Early life.

Bican was born in Vienna to František and Ludmila Bican. He was the second of three children. František was from Sedlice in Southern Bohemia, and Ludmila was Viennese Czech. Josef's father František was a footballer who played for Hertha Vienna. He fought in World War I and returned uninjured. However, František was to die at the age of just 30 during 1921 because he refused an operation to treat a kidney injury sustained in a football match. His mother worked in a restaurant kitchen. The family's poverty meant that Bican had to play football without shoes, which helped him improve his ball control skills. Bican attended the Jan Amos Komenský school, a Czech school in Vienna. Four years after his father's death in 1925, twelve-year-old Bican started to play for the Hertha Vienna junior team, Hertha Vienna II. When he was 18, Bican was spotted by Rapid Vienna, who were a big club in the city at the time.

Club career.

When Bican first joined Rapid, he received 150 schillings, but, by the age of 20, Rapid wanted to keep him so much that they paid him 600 schillings.  During 1937, Bican left Vienna to join Czech club Slavia Prague. He played for Slavia throughout World War II, while many of his football rivals were at war. During eight league seasons he would score 328 goals, including 57 in 26 matches one particular season. Three times in his career, Bican scored seven goals in a game. In a 1939–40 league match against Zlín, Bican found the net seven times as Slavia ran out 10–1 winners. During the 1940–41 season, Bican matched his feat of the previous season, again against Zlín, scoring seven times, as Slavia won by a 12–1 scoreline. It was 1947–48 before Bican managed his third seven-goal match, as Slavia defeated České Budějovice in a game which finished 15–1.  He was, in the leagues that he played, the top-scorer 12 times during his 27-year career and Europe's top scorer in five consecutive seasons, from 1939–40 to 1943–44 while the most of players and the physically fit young men were in the war.  In the devastated Europe after the war, several of Europe's biggest clubs should have wanted Bican. Juventus offered him handsome terms to join them, but he refused, supposedly after he was advised that Communists might control Italy. He stayed in Prague, but the Communists came to power there during 1948. Bican refused to join the Communist Party, just as he had refused to join the Nazi Party in Austria.  Bican tried to improve his standing with the Communists by joining steel works Železárny Vítkovice. During 1951, he joined FC Hradec Králové, but, on 1 May 1953, the Communist Party forced him to leave the city and, therefore, the club. After being forced to leave, he returned to Slavia Prague, or, as it was known then, Dynamo Prague. He finally retired from playing, still at Slavia, at the age of 42 during 1955. He was the oldest player in the league at that time.

International career.

On 29 November 1933, aged 20 years and 64 days, Bican made his debut for Austria in a 2–2 draw against Scotland. He later played for them at the 1934 World Cup, when the Austrian "Wunderteam" reached the semifinals. His solitary goal in the tournament came in extra-time in the Austrians' 3–2 win over France.  At the time Bican was playing for Slavia Prague, he applied for Czechoslovak citizenship. However, when he eventually became a Czechoslovak citizen, he discovered that a clerical error meant he couldn't play at the World Cup during 1938. In total, he scored 34 goals in 45 international matches for 3 teams (Austria, Czechoslovakia and Bohemia & Moravia). His final national team appearance was for Czechoslovakia in a 3–1 defeat against Bulgaria on 4 September 1949.  However, his success did have a disadvantage. Other members of the team became jealous of the tall, handsome Bican's success, and he was sometimes called abusive names, such as "Austrian bastard".

Life after retirement.

During the spring of 1968, Bican was told that he would be allowed to have a coaching job abroad. He impressed the Belgian team Tongeren and they hired him as a coach, where he had some success taking them from Division 4 to Division 2.  Around this time, Pelé was getting ready for his 1000th goal and many journalists were searching for another player who had scored a thousand goals. Former Austrian player Franz "Bimbo" Binder suggested Bican, who he claimed had scored 5000 goals. When reporters asked Bican why he hadn't made more of a fuss about his goalscoring feats, he simply said, "who'd have believed me if I said I'd scored five times as many goals as Pelé?" However, to score this 5000 goals he should have kept an average of 185 goals/year along all his 27 years of career, but only counting goals in official matches, Bican scored 805. Bican's goal-scoring feats are often forgotten because he did not make a big fuss about it in the media. His record is often overshadowed by Pele 1283 goal record. People often don't take into account that 526 of Pele's goals were from friendlies and unofficial matches, these goals are not tallied for players, meaning that even Pele's 1283 goal record may have been surpassed but not recorded.  Josef "Pepi" Bican spent the last few months of his life in hospital with heart problems. He had hoped to be home for Christmas, but died less than 2 weeks before that, at the age of 88.

