Terminology.

Oxidation-reduction.

A "reducing sugar" is one that "reduces" another compound and is itself "oxidized"; that is, the carbonyl carbon of the sugar is oxidized to a carboxyl group.  A sugar is classified as a reducing sugar only if it has an open-chain form with an aldehyde group or a free hemiacetal group.

Aldoses and ketoses.

Monosaccharides which contain an aldehyde group are known as aldoses, and those with a ketone group are known as ketoses. The aldehyde can be oxidized via a redox reaction in which another compound is reduced. Thus, aldoses are reducing sugars. Sugars with ketone groups in their open chain form are capable of isomerizing via a series of tautomeric shifts to produce an aldehyde group in solution. Therefore, ketones like fructose are considered reducing sugars but it is the isomer containing an aldehyde group which is reducing since ketones cannot be oxidized without decomposition of the sugar. This type of isomerization is catalyzed by the base present in solutions which test for the presence of reducing sugars.

Reducing end.

Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharides and may be either reducing or nonreducing. Even a reducing disaccharide will only have one reducing end, as disaccharides are held together by glycosidic bonds, which consist of at least one anomeric carbon. With one anomeric carbon unable to convert to the open-chain form, only the free anomeric carbon is available to reduce another compound, and it is called the "reducing end" of the disaccharide. A nonreducing disaccharide is that which has both anomeric carbons tied up in the glycosidic bond.  Similarly, most polysaccharides have only one reducing end.

Examples.

All monosaccharides are reducing sugars because they either have an aldehyde group (if they are aldoses) or can tautomerize in solution to form an aldehyde group (if they are ketoses). This includes common monosaccharides like galactose, glucose, glyceraldehyde, fructose, ribose, and xylose.  Many disaccharides, like cellobiose, lactose, and maltose, also have a reducing form, as one of the two units may have an open-chain form with an aldehyde group. However, sucrose and trehalose, in which the anomeric carbons of the two units are linked together, are nonreducing disaccharides since neither of the rings is capable of opening.  In glucose polymers such as starch and starch-derivatives like glucose syrup, maltodextrin and dextrin the macromolecule begins with a reducing sugar, a free aldehyde. When starch has been partially hydrolyzed the chains have been split and hence it contains more reducing sugars per gram. The percentage of reducing sugars present in these starch derivatives is called dextrose equivalent (DE).  Glycogen is a highly branched polymer of glucose that serves as the main form of carbohydrate storage in animals. It is a reducing sugar with only one reducing end, no matter how large the glycogen molecule is or how many branches it has (note, however, that the unique reducing end is usually covalently linked to glycogenin and will therefore not be reducing). Each branch ends in a nonreducing sugar residue. When glycogen is broken down to be used as an energy source, glucose units are removed one at a time from the nonreducing ends by enzymes.

Characterization.

Several qualitative tests are used to detect the presence of reducing sugars. Two of them use solutions of copper(II) ions: Benedict's reagent (Cu in aqueous sodium citrate) and Fehling's solution (Cu in aqueous sodium tartrate). The reducing sugar reduces the copper(II) ions in these test solutions to copper(I), which then forms a brick red copper(I) oxide precipitate. Reducing sugars can also be detected with the addition of Tollen's reagent, which consist of silver ions (Ag) in aqueous ammonia. When Tollen's reagent is added to an aldehyde, it precipitates silver metal, often forming a silver mirror on clean glassware.  3,5-dinitrosalicylic acid is another test reagent, one that allows quantitative detection. It reacts with a reducing sugar to form 3-amino-5-nitrosalicylic acid, which can be measured by spectrophotometry to determine the amount of reducing sugar that was present.  Sugars having acetal or ketal linkages are not reducing sugars, as they do not have free aldehyde chains. They therefore do not react with any of the reducing-sugar test solutions. However, a non-reducing sugar can be hydrolyzed using dilute hydrochloric acid. After hydrolysis and neutralization of the acid, the product may be a reducing sugar that gives normal reactions with the test solutions.  All carbohydrates respond positively to Molisch's reagent but the test has a faster rate when it comes to monosaccharides.

Importance in medicine.

Fehling's solution was used for many years as a diagnostic test for diabetes, a disease in which blood glucose levels are dangerously elevated by a failure to produce enough insulin (type 1 diabetes) or by an inability to respond to insulin (type 2 diabetes). Measuring the amount of oxidizing agent (in this case, Fehling's solution) reduced by glucose makes it possible to determine the concentration of glucose in the blood or urine. This then enables the right amount of insulin to be injected to bring blood glucose levels back into the normal range.

Importance in food chemistry.

Maillard reaction.

The carbonyl groups of reducing sugars react with the amino groups of amino acids in the Maillard reaction, a complex series of reactions that occurs when cooking food. Maillard reaction products (MRPs) are diverse; some are beneficial to human health, while others are toxic. However, the overall effect of the Maillard reaction is to decrease the nutritional value of food. One example of a toxic product of the Mailard reaction is acrylamide, a neurotoxin and possible carcinogen that is formed from free asparagine and reducing sugars when cooking starchy foods at high temperatures (above 120°C).

Food quality.

The level of reducing sugars in wine, juice, and sugarcane are indicative of the quality of these food products, and monitoring the levels of reducing sugars during food production has improved market quality. The conventional method for doing so is the Lane-Eynon method, which involves titrating the reducing sugar with copper(II) in Fehling's solution in the presence of methylene blue, a common redox indicator. However, it is inaccurate, expensive, and sensitive to impurities.

A reducing sugar is any sugar that is capable of acting as a reducing agent because it has a free aldehyde group or a free ketone group. All monosaccharides are reducing sugars, along with some disaccharides, some oligosaccharides, and some polysaccharides. The monosaccharides can be divided into two groups: the aldoses, which have an aldehyde group, and the ketoses, which have a ketone group. Ketoses must first tautomerize to aldoses before they can act as reducing sugars. The common dietary monosaccharides galactose, glucose and fructose are all reducing sugars.


Biography.

Born in Amiens into a bourgeois family, in 1760 Laclos began studies at the "École royale d'artillerie de La Fère", ancestor of the École Polytechnique. As a young lieutenant he briefly served in a garrison at La Rochelle until the end of the Seven Years' War (1763). Postings to Strasbourg (1765–1769), Grenoble (1769–1775) and Besançon (1775–1776) followed.  In 1763 Laclos became a freemason in "L'Union" military lodge in Toul.  Despite a promotion to the rank of captain (1771), Laclos grew increasingly bored with his artillery garrison duties and with the company of soldiers; he began to devote his free time to writing. His first works, several light poems, appeared in the "Almanach des Muses". Later he wrote the libretto for an opéra comique, "Ernestine", inspired by a novel by Marie Jeanne Riccoboni. The music was composed by the Chevalier de Saint Georges. Its premiere on 19 July 1777, in the presence of Queen Marie Antoinette, proved a failure. In the same year he established a new artillery school in Valence, which would include Napoleon Bonaparte among its students in the mid 1780s. On his return to Besançon in 1778 Laclos was promoted second captain of the Engineers. In this period he wrote several works which showed his great admiration of Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778).  In 1776 Laclos requested and received affiliation with the "Henri IV" lodge in Paris. There he helped Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans leading the Grand Orient of France. In 1777, in front of the Grand Orient's dignitaries, he delivered a speech in which he urged for the initiation of women into Freemasonry.  In 1779 he was sent to Île-d'Aix (in present-day Charente-Maritime) to assist Marc René, marquis de Montalembert in the construction of fortifications there against the British. However, he spent most of his time writing his new epistolary novel, "Les Liaisons dangereuses", as well as a "Letter to Madame de Montalembert". When he asked for and received six months of vacation, he spent the time in Paris, writing.  Durand Neveu published "Les Liaisons Dangereuses" in four volumes on 23 March 1782; it became a widespread success (1,000 copies sold in a month, an exceptional result for the time). Laclos was immediately ordered to return to his garrison in Brittany; in 1783 he was sent to La Rochelle to collaborate in the construction of the new arsenal. Here he met Marie-Soulange Duperré, whom he would marry on 3 May 1786, and remain with for the rest of his life. The following year, he began a project of numbering the streets of Paris.  In 1788, Laclos left the army, entering the service of Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans, for whom, after the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, he carried forward with intense diplomatic activity. Captured by Republican ideals, he left the Duke to obtain a place as commissar in the Ministry of War. His reorganization has been credited as having a role in the French Revolutionary Army's victory in the Battle of Valmy (20 September 1792). Later, after the desertion (April 1793) of general Charles François Dumouriez, he was however arrested as an "Orleaniste", being freed after the Thermidorian Reaction of 27 July 1794.  He thenceforth spent some time in ballistic studies, which led him to the invention of the modern artillery shell. In 1795 he requested of the Committee of Public Safety reintegration in the army, a request which the Committee ignored. His attempts to obtain a diplomatic position and to found a bank also proved unsuccessful. Eventually, Laclos met the young general and recently appointed (November 1799) First Consul, Napoleon Bonaparte, and joined his party. On 16 January 1800 he was reinstated in the Army as Brigadier General in the Army of the Rhine; he took part in the Battle of Biberach (9 May 1800).  Made commander-in-chief of Reserve Artillery in Italy (1803), Laclos died shortly afterward in the former convent of St. Francis of Assisi at Taranto, probably of dysentery and malaria. He was buried in the fort still bearing his name ("Forte de Laclos") in the Isola di San Paolo near the city, built under his direction. Following the restoration of the House of Bourbon in southern Italy in 1815, his burial tomb was destroyed; it is believed that his bones were tossed into the sea.

Pierre Ambroise François Choderlos de Laclos (; 18 October 1741 – 5 September 1803) was a French novelist, official, freemason and army general, best known for writing the epistolary novel "Les Liaisons dangereuses" ("Dangerous Liaisons") (1782).


Discovery and naming.

