israel's first prime minister, David Ben-Gurion. The following year he was appointed Ben-Gurion's bureau chief. He remained in this position under Prime Minister Moshe Sharett. His judgment was crucial to advice the government received during the Suez Crisis and Lavon Affair.  In 1963 Ben-Gurion resigned as prime minister, Navon became a civil service department head at the Ministry of Education and Culture. Navon began a long campaign fighting illiteracy in Israel, which was 12% of the Jewish population. It's a shame and disgrace that more than 200,000 adults in Israel do not know how to read or write in any language, and we must do everything possible to erase this stain from us. Navon ordered the mobilisation of hundreds of woman soldiers serving compulsory national service to teach in new schools. Two years later, Navon was elected to the Knesset as a member of Ben-Gurion's Rafi. The new party which had dared challenge the Mapai establishment was driven by'modernization and scientification'; it merged into the Israeli Labor Party (part of the Alignment) in 1968. But the labour elite of which Navon was one, would in the future dictate the Left's agenda. Navon served as deputy speaker of the Knesset and chairman of the Knesset Committee on Foreign and Defense Affairs.

President of Israel (1978–83).

On 19 April 1978, Navon was elected by the Knesset to serve as the fifth President of Israel. The race was uncontested and Navon received 86 votes in the 120-member Knesset with 23 members casting blank votes. He assumed office on 29 May 1978 and was the first president with small children to move into Beit HaNassi, the presidential residence in Jerusalem. His wife, Ofira, was active in promoting the welfare of Israeli children.  As president, Navon met with Egyptian president Anwar Sadat and was influential in the peace talks. According to Haaretz newspaper, he achieved more in one visit than five by Israel's Prime Minister.  Although the Israeli presidency is a ceremonial office, Navon was an outspoken advocate of a judicial commission of inquiry to probe Israel's role in the Sabra and Shatila massacre perpetrated by Lebanese Falangists in 1982.

Minister of Education.

In 1983, Navon turned down the opportunity to run for a second term of office. Instead he returned to politics, the only Israeli ex-president to do so. When the polls showed that Navon was more popular than Labor chairman Shimon Peres, Peres was pressured to step aside and allow Navon to take over the party leadership. Navon's fluency in the Arabic language made him especially popular among Arab and Mizrahi voters. But Navon did not accept the chairmanship. In 1984, he was elected to the Knesset and served as minister of education and culture from 1984 to 1990. Navon was again Minister of Education during the first Intifada on the West Bank. During the summer of 1989 there were riots and protests. Jerusalem parents appealed to Navon by petition, to reopen their schools. Navon a socialistic Jew was impressed by the legal implications: "This action is immoral and ineffective and will cause irreversible damage in the long and short run to Palestinian children and to our own." As the violence escalated moderates suffered at the hands of extremists.  Remaining in the Knesset until 1992, he briefly left politics. Navon emerged from retirement to chair a Commission of Inquiry on Israeli medical authorities' controversial practice of discarding blood donated by Israelis of Ethiopian origin due to concerns about AIDS transmission.

Awards and recognition.

In 2003 the Spanish government granted Navon an award at Herzliya.

Literary career.

Navon wrote two musicals based on Sephardic folklore: "Romancero Sefardi" (1968) and "Bustan Sefardi" ("Sephardic Garden" 1970), which were successfully performed at Habimah, Israel's national theater in Tel Aviv. He is also the author of "The Six Days and the Seven Gates" (1979), a modern legend of the reunification of Jerusalem, first published in Hebrew by Shikmona Publishing Company and later translated into English.

Yitzhak Rachamim Navon (; 9 April 1921 – 6 November 2015) was an Israeli politician, diplomat, and author. He served as the fifth President of Israel between 1978 and 1983 as a member of the centre-left Alignment party. He was the first Israeli president born in Jerusalem and the first Mizrahi Jew to serve in that office.


Taxonomy.

German naturalist Jacob Christian Schäffer described the summer cep as "Boletus reticulatus" in 1774. Jean-Jacques Paulet described it as "Boletus aestivalis" in 1793, the species name derived from the Latin "aestas" "summer". The two names were used in literature for many years.  "Boletus reticulatus" is classified in "Boletus" section "Boletus", alongside close relatives such as "B. aereus", "B. edulis", and "B. pinophilus". A genetic study of the four European species found that "B. reticulatus" was sister to "B. aereus". More extensive testing of worldwide taxa revealed that "B. reticulatus" was most closely related to two lineages that had been classified as "B. edulis" from southern China and Korea/northern China respectively. The common ancestor of these three species was related to a lineage consisting of "B. aereus" and the genetically close "B. mamorensis". Molecular analysis suggests that the "B. aereus/mamorensis" and "B. reticulatus"/Chinese "B." "edulis" lineages diverged around 6 to 7 million years ago.

Description.

The summer cep's fruiting body is a mushroom with a swollen bulbous stem, and large convex cap. The cap is more or less round and usually up to 20(40) centimetres in diameter. It bears a velvety brown, rust to chocolate cuticle which when dry often cracks to reveal the white flesh underneath, giving the appearance of a net.  The darker, more uniform shade and the velvety feel of the cap are a key feature distinguishing this species as is the vagueness or total absence of a white edge to the cap margin as seen in "Boletus edulis". The tubes and pores of the hymenium are initially white, darkening with age to pale yellow and finally brown. The stipe is central (up to 16(30) cm in height) and has a strongly marked reticulated pattern with a variable white to brown colour.  The flesh is white and thick and remains firm if yellowish as the mushroom ages, and is often attacked by insect larvae. Its odour is pleasant.

Distribution and habitat.

The summer cep is found in woods throughout Europe, after hot and humid weather, from the start of summer until the end of autumn. It is particularly common in the south and west of France. It is less host-specific than other porcini mushrooms.  "Boletus reticulatus" has been recovered from southern Africa, where it was likely introduced, growing under the Mexican species "Pinus patula".

Edibility.

The summer cep, like most ceps, is edible and useful in cooking. However, its flesh is somewhat less firm than other ceps. Based on analysis of fruit bodies collected in Portugal, there are 334 kilocalories per 100 gram of bolete (as dry weight). The macronutrient composition of 100 grams of dried bolete includes 22.6 grams of protein, 55.1 grams of carbohydrates, and 2.6 grams of fat. By weight, fresh fruit bodies are about 91% water.

Bibliography.

Some books (in French) with information about this mushroom:

Boletus reticulatus (formerly known as Boletus aestivalis (Paulet) Fr.), and commonly referred to as the summer cep is a basidiomycete fungus of the genus "Boletus". It occurs in deciduous forests of Europe where it forms a symbiotic mycorrhizal relationship with species of oak ("Quercus"). The fungus produces fruiting bodies in the summer months which are edible and popularly collected. The summer cep was formally described by Jacob Christian Schäffer as "Boletus reticulatus" in 1774, which took precedence over "B. aestivalis" as described by Jean-Jacques Paulet in 1793.


Early life and family.

Chkheidze was born to an aristocratic family in Puti, Kutais Governorate (in the present-day Imereti province of Georgia). From his marriage with Alexandra Taganova (X-1943), he will have four children including a daughter who will accompany him in exile.

Political career.

In 1892, Chkheidze, together with Egnate Ninoshvili, Silibistro Jibladze, Noe Zhordania and Kalenike Chkheidze (his brother), became a founder of the first Georgian Social-Democratic group, Mesame Dasi (the "third team").

Russia.

From 1907 to 1917, Chkheidze was a member of Tiflis Gubernyia in the Russian State Duma and gained popularity as a spokesman for the Menshevik faction within the Russian Social Democratic Party. He was an active member of the irregular freemasonic lodge, the Grand Orient of Russia’s Peoples. In 1917, the year of the Russian Revolution, Chkheidze became Chairman of the Petrograd Soviet. He failed to prevent the rise of radical Bolshevism and refused a post in the Russian Provisional Government. However, he did support its policies and advocated revolutionary "oboronchestvo" (defencism). He also voted to continue the war against the German Empire..

Transcaucasia.