Josef "Pepi" Bican (25 September 1913 – 12 December 2001) was a Czech-Austrian professional footballer who played as a striker. He is the most prolific goalscorer of all time in league matches, first level championships matches, official matches and total matches (considering only players who mostly played at the highest level and taking into account goals scored in official matches played with national teams at all age levels and clubs in all divisions) according to Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation (RSSSF). RSSSF estimates that he scored more than 600 league goals, 537 first level championships goals, more than 805 goals in official matches and more than 1468 goals in total matches (data is missing regarding the 1952 Czech Second Division). The International Federation of Football History & Statistics (IFFHS) awarded Bican a Medal as one of the most prolific goalscorers of the last century.


Birth and family.

Princess Thyra was born on 29 September 1853 at the Yellow Palace in Copenhagen as the third daughter and fifth child of Prince Christian and Princess Louise of Denmark. As a child, she shared a bedroom with her elder sisters, Alexandra and Dagmar, and was taught how to sew and knit her own clothes and socks. Her family had been relatively obscure but happy until her father, Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, was chosen with the consent of the great powers to succeed his childless distant cousin, Frederick VII, to the Danish throne. Just two months before Thyra's birth, the new Act of Succession had been passed and Prince Christian given the title of Prince of Denmark.

Early life.

In 1863, when Thyra was 10 years old, King Frederick VII died, and her father succeeded to the throne of Denmark as King Christian IX. Earlier the same year, her brother Vilhelm had been elected King of Greece, and her sister Alexandra had married Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. In 1866, her other sister Dagmar married the Tsarevich of Russia, Alexander.  Thyra was an attractive and gentle young woman, with dark hair and dark blue eyes, and Queen Louise wanted her youngest daughter to make a good marriage as her elder daughters had. Thyra's first suitor was King Willem III of the Netherlands, but as he was thirty-six years older than she was, she rejected him.  In her youth, Thyra had fallen in love with Vilhelm Frimann Marcher, a lieutenant in the cavalry, which resulted in a pregnancy. Her brother George I of Greece suggested that she have the baby in Athens to avoid scandal; the Danish press was told Thyra had been taken ill with jaundice. She gave birth to a girl, Maria, on 8 November 1871 at Schloss Glücksburg, who was adopted by Rasmus and Anne Marie Jørgensen of Odense shortly after birth and renamed Kate; she married in 1902 Frode Pløyen-Holstein and died in 1964. Marcher killed himself on 4 January 1872 after a confrontation with the King.

Marriage.

On 21 December/22 December 1878, she married Crown Prince Ernest Augustus of Hanover, 3rd Duke of Cumberland and Teviotdale, at the chapel of Christiansborg Palace in Copenhagen. Ernst Augustus was the eldest child and only son of King George V of Hanover and his wife, Princess Marie of Saxe-Altenburg.  Ernest Augustus had been born as a Crown Prince of Hanover, but in 1866 his father had been deprived of his throne, when the Kingdom of Hanover was annexed by Prussia after siding with Austria in the Austro-Prussian War.

Later life.

Her husband died on 14 November 1923. Thyra survived him by nine years and died in Gmunden, Upper Austria, on 26 February 1933.

Issue.

The Duke and Duchess of Cumberland had six children:

Princess Thyra of Denmark,, (29 September 1853 – 26 February 1933, in Gmunden) was the youngest daughter and fifth child of Christian IX of Denmark and Louise of Hesse-Kassel. In 1878, she married Ernest Augustus, the exiled heir to the Kingdom of Hanover. As the Kingdom of Hanover had been annexed by Prussia in 1866, she spent most of her life in exile with her husband in Austria.


Early life.

Schäfer was born in Cologne, and even as a young boy, he spent time in the outdoors shooting with an air gun and rearing birds, insects and reptiles. After high school (Abitur 1928 from Mannheim), he worked at Vogelwarten in Denmark and Heligoland. He then joined the University of Göttingen and studied zoology, botany and geology. He was a fan of the Swedish geographer Sven Hedin. He met Hugo Weigold on a study trip to Helgoland, which led him to join Weigold and American Brooke Dolan II from the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences to China in 1930–31. He published "Berge, Buddhas und Bären" ("Mountains, Buddhas and Bears") in 1933, based on the trip and gained wide recognition. In 1934, Dolan invited Schäfer for a second trip into Tibet in 1934, which affected his studies in the University of Göttingen under Professor Alfred Kühn. He then transferred to the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin. He determined the yeti to be a Tibetan bear ("Ursus arctos pruinosus").  Schäfer married in 1937, but his wife died in a hunting accident in November, which affected him for months. He completed his Ph.D. in 1938, based on his studies of the birds of Tibet. Schäfer joined the "Schutzstaffel" in 1933 but, after World War II, he claimed to have been an unwilling recruit who joined only to advance his career.