In 1924, two teeth were found in the Continental intercalaire of Algeria, showing what were at the time unique characteristics. These teeth were described by Depéret and Savornin (1925) as representing a new taxon, which they named "Megalosaurus saharicus" and later categorized in the subgenus "Dryptosaurus". Some years later, paleontologist Ernst Stromer described the remains of a partial skull and skeleton from Cenomanian aged rocks in the Bahariya Formation of Egypt (Stromer, 1931); originally excavated in 1914, the remains consisted of a partial skull, teeth, vertebrae, claw bones and assorted hip and leg bones. The teeth in this new finding matched the characteristics of those described by Depéret and Savornin, which led to Stromer conserving the species name "saharicus" but finding it necessary to erect a new genus for this species, "Carcharodontosaurus", for their strong resemblance to the teeth of "Carcharodon" (Great white shark).  The fossils described by Stromer were destroyed in 1944 during World War II, but a new, more complete skull was found in the Kem Kem Formation of Morocco during an expedition led by paleontologist Paul Sereno in 1995, near the Algerian border and the locality where the teeth described by Depéret and Savornin (1925) were found. The teeth found with this new skull matched those described by Depéret and Savornin (1925) and Stromer (1931); the rest of the skull also matched that described by Stromer. This new skull was designated as the neotype by Brusatte and Sereno (2007) who also described a second species of "Carcharodontosaurus", "C. iguidensis" from the Echkar Formation of Niger, differing from "C. saharicus" in aspects of the maxilla and braincase.

Description.

"Carcharodontosaurus" includes some of the longest and heaviest known carnivorous dinosaurs, with various scientists proposing length estimates for the species "C. saharicus" ranging between and weight estimates between 6.2 and 15.1 metric tons. In 2016 Molina-Pérez & Larramendi gave a length of 12.8 metres and a weight of 7.8 tonnes for "C. saharicus", and a length of 11 metres and a weight of 5.2 tonnes for "C. iguidensis".  "Carcharodontosaurus" were carnivores, with enormous jaws and long, serrated teeth up to eight inches long. A skull length of about 1.53—1.6 meters (5.0—5.2 ft) has been restored for "C. saharicus", and the skull of "C. iguidensis" is reported to have been about the same size. Currently, the largest-known theropod skull belongs to another huge carcharodontosaurid dinosaur, the closely related "Giganotosaurus" (with skull length estimates up to 1.95 m) (6.4 ft). Gregory S. Paul estimates "Carcharodontosaurus iguidensis" at and.

Brain and inner ear.

In 2001, Hans C. E. Larsson published a description of the inner ear and endocranium of "Carcharodontosaurus saharicus". Starting from the portion of the brain closest to the tip of the animal's snout is the forebrain, which is followed by the midbrain. The midbrain is angled downwards at a 45-degree angle and towards the rear of the animal. This is followed by the hindbrain, which is roughly parallel to the forebrain and forms a roughly 40-degree angle with the midbrain. Overall, the brain of "C. saharicus" would have been similar to that of a related dinosaur, "Allosaurus fragilis". Larsson found that the ratio of the cerebrum to the volume of the brain overall in "Carcharodontosaurus" was typical for a non-avian reptile. "Carcharodontosaurus" also had a large optic nerve.  The three semicircular canals of the inner ear of "Carcharodontosaurus saharicus" – when viewed from the side – had a subtriangular outline. This subtriangular inner ear configuration is present in "Allosaurus", lizards, turtles, but not in birds. The semi-"circular" canals themselves were actually very linear, which explains the pointed silhouette. In life, the floccular lobe of the brain would have projected into the area surrounded by the semicircular canals, just like in other non-avian theropods, birds, and pterosaurs.

Classification.

The following cladogram after Apesteguía "et al.", 2016, shows the placement of "Carcharodontosaurus" within Carcharodontosauridae.

Paleobiology.

Hunting.

A study by Donald Henderson, the curator of dinosaurs at the Royal Tyrrell Museum suggests that "Carcharodontosaurus" was able to lift animals weighing a maximum of in its jaws based on the strength of its jaws, neck, and its center of mass.

Pathology.

SGM-Din 1, a "Carcharodontosaurus saharicus" skull, has a circular puncture wound in the nasal and "an abnormal projection of bone on the antorbital rim".

Carcharodontosaurus is a genus of carnivorous carcharodontosaurid dinosaurs that existed during the Cenomanian stage of the mid-Cretaceous Period. It is currently known to include two species: "C. saharicus" and "C. iguidensis", which were among the larger theropods, nearly as large as or even larger than "Tyrannosaurus", "Giganotosaurus" and "Spinosaurus".


History.

First season.

The first World Touring Car Championship, which was open to Group A Touring Cars, was held in 1987 concurrent to the long-running European Touring Car Championship (ETCC). Additional rounds were held outside Europe at Bathurst and Calder Park Raceway in Australia (Calder used a combined circuit of the road course and the then newly constructed NASCAR speedway), Wellington in New Zealand and Mount Fuji in Japan. The Championship was well-supported by the factory European teams of Ford, BMW, Maserati and Alfa Romeo (until Alfa withdrew following the European races), but was embroiled in controversy. Unfortunately, the leading BMW Motorsport teams and the Ford Europe backed Eggenberger Motorsport had developed a situation of "you don't protest us, we won't protest you". While this worked well in the European races, when the championship landed in Australia the local teams took exception to the Europeans somewhat liberal interpretation of the Group A rules. Subsequently, the Eggenberger cars were protested against and eventually disqualified from the Bathurst 1000 results.  The championship was provisionally awarded to West German Eggenberger Ford Sierra RS500 drivers Klaus Ludwig and Klaus Niedzwiedz. It was not until March 1988 when their Bathurst disqualification was finalised that results were confirmed and Italian Schnitzer Motorsport driver Roberto Ravaglia in a BMW M3 was declared the champion. The Entrants Championship was won by the Eggenberger Texaco Ford No 7 entry. The WTCC lasted only one year and was a victim of its own success — the FIA (and Bernie Ecclestone) feared it would take money away from Formula One and stopped sanctioning the Championship. A silhouette formula championship (proposed by Ecclestone) was announced by the FIA for 1988 which would have seen specialist racing chassis carrying bodywork resembling production roadcars powered by the about to be outlawed Formula One 1.5 litre turbo regulations, but manufacturers did not support the concept. Only one car, based on an Alfa Romeo 164 with a 3.5 litre V10 engine was built before it was abandoned.

European Touring Car Championship.

In 2001, the European Touring Car Championship (ETCC) was resumed with support from the FIA, the precursor to the current WTCC. In 2001, the Italian Superturismo Championship became the FIA European Super Touring Championship, with an extra class for Super Production cars alongside the main Super Touring class. In 2002, this evolved into the brand new FIA European Touring Car Championship, using Super 2000 rules, dominated by Alfa Romeo and BMW, but popular with the public due to the intense competition and Eurosport live broadcasts.

Return to World Championship status.

At the request of interested manufacturers, the ETCC was changed to the current WTCC beginning with the 2005 season, continuing to use Super 2000 and Diesel 2000 regulations. 2004 ETCC Champion Andy Priaulx and his BMW 320i were the dominant driver-car pairing during the first three years of the revived championship, winning the 2005, 2006 and 2007 Drivers and Manufacturers Championships.  In 2008, Frenchman Yvan Muller won the title after Race 1 in Macau in his SEAT León TDI. This marked the first time an FIA sanctioned world championship, in any category, being won by a diesel powered racing car. SEAT León TDI won both championships for a second time in 2009, this time in the hands of Gabriele Tarquini. 2010 marked the start of Chevrolet's dominance of the championship with its Cruze model. Frenchman Yvan Muller became World Champion, fending off tough competition from Gabriele Tarquini and Andy Priaulx to win the first world championship for Chevrolet. Muller continued his success into 2011, winning both drivers championship and helping Chevrolet to its second manufacturers championship after Muller's two teammates finished second and third in the drivers standings. This gave Chevrolet a clean sweep of both titles. The 2012 championship saw Chevrolet pick up where they left off in 2011, leading to a second year of championship clean sweeps, this time with Rob Huff taking the drivers title.  The modern series has held events based all around the world including races in Argentina, Morocco, Hungary, Germany, Russia, France, Portugal, Slovakia, Czech Republic, Japan, China, Thailand and Qatar with former races in Brazil, Great Britain, Italy, Macau, Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Turkey and the United States.  Technical rules were modified in 2011 to allow 1.6L turbo gasoline engines, and the 2.0L gasoline and turbodiesel engines were outlawed in 2012. In 2014, new car regulations were introduced with the name TC1, with larger wings and more engine power. The old 1.6L turbo cars were renamed TC2 for a year and were dropped for 2015.

Car regulations.

The WTCC uses Super 2000 and Diesel 2000 cars, as cost control is a major theme in the technical regulation. Super 2000 engines are 1.6 L turbo-charged 4-cylinder engines producing approximately 380 bhp. Wheels are 18" in diameter, and large front and rear aerodynamic devices are permitted.  Many technologies that have featured in production cars are not allowed, including variable valve timing, variable intake geometry, ABS brakes and traction control system.

Scoring system.

Current scoring system.

Currently, all WTCC races are awarded equal points. From 2010, these points have been based on the FIA's points system used in the FIA Formula One Championship and the FIA World Rally Championship.

Previous points systems.

Between 2005 and 2009, the championship adopted the following points scoring system:  For the inaugural 1987 season, the championship used the following points scoring system:

Event winners.

As per FIA WTCC all-time statistics on the official site of the WTCC.

Manufacturer/constructor entries.

The WTCC features entries with the backing, funding and technical support of a motor manufacturer. This can sometimes be a motor racing team running cars of behalf of the manufacturer or cars being run directly by the factory. Below is a timeline of manufacturer/constructor entries from the beginning of the championship in 2005.

The FIA World Touring Car Championship was an international touring car championship promoted by Eurosport Events and sanctioned by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA). It has had several different incarnations, including a single season in 1987 as the World Touring Car Championship and most recently a world championship (WTCC) that has run between 2005 and 2017. Following the 2017 season, an agreement was reached for the FIA WTCC to become FIA WTCR and use the TCR technical regulations.


Description.

"Buddleja davidii" is a vigorous shrub with an arching habit, growing to in height. The pale brown bark becomes deeply fissured with age. The branches are quadrangular in section, the younger shoots covered in a dense indumentum. The opposite lanceolate leaves are 7–13 cm long, tomentose beneath when young. The honey-scented lilac to purple inflorescences are terminal panicles, < 20 cm long. Flowers are perfect (having both male and female parts), hence are hermaphrodite rather than monoecious (separate male and female flowers on the same plant) as is often incorrectly stated. Ploidy 2"n" = 76 (tetraploid).

"Buddleja davidii", after Leeuwenberg.