In October 1917, the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia. At the time, Chkheidze was in Georgia. He remained in Georgia and on 23 February 1918, became leader of the Transcaucasian Federation in Tiflis. Some months later the federation was dissolved.

Democratic Republic of Georgia.

On 26 May 1918, the Act of Independence of Georgia was adopted, Chkheidze was elected chairman of the National Council of Georgia: this Georgian Provisional Assembly decided to appoint a government, to prepare elections and to create a constitutional commission. In February 1919 he was elected a member of the Constituent Assembly of Georgia and on March 12 president of this assembly, but could not participate in its first session because he was located in Paris. Chairing the Georgian delegation to the Versailles Conference, he tried to gain the Entente's support for the Democratic Republic of Georgia. He also proposed to Georges Clemenceau and to David Lloyd George a French or British protectorate for Georgian foreign affairs and defense, but was unsuccessful. Chkheidze, who had 14 years of parliamentary life experience, oversaw the writing of the Constitution by Razhden Arsenidze and 14 other MPs of the majority and the opposition.

France.

In March 1921, when the Red Army invaded Georgia, Chkheidze fled with his family to France via Constantinople. In 1923 and 1924, as part of the Social Democratic Labour Party of Georgia in exile, Chkheidze opposed a national uprising in Georgia. Chkheidze, Irakly Tsereteli, Datiko Sharashidze, and Kale Kavtaradze formed a group called "Oppozitsia". In their mind, the Red Army and Cheka were too strong, and the unarmed Georgian people too weak. After the August Uprising of 1924, 10,000 Georgians were executed, and between 50,000 and 100,000 Georgians were deported to Siberia or to Central Asia.

Death.

On 13 June 1926, Chkheidze committed suicide, in his official residence in Leuville-sur-Orge, France. He was buried in Paris, in the Père Lachaise Cemetery.

Nikoloz Semyonovich Chkheidze (; ), commonly known as Karlo Chkheidze ( – 13 June 1926), was a Georgian politician. In the 1890s, he promoted Social Democratic movement in Georgia. He became a key figure in the Russian Revolution (February 1917 to October 1917) as the Menshevik president of the Executive Committee of the Soviet of Petrograd (until September 1917). Later he served as president of the Transcaucasian Sejm (February 1918 to May 1918), and he held office in the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic (April–May 1918). Later he became president of parliamentary assemblies of the Democratic Republic of Georgia, National Council, Constituent Assembly and Parliament (May 1918 to March 1921).


Life.

Cambiaso was born in Moneglia, then part of the Republic of Genoa, the son of a painter named Giovanni Cambiaso.  Cambiaso was precocious, and at the age of fifteen he painted, along with his father, some subjects from Ovid's "Metamorphoses" on the facade of a house in Genoa. In 1544, at the age of seventeen, he was involved in the decoration of the Palazzo Doria, now the Prefettura, perhaps working with Marcantonio Calvi, a painter of his father's generation. He aided in the vault decoration of the church of San Matteo, in collaboration with Giovanni Battista Castello. His "Resurrection" and "Transfiguration" altarpieces for San Bartolomeo degli Armeni date from c. 1560. In 1563, he painted a "Resurrection" for "San Giovanni Battista" in Montalto Ligure.  This was followed by frescoes for the Villa Imperiale at Genoa-Turalba (also called the Palazzo Imperiali Terralba) with a "Rape of the Sabines" (c. 1565) and the Palazzo Meridiana (formerly Grimaldi; also in 1565). In the Capella Lercari of the Duomo di San Lorenzo, Cambiaso frescoed a "Presentation" and "Marriage of the Virgin" in 1569, remainder of chapel by Castello. In 1583 Cambiaso accepted an invitation from Philip II to complete for the Escorial a series of frescoes begun by Castello; and the 1911 Encyclopædia states the principal reason for traveling to Spain was that he hoped royal influence would gain favor with the Vatican for his marriage plans, but this failed. In the Escorial he executed a "Paradise" on the vaulting of the church, with a multitude of figures. For this picture he received 2,000 ducats, probably the largest sum that had, up to that time, ever been given for a single work. His paintings in Spain, hew to strict religious thematic.  His son Orazio Cambiaso became a painter. Other followers from Genoa include Giovanni Andrea Ansaldo, Simone Barabino, Giulio Benso, Battista and Bernardo Castello, Giovanni Battista Paggi, Francesco Spezzini, and Lazzaro Tavarone.

Style and output.

Cambiaso had an ardent fancy, and was a bold designer in a Raphaelesque mode. His main influences are said to have been Correggio and the Late Renaissance Venetian school. His extreme facility astonished the Spanish painters. It is said that Philip II, watching one day with pleasure the off-hand zest with which Cambiaso was painting a head of a laughing child, was allowed the further surprise of seeing the laugh changed, by a touch or two upon the lips, into a weeping expression. The artist painted sometimes with a brush in each hand, and with a certainty equalling or transcending that even of Tintoretto. His fresco technique was very spontaneous and he used small drawings to create full-size sketches on the walls without the aid of cartoons.  Cambiaso is best represented in Genoa. In the church of San Giorgio is a canvas of the "Martyrdom of San Giorgio"; Santa Maria da Carignano houses a "Pietà", containing his own portrait and (according to tradition) that of his beloved sister-in-law.  He painted notable nocturnes, including an "Adoration of the Shepherds" (1570) and the so-called "Madonna of the Candle" (1575). The former painting appears inspired by Correggio's "Nativity".  Cambiaso was a prolific draftsman. In his early drawings Cambiaso showed a preference for bold foreshortenings and exaggerated gestures. In the mid-1560s he began to draw in a simplified, geometric style that may have been inspired by similar works by Albrecht Dürer and other German artists.

Luca Cambiaso (also known as Luca Cambiasi and Luca Cangiagio (being Cangiaxo the surname in Ligurian); 18 November 1527 - 6 September 1585) was an Italian painter and draftsman and the leading artist in Genoa in the 16th century. He is considered the founder of the Genoese school who established the local tradition of historical fresco painting through his many decorations of Genoese churches and palaces. He produced a number of poetic night scenes. He was a prolific draughtsman who sometimes reduced figures to geometric (even cubic) forms. He was familiarly known as Lucchetto da Genova.


History.

In November 1898, the City of Paris decided to undertake preliminary work of the metro network with the construction of the first line of the Parisian subway system. Work lasted twenty months under the leadership of engineer Fulgence Bienvenüe and was financed by the municipality of Paris. The line was divided into eight parts distributed between several companies. On 19 July 1900, the line was opened between Porte Maillot and Porte de Vincennes to connect the various sites of the World Fair. Only eight stations were finalized and opened with the inauguration; ten more were gradually opened between 6 August and 1 September 1900. The line followed the east–west monument axis in Paris. These eighteen stations were entirely built under the control of engineer Fulgence Bienvenüe, the majority of them 75 metres long and 4.10 metres wide. In March 1934, the first extension into the suburbs brought service to Château of Vincennes towards the east.

Rolling Stock.

Line 1 has had five different types of rolling stock throughout the years (from ).

Automation.