Expedition.

In 1936, he was appointed "Untersturmführer" in the personal staff, and in 1942 he was promoted to "SS-Sturmbannführer". He led the third expedition to Tibet in 1938-39 under the patronage of Heinrich Himmler, the SS, and various sponsors. As many as 3,300 bird specimens were collected in these expeditions. A film was produced on the expedition titled "Geheimnis Tibet" ("Secret Tibet"). Himmler was personally interested in the project due to various pet pseudo-scientific theories that he subscribed to including ideas such as human origins, and Hanns Hörbiger's Welteislehre ("World Ice Theory").  In July 1934, during his second expedition in Asia, he met the then exiled Panchen Lama, Thubten Chökyi Nyima, at a mountain temple near Hangzhou, China. He describes the Lama as a kindly, sympathetic man who enquired about how far Germany was and whether he had been waylaid by any robbers on the way.  The SS Ahnenerbe Expedition to Tibet during the 1930s was also successful for the German naturalists "Meanwhile, Ernst Schäfer and Bruno Beger, Edmund Geer and Krause carefully packed up the voluminous natural history collection- animal and bird skins; butterflies, bees, ants, wasps and other insect specimens; fragile dried plants for the herbarium; packets of seeds containing one thousand, six hundred varieties of barley, seven hundred varieties of wheat, and seven hundred varieties of oats; not to mention hundreds of seeds from other potentially useful plants." These seeds collected during the Tibetan expeditions were important, as Heinrich Himmler planned to develop hardy new varieties of crops in order to boost the agricultural yields of colonies across the Eastern territories of the Ukraine and Crimea. Himmler ordered the Ahnenerbe to found a teaching and research institute in plant genetics, assigning the task to Dr. Ernst Schäfer, who he found to be an ideal young German zoologist who could also lead the Tibet Expedition. Schäfer set to work with characteristic vigor. He obtained a staff of seven research scientists, including a British prisoner of war, and set up an experimental research station in Lannach, near the city of Graz in Austria. There the new institute went to work, experimenting with samples of grains that Schäfer had acquired from the granaries of the Tibetan nobility.  A statue in a German private collection which has come to be called the "Iron Man" is speculated to have been obtained by Ernst Schafer during the Tibet expedition in 1938 as part of the Tibet mission that was supported by Himmler. There is no proof that this was indeed obtained during the expedition but it has been a subject of considerable speculation. Analysis showed that it was made from iron of meteoric origin, specifically of an ataxite class, an extremely rare type, of meteorite and possibly carved from a piece of the Chinga meteorite. The statue is believed to portray the god Vaisravana. Speculation that it belongs to the pre-Buddhist Bon culture that existed in Asia about 1,000 years ago has been brought into question due to certain incoherent features of clothing and style.  In 1945, Schäfer was awarded the War Merit Cross, 2nd class with Swords. He was made an honorary member of the German ornithologists federation (DO-G) on 7 December 1939, his wedding day, a gift from Erwin Stresemann.

Postwar career.

After the 1939 expedition he returned to Germany and he married Ursula in December. In 1945 Schäfer was interned by Allied Military Government but was exonerated for war crimes in June 1949 and released. In 1950 he moved with his wife and daughter to Venezuela and conducted studies there while also teaching in Maracay and Caracas. From 1949 to 1954 he was a professor in Venezuela, when he returned to Europe to become an adviser to the Belgian King Leopold III. With film-maker Heinz Sielmann, he produced "Herrscher des Urwalds" ("Rulers of the Wild") (1958) in the Congo forests. Schäfer served as the curator of the Department of Natural History at the Lower Saxony State Museum from 1960 until 1970.

Ernst Schäfer (14 March 1910 – 21 July 1992) was a German explorer, hunter and zoologist in the 1930s, specializing in ornithology. His zoological explorations in Tibet served as a cover for his role in the German secret service. He was also a scientific member in the Ahnenerbe and held the rank of an SS-Sturmbannführer.


Description.

