History.

Like other more famous châteaux, it had its origins in a hunting lodge, constructed for Louis VII about 1150 in the forest of Vincennes. In the 13th century, Philip Augustus and Louis IX erected a more substantial manor: Louis IX is reputed to have departed from Vincennes on the crusade from which he did not return.  Vincennes was more than a grim fortress: Philippe III (in 1274) and Philippe IV (in 1284) were each married there and three 14th-century kings died at Vincennes: Louis X (1316), Philippe V (1322) and Charles IV (1328).  To strengthen the site, the castle was greatly enlarged replacing the earlier site in the later 14th century. A "donjon" tower, 52 meters high, the tallest medieval fortified structure of Europe, was added by Philip VI of France, a work that was started about 1337. The grand rectangular circuit of walls, was completed by the Valois about two generations later (ca. 1410). The donjon served as a residence for the royal family, and its buildings are known to have once held the library and personal study of Charles V. Henry V of England died in the donjon in 1422 following the siege of Meaux.  The relics of the Crown of Thorns were temporarily housed there while the "Sainte-Chapelle" in Paris was being readied to receive them. A fragment that remained behind received its own chapel at Vincennes, probably built by Peter of Montereau (who may have designed the "Sainte-Chapelle" in Paris), which survives ("illustration, below"). Henri IV was imprisoned at Vincennes in April 1574, during the Wars of Religion, and Charles IX died here the following month.  In the 17th century, the architect Louis Le Vau built for Louis XIV a pair of isolated ranges mirroring one another across a parterre to one side of the keep, suited for the Queen Mother and Cardinal Mazarin, but rebuilding was never pursued once Versailles occupied all attentions. Some splendid apartments show the earliest phase of Louis XIV style, before the example of Vaux-le-Vicomte presented the Sun King with a worthy model. The unlucky builder of Vaux-le-Vicomte, the minister Nicolas Fouquet, found himself transferred to Vincennes, to much less comfortable lodgings. In 1691, another unwilling lodger was John Vanbrugh, soon to become a playwright and architect, who drew some of his Baroque "gothick" from his experience of Vincennes, it has been argued.  Abandoned in the 18th century, the château still served, first as the site of the Vincennes porcelain manufactory, the precursor to Sèvres, then as a state prison, which housed the marquis de Sade, Diderot, Mirabeau, and the famous confidence man, Jean Henri Latude, as well as a community of nuns of the English Benedictine Congregation from Cambrai. At the end of February 1791, a mob of more than a thousand workers from the Faubourg Saint-Antoine, encouraged by members of the Cordeliers Club and led by Antoine Joseph Santerre, marched out to the château, which, rumour had it, was being readied on the part of the Crown for political prisoners, and with crowbars and pickaxes set about demolishing it, as the Bastille had recently been demolished. The work was interrupted by the marquis de Lafayette who took several ringleaders prisoners, to the jeers of the Parisian workers. It played no part during the remainder of the Revolution. From 1796, it served as an arsenal.  The execution of the duc d'Enghien took place in the moat of the château on 21 March 1804.  General Daumesnil who lost a leg, which was replaced by a wooden prosthesis, at the battle of Wagram (5–6 July 1809), was assigned to the defence of the château de Vincennes in 1812. Vincennes was then an arsenal containing 52 000 new rifles, more than 100 field guns and many tons of powder, bullets, canonballs: a tempting prize for the Sixth Coalition marching on Paris in 1814 in the aftermath of the Battle of the Nations. However, Daumesnil faced down the allies and replied with the famous words "I shall surrender Vincennes when I get my leg back" ("Je rendrai Vincennes quand on me rendra ma jambe", with a polysemic pun in French that is lost in translation). With only 300 men under his command, he resisted the Coalition until king Louis XVIII ordered him to leave the fortress.  The park was recreated in the English landscape style in the 19th century. In 1860, Napoleon III, having employed Viollet-le-Duc to restore the keep and the chapel, gave the "Bois de Vincennes" (9.95 km2 in extent) to Paris as a public park.  Vincennes also served as the military headquarters of the Chief of General Staff, General Maurice Gamelin during the unsuccessful defence of France against the invading German army in 1940. It is now the main base of France's Defence Historical Service, which maintains a museum in the "donjon".  On 20 August 1944, during the battle for the liberation of Paris, 26 policemen and members of the Resistance arrested by soldiers of the Waffen-SS were executed in the eastern moat of the fortress, and their bodies thrown in a common grave.

Description of the Château.

Only traces remain of the earlier castle and the substantial remains date from the 14th century. The castle forms a rectangle whose perimeter is more than a kilometer in length (330 x 175m). It has six towers and three gates, each originally 13 meters high, and is surrounded by a deep stone lined moat. The keep, 52m high, and its enceinte occupy the western side of the fortress and are separated from the rest of the castle by the moat. The keep is one of the first known examples of rebar usage. The towers of the "grande enceinte" now stand only to the height of the walls, having been demolished in the 1800s, save the "Tour du Village" on the north side of the enclosure. The south end consists of two wings facing each other, the "Pavillon du Roi" and the "Pavillon de la Reine", built by Louis Le Vau.

The Château de Vincennes is a massive 14th and 17th century French royal fortress in the town of Vincennes, to the east of Paris, now a suburb of the metropolis.


Uses.

Several "Cuphea" species are popular ornamental plants or honey plants. "C. ignea" 'David Verity' and "C. micropetalia" are popular plants to attract hummingbirds.  Some species of "Cuphea" are used to produce cuphea oil, of interest as sources of medium-chain triglycerides. For most purposes, cuphea oil is identical to coconut oil and palm oil; these are derived from strictly tropical plants however and – particularly in the latter case – the expanding production of which has caused a considerable amount of habitat destruction. "Cuphea" may thus produce a valuable source of income for farmers in temperate regions, and by supplementing coconut and palm oil to satisfy the growing demand (e.g. for biodiesel production) at the same time decreasing the need for wholesale logging in tropical countries. Early attempts at commercial production have focused on an interspecific hybrid population derived from "C. lanceolata" and Clammy Cuphea ("C. viscosissima").  "Cuphea" has also been shown to improve agricultural crops in North America when used in crop rotation. Crop rotation is commonly practiced among farmers to improve soil quality, control host-specific pests, and decrease the use of fertilizers and pesticides. When cuphea was introduced into the crop rotation of corn and wheat, scientists from the Agricultural Research Service of the USDA found that the addition of "cuphea" had positive effects on the following harvest, including a higher yield of crop and crops that are higher in protein. Such research reveals how "cuphea" can be used in agriculture to increase the profitability of crops like wheat and corn.  The seed oils of some species are very rich in one particular fatty acid. "C. painteri" oil, for example, is about three-quarters caprylic acid; "C. carthagenensis" oil consists of about 80% lauric acid. "C. koehneana" oil may be the richest natural source of a single fatty acid, with 95% of its content consisting of capric acid. Currently the plant is not commonly used for medicinal effects; however, chemical analysis of its fatty oils suggest the plant could possibly serve as an algicidal, fungicidal or antibiotic agent. There is also reason to believe the plant could be effective as an appetite stimulant.

Cuphea is a genus containing about 260 species of annual and perennial flowering plants native to warm temperate to tropical regions of the Americas. The species range from low-growing herbaceous plants to semi-woody shrubs up to tall. Commonly they are known as cupheas, or, in the case of some species, as cigar plants. The generic name is derived from the Greek word κυφος ("kyphos"), meaning "bent," "curved," or "humped."


House.

The Stourton family had lived at the Stourhead estate for 500 years until they sold it to Sir Thomas Meres in 1714. His son, John Meres, sold it in 1717 to Henry Hoare, son of wealthy banker Sir Richard Hoare. The original manor house was demolished and a new house, one of the first of its kind, was designed by Colen Campbell and built by Nathaniel Ireson between 1721 and 1725.  Over the next 200 years, the Hoare family collected many heirlooms, including a large library and art collection. In 1902, the house was gutted by fire but many of the heirlooms were saved, and the house was rebuilt in a nearly identical style.  The last Hoare family member to own the property, Sir Henry Hugh Arthur Hoare, gave the house and gardens to the National Trust in 1946, one year before his death. His son and sole heir, Captain Henry Colt Arthur "Harry" Hoare, of the Queen's Own Dorset Yeomanry, had died of wounds received at the Battle of Mughar Ridge on 13 November 1917 during World War I. The last Hoare family member to be born at the house was Edward Hoare on 11 October 1949.  The house was recorded as Grade I listed in 1966.

Art collection.

Henry Hoare's art collection is displayed at Stourhead; his acquisitions are featured in the Palladian mansion's 'Painted Alcove' or Italian Room. Hoare’s collection includes many hand-coloured prints – in some cases, coloured with such skill that they were mistaken for oil paintings. These prints are engravings of the works of the Italian masters (for example Daniele da Volterra, and Carlo Maratta) and the hand-colouring is attributed to a "Mr. Studio", thought to be Giacomo Van Lint, the son of Flemish painter Hendrik van Lint (possibly in collaboration with his father).

Other buildings.

Although the main design for the estate at Stourhead was created by Colen Campbell, other architects were involved in its evolution through the years. William Benson, Henry Hoare's brother-in-law, was in part responsible for the building of the estate in 1719. Francis Cartwright, a master builder and architect, who was established as a "competent provincial designer in the Palladian manner", worked on Stourhead between 1749 and 1755. Cartwright was a known carver, presumably of materials such as wood and stone, and it is assumed that his contribution to Stourhead was in this capacity. Nathaniel Ireson is the master builder credited for much of the work on the Estate: it is this work that established his career, in 1720.  The original estate remained intact, though changes and additions were made over time. Henry Flitcroft built three temples and a tower on the property: the Temple of Ceres was added in 1744, followed by the Temple of Hercules in 1754 and the Temple of Apollo in 1765; that same year he designed Alfred's Tower, which was not built until 1772. During the ownership of Sir Richard Colt Hoare, the mason and surveyor John Carter added an ornamental cottage to the grounds (1806) and the architect William Wilkins created a Grecian style lodge (1816).  In 1840, over a century after the initial buildings were constructed, Charles Parker was hired by Sir Hugh Hoare to make changes to the estate. A portico was added to the main house, along with other alterations. The design of the additions was in keeping with original plans.