After successfully opening Line 14 as a fully automatic line, the RATP began to explore the possibility of automating existing lines on the system. The agency first focused on Line 1, since it is the busiest of all of the Paris subway lines, and also the line most frequented by tourists. Automation not only allowed Paris to remain as a model for technological innovations in the railway industry but also increases the number of lines in normal service when RATP workers are striking "(from MP 05)". This was shown when the transport union engaged in industrial action in September 2019 without affecting service on Line 1.  Work began in 2007 and was largely carried out without interrupting passenger traffic. Preliminary work involved electrical and signaling upgrades throughout the entire line. Work also commenced on converting the original Porte Maillot station (also known as "Espace Maillot") into a light maintenance facility for the MP 05 rolling stock. In 2009, work commenced on installing platform screen doors; with Bérault and Porte Maillot being the first stations to be equipped. Due to its curved platform, Bastille (in 2011) was among the last stations to be equipped. During this time, individual stations were intermittently closed to allow platforms to be leveled with the height of the train floors (from ).  Although most of the stations remain the same as they were prior to automation (with the exception of the platform screen doors), many stations like St. Paul, received brand new signage. Franklin D. Roosevelt received a complete overhaul from its post World War II facade to a more contemporary & modern look.  On 3 November 2011, the first eight trains of the new MP 05 rolling stock were put into service on Line 1. These trains ran alongside the MP 89 CC rolling stock until enough automated stock was available for passenger service. This cascading was achieved thanks to the SAET () system, which is the first version of Siemens Transportation Systems' Trainguard MT CBTC. The arrival of the new stock allowed the RATP to accelerate transfer of the MP 89 from Line 1 to Line 4 at a rate of about 2 to 3 trains per month between November, 2011 and November, 2012. That rate increased to 4 trains per month during November and December, 2012.  Major milestones were reached in May and July, 2012 as full automation reached sufficient levels by which the MP 89 were no longer needed during late evenings and weekends respectively. For the "Nuit Blanche" during October, 2012, Line 1 also operated in full automation. The final milestone was reached on 15 December 2012, as full automation of Line 1 approached 100%, allowing the remaining MP 89 trains to be pulled from regular service on 21 December 2012. Due to insufficient storage space on Line 4, the remaining 6 to 7 MP 89 trains remained stored on the Line 1 tracks near Fontenay until a new garage in the Montrouge area opened. That opening was tentatively set for February/March, 2013 and will coincide with the opening of the new Mairie de Montrouge station opening on Line 4.

Future.

A western extension of Line 1 from La Défense station to the center of Nanterre is being considered. Another proposal being investigated would have a new station constructed at Fontenay – Rigollots, just before the line climbs to the surface to enter Fontenay shops, and then continue eastward to Val de Fontenay to connect with RER lines A and E.

Map and stations.

This line has 25 stations.

Tourism.

Line 1 passes near several places of interest:

Paris Métro Line 1 (French: "Ligne 1 du métro de Paris") is one of the sixteen lines of the Paris Métro. It connects La Défense – Grande Arche in the northwest and Château de Vincennes in the southeast. With a length of, it constitutes an important "East-West" transportation route for the City of Paris. Excluding RER () commuter lines, it is the most utilised line on the network with 181.2 million travellers in 2017 or 496,000 people per day on average.


History.

Birth of the line.

On March 30, 1898 a déclaration d'utilité publique was made, recognizing the public benefit of the first six planned lines of the Paris metro. In response, the city began rapidly constructing the first line in hopes of opening it in time for the world's fair in 1900. During the first stage of development, three lines designated A, B, and C were planned for construction:  However, after a detailed traffic study was conducted, changes were proposed to the tracks lying west of Étoile: the segment from Étoile to Porte Maillot of line C would be integrated into line A, and line C would pick up the segment from Étoile to Porte Dauphine. This change allowed trains on line B to stop at Porte Dauphine, and thus Porte Dauphine was designated the terminus and origin of line B.  Shortly thereafter, line B was split into two lines in hopes of simplifying its use; the section from Porte Dauphine to Nation was designated as Line 2 North, and the remaining section from Nation to Étoile was designated Line 2 South. Line 2 South would eventually become line 6.  The first section of line 2 was constructed at the same time as line 1, opening only a little later on December 3, 1900. This section consisted of three stations, Porte Dauphine, Victor Hugo, and Étoile, and was circulated by rolling stock consisting of three cars each. At Étoile, trains reversed direction via a track transfer (due to it serving as only a temporary terminus), while at Porte Dauphine and Nation direction was reversed using a turn-around loop.

Map and stations.

This line counts 25 stations.

Line 2 is one of the sixteen lines of the Paris Métro rapid transit system in Paris, France. Situated almost entirely above the former city walls ("boulevards extérieurs"), it runs in a semi-circle in the north of Paris.


Biography.

Johanna Bleschke was the oldest of a town musician's four children. After graduating from a school for 'higher daughters', she went into an apprenticeship as a bookbinder in Blankenburg. In 1913 she moved to Berlin, where she met physician and author Ernst Weiss. Their relationship lasted for more than twenty years, and she acted in productions of Weiss' dramas. After a short stint as a wartime nurse in 1914/15 she received an education as a dancer and launched a successful career. Since 1916 she also worked successfully as a movie actress and received actress training from Otto Falckenberg in Munich, and found employment first in Prague, and from 1921 to 1924 at the Landestheater Darmstadt.  Her first novel "Das verlorene Kind (The Lost Child)" was published in 1926 and caused great controversy for its subject matter, the lust murder of a four-year-old girl by an older boy. The book, based on a real 19th century crime case and drawing from both genres of detective novel and psychological drama received rave reviews and quickly saw several editions and was translated into eleven languages. It is still in print and continues to sell well today. Rahel Sanzara was to be awarded the respected Kleist-Preis in 1926, but she turned it down. Her subsequent novels couldn't repeat her debut's success.  In 1927, Rahel Sanzara married the Jewish stock broker Walter Davidsohn, who emigrated to France to escape persecution from the Nazis, while she remained in Berlin, already weakened by cancer. She died in 1936 after a long illness.

Rahel Sanzara (also Sansara; pseudonym for Johanna Bleschke) (9 February 1894 – 8 February 1936) was a German dancer, actress and novelist.


History.

Origins.

Line 9 was originally envisioned as a branch of Line 2 Sud (now known as Line 6) between Porte de Saint-Cloud and Trocadero. However, it was concluded by the CMP to combine this segment with a proposed segment that was to be built towards Opera, and thus Line 9 is created. The first section between Trocadero and Exelmans opened on 8 November 1922.

Construction and Extensions.

Construction of the original sections (as well as the extension towards République) proved to be difficult due to public opposition in the various arrondissements as well as unstable soil above the tunnels. Public support for the line's construction was greatly difficult due in part to proposed sections that various entities saw as impossible to build and operate under government regulations at the time. In addition, unstable soil led to the collapse of several sections of tunnel being constructed. The double-decker tunnel, which is located between stations Richelieu - Drouot and République (and carries Line 9 on the lower level, while Line 8 is situated on the upper level) was especially problematic due to unstable ground at Grand Boulevards. As a result, this particular section had to be reinforced by central piers.  The first extension into the suburbs, towards Pont de Sèvres, opened on 3 February 1934. On 14 October 1937, the eastern extension towards Mairie de Montreuil opened. Since then, few changes to the line's infrastructure have been made. "(from )"

Rolling stock.

Line 9 is operated with the MF 01 stock in five-car sets. Before that, line 9 was the last line equipped of the pre-war Sprague-Thomson-trains, which were removed from service on 16 April 1983. On 9 February 2011, the STIF announced plans to acquire 66 new Mf 01-trainsets. The €330 million order began deliveries during June 2013 and will continue through 2016 to replace the current stock on line 9. The Last MF67 on Line 9 was pulled from service on November 28, 2016. On 21 October 2013, the first MF 01 railcar (#096) entered revenue service along Line 9, after spending the course of June through September running along Line 5. The Auteuil workshops, which Line 10 used to share with Line 9, was not equipped to handle maintenance operations for the MF 01 rolling stock, and thus heavy maintenance work was done at the Bobigny workshops along Line 5.

Future.

A two-station extension to Montreuil - Hôpital is planned for the future. The new stations will connect line 9 with tramway 1 and future metro line 11.

Tourism.

Metro line 9 passes near several places of interest :

Paris Métro Line 9 is one of 16 lines of the Paris Métro. The line links Pont de Sèvres in Boulogne in the west with Montreuil in the east via the city center of Paris, creating a parabola type shape to its route. It is the third busiest line on the network.


Chronology.

South circulator "(le circulaire sud)".