In his 1979 revision of the taxonomy of the African and Asiatic species of "Buddleja", the Dutch botanist Anthonius Leeuwenberg sank the six varieties of the species as synonyms of the type, considering them to be within the natural variation of a species, and unworthy of varietal recognition. It was Leeuwenberg's taxonomy which was adopted in the "Flora of China" published in 1996. However, as the distinctions of the former varieties are still widely recognized in horticulture, they are treated separately here:

Cultivation.

"Buddleja davidii" cultivars are much appreciated worldwide as ornamentals and for the value of their flowers as a nectar source for many species of butterfly. However, the plant does not provide food for butterfly larvae, and buddlejas might out-compete the host plants that caterpillars require.  The species and its cultivars are not able to survive the harsh winters of northern or montane climates, being killed by temperatures below about.  Younger wood is more floriferous, so even if frosts do not kill the previous year's growth, the shrub is usually hard-pruned in spring once frosts have finished, to encourage new growth. The removal of spent flower panicles may be undertaken to reduce the nuisance of self-seeding and encourage further flower production; this extends the flowering season which is otherwise limited to about six weeks, although the flowers of the second and third flushes are invariably smaller.  Hardiness: USDA zones 5–9.  There are approximately 180 "davidii" cultivars, as well as numerous hybrids, with "B. globosa" and "B. fallowiana" grown in gardens. Many cultivars are of a dwarf habit, growing to no more than. The following "davidii" cultivars held the RHS Award of Garden Merit in 2012:-

Invasive species.

"Buddleja davidii" has been classified as an invasive species in many countries in temperate regions, including the United Kingdom and New Zealand. It is naturalized in Australia and in most cities of central and southern Europe, where it can spread on open lands and in gardens.  Within the United States, it is widely established as an escape from cultivation, and classified as a noxious weed by the states of Oregon and Washington.

Buddleja davidii (spelling variant "Buddleia davidii"), also called summer lilac, butterfly-bush, or orange eye, is a species of flowering plant in the family Scrophulariaceae, native to Sichuan and Hubei provinces in central China, and also Japan. It is widely used as an ornamental plant, and many named varieties are in cultivation. "B. davidii" is named after the French missionary and explorer in China, Father Armand David, who was the first European to report the shrub. It was found near Ichang by Dr Augustine Henry about 1887 and sent to St Petersburg. Another botanist-missionary in China, Jean-André Soulié, sent seed to the French nursery Vilmorin, and "B. davidii" entered commerce in the 1890s.


Gameplay.

The game is played on a square board divided into 20 rows and 20 columns, for a total of 400 squares. There are a total of 84 game tiles, organized into 21 shapes in each of four colors: blue, yellow, red and green. The 21 shapes are based on free polyominoes of from one to five squares (one monomino, one domino, two trominoes/triominoes, five tetrominoes, and 12 pentominoes).  The standard rules of play for all variations of the game are as follows:  When a game ends, the player with the highest score wins. The score is based on the number of squares in each player's pieces on the board (e.g. a tetromino is worth 4 points). A player who played all of his or her pieces is awarded a +20 point bonus if the last piece played was a monomino, or a +15 point bonus for any other piece.

Two and three player variations.

Blokus rules allow for two and three player games also. In two-player games, each player takes two colors. In three-player games, either one of the players takes two colors or else "the pieces of the fourth color are placed on the board in a non-strategic way."

Expansions and spinoffs.

Sekkoïa and its distributors manufacture four additional versions of the game.

Blokus Duo/Travel Blokus.

"Blokus Duo" is for two players only, and uses a smaller (14×14) board; the piece colors are purple and orange. The two starting squares are placed, not in the corner (as in the original Blokus game) but nearer to the centre. This makes a crucial difference in the flavour of the game, because players' pieces may (and usually do) touch after the first move. Even more than with the original game, Blokus Duo is an offence-centred game; it is also a much purer strategy game than the four-player game, since one is not in danger of getting ganged up on by three other players (as sometimes happens with the four-player version).

Blokus Trigon.

"Blokus Trigon" uses pieces made up of triangles rather than squares (polyiamonds), and is played on a hexagonal board, a version optimized for three players but can be played with 2, 3, or 4 players. The same rules apply, meaning that 2 edges cannot touch; however, as it is isometric, a corner touching an edge is allowed.

Blokus Giant.

"Blokus Giant" is a larger version, with the game board being about square.

Blokus Junior.

"Blokus Junior" is targeted at younger children. Like Blokus Duo, it is played by two players on a 14×14 board but it uses only a subset of the pieces that have a supposedly simpler shape. There are 12 unique pieces. Each player gets two of each kind, 24 in total. The game also comes with a set of sheets with single-player puzzles, which show positions in which the player needs to connect two pieces following standard Blokus rules.

Rumis/Blokus 3D.

"Blokus 3D", originally marketed in a Mayan theme as "Rumis", uses pieces made up of unit cubes, in every permutation of three and four cubes in three dimensions. Stefan Kögl created "Rumis" independently from Bernard Tavitian, and is thus not related. However, "Rumis" was rebranded into "Blokus 3D" since the "Blokus" brand proved stronger than "Rumis." There is also a major rule change; instead of being required to place pieces so they touch corner-to-corner, a piece must be placed such that it touches a face of another piece of the same color. Also, a player placing a piece cannot do so if it would create any empty space underneath any part of the piece. The object is to build one of four different structures, each with its own placement limitations: the Tower, Wall, Steps, and Pyramid. Players attempt to place their blocks such that at the end of the game, when the structure is viewed from above, their color has the most squares showing.

Video games.

Funkitron developed a PC casual game version of Blokus called "Blokus World Tour". Released in December 2007, "Blokus World Tour" was similar to the board game version of Blokus, but also featured 16 AI opponents, music and sound effects, and multiple game modes, including a tour mode, quick play, and Blokus Challenges.  For some time, there was an official online version of Blokus where visitors could play with opponents all over the world. Mattel suspended the online game on May 18, 2012, stating it did not meet its playability standards. It is now possible to play blokus online at Pentolla.com.  The PlayStation Portable has "", which features characters from "Steambot Chronicles" playing the Classic, Travel, and Duo versions of the game.  A Gameloft developed version of Blokus was released for iPhone, iPod touch, and iPad in April 2010, featuring the Classic and Duo versions of the game, local and online multiplayer gameplay, and single player tournament mode. A clone named Quadrus, is available since January 2014.  As of January 2014, the Gameloft version of Blokus is no longer available from the App Store. Currently, the officially licensed Blokus app is developed by Magmic, and is available for iPhone, iPod touch, and iPad. This version includes solo play and multiplayer options, integrating the user's Facebook and Game Center friends and allowing them to compete on a tournament leader-board.  There is also some open source software based on the same concept of polyominoes as blokus does, for example Blokish, Blockem, Freebloks or "Pentobi" for desktop and "Freebloks" or "Blokish" for Android smartphones.

Blokus ( ) is an abstract strategy board game for two to four players, where players try to score points by occupying most of the board with pieces of their colour. It was invented by Bernard Tavitian and first released in 2000 by Sekkoïa, a French company. It has won several awards, including the Mensa Select award and the 2004 Teacher's Choice Award. In 2009, the game was sold to Mattel.


Career.

In the mid-1960s Hiseman played in sessions such as the early Arthur Brown single, "Devil's Grip". In 1966 he replaced Ginger Baker in the Graham Bond Organisation and also played for a brief spell with Georgie Fame and the Blue Flames. He then joined John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers in 1968 playing on the iconic album "Bare Wires". In April 1968 he left to form what has been described as the "seminal" jazz rock/progressive rock band, Colosseum. Colosseum disbanded in November 1971, although Hiseman later formed Colosseum II with Don Airey and Gary Moore in 1975.  Between these two versions of Colosseum, Hiseman formed the band Tempest with Allan Holdsworth, Paul Williams and Colosseum bandmate Mark Clarke. Ollie Halsall joined the band temporarily making the band a quintet but Holdsworth left the group along with Williams, leaving Halsall to handle all guitar and vocal duties. In the mid 1970's Hiseman played with Dave Greenslade when he toured the album 'Cactus Choir'. Hiseman subsequently played in jazz groups, notably with his wife, saxophonist Barbara Thompson, with whom he recorded and produced more than 15 albums. Andrew Lloyd Webber, searching for a "sound" for an album to feature his brother Julian on cello, stumbled upon Colosseum II by accident and imported the whole band into his "Variations" project. This was the start of a ten-year relationship with Hiseman, whose drumming features on recordings, TV specials and musicals.  In 1982 Hiseman built what was at the time a state-of-the-art recording studio next to his home, and together with the compositional skills of Barbara Thompson produced many recordings for film and television soundtracks. Hiseman was a founding member of the United Jazz and Rock Ensemble, a German-based "Band of Band Leaders", along with Barbara Thompson.  Colosseum reunited in June 1994 with the same line-up of musicians as when they broke up 23 years earlier. They played the Freiburg Zelt Musik Festival and followed it up with a German TV Special (WDR Cologne) in October, which was recorded and released as a CD and a VHS video; a DVD version followed in 2003. Several new studio releases also followed, as well as [4] expanded editions of "Valentyne Suite" and "Colosseum Live", plus several compilation boxed sets.  Barbara Thompson joined the band on various occasions before the death of Dick Heckstall-Smith in 2004 and since then was a permanent member of the band. Colosseum played its farewell concert on 28 February 2015.  In October 2010, a biography of Hiseman, entitled "Playing the Band", was published. It was written by Martyn Hanson and edited by original Colosseum manager, Colin Richardson.  In 2017, Hiseman formed a new trio band called JCM. The band recorded an album "Heroes" late in 2017 and it was released in April 2018. JCM began touring on 7 April 2018. Other members are guitarist/vocalist Clem Clempson and bass player/vocalist Mark Clarke.

Death.

In May 2018, Hiseman's family reported that he was struggling with a brain tumor. He died at the age of 73 on 12 June 2018 in Sutton, England. He was nine days short of his 74th birthday.

Selected discography.

With Jack Bruce  With Colosseum  With Colosseum II  With JCM  With Tempest  Tribute  With United Jazz + Rock Ensemble

Philip John "Jon" Hiseman (21 June 1944 – 12 June 2018) was an English drummer, recording engineer, record producer, and music publisher.


Overview.