"Calocedrus decurrens" is a large tree, typically reaching heights of and a trunk diameter of up to. The largest known tree, located in Klamath National Forest, Siskiyou County, California, is tall with a circumference trunk and a spread. It has a broad conic crown of spreading branches. The bark is orange-brown weathering grayish, smooth at first, becoming fissured and exfoliating in long strips on the lower trunk on old trees.  The foliage is produced in flattened sprays with scale-like leaves long; they are arranged in opposite decussate pairs, with the successive pairs closely then distantly spaced, so forming apparent whorls of four; the facial pairs are flat, with the lateral pairs folded over their bases. The leaves are bright green on both sides of the shoots with only inconspicuous stomata. The foliage, when crushed, gives off an aroma somewhat akin to shoe-polish.  The seed cones are long, pale green to yellow, with four (rarely six) scales arranged in opposite decussate pairs; the outer pair of scales each bears two winged seeds, the inner pair(s) usually being sterile and fused together in a flat plate. The cones turn orange to yellow-brown when mature about 8 months after pollination. The pollen cones are long.

Ecology.

This tree is the preferred host of a wood wasp, "Syntexis libocedrii" a species which lays its eggs in the smoldering wood immediately after a forest fire. The tree is also host to incense-cedar mistletoe ("Phoradendron libocedri"), a parasitic plant which can often be found hanging from its branches.  The incense cedar is one of the most fire and drought tolerant plants in California. Although the tree is killed by hot, stand-replacing crown fire, it spreads rapidly after lower intensity burns. This has given the incense cedar a competitive advantage over other species such as the bigcone Douglas-fir in recent years.

Uses.

The wood is the primary material for wooden pencils, because it is soft and tends to sharpen easily without forming splinters.

Native Americans.

The Native Americans of California used the plant in traditional medicine, basket making, hunting bows, building materials, and to produce fire by friction.  The Maidu Concow tribe name for the plant is hö'-tä (Konkow language).

Cultivation.

"Calocedrus decurrens" is cultivated by plant nurseries as an ornamental tree, for planting in gardens and parks. It is used in traditional, xeriscapic, native plant, and wildlife gardens; and used in designed natural landscaping and habitat restoration projects in California. It is valued for its columnar form and evergreen foliage textures.  The tree is also grown in gardens and parks in cool summer climates, including the Pacific Northwest in the Northwestern United States and British Columbia, eastern Great Britain and continental Northern Europe. In these areas it can develop an especially narrow columnar crown, an unexplained consequence of the cooler climatic conditions that is rare in trees within its warm summer natural range in the California Floristic Province. Other cultivated species from the family Cupressaceae can have similar crown forms. This plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit, as has the cultivar 'Berrima Gold'.

Calocedrus decurrens, with the common names incense cedar and California incense-cedar (syn. "Libocedrus decurrens" Torr.), is a species of conifer native to western North America, with the bulk of the range in the United States, from central western Oregon through most of California and the extreme west of Nevada, and also a short distance into northwest Mexico in northern Baja California. It grows at altitudes of. It is the most widely known species in the genus, and is often simply called 'incense cedar' without the regional qualifier.


Club career.

Early career.

Born in Nantes, Toulalan is a product of the local Nantes youth academy making his first-team debut during the 2001–02 season against Rennes in the annual "Derby Breton", coming on as a substitute in a 3–1 victory. He later made an appearance with the senior team in a UEFA Cup match before being relegated back to the reserves. Over the next two seasons, Toulalan's participation with the first-team was heavily limited. It wasn't until the 2004–05 season where he established himself as a strong midfielder. During this season, Toulalan also scored his only goal for Nantes in a 2–0 win over Strasbourg. Due to his performances, he was named the UNFP Young Player of the Year and also elected to the league's Team of the Year. However, despite Toulalan's impressive performances, Nantes finished one spot short of relegation, in 17th. He proceeded to have another solid season in 2005–06 before opting to move elsewhere.

Olympique Lyonnais.