Gardens and monuments.

The lake at Stourhead is artificially created. Following a path around the lake is meant to evoke a journey similar to that of Aeneas's descent in to the underworld. In addition to Greek mythology, the layout is evocative of the "genius of the place", a concept expounded by Alexander Pope. Buildings and monuments are erected in remembrance of family and local history. Henry Hoare was a collector of art; one of his pieces was Claude Lorrain's "Aeneas at Delos", which is thought to have inspired the pictorial design of the gardens. Passages telling of Aeneas's journey are quoted in the temples surrounding the lake.  Monuments are used to frame one another; for example the Pantheon designed by Flitcroft entices the visitor over, but once reached, views from the opposite shore of the lake beckon. The use of the sunken path allows the landscape to continue on into neighbouring landscapes, allowing the viewer to contemplate all the surrounding panorama. The Pantheon was thought to be the most important visual feature of the gardens. It appears in many pieces of artwork owned by Hoare, depicting Aeneas's travels. The plantings in the garden were arranged in a manner that would evoke different moods, drawing visitors through realms of thought. According to Henry Hoare, 'The greens should be ranged together in large masses as the shades are in painting: to contrast the dark masses with the light ones, and to relieve each dark mass itself with little sprinklings of lighter greens here and there.'  The gardens were designed by Henry Hoare II and laid out between 1741 and 1780 in a classical 18th-century design set around a large lake, achieved by damming a small stream. The inspiration behind their creation were the painters Claude Lorrain, Poussin, and, in particular, Gaspard Dughet, who painted Utopian-type views of Italian landscapes. An early feature, predating the lake, is the Temple of Flora (1744–46). Lakeside features include the five-arched Palladian Bridge at the eastern extremity of the lake; the Rockwork Bridge over the road to the south of the lake; and to the west the grotto and the Gothic Cottage summerhouse.  Also in the garden are a number of temples inspired by scenes of the Grand Tour of Europe. On one hill overlooking the gardens stand an obelisk of 1839 and King Alfred's Tower, a 50-metre-tall, brick folly designed by Henry Flitcroft in 1772; on another hill the temple of Apollo provides a vantage point to survey the magnificent rhododendrons, water, cascades and temples. The large medieval Bristol High Cross was moved from Bristol to the gardens. The gardens are home to a large collection of trees and shrubs from around the world.  Richard Colt Hoare, the grandson of Henry Hoare II, inherited Stourhead in 1783. He added the library wing to the mansion, and in the garden was responsible for the building of the boathouse and the removal of several features that were not in keeping with the classical and gothic styles (including a Turkish Tent). He also considerably enhanced the planting – the Temple of Apollo rises from a wooded slope that was planted in Colt Hoare's time. With the antiquarian passion of the times, he had 400 ancient burial mounds dug up to inform his pioneering "History of Ancient Wiltshire".  The gardens were listed Grade I on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in 1987.

In typography.

The National Trust's corporate font, designed by Paul Barnes, is based on an inscription in the grotto, created around 1748. The inscription was destroyed in error around 1960 and a replica was made from photographs.

Stourhead () is a 1,072-hectare (2,650-acre) estate at the source of the River Stour in the southwest of the English county of Wiltshire, extending into Somerset. The estate is about northwest of the town of Mere and includes a Grade I listed 18th-century Palladian mansion, the village of Stourton, gardens, farmland, and woodland. Stourhead has been part-owned by the National Trust since 1946.


Nazi career.

He joined the NSDAP (Nazi Party) on 1 April 1931 and the SS on 7 April 1932. After meeting Reinhard Heydrich in May 1933, he asked Heydrich for a job and joined the "SD". Oberg was later promoted to an SS-"Oberführer" and made the police administrator for Hanover. He served in that capacity from September 1938 until January 1939. Next, Oberg served as Police President of Zwickau until late 1941. He served as "SS-und Polizeiführer" (SS and Police Leader - SSPF), "Radom" from August 1941 to May 1942. Oberg was promoted to "SS-Brigadeführer" on 20 April 1942.  From May 1942 to November 1944, Oberg served as Higher SS and Police Leader ("Höherer SS-und Polizeiführer", HSSPF) "Frankreich" (France) over all German police forces in France, including the SD and the Gestapo. He was the supreme authority in France for managing anti-Jewish policy and the battle against the French Resistance. He thus drove the rounding up of Jews in the Paris Vélodrome d'Hiver (Vel' d'Hiv Roundup) in 1942. By that time he had been condemned as the "Butcher of Paris". On Heydrich's orders, Oberg deported over 40,000 Jews from the country with the assistance of the Vichy France police force headed by René Bousquet.  By 1943, however, he was resisting some of the orders issued by Himmler and Hitler. On 18 January Himmler demanded a cleansing of Marseilles with 100,000 arrests and explosive demolition of the city's crime district. Working with the French police, Oberg supervised a "minimalist" response of 6,000 arrests, 20,000 people displaced, and partial destruction of the harbour area. In 1944, Oberg blocked an attempt to establish an "Einsatzkommando of the Waffen-SS" in France.

Post-war trial, sentence, and reprieve.

Oberg was arrested by the US military in June, 1945 and sentenced to death by a British court before receiving another death sentence from the French in October, 1954. In 1958, the sentence was commuted to life by French President René Coty, and later reduced to 20 years hard labor. Oberg was pardoned by President Charles de Gaulle and released on 28 November 1962.

Carl Oberg (27 January 1897 – 3 June 1965) was a German SS functionary during the Nazi era. He served as the Higher SS and Police Leader (HSSPF) of France during the Second World War. Oberg deported over 40,000 Jews from France. After the war, he was twice sentenced to death by two different courts. However, in 1958 the death sentence was commuted to life imprisonment and later reduced to 20 years hard labour. Oberg was pardoned and released on 28 November 1962.


Early life.

Born on October 21, 1911, in McAlester, Oklahoma, Mary Browne Robinson moved to Texas while still a small child, and later to the city of Morgan Hill, California in the early 20s. After graduating from San Jose State University which she attended from 1929 to 1931, Mary won a scholarship to the Chouinard Art Institute in Los Angeles, where artists such as Pruett Carter, Morgan Russell and Lawrence Murphy were among the teachers. She graduated from Chouinard in 1933. In 1934 shortly after college, she married another artist, Lee Everett Blair (October 1, 1911 – April 19, 1993). She was the sister-in-law of animator Preston Blair (1908–1995). Along with her husband Lee, she became a member of the California School of Watercolor and quickly became known for being an imaginative colorist and designer.

Career.

Blair's first professional job in the animation industry was as an animator with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. She would soon leave and join Lee Blair at the Ub Iwerks studio before moving to Disney. In the 1930s she was also a part of the innovative California Water-Color Society  Blair joined Walt Disney Animation Studios—initially with some reluctance— in 1940, and worked briefly on art for "Dumbo", an early version of "Lady and the Tramp", and a second version of "Fantasia" titled "Baby Ballet" which was not released until the late 1990s.  After leaving the studio for a short time in 1941, Blair travelled to various South American countries with Walt Disney, Lillian Disney and other artists on a research tour. as part of the Good Neighbor policy of the President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Her watercolors impressed Disney, who appointed her as an art supervisor for the animated feature films "Saludos Amigos" and "The Three Caballeros". Blair first began animation and color design on major films in 1943 and would continue to work on animated films for Disney for a full decade. Her work with animation did not end there however as after that, she worked on several package films, excluding "Fun and Fancy Free", and on two partially animated features—"Song of the South" and "So Dear to My Heart". The early 1950s were a busy time for the Disney studio, with an animated feature released nearly every year. Mary Blair was credited with color styling on "Cinderella" (1950), "Alice in Wonderland" (1951) and "Peter Pan" (1953), and the artistic influence of her concept art is strongly felt in those films, as well as in several animated shorts, including "Susie the Little Blue Coupe" and "The Little House", she designed during that period. After the completion of "Peter Pan", Blair resigned from Disney and worked as a freelance graphic designer and illustrator, creating advertising campaigns for companies such as Nabisco, Pepsodent, Maxwell House, Beatrice Foods and others. She also illustrated several Little Golden Books for publisher Simon & Schuster, some of which remain in print today, and she also designed Christmas and Easter sets for Radio City Music Hall. Blair not only worked in graphic design and animation but also as a designer for Bonwit Teller and created theatrical sets.  At the request of Walt Disney, who regarded highly her innate sense of color styling, Blair began work on Disney's new attraction, "It's a Small World". Originally a Pepsi-Cola-sponsored pavilion benefiting UNICEF at the 1964 New York World's Fair, the attraction moved to Disneyland after the Fair closed and was later replicated at the Magic Kingdom in Walt Disney World Resort as well as Tokyo Disneyland, Disneyland Paris and Hong Kong Disneyland. Blair created murals that would be showcased in Disney parks, hotels and other Disney attractions from California to Florida. These murals were not only painted but some would be tile decor.  In 1966, philanthropist Dr. Jules Stein hired Walt Disney to create a ceramic mural for his newly opened Eye Institute at the University of California, Los Angeles. Mary Blair designed the mural for Dr. Stein's Pediatric Surgery waiting room. The theme Walt chose for the mural was that of "It's a Small World" attraction designed by Blair.  In 1967, Blair created mural art for the Tomorrowland Promenade. Two similar tile murals flanked the entrance corridor. The mural over Adventure Thru Inner Space was covered over in 1987 with the opening of Star Tours, while the other remained in place until 1998 when the Circle-Vision 360° was replaced by Rocket Rods and a new mural was designed to reflect the new theme. Her design of a mural remains a focal point of the Disney's Contemporary Resort hotel at Walt Disney World, which was completed for the resort's opening in 1971.  Mary Blair would also go on to make sets of Walt Disney note cards for Hallmark. In 1968, Blair was credited as color designer on the film version of "How To Succeed In Business Without Really Trying". Blair would eventually move to Washington for Lee Blair's military career and then return to her in home studio located in Long Island, New York.

Filmography.

Films that Mary Blair worked on include: Blair was also a writer for:

Legacy.