The program's interface showed a list of directories on the left hand panel, and a list of the current directory's contents on the right hand panel. File Manager allowed a user to create, rename, move, print, copy, search for, and delete files and directories, as well as to set permissions (attributes) such as archive, read-only, hidden or system, and to associate file types with programs. Also available were tools to label and format disks, manage folders for file sharing and to connect and disconnect from a network drive. On Windows NT systems it was also possible to set ACLs on files and folders on NTFS partitions through the shell32 security configuration dialog (also used by Explorer and other Windows file managers). On NTFS drives, individual files or entire folders could be compressed or expanded.  The Windows NT version of File Manager allows users to change directory, file, local, network and user permissions.  From Windows 95 and Windows NT 4.0 onward, File Manager was superseded by Windows Explorer. However, the codice_1 program file was still included with Windows 95, Windows 98 and Windows Me (16-bit executable), and Windows NT 4.0 (32-bit executable). The last 32-bit codice_1 build (4.0.1381.318) was distributed as part of Windows NT 4.0 Service Pack 6a (SP6a). The last 16-bit codice_1 build (4.90.3000) was distributed as part of Windows Me operating system.  Chris Guzak was the shell developer on the Windows 3.1 team responsible for File Manager.  The source was released on GitHub in 2018 with an MIT license by Microsoft.

Versions.

16-bit OS/2 and Windows 3.x.

File Manager was included in OS/2 versions 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3. The name of the executable was codice_4.  The original version of File Manager was a 16-bit program that supported the 8.3 file names that were in use at the time.  It did not support the extended file names that became available in Windows 95 – including long file names and file names containing spaces. Instead, it would display only the first six characters followed by a tilde character ("~") and a number, usually 1. More numbers (2, 3, and so on) were added after the tilde if more than one file name with the same initial characters existed in the same directory.  The 16-bit version distributed with Windows 3.1x and Windows for Workgroups 3.1x installations had a Y2K issue due to lexicographic correlation between date representation and the ASCII character set; colons and semicolons replaced what should have been '2000'. Microsoft issued corrected binaries for all Windows 3.1x environments.

Windows NT.

File Manager was rewritten as a 32-bit program for Windows NT. This new version correctly handled long file names in addition to NTFS file systems. It was included with Windows NT 3.1, 3.5, 3.51, and 4.0.

Windows 10.

On April 6, 2018, Microsoft released binaries and the source code, licensed under the MIT License, for an improved version of File Manager able to be run on Windows 10. This version included changes such as the ability to compile in modern versions of Visual Studio, the ability to compile as a 64-bit application, and numerous usability improvements. Microsoft also released this app in the Microsoft Store for free in late January 2019.

File Manager is a file manager program bundled with releases of OS/2 and Microsoft Windows between 1990 and 1999 and available from 6 April 2018 as an optional download for all modern releases of Windows, including Windows 10.


Early life.

Sihamoni was born in 1953. His given name, Sihamoni, comprises two morphemes from his parents' given names, Sihanouk and Monineath. At the time of his birth and that of his younger brother, his mother Monique Izzi, a Cambodian citizen of Corsican and Khmer ancestry, had been one of King Norodom Sihanouk's consorts after being a constant companion since the day they met in 1951, when she won first prize in a national beauty contest. She was granted the title of Neak Moneang and the name of Monineath at the time of her marriage to King Norodom Sihanouk in 1952. Furthermore, Queen Monineath is a step-granddaughter of the late Prince Norodom Duongchak of Cambodia, and the daughter of Pomme Peang and of her second husband, Jean-François Izzi, a Corsican banker. The Royal Ark website entry about the genealogy of the Cambodian royal family states that Sihanouk and Monineath were married twice, once on 12 April 1952, when she was 15, and again ("more formally", according to the website) on 5 March 1955. She is described as Sihanouk's seventh wife.  Sihamoni has 14 half-brothers and half-sisters by his father; his only full sibling, a younger brother, Samdech Norodom Narindrapong, was born in 1954 and died in 2003.

Studies and life abroad.

He has spent most of his life outside Cambodia. As a child Sihamoni was sent to Prague, in then Czechoslovakia, by his father in 1962. During the 1970 coup d'état by Lon Nol, Sihamoni remained in Czechoslovakia, where he attended all three levels of education - elementary school, high school and AMU - Academy of Performing Arts in Prague, and studied classical dance and music almost continuously until 1975, when he graduated. As he spent almost his entire childhood and youth in Prague, the king is fluent in the Czech language. A movie directed by was shot about the prince in Prague in 1967, under the name "The Other Little Prince (Jiný malý princ).  After graduation in 1975 he left Prague and began to study filmmaking in North Korea, and in 1977 returned to Cambodia. Immediately, the ruling Khmer Rouge government turned against the monarchy, and put the royal family including Sihamoni under house arrest until the 1979 Vietnamese invasion.  In 1981 he moved to France to teach ballet, and was later president of the Khmer Dance Association. He lived in France for nearly 20 years, regularly visiting Prague, where he had spent his childhood and youth.  In 1993 the prince was appointed Cambodia's delegate to UNESCO in Paris, where he became known for his hard work and his devotion to Cambodian culture. He had previously refused an appointment as Cambodia's ambassador to France.

Languages.

Besides his native Khmer, Norodom Sihamoni is the only ruling monarch in the world who speaks Czech fluently. The king is also fluent in French and is a conversational speaker of English and Russian.

Reign.

On 14 October 2004 he was selected by a special nine-member council, part of a selection process that was quickly put in place after the surprise abdication of King Norodom Sihanouk a week before. Sihamoni's selection was endorsed by Prime Minister Hun Sen and National Assembly Speaker Prince Norodom Ranariddh (the new king's half-brother), both members of the privy council. He was inaugurated and formally appointed as King on 29 October 2004. King Sihamoni and his parents, King Father Norodom Sihanouk and Queen Mother Norodom Monineath, specifically requested that the ceremonies not be lavish because they did not wish the impoverished country to spend too much money on the event. On 29 October 2014, there were celebrations to mark the 10th anniversary of his coronation.  Sihamoni remains unmarried and has no children. His father Norodom Sihanouk stated that Sihamoni "loves women as his sisters".

Title.

Before he was crowned king, his royal title was: "Sdech Krom Khun" (), equating him to the rank of "Great Prince". As king, his title is: "Preah Karuna Preah Bat Sâmdach Preah Bâromneath Norodom Sihamoni Saman Bhumichat Sasana Rakkhata Khattiya Khmeraratrat Putthintra Mohaksat Khemareacheana Samuhobhas Kampuchea Ekareacharath Bureanasanti Subheamagala Sirivibunla Khmera Sri Bireat Preah Chao Krung Kampuchea Dhibodi" (in romanized Khmer); roughly translating to: "His Merciful Excellent Majesty Protector, King Norodom Sihamoni, who united the nation, religion, realm, and people of Khmer state, great king who is supported by Buddha and Indra, protector of independence, unification, and peace, King of Cambodia, the Great King in the Kingdom of Cambodia".

Advisory court.

On 12 December 2008, Sihamoni selected twenty-six members of the Cambodian royal family to his advisory court, among them his half-brother Prince Norodom Ranariddh as chief advisor. Other choices included Prince Sisowath Sirirath, Princess Norodom Marie (estranged wife of Prince Ranariddh) and Prince Sisowath Thomico.

Criticism.

Cambodia had no lèse-majesté laws until recently. In neighbouring Thailand article 7 of the Constitution states the inviolability of the king. In February 2018, Cambodia passed new legislation making it an offence to insult the king.  Some Cambodian opposition figures have criticized the acquiescence of the king, describing it as too lenient towards Hun Sen's decades-long rule in the kingdom.

External links.

Norodom Sihamoni (; born 14 May 1953) is the King of Cambodia. He became King on 14 October 2004, a week after the abdication of his father, Norodom Sihanouk. He is the eldest son of King Sihanouk and Queen Norodom Monineath. He was Cambodia's ambassador to UNESCO and named by a nine-member throne council to become the next king after his father Norodom Sihanouk abdicated in 2004. Before ascending the throne, Sihamoni was educated in Czechoslovakia and was best known for his work as a cultural ambassador in Europe and as a classical dance instructor. He is unmarried.


Stereochemistry.

Paraldehyde is produced and used as a mixture of two diastereomers, known as "cis"- and "trans-"paraldehyde. For each diastereomer, two chair conformers are possible. The structures (1), (4) and (2), (3) are conformers of "cis"- and "trans"-paraldehyde, respectively. The structures (3) (a conformer of (2)) and (4) (a conformer of (1)) are high energy conformers on steric grounds (1,3-diaxial interactions are present) and do not exist to any appreciable extent in a sample of paraldehyde.

Reactions.

Heated with catalytic amounts of acid, it depolymerizes back to acetaldehyde:  Since paraldehyde has better handling characteristics, it may be used indirectly or directly as a synthetic equivalent of anhydrous acetaldehyde (b.p. 20 °C). For example, it is used as-is in the synthesis of bromal (tribromoacetaldehyde):

Medical applications.

Paraldehyde was introduced into clinical practice in the UK by the Italian physician Vincenzo Cervello (1854–1918) in 1882.  It is a central nervous system depressant and was soon found to be an effective anticonvulsant, hypnotic and sedative. It was included in some cough medicines as an expectorant (though there is no known mechanism for this function beyond the placebo effect).  Paraldehyde was the last injection given to Edith Alice Morrell in 1950 by the suspected serial killer John Bodkin Adams. He was tried for her murder but acquitted.

As a hypnotic/sedative.

It was commonly used to induce sleep in sufferers from delirium tremens but has been replaced by other drugs in this regard. It is one of the safest hypnotics and was regularly given at bedtime in psychiatric hospitals and geriatric wards up to the 1970s. Up to 30% of the dose is excreted via the lungs (the rest via the liver). This contributes to a strong unpleasant odour on the breath.

As anti-seizure.

It has been used in the treatment of convulsions.  Today, paraldehyde is sometimes used to treat status epilepticus. Unlike diazepam and other benzodiazepines, it does not suppress breathing at therapeutic doses and so is safer when no resuscitation facilities exist or when the patient's breathing is already compromised. This makes it a useful emergency medication for parents and other caretakers of children with epilepsy. Since the dose margin between the anticonvulsant and hypnotic effect is small, paraldehyde treatment usually results in sleep.

Administration.

Generic paraldehyde is available in 5 mL sealed glass ampoules. Production in the US has been discontinued, but it was previously marketed as Paral.  Paraldehyde has been given orally, rectally, intravenously and by intramuscular injection. It reacts with rubber and plastic which limits the time it may safely be kept in contact with some syringes or tubing before administration.