Initially, the planners of the Métro envisaged a loop line similar to the Circle line of the London Underground that followed the route of the Wall of the Farmers-General. However, the difficulties of operating such a line forced a separation of the circle into two lines: the north and south circulators. An initial plan was to run trains from Gare d'Austerlitz to Gare de Lyon, and from there operate along Line 1 to Nation. The abandonment of the project allowed designers to choose a new route via Place d'Italie to Nation; this option, using Bercy, is the origin of what is now Line 6.  The northern circulator, now Line 2, opened in 1903, while the tracks from Étoile to Trocadéro (referred to as Line 2 Sud) opened on 2 October 1900 as part of a branch of Line 1 meant to serve the World Expo of that year. The line was extended southward to Passy three years later but was not fully opened and only allowed four-car trains.  Work on the line was not particularly difficult, apart from the occasional sewer displacements and land stabilisation around Denfert-Rochereau due to old mines. On the other hand, the crossing of the Seine at Passy was much trickier; from 1903 to 1906, the construction of a viaduct over the Pont de Bir-Hakeim gave way to another project unrelated to the Métro. The original bridge, built in 1878, was replaced with one made of metal supporting the railway viaduct above. To the east, another bridge had to be built above the Pont de Bercy. Originally finished in 1864, it was enlarged by in order to hold the Métro and is the only viaduct in the system made of stone. Both the overpasses and underground stations in this section were designed similarly to those of Line 2 Nord, although elevated stations on the southern half are fully covered with side-walls made of brick, not glass.  On 24 April 1906, the line from Étoile to Place d'Italie opened. In October of the next year, it was decided to merge the "circulaire sud" with Line 5, as a result running trains between Étoile and Gare du Nord via Austerlitz. This consolidation eliminated the 2 Sud designation.  Following the bombardment of Paris during World War I, elevated rapid transit lines became a defence system. Trains were no longer lit at night from February to July 1918. However, underground trains became incredibly dark and resulted in complaints from passengers and employees. "La compagnie du chemin de fer métropolitain de Paris" (CMP), which operated Line 5, was authorised to make electrical and lighting changes.

Line 6.

At the time, Line 6 was confined to the railway between Place d'Italie and Nation. Infrastructure works were completed in 1906, but the CMP was in no hurry to open what was perceived as a low-profiting stretch of track. Upon the urging of the City of Paris, the CMP opened Line 6 on 1 March 1909 and remained this way until 1931, when the need for a link across the southern part of the city was needed to provide access to a cultural exhibition at the Bois de Vincennes. Engineers decided upon Line 6 taking over the section west of Place d'Italie so as to create a line from Étoile to Nation, with Line 5 ending at Place d'Italie. After the exhibit closed, the old service pattern returned.  On 6 October 1942, at the height of the German occupation of the city, Line 6 was continually operated. The northern extension of Line 5 to Pantin significantly elongated the line; it was agreed upon that the line was too long, and the remedy was to end Line 5 at Place d'Italie, thereby creating a full southern loop from Étoile to Nation as Line 6 stands today.

Rubber tyre conversion.

A change in Line 6's operation occurred during the 1970s: Kléber station was expanded to four tracks with two island platforms, a rare arrangement in the Paris Métro, and converted to the line's control terminal, with Étoile acting as a simple turn-around stop.  After doing the same to Lines 1, 4, and 11, the RATP decided in 1971 to convert Line 6 to rubber-tyres for the sake of noise and vibration reduction not only to passengers but also residents near the elevated portions of the line. Work began the next year and finished in May 1974. During this time, a temporary yard was created with of track to facilitate vehicle movement. Simultaneously, the line was equipped with a central control station.  The MP 73 rolling stock quickly replaced the old Sprague-Thomson during the month of July 1974. Unlike the MP 59 cars which also have rubber tyres, the MP 73 stock has grooved ones for better adhesion on the long stretches of elevated track; the rails are ribbed for the same reason. No adhesion failures have been reported since the switchover, even in heavy rain.  With the ongoing modernization and upcoming automation of Line 4, it is currently envisioned that the MP 73 will be replaced by renovated and shortened MP 89CC railcars.

Route and stations.

Themed or unique stations.

Four stations on Line 6 have unique, cultural theming:

Line 6 is one of the sixteen lines of the Paris Métro rapid transit system. Following a semi-circular route around the southern half of the city above boulevards formed by the former wall of the 'Fermiers généraux' built between 1784 and 1791, it runs between Charles de Gaulle – Étoile in the west and Nation in the east.


Route.

At in length, counting both of its northern branches, it is the longest line of the Métro. In 2004, it carried over 114 million riders, about 540,000 per weekday. Annual traffic grew by about ten million passengers after the opening of two new stations on the Asnières branch on 14 June 2008. According to data from December 2009, there are 610,050 riders per day.  Line 13's use of two northern branches serving highly populated areas, its long length, extension into the suburbs, and rapid development of areas that it serves have culminated in the line's overloading, further highlighted by associations representing passengers. It is the most crowded line in the system, especially the section closest to Saint-Lazare.

History.

Line B of the "Nord-Sud" Company.

On 28 December 1901, the "Société du chemin de fer éléctrique souterrain Nord-Sud de Paris", or Nord-Sud Company, obtained a concession from the City of Paris to build a rapid transit network of two lines concurrent with the more prominent CMP, which had already opened the first lines of the Métro.  Connecting Porte de Saint-Ouen (Paris Métro) and Saint-Lazare (Paris Métro), the construction of Line B began on 19 June 1905 with of track. Four years later, building commenced on the branch to Porte de Clichy. The line ran under Rue d'Amsterdam until its split at La Fourche, with each branch following either the Avenue de Clichy or the Avenue de Saint-Ouen. No connection was provided to the CMP.  On 26 February 1911, Line B opened between Saint-Lazare and Porte de Saint-Ouen, with the northwestern branch to Porte de Clichy opening a year later. Due to the narrow width of Rue d'Amsterdam, Berlin (renamed to Liège) station was built unusually with non-aligned platforms. The Nord-Sud Company operated Line B with 368 trains per day, a minimum of 2.5 minute headways.  On 1 January 1930, the CMP absorbed the Nord-Sud Company and renamed Line B to Line 13 in accordance with its numerical naming policy. The electrical supply also needed to be changed; the Nord-Sud Company used overhead power, while the CMP relied on third rail technology. In order to allow interoperability, Line 13 was switched to third rail power.

Overcrowding.

Line 13 is perhaps the least-appreciated line of the Métro by riders and is the object of a number of criticisms on part of its constant overcrowding, especially north of Saint-Lazare where the line splits in two, leading to reduced frequencies. It is not rare for passengers to wait for several trains to load before being able to board due to the sheer volume of users. Within trains, there may be up to 4.5 people per square metre, while the cars on Line 13 can only hold four people per square metre.  In December 2003, the extension of Line 14 to Saint-Lazare resulted in a large increase of passengers using the station; within a year, the number of people using Saint-Lazare rose from 40.8 million to 64.1 million. Due to this, the chronic congestion of Line 13 has only worsened.  Important economic development at Plaine Saint-Denis around a vast urban project since the construction of the Stade de France has also worsened conditions on the line since a number of companies have moved there, forcing more employees to use the line for their commutes.  In 2007, the delay of the automatic control system named Ouragan led the RATP to propose to STIF the employment of "pushers" ("poussers", control assistants), responsible for smoother boarding and detraining at the busiest stations on Line 13.

Interim measures.

Since December 2006, more than eighty additional trains have been added to provide supplemental service, a nearly 10% increase including additional Asnières branch service. Two years later, an automatic reversal at Châtillon-Montrouge went into effect, which reduces the turn-back time by ten seconds so as to circulate trains every 95 seconds. This has in turn required the installation of platform screen doors to prevent passengers from falling onto the tracks when no train operator is on board.  On 17 December 2006, Line 13 has had its own command post and centralised control ("poste de commande et de contrôle centralisé", PCC) managed from Malakoff. It involves the coordination of a number of officials to reduce the number of delays and incidents on the line. Since 29 July 2008, the PCC integrates the manoeuvre and start functions that were previously operated at each terminal.  At the end of 2010, it was revealed that ten stations would receive platform screen door installation in an attempt to increase the average speed of trains and reduce track-related incidents. After a test a few years earlier, the RATP decided that such doors must be built as crowding increases so that passengers cannot fall off the platform; to do this, the agency recruited the Kaba Group to perform automation and installation on Lines 1 and 13. The company uses the ClearSy security system to control door opening and closing. However, the new platform screen doors are not the same as the prototypes installed at Invalides.  On 29 December 2009, the RATP announced that Miromesnil would be the first of twelve stations to be equipped with these doors and that work would begin in June 2010, finishing three months later. After that, the following stations will receive platform screen doors: Saint-Lazare, Champs-Élysées – Clemenceau, Basilique de Saint-Denis, Saint-Denis – Port de Paris, Invalides (replacement), Varenne, Saint-François-Xavier, Duroc, Liège, Montparnasse – Bienvenüe, and Place de Clichy.