Mary Blair moved back to California and died of a cerebral hemorrhage in Soquel, California on July 26, 1978. She died of a cerebral hemorrhage likely brought on by acute alcoholism.  In 1991 Mary was honored as a Disney Legend. Also posthumously, she received the Winsor McCay Award from ASIFA-Hollywood in 1996 along with two other Disney animators.  While the fine art she created outside of her association with Disney and her work as an illustrator is not widely known, Blair's bold and ground-breaking color design still inspires many of today's contemporary designers and animators. A Google doodle was created on Friday, October 21, 2011, to commemorate the centennial of her birth. The Doodle featured an image of an illustrator as Mary might have drawn herself, surrounded by the simple patterns and shapes that made up her familiar cartoon world. Simon & Schuster published "Pocket Full of Colors", a picture book biography about Mary Blair, in August 2017. The book is written by Amy Guglielmo and Jacqueline Tourville, and illustrated by Brigette Baranger, who once worked as an artist at Disney.  Mary Blair has been credited with introducing modernist art styles to Walt Disney and his studio by using primary colors to form intense contrast and colors that are unnatural to the image they are depicting.  Blair’s artwork was exhibited in "The Colors of Mary Blair" at the Museum of Contemporary Art, Tokyo, July 2009. From March 13 to September 7, 2014, the "Magic, Color, Flair: The World of Mary Blair" exhibition was on display at the Walt Disney Family Museum in San Francisco Presidio, California.

Mary Blair (born Mary Browne Robinson; October 21, 1911 – July 26, 1978) was an American artist, animator, and designer. She was prominent in producing art and animation for The Walt Disney Company, drawing concept art for such films as "Alice in Wonderland", "Peter Pan", "Song of the South" and "Cinderella". Blair also created character designs for enduring attractions such as Disneyland's It's a Small World, the fiesta scene in El Rio del Tiempo in the Mexico pavilion in Epcot's World Showcase, and an enormous mosaic inside Disney's Contemporary Resort. Several of her illustrated children's books from the 1950s remain in print, such as "I Can Fly" by Ruth Krauss. Blair was inducted into the group of Disney Legends in 1991.


Generalized hypoxia.

The symptoms of generalized hypoxia depend on its severity and acceleration of onset.  In the case of altitude sickness, where hypoxia develops gradually, the symptoms include fatigue, numbness / tingling of extremities, nausea, and cerebral anoxia. These symptoms are often difficult to identify, but early detection of symptoms can be critical.  In severe hypoxia, or hypoxia of very rapid onset, ataxia, confusion / disorientation / hallucinations / behavioral change, severe headaches / reduced level of consciousness, papilloedema, breathlessness, pallor, tachycardia, and pulmonary hypertension eventually leading to the late signs cyanosis, slow heart rate / cor pulmonale, and low blood pressure followed by heart failure eventually leading to shock and death.  Because hemoglobin is a darker red when it is not bound to oxygen (deoxyhemoglobin), as opposed to the rich red color that it has when bound to oxygen (oxyhemoglobin), when seen through the skin it has an increased tendency to reflect blue light back to the eye. In cases where the oxygen is displaced by another molecule, such as carbon monoxide, the skin may appear 'cherry red' instead of cyanotic. Hypoxia can cause premature birth, and injure the liver, among other deleterious effects.

Local hypoxia.

If tissue is not being perfused properly, it may feel cold and appear pale; if severe, hypoxia can result in cyanosis, a blue discoloration of the skin. If hypoxia is very severe, a tissue may eventually become gangrenous. Extreme pain may also be felt at or around the site.  Tissue hypoxia from low oxygen delivery may be due to low haemoglobin concentration (anaemic hypoxia), low cardiac output (stagnant hypoxia) or low haemoglobin saturation (hypoxic hypoxia). The consequence of oxygen deprivation in tissues is a switch to anaerobic metabolism at the cellular level. As such, reduced systemic blood flow may result in increased serum lactate. Serum lactate levels have been correlated with illness severity and mortality in critically ill adults and in ventilated neonates with respiratory distress.

Cause.

Oxygen passively diffuses in the lung alveoli according to a pressure gradient. Oxygen diffuses from the breathed air, mixed with water vapour, to arterial blood, where its partial pressure is around 100 mmHg (13.3 kPa). In the blood, oxygen is bound to hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells. The binding capacity of hemoglobin is influenced by the partial pressure of oxygen in the environment, as described in the oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve. A smaller amount of oxygen is transported in solution in the blood.  In peripheral tissues, oxygen again diffuses down a pressure gradient into cells and their mitochondria, where it is used to produce energy in conjunction with the breakdown of glucose, fats, and some amino acids.  Hypoxia can result from a failure at any stage in the delivery of oxygen to cells. This can include decreased partial pressures of oxygen, problems with diffusion of oxygen in the lungs, insufficient available hemoglobin, problems with blood flow to the end tissue, and problems with breathing rhythm.  Experimentally, oxygen diffusion becomes rate limiting (and lethal) when arterial oxygen partial pressure falls to 60 mmHg (5.3 kPa) or below.  Almost all the oxygen in the blood is bound to hemoglobin, so interfering with this carrier molecule limits oxygen delivery to the periphery. Hemoglobin increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood by about 40-fold, with the ability of hemoglobin to carry oxygen influenced by the partial pressure of oxygen in the environment, a relationship described in the oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve. When the ability of hemoglobin to carry oxygen is interfered with, a hypoxic state can result.

Ischemia.

Ischemia, meaning insufficient blood flow to a tissue, can also result in hypoxia. This is called 'ischemic hypoxia'. This can include an embolic event, a heart attack that decreases overall blood flow, or trauma to a tissue that results in damage. An example of insufficient blood flow causing local hypoxia is gangrene that occurs in diabetes.  Diseases such as peripheral vascular disease can also result in local hypoxia. For this reason, symptoms are worse when a limb is used. Pain may also be felt as a result of increased hydrogen ions leading to a decrease in blood pH (acidity) created as a result of anaerobic metabolism.

Hypoxemic hypoxia.

This refers specifically to hypoxic states where the arterial content of oxygen is insufficient. This can be caused by alterations in respiratory drive, such as in respiratory alkalosis, physiological or pathological shunting of blood, diseases interfering in lung function resulting in a ventilation-perfusion mismatch, such as a pulmonary embolus, or alterations in the partial pressure of oxygen in the environment or lung alveoli, such as may occur at altitude or when diving.

Carbon monoxide poisoning.

Carbon monoxide competes with oxygen for binding sites on hemoglobin molecules. As carbon monoxide binds with hemoglobin hundreds of times tighter than oxygen, it can prevent the carriage of oxygen. Carbon monoxide poisoning can occur acutely, as with smoke intoxication, or over a period of time, as with cigarette smoking. Due to physiological processes, carbon monoxide is maintained at a resting level of 4–6 ppm. This is increased in urban areas (7–13 ppm) and in smokers (20–40 ppm). A carbon monoxide level of 40 ppm is equivalent to a reduction in hemoglobin levels of 10 g/L.

Hypoxia is a condition in which the body or a region of the body is deprived of adequate oxygen supply at the tissue level. Hypoxia may be classified as either "generalized", affecting the whole body, or "local", affecting a region of the body. Although hypoxia is often a pathological condition, variations in arterial oxygen concentrations can be part of the normal physiology, for example, during hypoventilation training or strenuous physical exercise.


Early life and education.

Ali was born Mahershalalhashbaz Gilmore in 1974, in Hayward, California, the son of Phillip Gilmore (1956–1994) and Willicia Goines (born 1957). He was raised a Christian in Hayward, California by his mother, an ordained Baptist minister. His father was an actor who appeared on Broadway. Maher-shalal-hash-baz is the name of a prophetic child in chapter 8 of the Biblical Book of Isaiah.  He attended St. Mary's College of California (SMC) in Moraga, California, where he graduated in 1996 with a degree in mass communication. He entered SMC with a basketball scholarship and went by the name "Hershal Gilmore" when playing for the SMC Gaels. He became disenchanted with the idea of a sports career because of the treatment given to the team's athletes, and developed an interest in acting, particularly after taking part in a staging of "Spunk". This later landed him an apprenticeship at the California Shakespeare Theater following graduation. After a sabbatical year working for "Gavin Report", he enrolled in New York University's graduate acting program at Tisch School of the Arts, earning his master's degree in 2000.  In 2000, he converted to Islam, changed his surname from Gilmore to Ali, and joined the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. In interviews, he has recounted numerous problems he has encountered at airports, with banks and otherwise in everyday life as an American Muslim since the September 11 attacks.

Career.

Acting.

Ali was known professionally by his full name, Mahershalalhashbaz Ali, from 2001 until 2010, when he began to be credited as Mahershala Ali. Ali had considered shortening his name for a while, saying that using his full first name was "a crazy thing to do considering that we're in Hollywood", although he had never been pressured by managers or agents to change it. He decided to use a shorter version of his first name after being told that his full name was too long to fit on the poster for the film "The Place Beyond the Pines". He did not want the alternative of "M. Ali" to represent himself on the poster, so he chose to adopt the shorter version of his name.  He elaborated in an interview to "Vanity Fair" in October 2016:  He is known for his portrayal of Remy Danton in the Netflix series "House of Cards", Cornell Stokes in "Marvel's Luke Cage", Colonel Boggs in "" and "", and Tizzy in the 2008 film "The Curious Case of Benjamin Button".  His first major film role was that of Tizzy Weathers in the 2008 David Fincher-directed romantic fantasy drama film "The Curious Case of Benjamin Button". Other notable films include "Predators", "The Place Beyond the Pines", "Free State of Jones", "Hidden Figures", and as Boggs in "The Hunger Games series".  For his performance as mentor and drug dealer Juan in the drama film "Moonlight" (2016), Ali received universal acclaim from critics and won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, the SAG Award and the Critics' Choice Award for Best Supporting Actor, and received a Golden Globe and a BAFTA Award nomination. At the 89th Academy Awards, he was the first Muslim actor to win an Oscar.  In 2017 Ali joined the video game "Madden NFL 18" story mode "Longshot", in which he played Cutter Wade, the father of protagonist Devin. He played Don Shirley in the 2018 film "Green Book", receiving his second Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Pictureand the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role.  Ali starred as Arkansas State Police detective Wayne Hays in the third season of the HBO series "True Detective", which premiered on January 13, 2019, in the United States. On Rotten Tomatoes, the site's critical consensus reads, "Driven by Mahershala Ali's mesmerizing performance, "True Detective"s third season finds fresh perspective by exploring real world events – though it loses some of the series' intriguing strangeness along the way."  At the annual San Diego Comic-Con in July 2019, Ali was announced as being cast to play the supernatural superhero Blade in a future Marvel Cinematic Universe adaptation of the character, which was previously played by Wesley Snipes.