Industrial applications.

Paraldehyde is used in resin manufacture, as a preservative, MEP and in other processes as a solvent.  It has been used in the generation of aldehyde fuchsin.

Paraldehyde is the cyclic trimer of acetaldehyde molecules. Formally, it is a derivative of 1,3,5-trioxane, with a methyl groups substituted for a hydrogen atoms in each carbon. The corresponding tetramer is metaldehyde. A colourless liquid, it is sparingly soluble in water and highly soluble in ethanol. Paraldehyde slowly oxidizes in air, turning brown and producing an odour of acetic acid. It quickly reacts with most plastics and rubber.


Background.

The muskmelon is an annual, trailing herb. It grows well in subtropical or warm, temperate climates. Muskmelons prefer warm, well-fertilized soil with good drainage that is rich in nutrients, but are vulnerable to downy mildew and anthracnose. Disease risk is reduced by crop rotation with non-cucurbit crops, avoiding crops susceptible to similar diseases as muskmelons. Cross pollination has resulted in some varieties developing resistance to powdery mildew. Insects attracted to muskmelons include the cucumber beetle, melon aphid, melonworm moth and the pickleworm.

Genetics.

Muskmelons are monoecious plants. They do not cross with watermelon, cucumber, pumpkin, or squash, but varieties within the species intercross frequently. The genome of "Cucumis melo" was first sequenced in 2012. Some authors treat "C. melo" as having two subspecies, "C. melo agrestis" and "C. melo melo". Variants within these subspecies fall into groups whose genetics largely agree with their phenotypic traits, such as disease resistance, rind texture, flesh color, and fruit shape. Variants or landraces (some of which were originally classified as species; see the synonyms list to the right) include "C. melo" var. "acidulus", "adana", "agrestis", "ameri", "cantalupensis", "chandalak", "chate", "chinensis", "chito", "conomon", "dudaim", "flexuosus", "inodorus", "makuwa", "momordica", "reticulatus" and "tibish".  Not all varieties are sweet melons. The snake melon, also called the Armenian cucumber and Serpent cucumber, is a non-sweet melon found throughout Asia from Turkey to Japan. It is similar to a cucumber in taste and appearance. Outside Asia, snake melons are grown in the United States, Italy, Sudan and parts of North Africa, including Egypt. The snake melon is more popular in Arab countries.  Other varieties grown in Africa are bitter, cultivated for their edible seeds.  For commercially grown varieties certain features like protective hard netting and firm flesh are preferred for purposes of shipping and other requirements of commercial markets.

Nutrition.

Per 100 gram serving, cantaloupe melons provide 34 calories and are a rich source (20% or more the Daily Value, DV) of vitamin A (68% DV) and vitamin C (61% DV), with other nutrients at a negligible level. Melons are 90% water and 9% carbohydrates, with less than 1% each of protein and fat.

Uses.

In addition to their consumption when fresh, melons are sometimes dried. Other varieties are cooked, or grown for their seeds, which are processed to produce melon oil. Still other varieties are grown only for their pleasant fragrance. The Japanese liqueur, Midori, is flavored with muskmelon.

History.

There is debate among scholars whether the "abattiach" in refers to a muskmelon or a watermelon. Both types of melon were known in Ancient Egypt and other settled areas. Some botanists consider muskmelons native to the Levant and Egypt, while others place the origin in Persia, India or Central Asia, but the origin is uncertain. Researchers have shown that seeds and rootstocks were among the good traded along the caravan routes of the Ancient World. Several scientists support an African origin, and in modern times wild muskmelons can still be found in several African countries in East Africa like Ethiopia, Somalia and Tanzania.  Melon was domesticated in West Asia and over time many cultivars developed with variety in shape and sweetness. Iran, India, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan and China become centers for melon production. Muskmelons were consumed in Ancient Greece and Rome.

Muskmelon ("Cucumis melo") is a species of melon that has been developed into many cultivated varieties. These include smooth-skinned varieties such as honeydew, Crenshaw, and casaba, and different netted cultivars (cantaloupe, Persian melon, and Santa Claus or Christmas melon). The large number of cultivars in this species approaches that found in wild cabbage, though morphological variation is not as extensive. It is a fruit of a type called pepo.


History.

Anticipating the design of the Schienenzeppelin, the earlier Aerowagon, an experimental Russian high-speed railcar, was also equipped with an aircraft engine and a propeller.  The railcar was built at the beginning of 1930 in the Hannover-Leinhausen works of the German Imperial Railway Company ("Deutsche Reichsbahn"). The work was completed by autumn of the same year. The vehicle was long and had just two axles, with a wheelbase of. The height was. As originally built it had two conjoined BMW IV 6-cylinder petrol aircraft engines (later a single BMW VI 12-cylinder of ) driving a four-bladed (later two-bladed), fixed pitch ash propeller. The driveshaft was raised seven-degrees above the horizontal to give the vehicle some downwards thrust. The body of the Schienenzeppelin was streamlined, having some resemblance to the era's popular Zeppelin airships, and it was built of aluminum in aircraft style to reduce weight. The railcar could carry up to 40 passengers; its interior was spartan and designed in Bauhaus-style.  On 10 May 1931, the Schienenzeppelin exceeded a speed of for the first time. Afterwards, it was exhibited to the general public throughout Germany. On 21 June 1931, it set a new world railway speed record of on the Berlin–Hamburg line between Karstädt and Dergenthin, which was not surpassed by any other rail vehicle until 1954. The railcar still holds the land speed record for a petrol powered rail vehicle. This high speed was attributable, amongst other things, to its low weight, which was only. In 1932 Kruckenberg began a new project with the rail car involving significant modifications. It was cut just behind the forward wheels and received a complete new front end with a two-axle bogie, resembling the later 137 155 railcar. The rear single axle remained as it was. The modifications were completed by November 1932. The aircraft engine was still used; however, the power transmission was hydraulic through two Föttinger Fluid Drives for both directions of travel, fitted on the forward bogie. A pointed fairing was installed in place of the propeller. The resulting vehicle was a B-1 with a powered front bogie. This version of the vehicle reached at the beginning of 1933.  Due to many problems with the Schienenzeppelin prototype, the Deutsche Reichsbahn-Gesellschaft decided to go their own way in developing a high-speed railcar, leading to the Fliegender Hamburger (Flying Hamburger) in 1933. This new design was suitable for regular service and served also as the basis for later railcar developments. However, many of the Kruckenberg ideas, based on the experiments with Schienenzeppelin and high-speed rail travel, found their way into later DRG railcar designs.  At the beginning of 1934 the Schienenzeppelin was rebuilt for the last time, and a Maybach GO 5 engine was installed. In July 1934 it was sold to Deutsche Reichsbahn (German Imperial Railway) for 10,000 Reichsmarks. Five years later, in 1939 the rail zeppelin was finally dismantled because its material was needed by the German army.

Disadvantages.

The failure of Schienenzeppelin has been attributed to everything from the dangers of using an open propeller in crowded railway stations to fierce competition between Kruckenberg's company and the Deutsche Reichsbahn's separate efforts to build high-speed railcars.  One disadvantage of the rail zeppelin was the inherent difficulty of pulling additional wagons to form a train, because of its construction. Furthermore, the vehicle could not use its propeller to climb steep gradients, as the flow would separate when full power was applied. Thus an additional means of propulsion was needed for such circumstances.  Safety concerns have been associated with running high-speed railcars on old track network, with the inadvisability of reversing the vehicle, and with operating a propeller close to passengers.

The () or rail zeppelin was an experimental railcar which resembled a Zeppelin airship in appearance. It was designed and developed by the German aircraft engineer Franz Kruckenberg in 1929. Propulsion was by means of a pusher propeller located at the rear: it accelerated the railcar to setting the land speed record for a petrol powered rail vehicle. Only a single example was ever built, which due to safety concerns remained out of service and was finally dismantled in 1939.


History.

An early stretcher, likely made of wicker over a frame, appears in a manuscript from c.1380. Simple stretchers were common with militaries right through the middle of the 20th century.

Gurney.

Generally spelled "gurney", but also "guerney" or "girney". The first usage of the term for a wheeled stretcher is unclear, but it is believed to have been derived from Pacific Coast slang. Its use in a hospital context was established by the 1930s.

Classification.

EMS stretchers used in ambulances have wheels that makes transportation over pavement easier, and have a lock inside the ambulance and straps to secure the patient during transport. An integral lug on the stretcher locks into a sprung latch within the ambulance in order to prevent movement during transport. Modern stretchers may also have battery-powered hydraulics to raise and collapse the legs automatically. This eases the workload on EMS personnel, who are statistically at high risk of back injury from repetitive raising and lowering of patients. Specialized bariatric stretchers are also available, which feature a wider frame and higher weight capacity for heavier patients. Stretchers are usually covered with a disposable sheet or wrapping, and are cleaned after each use to prevent the spread of infection. Shelves, hooks and poles for medical equipment and intravenous medication are also frequently included.  Standard stretchers have several adjustments. The bed can be raised or lowered to facilitate patient transfer. The head of the stretcher can be raised so that the patient is in a sitting position (especially important for those in respiratory distress) or lowered flat in order to perform CPR, or for patients with suspected spinal injury who must be transported on a spinal board. The feet can be raised to what is called the Trendelenburg position, indicated for patients in shock.  Some manufacturers have begun to offer hybrid devices that combine the functionality of a stretcher, a recliner chair, and a treatment or procedural table into one device.

Wheeled stretchers.

For ambulances, a collapsible wheeled stretcher, or gurney, is a type of stretcher on a variable-height wheeled frame. Normally, an integral lug on the stretcher locks into a sprung latch within the ambulance in order to prevent movement during transport, often referred to as antlers due to their shape. It is usually covered with a disposable sheet and cleaned after each patient in order to prevent the spread of infection. Its key value is to facilitate moving the patient and sheet onto a fixed bed or table on arrival at the emergency department. Both types may have straps to secure the patient.

A stretcher, litter, or pram is an apparatus used for moving patients who require medical care. A basic type (cot or litter) must be carried by two or more people. A wheeled stretcher (known as a gurney, trolley, bed or cart) is often equipped with variable height frames, wheels, tracks, or skids. In American English, a wheeled stretcher can also be referred to as a gurney.


History.