Future.

After the northwestern branch was extended by with two more stations, Les Agnettes and Les Courtilles, a further extension with a third station (Port de Gennevilliers) will be added later.  Line 13 is one of the most crowded of the Parisian network. Various solutions have been investigated to enhance capacity:  The last solution was the one that was adopted.

Enhancements.

The trains on Line 13 are currently being refurbished, and the first refitted train entered service in January 2007. These refitted trains have new features such as automatic displays and announcements, which are now added to all new or refitted rolling stock but also a reduced number of seats to allow for more standing passengers. The capacity of each train is increased by 26.

Tourism.

Line 13 passes near several places of interest:

Paris Métro Line 13 (opened as Line B; French: "Ligne 13 du métro de Paris") is one of the sixteen lines of the Paris Métro. It was built by the Nord-Sud Company before becoming Line 13 when the Nord-Sud was merged into the Compagnie du chemin de fer métropolitain de Paris (CMP) in 1930. Line 13 was extended in 1976 to reach the northern end of Line 14, which was then absorbed into it. The number 14 was eventually reused for a new line in 1998.


History.

The origins of Atacameño culture can be traced back to 500 AD. The Tiwanaku people were the first known conquerors. At the start of the 15th century, the Atacameño were conquered by the Inca Topa Inca Yupanqui, who introduced a new social order, the Inca sun cult and various customs including coca leaves. The Inca regime constructed roads from the Salar de Atacama to what is now north east Argentina.  In 1535, the first Spanish conquistadors arrived in the area and it was finally annexed under Spanish control in 1556. In the 18th century, the Atacameño Tomás Paniri joined the uprisings led by the Peruvian Túpac Amaru II and the Bolivian Túpac Katari. In 1824, the region became part of Bolivia and in 1883 fell into Chilean hands. In 2007, the Atacameño population was estimated at 21,015 people.

Culture.

The Atacameños protected their villages with strong stone walls known as "pukara", a Quechua word. They also developed ceramic crafts, copper work (using copper extracted from Chuquicamata) and gold work. Many of the historic villages still exist today with the same names, including Quitor, Chiu-Chiu, Lasana, Turi, Topayín, Susques, Calama, Toconao, Antofagasta de la Sierra, and one of the most important settlements in the region, San Pedro de Atacama.

Language.

The original language of the Atacameños was the recently extinct language of Kunza.

Cuisine.

The Atacameño were lamini herders who made best use of the scarce water and sparse terrain by using their livestock - llama and alpaca - both as pack animals and for their meat, hide and wool.  Like many other Andean people, the Atacameño created a terraced agriculture to prevent water run-off. They grew various crops, including pumpkins, zucchini, chili, beans, tobacco, melon, corn, and, above all, potatoes and quinoa. They fertilized the crops with guano from seabirds, which they transported inland on llama. They also ate meat from their livestock and bought fish and shellfish from coastal peoples in return for "ch'arki", a dried, salted meat they produced.

Ceramics.

The first period, between the years of 400 AD and 900 AD, saw the Atacameño produce pink glazed pottery, including anthropomorphic jugs, as well as golden jewelry and cups.  During the second period, between 900 AD and 1200 AD, black glaze pottery was used, showing the influence of Tiwanaku culture. Artifacts included tablets for inhaling hallucinogens from the Huilco tree and San Pedro cactus, with carved images of human figurines, condors and religious objects.  In the third period, from 1200 AD to 1500 AD, shows the influence of the Inca civilization with the construction of stone “pukara” fortresses.

Religion.

Smoking hallucinogenic substances was a central part of Atacameño religious culture. Smoking ceremonies were believed to bring humans closer to the gods, allowing the smoker to take on the power of birds, cats or snakes. Finely carved tablets were used to hold the drug, which was then inhaled using wooden or bone tubes. The Atacameños also adopted the Inca sun cult and constructed altars in high places, especially on Licancabur volcano, which was considered sacred and the home of their many gods. They believed in life after death and buried their dead with all the necessary belongings they would need for the journey.

Archeological centres and museums.

San Pedro de Atacama.

San Pedro de Atacama was the Atacameños primary oasis settlement and the centre of their cultural development. Today, tourism is its main economic activity along with agriculture.

R.P. Gustavo Le Paige Archeological Museum.

The R.P. Gustavo Le Paige Archeological Museum, located in San Pedro de Atacama, holds much of the historical and archeological remains of the Atacameño people. It was founded by the Belgian Jesuit priest Gustavo Le Paige, who moved to San Pedro in 1955 and became fascinated with Atacameño culture. Over the years he collected a wide range of artifacts from ancient burial sites, workshops and settlements, housing them in the museum which bears his name, which he founded in 1963. The collection now contains mummies and more than 380,000 pieces of ceramics, textiles and metallic artifacts.

Communities.

Atacameño communities currently living in Argentina include:  Atacameño communities currently living in Chile include:

The Atacama people, known as atacameños or atacamas in Spanish and Kunzas, Likan-antai or Likanantaí in English, are indigenous people from the Atacama Desert and altiplano region in the north of Chile and Argentina and southern Bolivia.


History.

After the German federal election in 2005, a Jamaica coalition became mathematically possible and was initially discussed, but the Free Democrats decided they would rather remain in opposition than form a coalition with the Social Democrats (SPD) or the Greens.  At the state level, the Greens announced in October 2009 that they would support a CDU/FDP coalition in Saarland, forming Germany's first Jamaica coalition in state government. This move was partly prompted by desire to prevent an SPD minority government in Saarland dependent upon support from Die Linke. The Saarland coalition collapsed in January 2012.  A Jamaica coalition is currently in power in the state of Schleswig-Holstein. After the 2017 Schleswig-Holstein state election, CDU leader Daniel Günther became Minister President by forming a coalition with the Free Democrats led by Wolfgang Kubicki and the Greens led by Monika Heinold.  A Jamaica coalition was unsuccessfully negotiated at the national level in Germany following the 2017 federal election. After the SPD initially announced their return to opposition, it became the only viable coalition that didn't involve Alternative for Germany. Coalition talks failed after the FDP pulled out of talks, citing an inability to find a compromise on migration and energy policy.

Black traffic light.

Another nickname for this coalition is "black traffic light" (German: "Schwarze Ampel" or the portmanteau word "Schwampel"). This term alludes to the classic traffic light coalition, an alliance between the SPD (red), FDP (yellow), and the Greens, together whose symbolic colors match the colors of most German traffic lights. In a black traffic light, the CDU's color black would replace the SPD's red. Classic traffic light coalitions have already governed at the state level in Brandenburg, Bremen and Rhineland-Palatinate. The first known appearance of the short form "Schwampel" was in the Tageszeitung newspaper (Bremen edition) on 4 October 1991.

Use of the term in Belgium.

In Belgian politics, the term Jamaica coalition refers to a coalition of Christian democrats (CD&V and cdH), liberals (Open Vld and MR) and greens (Groen and Ecolo). The term has been adopted from German politics, even though the colors of the Belgian parties in question (orange, blue and green, respectively) do not correspond to those of the Jamaican flag. Even if this kind of coalition remains hypothetical on a federal, regional or provincial level, it has been formed in various municipalities, such as in Holsbeek in 2018.

Jamaica coalition (; also known as the Jamaica alliance, Jamaica traffic light, black traffic light or Schwampel) is a term in German politics describing a coalition among the parties of the Christian Democratic Union/Christian Social Union (CDU/CSU), Free Democratic Party (FDP), and the Green Party.