Music.

Ali was signed to Bay Area recording label Hieroglyphics Imperium during the late 2000s and recorded rap music as Prince Ali. He released his album, "Curb Side Service", in 2007, but did not tour to promote the album, choosing instead to focus on his acting career.

Personal life.

Ali is a Muslim. He named his cat Nas, after the rapper. He is married to Amatus Sami-Karim, an actress and musician. Their first child, a daughter, named Bari Najma Ali, was born in February 2017.

Mahershala Ali (; born Mahershalalhashbaz Gilmore; February 16, 1974) is an American actor and rapper. He is the recipient of several accolades, including two Academy Awards and a Golden Globe Award. "Time" magazine named him one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2019.


Life.

Born in Benrath Palace in Düsseldorf, Maria Anna was the twelfth child of Philip William, then Duke of Berg and Jülich and Elisabeth Amalie of Hesse-Darmstadt.  The family's reputation for fertility and connections to the Wittelsbachs made the daughters a popular choice for royal marriages. One of her sisters, Maria Sophia, married Peter II of Portugal, while Eleonore was the third wife of Emperor Leopold. This meant Maria Anna was aunt to the future emperors Joseph I and Charles VI.  When Philip William succeeded Charles of Simmern as Count of the Palatinate in May 1685, Louis XIV claimed half of it. The French invaded in September 1688 and before withdrawing in 1689, they destroyed much of Heidelberg, plus another 20 substantial towns and numerous villages. The policy was applied across the Rhineland but the Palatinate was raided again in 1693 and the devastation shocked much of Europe.  It confirmed Maria Anna's pro-Austrian, anti-French sentiments, important factors in her selection as the second wife for Charles II of Spain. His first wife, Marie Louise of Orléans died on 12 February 1689; lack of an heir and his declining health made remarriage a matter of urgency. His mother and Queen Regent, Mariana of Austria, selected Maria Anna based on her family's history of fertility and their opposition to France. She and Charles were married by proxy in August 1689; their formal wedding took place on 14 May 1690 in San Diego, near Valladolid.

Background.

Charles' death was anticipated almost from his birth in 1661; the unfortunate victim of Habsburg inbreeding, he was "short, lame, epileptic, senile and completely bald before 35, always on the verge of death but repeatedly baffling Christendom by continuing to live."  His parents Philip IV of Spain and Mariana of Austria were uncle and niece, making Charles their son, first-cousin and great-nephew respectively. The impact of this inbreeding is not fully understood and his elder sister Margaret Theresa does not appear to have suffered the same issues. The authors of the most significant study state "it has not been demonstrated (his) disabilities...were caused by...recessive alleles inherited from common ancestors."  Despite Charles' physical ailments, foreign observers like the Marquess of Torcy noted his mental capacities remained intact. Others claimed his mother and Maria Anna used his poor health to restrict access and retain political control.  While the Spanish Empire or 'Monarchy' was no longer the pre-eminent global power, it was still an enormous global confederation that remained largely intact. If Charles died childless, his co-heirs were Louis XIV and Emperor Leopold; acquisition of an undivided Spanish Monarchy by either would drastically alter the European balance of power.

Queen of Spain.

The Spanish political establishment was split into pro-Austrian and pro-French factions, the latter led by Fernández de Portocarrero, Cardinal and Archbishop of Toledo. For most of this period, the 'Austrians' controlled government, with Maria Anna assuming leadership after Marianna of Austria died in 1696. In 1690, they supported Spain's entry into the Nine Years War, which proved a disastrous decision; the state declared bankruptcy in 1692 and by 1696, France occupied most of Catalonia.  Maria Anna's power derived from her status as mother of the future monarch, which dissipated when it became clear this was unlikely to occur. By now, Charles was almost certainly impotent, his autopsy later revealing he had only one atrophied testicle.  In 1698, Charles fell seriously ill and his death seemed imminent. On 11 October, Britain, France and the Dutch Republic signed the Treaty of the Hague or First Partition Treaty, an attempt to impose a solution to the Succession issue on Spain and Austria. Six year old Joseph Ferdinand of Bavaria, was made heir to the bulk of the Spanish Empire, the rest split between France and Austria. His parents were Charles' niece Maria Antonia and Maximilian of Bavaria, a Wittelsbach like Maria Anna.  The Spanish had not been consulted and in any case opposed the partition of their Empire; on 14 November 1698, Charles published his Will, naming Joseph Ferdinand heir to an undivided Spanish Monarchy. Maria Anna was appointed regent during his minority, an announcement received by his Spanish councillors in silence.  After his death from smallpox in 1699, France, Britain and the Dutch Republic agreed to the Treaty of London or Second Partition Treaty in March 1700. Joseph Ferdinand was replaced by Maria Anna's nephew, Archduke Charles, with Spanish possessions in Italy, the Netherlands and Northern Spain divided between France, Savoy and Austria. Charles was induced to modify his Will in favour of Archduke Charles but continued to insist on an undivided Monarchy and added the requirement Spain remain independent of Austria.  Many of the Castilian nobility viewed the Austrians as arrogant, and preferred a Bourbon candidate. Maria Anna continued efforts to ensure her nephew's succession; in June 1700, her ally Balthasar de Mendoza, Inquisitor General, arrested Charles's pro-French personal confessor Froilán Díaz. Charged with 'bewitching' Charles, Mendoza set up a committee to investigate; when they acquitted him, Mendoza ordered their arrest. This led to the establishment of a Council to investigate the Inquisition; it survived as an institution until 1834 but its power was broken.  In September 1700, Charles became ill again; by 28 September he was no longer able to eat and Portocarrero persuaded him to alter his Will in favour of Louis XIV's grandson, Philip of Anjou. On his death in November 1700, Philip was proclaimed King of Spain on 16 November 1700, with Portocarrero as his chief advisor, and Maria Anna exiled to Toledo.

Later life and death.

Maria Anna lived quietly in Toledo until 1706, when the forces of her nephew Archduke Charles briefly occupied the city. Her enthusiastic reception resulted in her expulsion from Spain a few years later and she settled in Bayonne, France, where she lived for the next few decades, largely forgotten, allegedly marrying a local barrel-maker.  In 1739, she was allowed to return to Spain and given lodging in the Infantado Palace in Guadalajara, where she died on 16 July 1740. She was buried in El Escorial Monastery.

Other.

Her marriage to Charles in 1690 is commemorated in the Festival book listing the elaborate celebrations held in the city of Naples to mark the occasion ("L’ossequio tributario della fedelissima Città di Napoli, per le dimostranze giulive nei Regii Sponsali del Cattolico, ed Invittissimo Monarca Carlo Secondo colla Serenissima Principessa Maria Anna di Neoburgo Palatina del Reno").  She appears in Victor Hugo's play "Ruy Blas" as the Queen who falls in love with a commoner, possibly inspired by her real life remarriage.

Maria Anna of Neuburg (; 28 October 1667 – 16 July 1740), was Queen of Spain from 1689 to 1700 as the second wife of Charles II, last Habsburg King of Spain.


Early life.

Suvorov, born Vladimir Bogdanovich Rezun, comes from a military family of mixed Ukrainian-Russian descent. He may have been born and was definitely raised in Ukraine's Cherkasy, where his Ukrainian father served. The family subsequently settled in Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic after the father's retirement. According to Suvorov, he studied in Suvorov Military Schools in Russia: one in Voronezh (from 1958 to 1963), and later transferring to one in Kalinin (from 1963 to 1965).

Career.

From 1965 to 1968, Suvorov completed courses at what he called the Frunze Red Banner Higher Military Command School in Kiev. This is confusing, as names have changed and the M. V. Frunze Military Academy is located in Moscow. He may have attended a regional command school in Kiev.  In 1968, he served in the 145th Motorized Rifles Regiment of the Carpathian Military District in Ukraine, participating in the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia. In 1970 and 1971, he served in the Volga Military District Headquarters, and later with the 808th Independent Army Reconnaissance Company ("Spetsnaz").  After attending the Military Diplomatic Academy from 1971 to 1974, Suvorov joined the Soviet mission to the United Nations Office at Geneva, working undercover for the Soviet military intelligence service (Glavnoye Razvedyvatel'noye Upravleniye; GRU). He was promoted to the rank of Captain. He drew from all these experiences in his later writing about the institutions.

Defection.

On 10 June 1978, Suvorov defected to the United Kingdom. At the time, he was married to Tatiana Korzh. The couple had a son, Aleksandr, and a daughter, Oksana. They were smuggled out of Switzerland to England by British intelligence. There Suvorov worked as an intelligence analyst for the government and as a lecturer.

Personal life.

Since the late 20th century, Suvorov has been an occasional columnist for the Ukrainian UNIAN news agency's web site.

Publications.

Suvorov soon drew from his experience and research to write non-fiction books in Russian about the Soviet Army, military intelligence, and special forces. He used the pseudonym "Viktor Suvorov" when he published these works.  His published books include  Suvorov also wrote several fiction books set in the pre-World War II era in the Soviet Union. The first one, "Control", was followed by "Choice", and the last and most recent title was "Snake-eater" (2010).

Works about World War II.

Suvorov has written ten books about the outbreak of the Nazi-Soviet War in 1941 and the circumstances related to it. The first such work was "Icebreaker" (1980s), followed by "M Day", "The Last Republic", "Cleansing", "Suicide", "The Shadow of Victory", "I Take it Back", "The Last Republic II", "The Chief Culprit", and "Defeat".  According to Suvorov, Stalin planned to use Nazi Germany as a proxy (the "Icebreaker") against the West. Although Stalin provided significant material and political support to Adolf Hitler, he was preparing the Red Army to take over control of Europe from the Nazis and establish dominance there of the Soviet Union. As it turned out, by the end of the war, Stalin achieved only some of his initial objectives: he established Communist regimes in Eastern Europe and North Korea. According to Suvorov, Stalin was still the primary winner of World War II.  Suvorov's conclusions on this topic are disputed by numerous historians. German historians particularly disputed the assertion that Operation Barbarossa was a preemptive strike by Hitler.