The oldest systematic record of the plants was in 1692, when Van Rheede tot Drakenstein published descriptions of two plants. The name ""Amorphophallus"" was first mentioned in 1834 by the Dutch botanist Blume. Between 1876 and 1911, Engler merged a number of other genera into "Amorphophallus", with a final monograph published in 1911.often referred to as purple aki.

Distribution.

These are typical lowland plants, growing in the tropical and subtropical zones of the paleotropics, from West Africa to the Pacific Islands. None of them are found in the Americas although a remarkably similar but not closely related genus, "Dracontium", has evolved there. Most species are endemic. They grow preferentially on disturbed grounds, such as secondary forests.

Description.

These small to massive plants grow from a subterranean tuber. "Amorphophallus" tubers vary greatly from species to species, from the quite uniformly globose tuber of "A. konjac" to the elongated tubers of "A. longituberosus" and "A. macrorhizus" to the bizarre clustered rootstock of "A. coaetaneus". From the top of this tuber a single leaf, which can be several metres across in larger species, is produced atop a trunk-like petiole followed, on maturity, by a single inflorescence. This leaf consists of a vertical leaf stalk and a horizontal blade, which may consist of a number of small leaflets. The leaf lasts one growing season. The peduncle (the primary flower stalk) can be long or short.  As is typical of the Arum family, these species develop an inflorescence consisting of an elongate or ovate spathe (a sheathing bract) which usually envelops the spadix (a flower spike with a fleshy axis). The spathe can have different colors, but mostly brownish-purple or whitish-green. On the inside, they contain ridges or warts, functioning as insect traps.  The plants are monoecious. The spadix has tiny flowers: female flowers, no more than a pistil, at the bottom, then male flowers, actually a group of stamens, and then a blank sterile area. This last part, called 'the appendix', consists of sterile flowers, called staminodes, and can be especially large. There is no corolla.  Once the spathe opens, pollination must happen the same day. In many species, the inflorescence emits a scent of decaying flesh in order to attract insects, though a number of species give off a pleasant odor. Through a number of ingenious insect traps, pollinating insects are kept inside the spathe to deposit pollen on the female flowers, which stay receptive for only one day, while the male flowers are still closed. These open the next day, but by then the female flowers are no longer receptive and so self-pollination is avoided. The male flowers shower the trapped insects with pollen. Once the insects escape, they can then pollinate another flower. "Amorphophallus" species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species including "Palpifer sexnotatus" and "Palpifer sordida".  The pollinated flowers then develop a globose berry as a fruit. These can be red, orange-red, white, white and yellow, or blue.

Notable species.

The species "Amorphophallus titanum", 'corpse flower' or titan arum, is the world's largest unbranched inflorescence, with a height of up to and a width of. After an over tall flower opened at Chicago Botanical Gardens on September 29, 2015, thousands lined up to see and smell it. The floriculturalist described it smelling "like roadkill, a barnyard, a dirty diaper, very strong, a little bit of mothball smell too". Native to the Indonesian rainforest it takes 10 years to blossom. Dubbed "Alice" its bloom was broadcast via live webcam. It is one of two plants at the Botanical Garden, which kept open until 2 am on September 30 to accommodate visitors.  A runner-up is "Amorphophallus gigas", which is taller, but has a somewhat smaller flower.  "Amorphophallus konjac" tubers are used to make, a Japanese thickening agent and edible jelly containing glucomannan.  Some species are called voodoo lily, as are some species of "Typhonium" (also in the Araceae).

Amorphophallus (from Ancient Greek, "without form, misshapen" + "phallos", "penis", referring to the shape of the prominent spadix) is a large genus of some 200 tropical and subtropical tuberous herbaceous plants from the "Arum" family (Araceae), native to Asia, Africa, Australia and various oceanic islands. A few species are edible as "famine foods" after careful preparation to remove irritating chemicals.


Historical background.

The earliest computers were programmed in their native assembly language, which were inherently reflective, as these original architectures could be programmed by defining instructions as data and using self-modifying code. As programming moved to compiled higher-level languages such as Algol, Cobol, and Fortran (but also Pascal and C and many other languages), this reflective ability largely disappeared until programming languages with reflection built into their type systems appeared.  Brian Cantwell Smith's 1982 doctoral dissertation introduced the notion of computational reflection in procedural programming languages and the notion of the meta-circular interpreter as a component of 3-Lisp.

Uses.

Reflection helps programmers make generic software libraries to display data, process different formats of data, perform serialization or deserialization of data for communication, or do bundling and unbundling of data for containers or bursts of communication.  Effective use of reflection almost always requires a plan: A design framework, encoding description, object library, a map of a database or entity relations.  Reflection makes a language more suited to network-oriented code. For example, it assists languages such as Java to operate well in networks by enabling libraries for serialization, bundling and varying data formats. Languages without reflection (e.g. C) have to use auxiliary compilers, e.g. for Abstract Syntax Notation, to produce code for serialization and bundling.  Reflection can be used for observing and modifying program execution at runtime. A reflection-oriented program component can monitor the execution of an enclosure of code and can modify itself according to a desired goal related to that enclosure. This is typically accomplished by dynamically assigning program code at runtime.  In object-oriented programming languages such as Java, reflection allows "inspection" of classes, interfaces, fields and methods at runtime without knowing the names of the interfaces, fields, methods at compile time. It also allows "instantiation" of new objects and "invocation" of methods.  Reflection is often used as part of software testing, such as for the runtime creation/instantiation of mock objects.  Reflection is also a key strategy for metaprogramming.  In some object-oriented programming languages, such as C# and Java, reflection can be used to bypass member accessibility rules. For C#-properties this can be achieved by writing directly onto the (usually invisible) backing field of a non-public property. It is also possible to find non-public methods of classes and types and manually invoke them. This works for project-internal files as well as external libraries (.Net-assemblies and Java-archives).

Implementation.

A language supporting reflection provides a number of features available at runtime that would otherwise be difficult to accomplish in a lower-level language. Some of these features are the abilities to:  These features can be implemented in different ways. In MOO, reflection forms a natural part of everyday programming idiom. When verbs (methods) are called, various variables such as "verb" (the name of the verb being called) and "this" (the object on which the verb is called) are populated to give the context of the call. Security is typically managed by accessing the caller stack programmatically: Since "callers"() is a list of the methods by which the current verb was eventually called, performing tests on "callers"()[0] (the command invoked by the original user) allows the verb to protect itself against unauthorised use.  Compiled languages rely on their runtime system to provide information about the source code. A compiled Objective-C executable, for example, records the names of all methods in a block of the executable, providing a table to correspond these with the underlying methods (or selectors for these methods) compiled into the program. In a compiled language that supports runtime creation of functions, such as Common Lisp, the runtime environment must include a compiler or an interpreter.  Reflection can be implemented for languages not having built-in reflection facilities by using a program transformation system to define automated source-code changes.

Examples.

The following code snippets create an instance foo of class Foo and invoke its method PrintHello. For each programming language, normal and reflection-based call sequences are shown.

C#.

The following is an example in C#:  // Without reflection Foo foo = new Foo(); foo.PrintHello();  // With reflection Object foo = Activator.CreateInstance("complete.classpath.and.Foo"); MethodInfo method = foo.GetType().GetMethod("PrintHello"); method.Invoke(foo, null);

Delphi.

This Delphi example assumes that a TFoo class has been declared in a unit called Unit1:  uses RTTI, Unit1;  procedure WithoutReflection; var begin end;  procedure WithReflection; var begin end;

eC.

The following is an example in eC:  // Without reflection Foo foo { }; foo.hello();  // With reflection Class fooClass = eSystem_FindClass(__thisModule, "Foo"); Instance foo = eInstance_New(fooClass); Method m = eClass_FindMethod(fooClass, "hello", fooClass.module); ((void (*)())(void *)m.function)(foo);

ECMAScript.

The following is an example in ECMAScript, and therefore also applies to JavaScript and ActionScript:  // Without reflection new Foo().hello()  // With reflection  // assuming that Foo resides in this new this['Foo']()['hello']()  // or without assumption new (eval('Foo'))()['hello']()  // or simply eval('new Foo().hello()')  // Using ECMAScript 2015's new Reflect class: Reflect.construct(Foo, [])['hello']()

Go.

The following is an example in Go: import "reflect"  // Without reflection f.Hello()  // With reflection fT := reflect.TypeOf(Foo{}) fV := reflect.New(fT)  m := fV.MethodByName("Hello") if m.IsValid() {

Java.

The following is an example in Java:  import java.lang.reflect.Method;  // Without reflection Foo foo = new Foo(); foo.hello();  // With reflection try {  } catch (Exception e) {

Objective-C.

The following is an example in Objective-C, implying either the OpenStep or Foundation Kit framework is used:  // Foo class. @interface Foo : NSObject - (void)hello; @end  // Sending "hello" to a Foo instance without reflection. Foo *obj = [[Foo alloc] init]; [obj hello];  // Sending "hello" to a Foo instance with reflection. id obj = [[NSClassFromString(@"Foo") alloc] init]; [obj performSelector: @selector(hello)];

Perl.

The following is an example in [[Perl (programming language)|Perl]]: my $foo = Foo->new; $foo->hello;  Foo->new->hello;  my $class = "Foo" my $constructor = "new"; my $method = "hello";  my $f = $class->$constructor; $f->$method;  $class->$constructor->$method;  eval "new Foo->hello;";

PHP.

The following is an example in [[PHP]]:  // Without reflection $foo = new Foo(); $foo->hello();  // With reflection, using Reflections API $reflector = new ReflectionClass('Foo'); $foo = $reflector->newInstance(); $hello = $reflector->getMethod('hello'); $hello->invoke($foo);

Python.

The following is an example in [[Python (programming language)|Python]]:  obj = Foo() obj.hello()  obj = globals()['Foo']() getattr(obj, 'hello')()  eval('Foo().hello()')

R.

The following is an example in [[R (programming language)|R]]:  obj <- foo() hello(obj)  the.class <- "foo" the.method <- "hello" obj <- do.call(the.class, list()) do.call(the.method, alist(obj))

Ruby.

The following is an example in [[Ruby (Programming Language)|Ruby]]:  obj = Foo.new obj.hello  class_name = "Foo" method_name = :hello obj = Object.const_get(class_name).new obj.send method_name  eval "Foo.new.hello"

Xojo.