Description.

"Cryptomeria" is a very large evergreen tree, reaching up to tall and trunk diameter, with red-brown bark which peels in vertical strips. The leaves are arranged spirally, needle-like, long; and the seed cones globular, diameter with about 20–40 scales. It is superficially similar to the related giant sequoia ("Sequoiadendron giganteum"), from which it can be differentiated by the longer leaves (under in the giant sequoia) and smaller cones ( in the giant sequoia), and the harder bark on the trunk (thick, soft and spongy in giant sequoia).

Endemism.

Sugi has been cultivated in China for so long that it is frequently thought to be native there. Forms selected for ornament and timber production long ago in China have been described as a distinct variety "Cryptomeria japonica" var. "sinensis" (or even a distinct species, "Cryptomeria fortunei"), but they do not differ from the full range of variation found in the wild in Japan, and there is no definite evidence the species ever occurred wild in China. Genetic analysis of the most famous Chinese population, on Tianmu Mountain, containing trees estimated to be nearly 1000 years old, supports the hypothesis that the population originates from an introduction.  However, the famed Japanese botanist and plant ecology expert Akira Miyawaki has proven since the 1970s that trees such as Japanese Cedar, Cypress and Larch Pine, i.e. including Cryptomeria, which were so far believed to be native to Japan, had in fact been progressively introduced into Japan over many centuries by foresters in order to produce timber. Akira Miyawaki calculated that only about 0.06% of contemporary Japanese forests are actual indigenous forests.

Biology.

"Cryptomeria" grows in forests on deep, well-drained soils subject to warm, moist conditions, and it is fast-growing under these conditions. It is intolerant of poor soils and cold, drier climates.  It is used as a food plant by the larvae of some moths of the genus "Endoclita" including "E. auratus", "E. punctimargo" and "E. undulifer". Sugi (and hinoki) pollen is a major cause of hay fever in Japan.

Fossil record.

The earliest fossil record of "Cryptomeria" are descriptions based on vegetative organs of †"Cryptomeria kamtschatica" of the Late Eocene from Kamchatka, Russia and †"Cryptomeria protojaponica" and †"Cryptomeria sichotensis" from the Oligocene of Primorye, Russia. Several fossil leafy shots of †"Cryptomeria yunnanensis" have been described from Rupelian stage strata of the Lühe Basin in Yunnan, China.  For the Neogene, "Cryptomeria" is well represented as seed cones, leafy shoots and wood in the fossil records of Europe and Japan. †"Cryptomeria rhenana" was described from the early Late Miocene to the Late Miocene of Rhein in Morsbach, Germany, from the Early and Middle Pliocene of Northern Italy, to the Middle Pliocene of Dunarobba, Italy and to the Early Pleistocene of Umbria, Italy. † "Cryptomeria anglica"was described from the Late Miocene of La Cerdana, Spain, to the Late Middle Miocene of Brjánslækur, Iceland and from the Late Miocene to the early Pliocene of Derbyshire, England. †"Cryptomeria miyataensis" was described from the Late Miocene of Akita, Japan. "Cryptomeria japonica" was described from the Late Miocene of Georgia and from the Pliocene of Duab, Abkhazia. It has also been described from the Pliocene of Honshu, Japan, Late Pliocene of Osaka, Japan and from the Pleistocene of Kyushu, Japan.

Cultivation.

Timber.

"Cryptomeria japonica" timber is extremely fragrant, weather and insect resistant, soft, and with a low density. The timber is used for the making of staves, tubs, casks, furniture and other indoor applications. Easy to saw and season, it is favoured for light construction, boxes, veneers and plywood. Wood that has been buried turns dark green and is much valued. Resin from the tree contains cryptopimaric and phenolic acid.  The wood is pleasantly scented, reddish-pink in colour, lightweight but strong, waterproof and resistant to decay. It is favoured in Japan for all types of construction work as well as interior panelling, etc. In Darjeeling district and Sikkim in India, where it is one of the most widely growing trees, "C. japonica" is called "Dhuppi" and is favoured for its light wood, extensively used in house building.

Mechanical properties.

In dry air conditions, the initial density of Japanese cedar timber has been determined to be about 300–420 kg/m3. It displays a Young's modulus of 8017 MPa, 753 MPa and 275 MPa in the longitudinal, radial and tangential direction in relation to the wood fibers.

Ornamental.

"Cryptomeria japonica" is extensively used in forestry plantations in Japan, China and the Azores islands, and is widely cultivated as an ornamental tree in other temperate areas, including Britain, Europe, North America and eastern Himalaya regions of Nepal and India.  The cultivar 'Elegans' is notable for retaining juvenile foliage throughout its life, instead of developing normal adult foliage when one year old (see the picture with different shoots). It makes a small, shrubby tree tall. There are numerous dwarf cultivars that are widely used in rock gardens and for bonsai, including 'Tansu', 'Koshyi', 'Little Diamond', 'Yokohama' and 'Kilmacurragh.'  The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit (confirmed 2017):

Symbolism.

Sugi is the national tree of Japan, commonly planted around temples and shrines, with many hugely impressive trees planted centuries ago. Sargent (1894; "The Forest Flora of Japan") recorded the instance of a "daimyō" (feudal lord) who was too poor to donate a stone lantern at the funeral of the "shōgun" Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543–1616) at Nikkō Tōshō-gū, but requested instead to be allowed to plant an avenue of sugi, so that "future visitors might be protected from the heat of the sun". The offer was accepted; the Cedar Avenue of Nikkō, which still exists, is over long, and "has not its equal in stately grandeur".  Cryptomeria are often described and referred to in Japanese literature. For instance, cryptomeria forests and their workers, located on the mountains north of Kyoto, are featured in Yasunari Kawabata's famous book The Old Capital.

Cryptomeria (literally "hidden parts") is a monotypic genus of conifer in the cypress family Cupressaceae, formerly belonging to the family Taxodiaceae. It includes only one species, Cryptomeria japonica (syn. "Cupressus japonica" L.f.). It used to be considered by some to be endemic to Japan (see remark below under 'Endemism'), where it is known as sugi (). The tree is called Japanese cedar or Japanese redwood in English.


History.

UWC was originally founded in 1962 to bridge social, national and cultural divides caused by the Cold War. The first UWC college, UWC Atlantic College in Wales, United Kingdom, was founded in 1962 by Kurt Hahn, a German educationalist who had previously founded Schule Schloss Salem in Germany, Gordonstoun in Scotland, and the Outward Bound movement.  Hahn envisaged a college educating boys and girls aged 16 to 20. The selection would be based on personal motivation and potential, regardless of any social, economic or cultural factors. A scholarship programme would facilitate the recruitment of young people from different socio-economic backgrounds.  There are currently 18 UWC schools and colleges in operation. UWC Simón Bolivar was a member of the movement until its closing in 2012 by the Venezuelan government. The location and opening date for each UWC school and college is given below:  The current President of UWC is Queen Noor of Jordan (1995–present). Former South African President Nelson Mandela was joint President (1995–1999) alongside Queen Noor, and subsequently Honorary President of UWC (1999–2013). Former UWC presidents are Lord Mountbatten (1967–1978) and Prince Charles (1978–1995).

Selection.

Most UWC students are selected through a system of national committees, which operate in 159 countries and territories as of early 2018. Selection is based on merit, independent of the students' socio-economic background. However, this does not necessarily mean that all selected students will be financially able to attend.

Cost of Attendance.

Without financial assistance, the total cost of two years at UWC is £59,000 (United Kingdom), $104,000 (Canada), 509,000 kr. (Norway), €60,000 (Germany), $77,330 (USA), $164,800 (Singapore), or $636,000 (Hong Kong). These costs are comparable to other private or independent school systems in the United States or United Kingdom. A majority of national committee-selected students pursuing the IB Diploma receive financial assistance from UWC, based on their socio-economic needs.

Academics.