References.

Notes Bibliography

Vladimir Bogdanovich Rezun (; born 20 April 1947), known by his pseudonym of Viktor Suvorov (), became known as a Russian writer on Soviet military history after he defected to the United Kingdom in 1978. Of Russian-Ukrainian ancestry, Suvorov attended Russian military schools, was a veteran of the armed forces (including the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia), and had worked as a Soviet military intelligence officer in the Soviet Union.


Early life.

Lucien Charles Joseph Napoléon was born on 16 May 1803 in Milan. He was the second son of four children of Joachim Murat, the 1st Prince Murat, Grand Duke of Berg and King of Naples, and his Queen consort Caroline Bonaparte. His siblings included Achille, 2nd Prince Murat (who married the American widow, Catherine Daingerfield Willis, a great-grandniece of President George Washington), Princess Marie Letizia Murat (who married Guido Taddeo Pepoli, Marchese Pepoli, Conte di Castiglione), and Princess Louise Julie Murat (who married Giulio Conte Rasponi).  His maternal grandparents were Carlo Buonaparte and Letizia Ramolino and his maternal uncles included Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon I of France, Lucien Bonaparte, Louis Bonaparte and Jérôme Bonaparte. His maternal aunts included Elisa Bonaparte and Pauline Bonaparte. His paternal grandparents were Pierre Murat-Jordy, an affluent innkeeper and postmaster, and the former Jeanne Loubières.

Life in exile.

Murat had to flee the Italian Peninsula after his father's execution, which had been ordered by Ferdinand IV of Naples. Between 1815 and 1822 he and his older brother Prince Achille Murat received a solid education at Castle Frohsdorf in the Austrian Empire. He later went to Venice, where he was pursued by the Austrian authorities, necessitating his departure to the United States where his elder brother Prince Achille Murat had already moved (becoming a naturalized citizen sometime after July 1828 and dropping his European titles).  En route to America, he was shipwrecked in Spain and captured by the Spanish, compelling him to remain there for many months until his brother secured assistance from the American President James Monroe for his release. He finally arrived in the United States in April 1825. He traveled to Philadelphia to meet his maternal uncle Joseph (the former King of Spain) and from there traveled extensively in the western part of the country, as well as Texas and California. While in the U.S., he married an American and had several children. After several years of financial difficulty, he opened a girls boarding school with his wife.  On his many travels to France, Murat sought in 1838 and 1844 the possibility to reclaim his family's right to the throne, which his elder brother had abandoned. In France he was always only allowed to stay 5 weeks at a time.

Settlement in France.

He continued to live in the United States, staying in daily correspondence with his backers, until the fall of Louis-Philippe of France in 1848. He returned to France with his wife and son and was elected a member of the constituent assembly. In 1849, he was appointed as Minister for Turin. In 1852, he received the status of senator and the title of prince.  In 1861, he tried to regain the throne of Naples, and composed a manifesto to support his claim and was referred to by "The New York Times" as "the fat pretender to the throne of Naples". This was not well received by his maternal first cousin Napoleon III of France and Murat abandoned hopes of regaining the crown.  During the Franco-Prussian War, after the French defeat at the Siege of Metz in 1870, Murat was imprisoned with Marshal of France François Achille Bazaine. After the fall of the Second French Empire, Murat moved back to United States for a short time where he resumed his business interests, including grist mills and saw mills near Evans Mills, Jefferson County, New York.

Personal life.

On 18 August 1831 Murat married Caroline Georgina Fraser (1810–1879) in Bordentown, New Jersey. Caroline, a Protestant, was born in Charleston, South Carolina, daughter of Thomas Fraser, a Scottish emigrant to the United States and major in the Loyalist militia during the American Revolution, and his wife Ann Loughton (née Smith) Fraser. Together, they lived in Bordentown for several years, and were the parents of:  Napoléon Lucien Murat died on 10 April 1878 in Paris. His wife died shortly after him on 10 February 1879 in their Paris apartment, 80 boulevard Malesherbes, 8th arrondissement.

Descendants.

Through his son Joachim, he was a grandfather of Joachim, 5th Prince Murat, a celebrated sportsman and race horse owner who married Marie Cécile Ney d'Elchingen, a daughter of the Prince de la Moskowa and a great-granddaughter of the Marshal Michel Ney. In 1919, Prince Murat gave his Paris house on the rue de Monceau to President Woodrow Wilson for his use while in Paris for the Paris Peace Conference. He died at the family estate, Château de Chambly in Oise.  Through his daughter Princess Anne, he is a direct ancestor of Archduke Carl Christian of Austria (b. 1954) and Michel, 14th Prince of Ligne (b. 1951).  Through his son Prince Achille Murat, he was a grandfather of "Lucien"-Charles-David-Napoléon Murat, Prince Murat (1870–1933), who married Marie Augustine de Rohan-Chabot, a daughter of Alain de Rohan-Chabot, Duke of Rohan. Her older sister, Marie-Joséphine de Rohan-Chabot, was the wife of Louis de Talleyrand-Périgord (grandson of Louis de Talleyrand-Périgord and nephew of Boson de Talleyrand-Périgord). After Prince Murat's death in 1933, his widow married French writer and diplomat Count Charles de Chambrun.  Through his youngest son, Prince Louis, he was a grandfather of two boys, the elder being Prince Eugéne Michel Napoléon Murat (1875–1906), who married a daughter of the Duke of Elchingen, with whom he had three children. Prince Eugéne died in an automobile accident while on his way to Karlsbad. The younger was Prince Michel Anne Charles Joachim Napoléon Murat (1887–1941), who married Helena MacDonald Stallo, heiress to the Standard Oil fortune, in 1913. Through his grandson Prince Michel, he was a great-grandfather of Princess Laure Louise Napoléone Eugénie Caroline Murat, who married Swiss-American journalist Fernand Auberjonois, parents of his great-great-grandson, actor René Auberjonois (1940–2019).

External links.

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Lucien Charles Joseph Napoléon, Prince Français, Prince of Naples, 2nd Prince de Pontecorvo, 3rd Prince Murat (16 May 1803 – 10 April 1878) was a French politician, and the sovereign Prince of Pontecorvo between 1812 and May 1815.


Description.

It is an annual or biennial growing to tall by broad, with large, coarse, pointed oval leaves with marked serrations. The leaves are hairy, the lower ones long-stalked, the upper ones stalkless. In spring and summer it bears terminal racemes of white or violet flowers, followed by showy, light brown, translucent, disc-shaped seedpods (silicles) the skin of which falls off to release the seeds, revealing a central membrane which is white with a silvery sheen, in diameter; they persist on the plant through winter. These pods are much used in dry floral arrangements.

Etymology.

The Latin name "lunaria" means "moon-shaped" and refers to the shape and appearance of the seedpods. The common name "honesty" arose in the 16th century, and may also relate to the translucence of the seedpods. In South East Asia, it is called the "money plant" and in the United States it is commonly known as "silver dollars", "Chinese money", or "Chinese coins" because its seedpods have the appearance of silvery coins. For the same reason, in French it is known as "monnaie du pape" ("Pope's money"). In Denmark it is known as "judaspenge" and in Dutch-speaking countries as "judaspenning" (both meaning "coins of Judas"), an allusion to the story of Judas Iscariot and the thirty pieces of silver he was paid for betraying Christ.

Cultivation.

This plant is easy to grow from seed and tends to naturalize. It is usually grown as a biennial, being sown one year to flower the next. It is suitable for cultivation in a shady or dappled area, or in a wildflower garden, and the flowers and dried seedpods are often seen in flower arrangements. Numerous varieties and cultivars are available, of which the white-flowered "L. annua" var. "albiflora" and the variegated white "L. alba" var. "albiflora" 'Alba Variegata' have won the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

Lunaria annua, called honesty or annual honesty in English, is a species of flowering plant native to the Balkans and south west Asia, and naturalized throughout the temperate world.


Life.

Margaret was born of farming parents, in Laviano, a little town in the diocese of Chiusi. At the age of seven, Margaret's mother died and her father remarried. Stepmother and stepdaughter did not like each other. As she grew older, Margaret became more willful and reckless, and her reputation in the town suffered. At the age of 17 she met a young man, according to some accounts, the son of Gugliemo di Pecora, lord of Valiano, and she ran away with him. Soon Margaret found herself installed in the castle, not as her master's wife, for convention would never allow that, but as his mistress, which was more easily condoned. For ten years, she lived with him near Montepulciano and bore him a son.  When her lover failed to return home from a journey one day, Margaret became concerned. The unaccompanied return of his favorite hound alarmed Margaret, and the hound led her into the forest to his murdered body. That crime shocked Margaret into a life of prayer and penance. Margaret returned to his family all the gifts he had given her and left his home. With her child, she returned to her father's house, but her stepmother would not have her. Margaret and her son then went to the Franciscan friars at Cortona, where her son eventually became a friar. She fasted, avoided meat, and subsisted on bread and vegetables.  In 1277, after three years of probation, Margaret joined the Third Order of Saint Francis and chose to live in poverty. Following the example of Francis of Assisi, she begged for sustenance and bread. She pursued a life of prayer and penance at Cortona, and there established a hospital for the sick, homeless and impoverished. To secure nurses for the hospital, she instituted a congregation of Tertiary Sisters, known as "le poverelle" (Italian for "the little poor ones").  While in prayer, Margaret recounted hearing the words, "What is your wish, poverella?" ("little poor one?"), and she replied, "I neither seek nor wish for anything but You, my Lord Jesus." She also established an order devoted to Our Lady of Mercy and the members bound themselves to support the hospital and to help the needy.  On several occasions, Margaret participated in public affairs. Twice, claiming divine command, she challenged the Bishop of Arezzo, Guglielmo Ubertini Pazzi, in whose diocese Cortona lay, because he lived and warred like a prince. She moved to the ruined church of Basil of Caesarea, now Santa Margherita, and spent her remaining years there; she died on 22 February 1297.

Veneration.

After her death, the Church of Santa Margherita in Cortona was rebuilt in her honor. Her incorrupt body is preserved in a silver casket inside the church. Margaret was canonized by Pope Benedict XIII on 16 May 1728.