The following is an example using [[Xojo]]: 'Without reflection Dim fooInstance As New Foo fooInstance.PrintHello 'With reflection Dim classInfo As Introspection.Typeinfo = GetTypeInfo(Foo) Dim constructors() As Introspection.ConstructorInfo = classInfo.GetConstructors Dim fooInstance As Foo = constructors(0).Invoke Dim methods() As Introspection.MethodInfo = classInfo.GetMethods For Each m As Introspection.MethodInfo In methods Next

External links.

[[Category:Programming constructs]] [[Category:Articles with example Python code]]

In computer science, reflection is the ability of a process to examine, introspect, and modify its own structure and behavior.


Name.

In Serbian, the town is known as "Sremski Karlovci" (Сремски Карловци), in Croatian as "Srijemski Karlovci", in German as "Karlowitz" or "Carlowitz", in Hungarian as "Karlóca", in Polish as "Karłowice", in Romanian as "Carloviț" and in Turkish as "Karlofça". The former Serbian name used for the town was "Karlovci" (Карловци), which is also used today, albeit unofficially. The name of the town in Serbian is in the plural, and therefore it is grammatically correct to refer to it as ""Sremski Karlovci are"" instead of ""Sremski Karlovci is"". A hypothetical singular version of the name would be "Sremski Karlovac".

Geography.

The town is situated along the Danube River in the geographical region of Syrmia. The town of Sremski Karlovci is the only settlement in the municipality.

History.

Ancient, medieval and early modern history.

In ancient times, the Romans maintained a small fortress at this location. The town was first mentioned in historical documents in 1308 with the name "Karom". The medieval fortress of Karom was built on the ruins of the ancient Roman one. Until 1521, the Karom was a possession of the Hungarian noble families, of whom the most well known were Báthory and Morović.  In 1521, Turkish military commander Bali-beg conquered Karom under the Ottoman Empire's invasion of Europe. During the next 170 years, the town was part of the Ottoman Empire. The Slavic name for the town - "Karlovci", was first recorded in 1532/33. During Ottoman rule, the town was still predominately Serbian in ethnicity, with the smaller part of population composed of Muslims. According to the Ottoman defterler from 1545, the population of Karlovci numbered 547 Christian (Serb) houses. The city also had three Orthodox churches and a monastery. From 1557, it belonged to "Eparchy of Belgrade and Srem" of the Serbian Patriarchate of Peć.

Habsburg Monarchy.

Between 16 November 1698 and 26 January 1699, the town of Karlovci was the site of a congress that ended the hostilities between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League, a coalition of various European powers including Habsburg Monarchy, Poland, Venice and Russia. The congress produced the Treaty of Karlowitz. It was the first time a round table was used in international politics.  After this peace treaty, the town was considered part of the Habsburg Monarchy and was included in its Military Frontier. According to 1702 data, the population was composed of 215 Orthodox and 13 Catholic houses. By 1753, the population of the town numbered 3,843 people, of which 3,110 were classified as ethnic Serbs.  The town was the spiritual, political and cultural center of the Serbs in the Habsburg Monarchy. The Metropolitan of the Serbian Orthodox Church resided here. In the early 21st century, the Serbian Patriarch retains the title of Metropolitan of Karlovci.  The town had the earliest Serb (and Slavic in general) gymnasium (Serbian: "gimnazija"/, French: "lycée"), founded on 3 August 1791. Three years after this, an Orthodox seminary was founded here. It was the second-oldest Orthodox seminary in the world (after the Spiritual Academy in Kiev), and it still operates.  At the Serb National Assembly in Karlovci in May 1848, Serbs declared the unification of the regions of Srem, Banat, Bačka, and Baranja (including parts of the Military Frontier) into the province of Serbian Vojvodina. In the late 18th century, the Habsburg Monarchy had invited numerous settlers from Bavaria and southern Germany into some of these regions along the Danube, in order to repopulate the area and re-establish agriculture after the effects of the Ottoman invasion and disease. The Germans, who became known as Danube-Swabians, were allowed to keep their language and Catholic religion. For more than a century, they had fairly autonomous settlements.  The first capital of Serbian Vojvodina was in Karlovci; it was later moved to Zemun, Veliki Bečkerek, and Temišvar. At the same time the title of the Orthodox Metropolitan of Karlovci was raised to that of Patriarch.  When Serbian Vojvodina was in 1849 organized as the new province named Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar, the town of Karlovci was not included into this province. It was returned to the administration of the Military Frontier (a Petrovaradin regiment that was part of Slavonian Krajina). With the abolition in 1881 of the Military Frontier, the town was included in Syrmia County of Croatia-Slavonia, the autonomous kingdom within Kingdom of Hungary and Austria-Hungary.  An Orthodox Patriarchate of Karlovci operated in Karlovci until 1920, after World War I. At that time, the position was joined with the Metropolitanate of Belgrade to form the united Serbian Orthodox Church, in what was then the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.

Yugoslavia (1918–92).

In 1918, the town became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (also known as the Kingdom of Yugoslavia). In the summer of 1921, the town′s former palace of the Patriarch of Karlovci was used as the residence of Russian metropolitan Antony (Khrapovitsky). Together with some refugee bishops from Russia, he organised what a few years later was instituted as the Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (ROCOR). (Some critics called this ecclesiastical body the "Karlovatsky Synod" (), or ′′Karlovatsky group′′, also known in English as Synod of Karlovci.)  In 1922, the town became the headquarters of Russian White émigrés under the leadership of General Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangell. In 1924 he set up the Russian All-Military Union, designed to include all Russian military émigrés the world over. Many emigres went to western Europe, especially France, and to the United States. A monument to Gen Wrangel, sculpted by Vasiliy Azemsha, was unveiled in September 2007 in Karlovci.).  Between 1929 and 1941, the town was part of Danube Banovina, a province of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. During World War II (1941–1944), after Nazi Germany's invasion of eastern Europe, the town was occupied by forces of the Axis Powers. It was attached to the Independent State of Croatia. During that time its name was changed to "Hrvatski Karlovci". After the end of the war, most ethnic Germans were expelled from eastern Europe. The town became part of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, Serbia.  Between 1980 and 1989, Sremski Karlovci was one of the seven municipalities of the city of Novi Sad. Since the break-up of Yugoslavia, it has been considered part of Serbia.

Demographics.

According to the 2011 census, the municipality of Sremski Karlovci has 8,750 inhabitants.  Ethnic composition of the municipality of Sremski Karlovci:

Economy.

The following table gives a preview of total number of employed people per their core activity (as of 2017):

Politics.

Until 1989 Sremski Karlovci formed one of the urban municipalities of the city of Novi Sad. After Novi Sad merged six of its municipalities into one "Novi Sad municipality", the municipality of Sremski Karlovci held a referendum to separate from Novi Sad, and established a separate municipality independent from Novi Sad. Although Sremski Karlovci lies in Syrmia region, the municipality belongs in South Bačka District, and not in the Syrmia District, because of its close proximity to Novi Sad.  In the Serbian local elections held on 24 April 2016, Sremski Karlovci elected a new municipality parliament, ending the rule of the DS in the town. Nenad Milenković, of the Serbian progressive Party, was elected as the new mayor of the municipal parliament.

International relations.

Twin towns – sister cities.

Sremski Karlovci is twinned with:

Sremski Karlovci (,, ) is a town and municipality located in the South Bačka District of the autonomous province of Vojvodina, Serbia. It is situated on the banks of the Danube, from Novi Sad. According to the 2011 census results, it has a population of 8,750 inhabitants. The town has traditionally been known as the seat of the Serbian Orthodox Church in the Habsburg Monarchy. It was the political and cultural capital of Serbian Vojvodina after the May Assembly and during the Revolution in 1848.


Industrial know-how.

In the context of industrial property (now generally viewed as intellectual property or IP), know-how is a component in the transfer of technology in national and international environments, co-existing with or separate from other IP rights such as patents, trademarks and copyright and is an economic asset. When it is transferred by itself, know-how should be converted into a trade secret before transfer in a legal agreement.  Know-how can be defined as "confidentially held", or better, "closely held" information in the form of unpatented inventions, formulae, designs, drawings, procedures and methods, together with accumulated skills and experience in the hands of a licensor firm's professional personnel which could assist a transferee/licensee of the object product in its manufacture and use and bring to it a competitive advantage. It can be further supported with privately maintained expert knowledge on the operation, maintenance, use/application of the object product and of its sale, usage or disposition.  The inherent proprietary value of know-how is embedded in the legal protection afforded to trade secrets in general law, particularly, case law. Know-how, in short, is "private intellectual property" which can be said to be a form of precursor to other intellectual property rights. The "trade secret law" varies from country to country, unlike the case for patents, trademarks and copyright for which there are formal "conventions" through which subscribing countries grant the same protection to the "property" as the others; examples of which are the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property and the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), under United Nations, a supportive organization designed "to encourage creative activity, [and] to promote the protection of intellectual property throughout the world".  The World Trade Organization defined a trade secret by the following criteria:  For purposes of illustration, the following may be a provision in a license agreement serving to define know-how:-

Show-how.

"Show-how" is a diluted form of know-how since even a walk-through of a manufacturing plant provides valuable insights to the client's representatives into how a product is made, assembled, or processed. Show-how is also used to demonstrate technique.  An enlarged program of show-how is the typical content of "technical assistance agreements" where the licensor firm, if one is involved, provides a substantial training program to the client's personnel on-site and off-site. Such training does not imply any grant of "license".

Disclosure agreements.

There are two sets of agreements associated with the transfer of know-how agreement: (a) the disclosure and (b) the non-disclosure agreements, which are not separately parts of the principal know-how agreement.  The initial need for "disclosure" is due to the requirement of a licensee firm to know what is the specific, unique, or general "content" of the know-how that a licensor firm possesses that promises value to the licensee on entering into a contract. Disclosure also aids the potential licensee in selecting among competitive offers, if any. Such disclosures are made by licensors only under non-disclosure or confidentiality agreements in which there are express undertakings that should the ultimate license not materialize, the firm to whom the disclosure is made will not reveal, or by any manner apply, any part of the disclosed knowledge which is not in the public domain or previously known to the firm receiving the information.  Non-disclosure agreements are undertaken by those who receive confidential information from the licensee, relating to licensed know-how, so as to perform their tasks. Among them are the personnel of engineering firms who construct the plant for the licensee or those who are key employees of the licensee who have detailed access to disclosed data, etc. to administer their functions in operating the know-how-based plant. These are also in the nature of confidentiality agreements and carry the definition of know-how, in full or truncated part, on a need-to-know basis.