UWC values experiential learning alongside providing its 16-19-year-old students with the International Baccalaureate (IB) Diploma, an internationally recognised educational programme developed in close collaboration with UWC in the late 1960s. The IB Diploma Programme aims "to develop students who have excellent breadth and depth of knowledge – students who flourish physically, intellectually, emotionally and ethically". The mission statement of the International Baccalaureate, is similar to the mission of UWC: "to develop inquiring, knowledgeable and caring young people who help to create a better and more peaceful world through intercultural understanding and respect".  A core component of the IB Diploma Programme is Creativity, Action and Service, so UWC students participate in various activities that encourage these traits, with a concentration on community service and social justice.  Five UWC schools (UWC Thailand, UWC South East Asia in Singapore, UWC Maastricht in the Netherlands, UWC East Africa in Tanzania and Waterford Kamhlaba UWC of Southern Africa in Swaziland) also offer non-residential educational programmes for younger students.  Four UWC schools also admit students into lower years, taught using a number of different curricula based on the UWC educational model, and some offer the IB Primary Years Programme and IB Middle Years Programme.  UWC also runs "short courses", often hosted on UWC school and college campuses during academic breaks, although some are conducted in countries where there is no existing UWC school or college, such as the UWC short course in Turkey.

Activities.

Each UWC school and college offers activities in line with the Creativity, Activity and Service (CAS) programme integral to the IB Diploma Programme and a UWC education. Examples of CAS activities across UWC school and college campuses include dance, scuba diving, and tutoring.

External links.

[[Category:International school associations]]

UWC (or United World Colleges) is a system of fee-paying independent schools and educational programs with a stated mission of "mak[ing] education a force to unite people, nations and cultures for peace and a sustainable future". The organisation was founded on the principles of German educationalist Kurt Hahn. Most of the schools and colleges offer two-year residential programmes, for people aged 16–19 years, during which they complete the IB Diploma Programme. The organisation emphasizes the breadth of nationalities participating in its programs. UWC consists of 18 schools and colleges on five continents, several short educational programmes, and national committees in 159 countries and territories. UWC International is a UK registered charity, governed by the International Board and the International Council. The executive arm of the International Board is the International Office, located in London, United Kingdom.


Life.

Domeyko was born at a manor house located within the then Russian partition of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, at Niedźwiadka Wielka ( — Miadzviedka) Manor (Bear Cub Manor) near Nieśwież (Nesvizh), Minsk Governorate, Imperial Russia (now Karelichy district, Belarus). The Domeyko family held the Polish coat of arms "Dangiel". His father, Hipolit Domeyko, who was president of the local land court (), died when Ignacy was seven years old; his uncles then served as his guardians.  In his youth he was a subject of the Russian Empire. Domeyko, however, had been brought up in the culture of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, a multicultural state whose educated and dominant classes had spoken Polish as a "lingua franca" and that, shortly before Domeyko's birth, had been dismembered in the partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. For this reason, and because Domeyko subsequently spent most of his life in Chile, he is considered a person of national importance to Poles, Belarusians, Lithuanians and Chileans.  Domeyko enrolled at Vilnius University, then known as the Imperial University of Vilna, in 1816 as a student of mathematics and physics. He studied under Jędrzej Śniadecki. Involved with the Philomaths, a secret student organisation dedicated to Polish culture and the restoration of Poland's independence, he was a close friend of Adam Mickiewicz. In 1823–24, during the investigation and trials of the Philomaths, Domeyko and Mickiewicz spent months incarcerated at Vilnius' Uniate Basilian monastery.  After participating in the November 1830 Uprising, in which Domeyko served as an officer under General Dezydery Chłapowski, in 1831 Domeyko was forced into exile in order not to face Russian reprisals.  Journeying through Germany, he arrived in France, where he would earn an engineering degree at Paris' "École des Mines" (School of Mining). He also studied at the Sorbonne and maintained his political engagements with Belarusians, Poles, and Lithuanians.  In 1838 Domeyko left for Chile. There he made substantial contributions to mineralogy and the technology of mining, studied several previously unknown minerals, advocated for the civil rights of the native tribal peoples, and was a meteorologist and ethnographer. He is also credited with introducing the metric system to Latin America.  He served as a professor at a mining college in Coquimbo (La Serena) and after 1847 at the University of Chile ("Universidad de Chile", in Santiago), of which he was rector for 16 years (1867–83).  Domeyko gained Chilean citizenship in 1849, but declared at the time that "I may now never change my citizenship, but God grants me hope that wherever I may be—whether in the Cordilleras or in [the Vilnius suburb of] Paneriai—I shall die a Lithuanian." The term "Lithuanian" at that time, however, designated any inhabitant, whatever his ethnicity, of the territories of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania.  In 1884 Domeyko returned for an extended visit to Europe and remained there until 1889, visiting his birthplace and other places in the former Commonwealth, as well as Paris and Jerusalem.  In 1887 he was awarded an honorary doctorate by the Jagiellonian University, in Kraków.  In 1889, soon after returning to Santiago, Chile, Domeyko died.

Memorials.

Named for Domeyko are the mineral "domeykite", the shellfish "Nautilus domeykus", the genus "Domeykosaurus", the ammonite "Amonites domeykanus", asteroid "2784 Domeyko", the "Cordillera Domeyko" mountain range in the Andes, and the Chilean town of "Domeyko".  A bronze bust of Domeyko stands in the "Casa Central" of Santiago's University of Chile, of which Domeyko was long-time rector.  In 1992, a plaque in Spanish and Polish was placed on a building at "Krakowskie Przedmieście 64", in Warsaw, Poland, commemorating the "distinguished son of the Polish nation and eminent citizen of Chile."  On the 200th anniversary of his birth, UNESCO declared 2002 to be "Ignacy Domeyko Year." Several commemorative events were held in Chile under the auspices of Polish President Aleksander Kwaśniewski and Chilean President Ricardo Lagos.  In 2002, Poland and Chile jointly issued a postage stamp commemorating the 200th anniversary of Domeyko's birth.  Also in 2002, a 200th-birthday plaque honoring him was placed in the entry gate to Uniate Basilian monastery in Vilnius, Lithuania, where he and Adam Mickiewicz were held in 1823–24 during the investigation and trials of the Philomaths.  In 2015 a Belarusian climber Pavel Gorbunov placed a memorial plate on the top of Cerro Kimal in Cordillera Domeyko.

Ignacy Domeyko or Domejko, pseudonym: "Żegota" (, ; 31 July 1802 – 23 January 1889) was a Polish geologist, mineralogist, educator, and founder of the University of Santiago, in Chile. Domeyko spent most of his life, and died, in his adopted country, Chile.


Family.

Her forenames were derived from her mother's sisters, Mathilde, Grand Duchess of Hesse (1813–1862), Adelgunde, Duchess of Modena (1823–1914) and Princess Alexandra of Bavaria (1826–1875), with whom Hildegard had a very close relationship.  Mathilde had two elder siblings: Maria Theresia (1845–1927) in 1865 married Duke Philipp of Württemberg (1838–1917) and her only brother, Karl Albrecht (1847–1848), who died of smallpox at the age of 18 months.

Life.

After the death of his father Archduke Karl, Archduke Albrecht inherited in 1847 the Weilburg Palace in Baden bei Wien, that Karl had built for his wife Princess Henrietta of Weilburg (1797–1829). Albrecht and his family usually spent summers there, Archduchess Hildegard being especially fond of its renowned public baths. Because of his charity, he was popularly named "Engelsherz" (Angel's Heart). During the winter, the family lived in Vienna. Her family was very close to the imperial family, and Empress Elisabeth greatly enjoyed the company of her cousin Archduchess Hildegard.  Among Mathilde's circle of friends was the Archduchess Marie Therese (1849–1919), later Queen of Bavaria, who was of the same age and also the stepdaughter of Karl Ferdinand (1818–1874), Mathilde's uncle.  A distant cousin, Archduke Ludwig Salvator (1847–1915), of the Italian Habsburg line, fell in love with Mathilde and sought to marry her, but they never became engaged. Mathilde was intended to become Queen of Italy as the wife of Umberto of Savoy (1844–1900) in order to improve the already tense relations between Austria-Hungary and Italy.  During her stay in Munich for the funeral of her brother King Maximilian II (1811–1864) in March 1864, Mathilde's mother became ill with a lung inflammation and pleurisy, and died; Mathilde was then 15 years old.