In art.

Paintings depicting Margaret have been completed by Giovanni Lanfranco (1622) and Gaspare Traversi (circa 1758).  In 1938, the Italian composer Licinio Refice wrote his second opera, "Margherita da Cortona" based on the life of the Margaret, with libretto by.  A 1950 biographical film "Margaret of Cortona" by Mario Bonnard featured Maria Frau as Margaret.

Margaret of Cortona (1247 – 22 February 1297) was an Italian penitent of the Third Order of Saint Francis. She was born in Laviano, near Perugia, and died in Cortona. She was canonized in 1728.


Early life and education.

Roloson was born on October 12, 1969 in Simcoe, Ontario. He graduated from the University of Massachusetts Lowell.

Playing career.

Pre-NHL.

A Hobey Baker Award nominee and National Collegiate Athletic Association All-American while tending goal for University of Massachusetts Lowell, Roloson went undrafted after graduating. He was signed as a free agent by the NHL's Calgary Flames in 1994. After splitting time between the Flames and their American Hockey League (AHL) counterpart, the Saint John Flames, he was traded to the Buffalo Sabres to back up Dominik Hašek. Following two years with the Sabres, he was picked up in the 2000 NHL Expansion Draft by the Columbus Blue Jackets. Rather than joining the Blue Jackets, Roloson signed with the AHL team of the St. Louis Blues, the Worcester IceCats.

NHL career.

Minnesota Wild.

Roloson earned a roster spot with the Minnesota Wild in 2001. In the 2002–03 season, Roloson shared goaltending duties with Manny Fernandez as the Wild made their first ever appearance in the Stanley Cup playoffs, reaching the Western Conference Final. Despite splitting goaltending duties with Fernandez, Roloson earned his first All-Star appearance at age 34, appearing in the 2004 NHL All-Star Game with the Western Conference team. He also won the Roger Crozier Saving Grace Award for having the NHL's best save percentage. During the 2004–05 NHL lockout, Roloson played for Lukko of the Finnish SM-liiga.

Edmonton Oilers.

On March 8, 2006, Roloson was traded to the Edmonton Oilers in exchange for the first round pick that later became part of a trade for Pavol Demitra and a conditional draft pick that later became a third-rounder. Initially, Oilers general manager Kevin Lowe was harshly criticized for the acquisition when Roloson struggled during the regular season. Lowe was criticized both for not acquiring a better goaltender, and also for surrendering a first-round draft pick to a divisional rival.  Criticism was muted following sensational play by Roloson, backstopping the Oilers to the final of the 2006 playoffs. He had a record of 12–5 through the first three rounds, and along with Chris Pronger, was considered a front-runner for the Conn Smythe Trophy as playoff MVP if the Oilers were victorious in the finals.  However, during Game 1 of the Stanley Cup Finals against the Carolina Hurricanes, Roloson suffered a third-degree MCL sprain of his right knee when Hurricanes forward Andrew Ladd was pushed into Roloson by a back-checking Oiler defenseman Marc-André Bergeron. Oilers head coach Craig MacTavish announced Roloson would not be able to continue in the series. It was also learned he had hyper-extended his right elbow in the collision as well. Back-up goaltender Ty Conklin replaced Roloson for the remainder of Game 1 and co-backup goalie Jussi Markkanen finished the series. The Oilers lost to the Hurricanes in seven games. Months of intense rehabilitation would follow in order to prepare Roloson for the 2006–07 season.  Roloson could have tested the unrestricted free agency market in the summer of 2006 but opted to re-sign with the Oilers on July 1, 2006, on a three-year contract.  In the 2007–08 season, Roloson started out strong before seeing his record fall to 7–12–0. By early January 2008, backup goaltender Mathieu Garon had taken the reins as starter. It was not until March 13, 2008, that Roloson saw regular play, coming in as relief for an injured Garon, starting each subsequent game.  When the 2008–09 season began, Roloson found himself vying for the starting goaltender position with Garon and upstart Jeff Deslauriers. For the beginning of the season, it appeared Garon was once again the starter but after some bad games Oiler head coach Craig MacTavish decided to rotate Garon, Deslauriers and Roloson by playing whoever had the hot hand. Eventually, the team traded Garon to the Pittsburgh Penguins and Roloson claimed the starting spot. Down the stretch, he started 36 consecutive games as the Oilers fought for a playoff spot. During this time, he became the oldest goaltender to start more than 60 games in a single season. Though the Oilers ultimately did not qualify for the playoffs, Roloson put up solid numbers, making upwards of 40 saves on a regular basis.

New York Islanders.

On July 1, 2009, Roloson became an unrestricted free agent. After rejecting a one-year, $3 million offer from Edmonton, Roloson signed a two-year, $5 million contract with the New York Islanders. The Islanders also signed Martin Biron, who was to serve as Roloson's backup goaltender while Rick DiPietro was out on injured reserve. Roloson lost his first game as an Islander on October 3, 2009, in a shootout.  On November 23, 2009, Roloson made 58 saves on 61 shots in a 4–3 overtime win over the Toronto Maple Leafs. The 58 saves were a career high, and broke the Islander club record of 56, held by Rick DiPietro.

Tampa Bay Lightning.

On January 1, 2011, Roloson was traded to the Tampa Bay Lightning in exchange for defenceman Ty Wishart. He won his first game with Tampa Bay in a 1–0 overtime shutout against the Washington Capitals. In his first 11 games with the Lightning, he recorded four shutouts. In April 2011, Roloson recorded a shutout in a first round playoff Game 7 against the Pittsburgh Penguins, making him the oldest goaltender to do so. Roloson and the Lightning ultimately advanced to the 2011 Eastern Conference Finals, where they were eliminated by the Boston Bruins in seven games. With his contract set to expire, the Lightning signed Roloson to a one-year, $3 million contract extension on June 29, 2011. He retired at season's end after the Lightning failed to qualify for the 2012 playoffs.

International play.

Roloson was a member of the Canadian 2007 IIHF World Championship team that won gold in a 4–2 win against Finland in Moscow.  In 2009, Roloson (along with Oilers teammate Shawn Horcoff) was called upon for Canada at the 2009 IIHF World Championship. He played in the finals against Russia, which Canada lost 2–1.

Post-playing career.

Following his retirement from ice hockey, Roloson was immediately hired as a consultant to the Anaheim Ducks' AHL affiliate, the Norfolk Admirals. On June 10, 2013, Roloson was named as the replacement for Pete Peeters as the Anaheim Ducks' goaltending consultant. On November 2, 2014, he suited-up in an emergency role after Ducks goaltender John Gibson suffered a pre-game injury and could not play the game against the Colorado Avalanche.

Personal life.

Roloson and his wife Melissa, who were married in 1999, have two sons. He is close friends with Rob Blake, with whom he played minor hockey in Simcoe, Ontario. He is also friends with Andrew Brunette.  The Saint Paul Police Federation swore in Dwayne Roloson as an honorary police officer for his interest and involvement with local law enforcement. He teaches his goalie school with Minnesota Wild goaltending coach Bob Mason.  While with the Tampa Bay Lightning, Roloson wore a mask that had a shamrock with the initials "KR" to remember Kelly Ryan, a 12-year-old player who attended several of Roloson's goalie camps. The shamrock also had the letters "TDLO", "The Dream Lives On".

Albert Dwayne Roloson (born October 12, 1969) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey goaltender and former goaltending coach of the Anaheim Ducks of the National Hockey League (NHL). During his NHL career, Roloson played for the Calgary Flames, Buffalo Sabres, Minnesota Wild, Edmonton Oilers, New York Islanders and Tampa Bay Lightning. He is often affectionately referred to by his fans as "Roli". Following Mark Recchi's retirement in 2011, Roloson became the oldest active NHL player at the time and the last active NHL player to have been born in the 1960s.


Early life, education and training.

Husband was born on July 12, 1957, in Amarillo, Texas. At the age of 17, he earned his pilot's license while flying out of Tradewind Airport. He graduated with honors from Amarillo High School in 1975. Husband earned a bachelor of science degree in mechanical engineering from Texas Tech University in 1980, after 5 years of study. Upon graduation he was commissioned as a pilot in the United States Air Force, having been enrolled in ROTC his last two years of college. Husband underwent pilot training at Vance Air Force Base, in Enid, Oklahoma. This was followed by Land Survival School in at Fairchild Air Force Base, in Spokane, Washington, and Fighter Lead-in School in New Mexico. Evelyn and Rick were married on 27 Feb. 1982. Rick trained in the F-4 at Homestead Air Force Base next.

U.S. Air Force career.

Husband was assigned to a squadron at Moody Air Force Base in Valdosta, Georgia flying the F-4E. Rick then transferred to George AFB, in Victorville, California in Dec. 1985, where he became an F-4 instructor. By then he had accumulated 1000 hours of flying time.  In December 1987, Husband was assigned to Edwards Air Force Base in California, where he attended the USAF Test Pilot School. Upon completion of test pilot school, Husband served as a test pilot flying the F-4 and all five models of the F-15 Eagle. In the F-15 Combined Test Force, Husband was the program manager for the Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-229 increased performance engine, and also served as the F-15 Aerial Demonstration Pilot.  In June 1992, Husband was assigned to the Aircraft and Armament Evaluation Establishment at Boscombe Down, England, as an exchange test pilot with the Royal Air Force. At Boscombe Down, Husband was the Tornado GR1 and GR4 Project Pilot and served as a test pilot in the Hawk, Hunter, Buccaneer, Jet Provost, Tucano, and Harvard.  Husband logged over 3,800 hours of flight time in more than 40 different types of aircraft.

NASA career.

Husband was selected as an astronaut candidate by NASA in December 1994, the same week he was promoted to lieutenant colonel. He reported to the Johnson Space Center in March 1995 to begin a year of training and evaluation. Upon completion of training, Husband was named the Astronaut Office representative for Advanced Projects at Johnson Space Center, working on Space Shuttle Upgrades, the Crew Return Vehicle (CRV) and studies to return to the Moon and travel to Mars. He eventually served as Chief of Safety for the Astronaut Office. He flew as Pilot on STS-96 in 1999, and logged 235 hours and 13 minutes in space. Husband was later assigned to command the crew of STS-107 which was launched early in 2003.

Awards and decorations.