Employee knowledge.

Under English law, employees have a duty of good faith and fidelity until their employment ceases whereby only the former still applies.  It is sometimes unclear what forms "know how" that was divulged to an employee in order to carry out their functions and then becomes their own knowledge rather than a secret of their previous employer. Some employers will specify in their employment contracts that a "grace period" will apply to know how that starts when a person leaves them as an employee.  Specifying exactly what information this includes would increase the likelihood of it being upheld in court in the event of a breach, i.e. saying "when your employment contract is terminated, you must keep all information about your previous employment with us secret for four years" would be difficult to support because that person has to be able to use the skills and knowledge they learnt to gain employment elsewhere.

Know-how (or knowhow, or procedural knowledge) is a term for practical knowledge on how to accomplish something, as opposed to "know-what" (facts), "know-why" (science), or "know-who" (communication). It is also often referred to as street smarts (sometimes conceived as opposed to book smarts), and a person employing their street smarts as "street wise". Know-how is often tacit knowledge, which means that it can be difficult to transfer to another person by means of writing it down or verbalising it. The opposite of tacit knowledge is explicit knowledge.


History.

According to Byzantine historian Andrew Ekonomou, the church was founded in the 6th century during the Byzantine rule of the city and was placed in the centre of the Greek community in Rome. The Greek part of the city was referred to as the 'Schola Graeca'. The church was dedicated to the Virgin Mary, who was greatly adored as Theotokos (Mother of God) in contemporary Constantinople. The name 'Cosmedin' came from the Latinization of the Greek word κοσμίδιον (cosmidion) that derives from the Greek word κόσμος, which means pure or elegant.  The church was built in the 8th century, during the Byzantine Papacy, over the remains of the "Templum Herculis Pompeiani" in the Forum Boarium and of the "Statio annonae", one of the food distribution centres of ancient Rome (another is to be found at the Theatre of Balbus). A deaconry was a place where charitable distributions were given to the poor, and it is appropriate that such an institution would have been built near or at a station of the Roman "annona".  An eighth century inscription in the church records that Eustathius, the last Byzantine duke of Rome (ca. 752-756) gave a gift of extensive properties to the church's ministry to the poor. The same inscription also mentions a donation by someone named Georgios and his brother David  Since it was located near many Byzantine structures, in 7th century this church was called "de Schola Graeca", and a close street is still called "della Greca". Greek monks escaping iconoclastic persecutions decorated the church around 782, when pope Adrian I promoted its reconstruction; the church was built with a nave and two aisles and a portico. Because of its beauty, the church received the adjective "cosmedin" (from Greek "kosmidion"), ornate. A sacristy and an oratory dedicated to St. Nicholas were added in the 9th century, by order of Pope Nicholas I, who also built a papal residence, but they were destroyed in the Sack of Rome (1084) by Robert Guiscard's Norman troops.  Santa Maria in Cosmedin was the titular church of Popes Gelasius II and Celestine III, as well as antipope Benedict XIII. Among the former titular cardinal deacons of the church was Reginald Pole, the last Roman Catholic Archbishop of Canterbury.  The inscriptions found in S. Maria in Cosmedin, a valuable source illustrating the history of the Basilica, have been collected and published by Vincenzo Forcella.  A substantial restoration was accomplished in 1118–1124 under Alfanus, "camerarius" of Pope Callixtus II. After being acquired by Benedictines and a period of decay, in 1718 the church was refurbished in the Baroque style, particularly by a new façade, by Giuseppe Sardi. The Baroque additions, however, were removed in the restoration of 1894–1899, together with the coat-of-arms of Pope Clement XI who had sponsored Sardi's work.

Architecture.

In the portico of the church, on the north side, can be found La Bocca della Verità, an ancient sculpture thought to be a drain covering. A legend states that, if a person places his hand inside the mouth ("bocca") and then swears falsely, the mouth will close and sever the hand. There is no attested case of such an event taking place.  The church's bell tower is the tallest medieval belfry in Rome.  The current interior of S. Maria in Cosmedin has a nave with two aisles: these are divided by four pilasters and eighteen ancient columns. Built into the side walls, some of the old columns of the "Statio Annonae" are visible. Other fragments of the ancient building can be seen in the crypt. Paintings from the 8th-12th centuries, in three layers, are preserved in the upper part of the nave and in the triumphal arch. The church has a very fine Cosmatesque pavement. The "schola cantorum" is from the 13th century, while the main altar is a red granite piece from 1123. The Easter candelabrum is also from the 13th century.  The sacristy houses a precious 8th-century mosaic fragment brought here from the Old St. Peter's Basilica. Of the 18th-century restoration, the Crucifix Chapel and the Baptistry can be seen today.  In a side altar on the left of the church is kept the flower crowned skull attributed to St Valentine.

In popular culture.

A scene from the 1953 romantic comedy movie "Roman Holiday" was filmed in Santa Maria in Cosmedin. In the scene, "Joe" played by Gregory Peck shocks the "Anya/Princess Ann" played by Audrey Hepburn by pretending to lose his hand in the Bocca della Verità. Likewise it was depicted as the church inside the unnamed abbey in 2019 mini-series adaptation of the novel Name of the Rose.

The Basilica of Saint Mary in Cosmedin ( or "de Schola Graeca") is a minor basilica church in Rome, Italy. It is located in the rione of Ripa.


Cultural history.

The majority of Chukchi reside within Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, but some also reside in the neighbouring Sakha Republic to the west, Magadan Oblast to the southwest, and Koryak Autonomous Okrug to the south. Some Chukchi also reside in other parts of Russia, as well as in Europe and North America. The total number of Chukchi in the world slightly exceeds 16,000.  The Chukchi are traditionally divided into the "Maritime Chukchi", who had settled homes on the coast and lived primarily from sea mammal hunting, and the "Reindeer Chukchi", who lived as nomads in the inland tundra region, migrating seasonally with their herds of reindeer. The Russian name "Chukchi" is derived from the Chukchi word "Chauchu" ("rich in reindeer"), which was used by the 'Reindeer Chukchi' to distinguish themselves from the 'Maritime Chukchi,' called "Anqallyt" ("the sea people"). Their name for a member of the Chukchi ethnic group as a whole is "Luoravetlan" (literally 'genuine person').  In Chukchi religion, every object, whether animate or inanimate, is assigned a spirit. This spirit can be either harmful or benevolent. Some of Chukchi myths reveal a dualistic cosmology.  After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the state-run farms were reorganized and nominally privatized. This process was ultimately destructive to the village-based economy in Chukotka. The region has still not fully recovered. Many rural Chukchi, as well as Russians in Chukotka's villages, have survived in recent years only with the help of direct humanitarian aid. Some Chukchi have attained university degrees, becoming poets, writers, politicians, teachers and doctors.

Subsistence.

In prehistoric times, the Chukchi engaged in nomadic hunter gatherer modes of existence. In current times, there continue to be some elements of subsistence hunting, including that of polar bears, marine mammals and reindeer. However, there are some differences between the traditional lifestyles of the coastal and inland Chuckchi. The former (coastal Chukchi) were largely settled fishers and hunters (mainly of sea mammals). The inland Chukchi were partial reindeer herders.  Beginning in the 1920s, the Soviets organized the economic activities of both coastal and inland Chukchi and eventually established 28 collectively run, state-owned enterprises in Chukotka. All of these were based on reindeer herding, with the addition of sea mammal hunting and walrus ivory carving in the coastal areas. Chukchi were educated in Soviet schools and today are almost 100% literate and fluent in the Russian language. Only a portion of them today work directly in reindeer herding or sea mammal hunting, and continue to live a nomadic lifestyle in yaranga tents.

Relations with Russians.

Russians first began contacting the Chukchi when they reached the Kolyma River (1643) and the Anadyr River (1649). The route from Nizhnekolymsk to the fort at Anadyrsk along the southwest of the main Chukchi area became a major trade route. The overland journey from Yakutsk to Anadyrsk took about six months. The Chukchi were generally ignored for the next fifty years because they were warlike and did not provide furs or other valuable commodities to tax on. Armed skirmishes flared up around 1700 when the Russians began operating in the Kamchatka Peninsula and needed to protect their communications from the Chukchi and Koryak. The first attempt to conquer them was made in 1701. Other expeditions were sent out in 1708, 1709 and 1711 with considerable bloodshed but little success. War was renewed in 1729, when the Chukchi defeated an expedition from Okhotsk and killed its commander. Command passed to Major Dmitry Pavlutsky, who adopted very destructive tactics, burning, killing, driving off reindeer, and capturing women and children. In 1742, the government at Saint Petersburg ordered another war in which the Chukchi and Koryak were to be "totally extirpated". The war (1744–7) was conducted with similar brutality and ended when Pavlutsky was killed in the March of 1747. It is said that the Chukchi kept his head as a trophy for a number of years. The Russians waged war again in the 1750s.  In 1762, Saint Petersburg adopted a different policy. Maintaining the fort at Anadyrsk had cost some 1,380,000 rubles, but the area had returned only 29,150 rubles in taxes, the government abandoned Anadyrsk in 1764. The Chukchi, no longer provoked, began to trade peacefully with the Russians. From 1788, they participated in an annual trade fair on the lower Kolyma. Another was established in 1775 on the Angarka, a tributary of the Bolshoy Anyuy River. This trade declined in the late 19th century when American whalers and others began landing goods on the coast. The first Orthodox missionaries entered Chukchi territory some time after 1815.

Soviet period.

Apart from four Orthodox schools, there were no schools in the Chukchi land until the late 1920s. In 1926, there were 72 literate Chukchis. The Soviets introduced a Latin alphabet in 1932, replacing it with Cyrillic in 1937. In 1934, 71% of the Chukchis were nomadic. In 1941, 90% of the reindeer were still privately owned. So-called kulaks roamed with their private herds up into the 1950s. After 1990 and the fall of the Soviet Union, there was a major exodus of Russians from the area.  Population estimates from Forsyth:

The Chukchi, or Chukchee (, ), are an indigenous people inhabiting the Chukchi Peninsula and the shores of the Chukchi Sea and the Bering Sea region of the Arctic Ocean within the Russian Federation. They speak the Chukchi language. The Chukchi originated from the people living around the Okhotsk Sea. According to recent genomic research, the Chukchi are the closest Asiatic relatives of the indigenous peoples of the Americas.