Death.

Mathilde died at the age of 18 in Schloss Hetzendorf, the Viennese home of Empress Elisabeth, on 6 June 1867. The archduchess had put on a gauze dress to go to the theatre. Before leaving for the theatre, she wanted to smoke a cigarette but shortly thereafter her father, who had forbidden smoking, approached her, and she hid the cigarette behind her dress, immediately setting light to its very flammable material and giving her second and third-degree burns. Her death was witnessed by her whole family.  Archduchess Mathilde was buried in the imperial vault in the Imperial Crypt beside her mother and her brother Karl Albrecht.

Archduchess Mathilde of Austria (Mathilde Marie Adelgunde Alexandra; 25 January 1849, in Vienna – 6 June 1867, in Schloss Hetzendorf near Vienna) was an Austrian noblewoman. She was the second daughter of Archduke Albert, Duke of Teschen and Princess Hildegard of Bavaria (1825–1864).


Plot.

Eyal is an agent in Mossad, the Israeli security service. He is a hitman who targets enemies of Israel. His wife has recently committed suicide, and the agency decides that he needs to take on a less challenging assignment: to find an aging Nazi war criminal and get him "before God does".  In order to track down the old man, Eyal poses as a tour guide and befriends the Nazi's adult grandchildren, Axel and Pia. Pia lives on a kibbutz, an Israeli commune. Her brother Axel visits her in order to convince Pia to return to Germany for their father's seventieth birthday. It is later revealed that Pia's estrangement with her parents began when she discovered that they were hiding her grandfather. She shares this information with Axel.  Although he has a job to perform, Eyal truly befriends Axel and Pia. Axel and Pia are decent people who demonstrate that most Germans have gotten beyond the hatred that led to the Holocaust. They spend time together and Eyal enjoys himself, even if he would not openly admit so. His friendship with Axel allows him to display some humanity, letting down his tough-guy machismo. Eyal and Axel even take a mud bath by the Dead Sea, showering off together in the nude afterward.  When the three are at dinner one night in a Tel Aviv restaurant, Axel speaks privately to the Palestinian waiter, Rafik, and finds out where the best club in town is. Later that evening, Axel, Pia, and Eyal arrive at the club. Eyal is shocked to discover that it is a gay club. He sees Axel dancing with Rafik and is taken aback.  Eyal is initially disgusted and disappointed to discover that Axel is gay. He asks to be removed from the assignment, not attempting to hide his homophobia as the reason. His boss, Menachem, insists that Eyal finish the mission. Eyal visits Germany and comes to realize that Axel's orientation is unimportant. During the visit, Axel runs into a group of friends, drag queens, coming off the U-bahn. A group of skinheads attack them and Eyal defends the queens. In doing so, he reveals that he is fluent in German. He tells Axel that his parents were German, leaving out that most of the Jews in his mother's region of Germany had been killed by Axel's grandfather. Later during the visit, Eyal runs into Menachem, whose family was also killed by the grandfather's Nazi activities.  Axel invites Eyal to his father's birthday party. The guests are uncomfortable about Eyal's nationality and religion, but still polite. After the cake is brought out, Axel's parents surprise the guests by bringing out Axel's aged grandfather. Axel angrily confronts his mother and goes to Eyal's room, only to find a folder full of information on Axel's family. Meanwhile, Eyal meets with Menachem and tells him that they can easily take the grandfather and bring him to Israel to be tried for his war crimes. Menachem reveals that they are the only two on this mission, and the aim is to kill the grandfather. Eyal is clearly conflicted, but takes the case of poisons that Menachem gives him.  Eyal arrives at Axel's house and enters the grandfather's room, unbeknownst to all but Axel. Axel sneaks up behind Eyal and watches as he fills a syringe with poison, doing nothing to intervene. Ultimately, though, Eyal is unable to fulfill the task. He leaves, and Axel tenderly caresses his grandfather's face before turning off his oxygen tank, killing him. He goes to Eyal's room, where Eyal tells him that the suicide note his wife wrote told him that he kills everything that comes near him. Eyal says that he doesn't want to kill anymore and breaks down in Axel's arms.  The story jumps ahead 2 years. Eyal and Pia are married with a child named Tom and living on the Kibbutz. Eyal and Axel remain good friends.

Soundtrack.

The film's soundtrack included a rendition of the classic Esther and Avi Ofarim hit "Cinderella Rockefella" sung by Rita Kleinstein and Ivri Lider, as well as a remix of Lider's "Mary La'Netzach" ("Mary Forever").

Release history.

"Walk on Water" premiered on February 5, 2004, at the Berlin International Film Festival. It opened in Israel on March 18, 2004. It was first shown in the United States on October 24, 2004, at the Milwaukee International Film Festival. It opened in limited release in American theatres on March 4, 2005.

Walk on Water (original Hebrew title: ללכת על המים; English transliteration: "Lalekhet Al HaMayim") is a 2004 Israeli film directed by Eytan Fox and starring Lior Ashkenazi, Knut Berger, and Caroline Peters. The screenplay was written by Gal Uchovsky. Most of the dialogue takes place in English, although there is much in Hebrew and German. Its name derives in part from Jesus' walking on water.


History.

In order to keep the design fresh, Alfa Romeo made a series of modifications to the Lancia Kappa based underpinnings, radically changing the suspension set up, and also taking a clean paper approach to the interior. The 166 served as the replacement for the 164. Production began in the end of 1996, and model was available from the end of 1998.  The car was initially available with a 2.0-litre Twin Spark (155 PS), a 2.5-litre V6 (190 PS), a 3.0 V6 (226 PS) or a V6 2.0 Turbo (205 PS) petrol engine. Diesel engines were a L5 2.4-litre 10v common rail turbodiesel version with, and output, praised for its refinement.  The TS model used a five speed manual gearbox, whilst the 2.5 and 3.0 had the option of a Sportronic automatic gearbox. The 3.0 V6, L5 2.4 and V6 Turbo were otherwise supplied with a six speed manual gearbox.  The top models were named "Super", and included MOMO leather interior, 17" alloy wheels, rain sensitive wipers, cruise control, climate control and ICS (Integrated Control System) with colour screen. Options included xenon headlamps, GSM connectivity and satellite navigation.  The suspension system consisted of wishbones at the front and a multi link setup at the rear.

Facelift (2003).

In September 2003, the 166 was substantially revised, being unveiled at the Frankfurt Motor Show. As well as upgrades to the chassis, interior, and the engine range, the styling was substantially altered. The new front end resembled the also recently revised 156.  The 2.0-litre V6 Turbo model was dropped because of marketing problems, the V6 2.5 was re rated at and a 3.2 litre V6 (240 PS) was introduced. Both the new 3.2 litre and the 2.0 Twin Spark models now featured the six speed manual gearbox, whilst the 3.0 model was retained, but made available only in Sportronic form.  The L5 2.4 was re engineered with Multi-Jet technology which allows up to five injections per cycle, second stage common rail, with maximum injection pressure of 1400 bar and four valves per cylinder, to output a class-leading.

End of production.

In October 2005, the Alfa Romeo 166 was officially withdrawn from sale in markets for RHD. Sales of the 166 never grew as Alfa Romeo had hoped, following the facelift in September 2003, and the additional lack of a diesel engine in the United Kingdom, Australian, and Irish markets limited its reach into company car sectors. The 2.4 JTD diesel engine was only optional on markets for LHD.  In June 2007, production of the 166 effectively ended, with no direct successor. In September 2008, the platform was sold to the Chinese state run manufacturer GAC Group. In total, less than 100,000 units were made.  In August 2009, "Autocar" named the 166 as "Britain's Worst Depreciating Used Car", as it held just 14.4% of its original used value after three years.

The Alfa Romeo 166 (Type 936) is an executive car produced by the Italian automaker Alfa Romeo, between October 1996 and June 2007. The car was designed by "Centro Stile Alfa Romeo", under the control of Walter de Silva, and was facelifted in September 2003.