Two NASA Group Achievement Awards.

Quotes.

Husband describes how he became a shuttle commander having flown in only one other space flight:  Rick Husband before his first flight:  Husband was also well known for his faith, and in the last-request forms that astronauts fill out before every flight, he left his pastor a personal note:

Personal life.

Husband's wife Evelyn details her Christian life with Rick and his struggles to fulfill his lifelong dream to become an astronaut in the 2004 book "High Calling: The Courageous Life and Faith of Space Shuttle Columbia Commander Rick Husband" co-written with Donna VanLiere. The Husbands have two children, a daughter Laura and a son Matthew. Evelyn married Bill Thompson in January 2008 and was the keynote speaker for the memorial ceremony at the Astronaut Memorial "Space Mirror" at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, five years after the Space Shuttle "Columbia" tragedy.

Rick Douglas Husband (July 12, 1957 – February 1, 2003) (Colonel, USAF) was an American astronaut and fighter pilot. He traveled into space twice: as Pilot of STS-96 and Commander of STS-107. He and the rest of the crew of STS-107 were killed when "Columbia" disintegrated during reentry into the Earth's atmosphere. Husband is a recipient of the Congressional Space Medal of Honor.


History.

The codice_1 command was originally written by Daniel Halbert, a graduate student at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1978. It was later expanded on by Eric Shienbrood, Geoff Peck (added underlining, single spacing) and John Foderaro (added -c, codice_1 environment variable codice_5). It was first included in 3.0 BSD, and has since become a standard program in all Unix systems. codice_6, a similar command with the extended capability of allowing both forward and backward navigation through the file, was written by Mark Nudelman between 1983 and 1985 and is now included in most Unix and Unix-like systems.  The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later. A codice_1 command is also part of ASCII's "MSX-DOS2 Tools" for MSX-DOS version 2. The Software Link's PC-MOS includes an implementation of codice_1. Like the rest of the operating system, it is licensed under the GPL v3. The FreeDOS version was developed by Jim Hall and is licensed under the GPL v2. The command is also available in the KolibriOS Shell.  The numerical computing environments MATLAB and GNU Octave include a codice_1 function that turns output pagination on or off.

Usage.

Unix-like.

The command-syntax is:  If no file name is provided, codice_1 looks for input from standard input.  Once codice_1 has obtained input, it displays as much as can fit on the current screen and waits for user input to advance, with the exception that a form feed (^L) will also cause codice_1 to wait at that line, regardless of the amount of text on the screen. In the lower-left corner of the screen is displayed the text "--More--" and a percentage, representing the percent of the file that codice_1 has paged through. (This percentage includes the text displayed on the current screen.) When codice_1 reaches the end of a file (100%) it exits. The most common methods of navigating through a file are Enter, which advances the output by one line, and Space, which advances the output by one screen.  There are also other commands that can be used while navigating through the document; consult codice_1's codice_16 page for more details.

Options.

Options are typically entered before the file name, but can also be entered in the environment variable codice_17. Options entered in the actual command line will override those entered in the codice_17 environment variable. Available options may vary between Unix systems, but a typical set of options is as follows:

Microsoft Windows and ReactOS.

The command-syntax is:

Examples.

To display the file named letter.txt on the screen, the user can type either of the following two commands:  The command displays the first screen of information from letter.txt, and then the following prompt appears:  It is also possible to clear the screen and remove all extra blank lines before displaying the file:

IBM OS/2.

The command-syntax is:

Example.

Return the content of the OS/2 system directory using the codice_24 command and display it one screen at a time using the codice_1 command: [C:\]dir C:\OS2 | more

In computing, codice_1 is a command to view (but not modify) the contents of a text file one screen at a time. It is available on Unix and Unix-like systems, DOS, Digital Research FlexOS, IBM/Toshiba 4690 OS, IBM OS/2, Microsoft Windows and ReactOS. Programs of this sort are called "pagers". codice_1 is a very basic pager, originally allowing only forward navigation through a file, though newer implementations do allow for limited backward movement.


Buddy Bear Berlin Show.

The first activities were presented as the "Buddy Bear Berlin Show". In 2001, artists painted approximately 350 bears to appear as decorative elements in the streets of Berlin. Four different bear designs (one standing on all four paws, one standing on two legs, one standing on its head, and one in a sitting position) were placed in the city centre of Berlin. Afterwards, many of the bears were sold at auctions in aid of child relief organisations. Nowadays, these Berlin Buddy Bears are exclusively presented on private premises, in front of hotels and embassies, as well as in the foyers of various office buildings. There have been exhibitions of the original "Buddy Bears" — designed by local artists — in the cities of Shanghai (2004), Buenos Aires (2005), and St. Gallen / Switzerland (2006).

United Buddy Bears.

"United Buddy Bears" is an international art exhibition with more than 140 two metre tall fiberglass bears. Under the motto: "We have to get to know each other better, it makes us understand one another better, trust each other more, and live together more peacefully", more than 140 countries acknowledged by the United Nations are represented, promoting "tolerance, international understanding and the great concept of different nations and cultures living in peace and harmony". The bears stand "hand in hand" in a "peaceful circle" (The Art of Tolerance). The bears were on display between June and November 2002, in a circle around the Brandenburg Gate. Around 1.5 million people visited this first exhibition. On 6 November 2002, the bears were moved to new locations, including their respective countries embassies in Berlin, or back to country that they were based on. Some of the bears were auctioned off to raise money for UNICEF.  After the success of the first exhibition, a new circle was created in 2003. The idea was to send the circle on a global tour. The circle changes when it reaches a new city, as the bears are always set up in alphabetic order, following the local language of the host country. Entry to the exhibitions is always free. In every metropolis, the United Buddy Bears exhibitions are supported by the government, the foreign ministries, the mayors and the UNICEF organisations. The bears have been displayed at the following locations since the beginning of the tour:

The Minis.

In the autumn of 2003, the circle of "United Buddy Bears-The Minis" — was presented in Berlin for the first time. Since then, this circle has been shown in Frankfurt/Main, in Potsdam and at the Sony Center in Berlin, as well as destinations outside of Germany, including Bratislava in Slovakia, Calais in France, and Yekaterinburg and Kazan in Russia.

Aid for children in need.

, donations and proceeds from the sale of "Buddy Bears" at auction had generated a total of Euro 2,300,000 in support of UNICEF and local organisations helping children in need.

Involved artists.

In the early years, the Bears were designed by regional artists and Berlin celebrities for the exhibition "Art in the City". From 2002 onwards, thanks to support from Lufthansa, Air Berlin and the Berlin Hotel Association, artists from all five continents took part in the international project "United Buddy Bears". More than 240 artists from over 150 countries have taken part in this project to date, such as, for example Arik Brauer, René Cadena Ayala, Hernando León, Ibrahim Hazimeh, Carlos Páez Vilaró, Seo Soo-Kyoung, Helge Leiberg, Leda Luss Luyken, Ludmila Seefried-Matějková – this is also echoed by the artist and UNICEF Australian National Ambassador, Ken Done.

Buddy Bears are painted, life-size fiberglass bear sculptures developed by German businesspeople Klaus and Eva Herlitz, in cooperation with sculptor Roman Strobl. The raised arms of the standing Buddy Bears are intended to indicate friendliness and optimism. The first bears were displayed at an artistic event in Berlin in 2001.


History.

Prehistory.

Vértesszőlős sits at the foot of the Gerecse Mountains, which were at one point in the sea. At the bottom of this sea, many fossils accumulated, including that of a "Homo erectus" individual that is now known as Samu.

Recent history.

For most of its history, Vértesszőlős has been constantly inhabited by different peoples, including Celts, Romans, Avars, Moravians, and Hungarians. According to legend, it was near Vértesszőlős that Svatopluk I of Moravia and Árpád fought.  At the beginning of the 18th century, the village had several Lords, who recruited Slovakian-speaking serfs to settle the land. These settlers radically transformed the landscape; they drained the marshes, cut forests to make pastures, and brought sheep into the territory. By the end of the 18th century, the Slovakian settlers decided to build a church, which was completed in 1792.  In 1809, Napoleon's armies invaded Hungary, and ramparts were built in Vértesszőlős.  In World War 1, 236 inhabitants of the village fought, of which 32 died and 7 became invalids. In 1929, the names of the fallen were recorded on the Hero Memorial which stands in front of the village's church. This was also the year that the village's school was built.  In World War 2, 23 soldiers from the village died. The front passed through the village twice, causing many buildings to be damaged. In 1944, the parish priest of the village died, and the pastor died a year later in January 1945. It wasn't until March 1945 that the Soviet forces displaced the German occupants from Vértesszőlős.  Between 1990 and 1994 the settlement grew with several newly built public institutions: a sports hall, a football field, a new school building, a health house, and a pharmacy had been built. After Hungary joined the European Union in 2004, from 2006 onwards, the EU development funds, more significant than the previous ones, provided new impetus to the development of Vértesszőlős.

Vértesszőlős is a village in Komárom-Esztergom county, Hungary. It is most known for the archaeological site where a Middle Pleistocene human fossil, known as "Samu", was found.


Design and development.

American Airlines asked Convair to design an aircraft for coast-to-coast flights, able to fly nonstop from New York City to Los Angeles against the wind. They wanted a somewhat larger passenger capacity than the 880, which was the smallest of the first-generation U.S. jet airliners. The 990 began flight testing January 24, 1961.  One change from the 880 was the large anti-shock bodies on the upper trailing edge of the wings to increase the critical Mach and reduce transonic drag. The inboard shock bodies, which were larger, were also used for additional fuel tankage. Later during the design period, Convair modified the design to include fuel in the outboard pods as well, but during the initial test flights the extra weight caused the outboard engines to oscillate in certain conditions. The pods were redesigned once more, and shortened by, causing increased drag. The inner set of pods also served a secondary role as fuel dumps for the fuel tanks, and the outlet pipe is prominent.  The engines were also changed to the uprated General Electric CJ-805-23s, which were unique in that they used a fan stage at the rear of the engines, compared to the fan stage at the front of the engine found on the Pratt & Whitney JT3D that powered the 990's competitors. The engine was a simplified, non afterburning civil version of the J79, used in military fighters. Like most versions of the J79, the CJ805 and CJ805-23 were smoky, although secondary operator Spantax eventually had their 990 aircraft refitted with smokeless combustion chambers in the 1970s.  Like the 880, 990s incorporated a dorsal "raceway" added to the top of the fuselage to house the two ADF antennas and one VHF antenna

Operational history.

The 990 did not meet the specifications promised, and American Airlines reduced their order as a result. The 990A was developed by adding fairings to the engine nacelles, among other changes. Despite the modifications from the basic 880 and those in response to drag problems in testing, the aircraft never lived up to its promise of coast-to-coast nonstop capability from JFK to LAX. American Airlines' timetables show little or no difference in scheduled time between 707 and 990A flights; AA began to dispose of their 990As in 1967.  The Convair 990A is still the fastest non-supersonic commercial transport to have ever been produced. During May 1961, one of the pre-production 990 prototype aircraft set a record of.97 Mach in level flight at an altitude of 22,500 ft. (6.9 km), equivalent to a true airspeed of 675 mph (1 086 km/h). This was before the various aerodynamic drag-reduction changes were applied to the later 990A in order to meet certain performance guarantees which Convair had made to American Airlines. These subsequent modifications made to the later 990A (consisting of the four wing-mounted anti-shock body "speed capsules" and substantial streamlining of the engine pylon/wing interface) increased the velocity at which onset of transonic drag would occur by 0.09 Mach. As such, the 990A would have been capable of speeds slightly in excess of 700 mph (1 130 km/h).  In 1963, the 990A was reported to burn 13,750 pounds (6.24 t) per hour of fuel at Mach 0.84 (483 knots, 895 km/h) at 35,000 ft (10.7 km) at a mass of 200,000 lb (90.7 t). In contrast, a modern Boeing 737 MAX 8 typically carries 162 passengers and burns per hour at at sub-optimal parameters.  Swissair bought eight 990As beginning in 1962, operating them on long-distance routes to South America, West Africa, the Middle and Far East, as well as on European routes with heavy traffic. Their fleet was withdrawn from service in 1975. Scandinavian Airlines also operated Coronados on their long-haul schedules to Tokyo and other destinations in the Far East.  The 990's niche was soon captured by the Boeing 720 and Boeing 720B, derivatives of the Boeing 707, and later by the Boeing 727. By the time the assembly line shut down in 1963, only 37 990s had been produced, bringing General Dynamics' entire production of commercial jet airliners to 102 airframes. The failure of airlines to broadly accept the Convair 880 and 990 led Convair's parent company, General Dynamics, to suffer what at the time was one of the largest corporate losses in history. As a result, Convair exited the jet airliner business, although they later profitably built fuselages for the McDonnell Douglas DC-10, KC-10 and MD-11.  When the major airlines retired their Convair 990s, they found a second life on charter airlines. Spantax of Spain had a large fleet until the mid-1980s and so did Denver Ports of Call. In 1967, Alaska Airlines purchased Convair 990 PP-VJE from Varig, and operated it as N987AS in scheduled airline service until 1975.  "*Original operators."

The Convair 990 Coronado is an American narrow-body four-engined jet airliner produced by the Convair division of General Dynamics, a stretched version of their earlier Convair 880 produced in response to a request from American Airlines. The 990 was lengthened by, which increased the number of passengers from between 88 and 110 in the 880 to between 96 and 121 in the 990. This was still fewer passengers than the contemporary Boeing 707 (110 to 189) or Douglas DC-8 (105 to 173), although the 990 was faster than either in cruise.


Description.

The launcher is reloadable and based around a steel tube, 40 millimetres in diameter, 95.3 centimetres long, and weighing 7 kilograms. The middle of the tube is wood wrapped to protect the user from heat and the end is flared to assist in blast shielding and recoil reduction. Sighting is usually optical with a back-up iron sight, and passive infra-red and night sights are also available. The launchers designated RPG-7N1 and RPG-7DN1 can thus mount the multi-purpose night vision scope 1PN51 and the launchers designated RPG-7N2 and RPG-7DN2 can mount the multi-purpose night vision scope 1PN58.  As with similar weapons, the grenade protrudes from the launch tubes. It is 40–105 millimetres in diameter and weighs between 2.0 and 4.5 kilograms. It is launched by a gunpowder booster charge, giving it an initial speed of 115 metres per second, and creating a cloud of light grey-blue smoke that can give away the position of the shooter. The rocket motor ignites after 10 metres and sustains flight out to 500 metres at a maximum velocity of 295 metres per second. The grenade is stabilized by two sets of fins that deploy in-flight: one large set on the stabilizer pipe to maintain direction and a smaller rear set to induce rotation. The grenade can fly up to 1,100 metres; the fuze sets the maximum range, usually 920 metres.

Propulsion system.

According to the United States Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) Bulletin 3u (1977) "Soviet RPG-7 Antitank Grenade Launcher—Capabilities and Countermeasures", the RPG-7 munition has two sections: a "booster" section and a "warhead and sustainer motor" section. These must be assembled into the ready-to-use grenade. The booster consists of a "small strip powder charge" that serves to propel the grenade out of the launcher; the sustainer motor then ignites and propels the grenade for the next few seconds, giving it a top speed of. The TRADOC bulletin provides anecdotal commentary that the RPG-7 has been fired from within buildings, which agrees with the two-stage design. It is stated that only a 2-metre standoff to a rear obstruction is needed for use inside rooms or fortifications. The fins not only provide drag stabilization, but are designed to impart a slow rotation to the grenade.  Due to the configuration of the RPG-7 sustainer/warhead section, it responds counter-intuitively to crosswinds. A crosswind will tend to exert pressure on the stabilizing fins, causing the projectile to turn into the wind ("see Weathervane effect"). While the rocket motor is still burning, this will cause the flight path to curve into the wind. The TRADOC bulletin explains aiming difficulties for more distant moving targets in crosswinds at some length. Similar to a recoilless rifle the RPG-7 has no noticeable recoil, the only effect during firing being that of the sudden lightness of the launcher as the rocket leaves the tube.

Airtronic RPG-7.

In 2009, the American company Airtronic USA unveiled a modernized version of the weapon called the RPG-7USA. The launcher is fitted with updated features including a MIL-STD-1913 Quad Rail System for mounting combat optics, flip-up back up iron sights, aiming lasers/illuminators, tactical lights, and vertical foregips, as well as an M4 carbine-style pistol grip and telescoping stock. Compared to the RPG-7V2, the American launcher, named by the company the Precision Shoulder-fired Rocket Launcher (PSRL-1), is slightly lighter at 14 lb (6.35 kg) unloaded without optics and is made of 4140/4150 ordnance-grade steel for a longer 1,000-round lifespan that can separate into two pieces for compact carry. The PSRL-1 uses EOTech sights with a new sighting system that combines an illuminated reticule for use in low light situations, and is able to be fitted with magnifying optical sights for long-range firing enabling 90% hit probability at 800 metres, twice the distance of other RPGs; rate of fire is 3-4 rounds per minute. It is reportedly accurate at ranges from 900-1,200 m, and guided rockets could extend range to 2 000 metres. The weapon was a program of record in U.S. Special Operations Command by 2015, and the PSRL-1 was to enter production by mid-2016. Airtronic has also developed the more advanced GS-777/PSRL-2 model made of high-strength polymer that reduces weight to 7.77 lb (3.5 kg) and further improves durability and life cycle.

Ammunition.

The RPG-7 can fire a variety of warheads for anti-armor (HEAT, PG-Protivotankovaya Granata) or anti-personnel (HE, OG-Oskolochnaya Granata) purposes, usually fitting with an impact (PIBD) and a 4.5 second fuze. Armor penetration is warhead dependent and ranges from 30 to 60 centimetres of RHA; one warhead, the PG-7VR, is a 'tandem charge' device, used to defeat reactive armor with a single shot.  Current production ammunition for the RPG-7V2 consists of four main types:  Other warhead variants include:

Specifications.

Manufacturer specifications for the RPG-7V1.

Airtronic ammunition.

Airtronic Shoulder-Fired Rocket Ammunition are developed by AirTronic as a modernized RPG-7 rocket type of shoulder-fired ammunition. All ammunition is manufactured in the United States and the Intellectual Property is fully owned by AirTronic USA. AirTronic shoulder-fired rocket ammunition is recommended for use in AirTronic rocket launchers such as the PSRL and GS-777 in order to achieve the highest level of performance. The legacy external configuration of the RPG rocket has been maintained such that AirTronic ammunition is backwards compatible with existing RPG-7 type launchers.  While the external configuration of the legacy RPG rocket has been maintained, improvements have been made focusing on the fuzing, reliability, robustness, and manufacturing quality per DoD standards. The warhead fuze features a dual safe and arm arrangement for improved handling safety. Also, the rocket motor ignitor fuze has been redesigned to improve motor ignition reliability.  Inert training variants are also available which match the ballistics of the live ammunition. This allows for safe training at a reduced cost. Training variants inert warheads are filled with marking compound so that the impact of the round can be observed.  The 3 variants are:

Hit probabilities.

A 1976 U.S. Army evaluation of the weapon gave the hit probabilities on a wide, tall panel moving sideways at. This probability decreases when firing in a crosswind due to the unusual behaviour of the round; in an (3 m/s) wind, the gunner cannot expect to get a first-round hit more than 50% of the time beyond 180 m.

History of use.

Accurate firing is difficult at ranges over 200 metres. During the Soviet–Afghan War, the mujahideen tended to use the weapon at ranges of less than 80 metres.  The RPG-7 was used by the Provisional Irish Republican Army in Northern Ireland from 1969 to 2005, most notably in Lurgan, County Armagh, where it was used against British Army observation posts and the towering military base at Kitchen Hill in the town. The IRA also used them in Catholic areas of West Belfast against British Army armoured personnel carriers and Army forward operating bases (FOB). Beechmount Avenue in Belfast became known as "RPG Avenue" after attacks on British troops.  In Mogadishu, Somalia, RPG-7s were used to down two U.S. Army Black Hawk helicopters in 1993.

The RPG-7 () is a portable, reusable, unguided, shoulder-launched, anti-tank rocket-propelled grenade launcher. It—along with its predecessor, the RPG-2—were designed by the Soviet Union; it is now manufactured by the Russian company Bazalt. The weapon has the GRAU index (Russian armed forces index) 6G3.