Following the 2004–05 season, then three-time Ligue 1 champions Lyon were highly interested in Toulalan, offering as much as €10 million for the player's services, though they were rebuffed by Nantes. After the 2005–06 season, the departures of Mahamadou Diarra to Real Madrid and Jérémy Clément to Rangers saw Lyon increase their efforts to sign Toulalan, who they considered a perfect replacement for Diarra. After a week of negotiations, on 17 May 2006 Nantes agreed to a fee of €7 million, while Toulalan agreed to a four-year deal making him Lyon's first summer signing that season. Due to the number 17, which he wore at Nantes, being retired by Lyon out of respect to the late Marc-Vivien Foé, Toulalan was given the number 28 shirt.  Toulalan made his competitive debut for Lyon against his former club Nantes, playing the full 90 minutes in a 3–1 win. He was a key component during the season, helping Lyon capture their six-straight league title. Toulalan formed midfield partnerships with the Brazilian Juninho, the Swede Kim Källström, and the Portuguese midfielder Tiago that allowed the team to win the league by a large 17-point gap.  For his performances during the 2007–08 season, Toulalan was among four nominated for the UNFP Ligue 1 Player of the Year award, despite playing in the defensive midfielder role. The award went to his teammate Karim Benzema.  His performances did not go unnoticed by other clubs. Following the season, Toulalan was heavily linked with English clubs Arsenal and Chelsea, who both believed the player would be a perfect replacement for the departed Patrick Vieira and Claude Makelele, respectively. Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger has sent fellow Frenchman and Arsenal scout Gilles Grimandi to France on numerous occasions to scout the player. However, Toulalan played down the interest, stating he was happy at Lyon. On 7 March 2008, the midfielder verified his statement by signing a contract extension, which would keep him at the club until 2013. On 13 January 2010, Toulalan scored his first career goal for Lyon, and the second of his career, in a Coupe de la Ligue match against Metz.

Málaga.

On 11 June 2011, La Liga club Málaga and Lyon confirmed the transfer of Toulalan for €10 million on a four-year deal. On 28 November 2011, he opened the scoring with a header in a 2−1 home win over Villarreal and was later sent off during the game. His suspension, however, was later removed by the Royal Spanish Football Federation (RFEF). On 12 February 2012, he scored from a volley in a 3−1 home victory over Mallorca, then scored his third league goal of the season on 3 March in a 3−1 away win over Getafe. On 21 March 2012, however, it was announced that Toulalan had been injured during training session, and that he would miss the rest of the season as his injury would require an operation.

AS Monaco.

On 6 July 2013, AS Monaco announced the signing of Toulalan from Málaga; he signed a two-year contract.

International career.

Toulalan has been a France international since 2000, when he was first called up to the France under-17 squad. He has also played for the under-18 squad. Toulalan was later a member of the French squad that participated in the 2006 UEFA U-21 Championship, helping France reach the semi-finals before losing to the Netherlands. He was named in the Team of the Tournament as a left winger in order to accommodate central midfielders Ismaïl Aissati and France teammate Rio Mavuba, who were also in the selection.  Toulalan received his first call-up to the senior side in 2006 for a Euro 2008 qualification match against the Faroe Islands. He started the match and played the full 90 minutes in France's 5–0 win. Due to his performances with Lyon and with the national team, he was named to the 23-man squad that participated in UEFA Euro 2008. Despite France not living up to expectations, Toulalan was one of a few French players who started all three group stage matches.  Toulalan has since become a regular selection for the national team, supplanting Rio Mavuba, Alou Diarra, and Lassana Diarra as the eventual successor to Claude Makelele. Then manager Raymond Domenech has said on many occasions that he believes Toulalan is the ideal replacement for Patrick Vieira when he was to retire from the national side. Toulalan was called up by Domenech as part of his 23-man squad for the 2010 World Cup in South Africa. However, France again failed to live up to its expectations and were again eliminated in the group stage after scoring just one goal and claiming only a single point. On 6 August 2010, Toulalan was one of five players summoned to attend a hearing held by the French Football Federation Disciplinary Committee in response to the strike which the team held at the World Cup. On 17 August, he received a one-match international ban for his part in the incident. Toulalan's suspension resulted from the player admitting that his press officer helped the players write the letter explaining their strike.

Jérémy Toulalan (; born 10 September 1983) is a French professional footballer who most recently played for Bordeaux in Ligue 1. His usual position is as a defensive midfielder, but he can also be utilized as a central defender. He is best known for his humble demeanor, simple distribution, good technique and effective tackling.


History.

The University of Naples Federico II was founded by emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Frederick II on 5 June 1224. It is the world's oldest state-supported institution of higher education and research. One of the most famous students was Roman Catholic theologian and philosopher Thomas Aquinas.

Political project of Fredrick II.

Fredrick II had specific objectives when he founded the university in Naples: first, to train administrative and skilled bureaucratic professionals for the "curia regis" (the kingdom's ministries and governing apparatus), as well as preparing lawyers and judges who would help the sovereign to draft laws and administer justice. Second, he wanted to facilitate the cultural development of promising young students and scholars, avoiding any unnecessary and expensive trips abroad: by creating a State University, Emperor Frederick avoided having young students during his reign complete their training at the University of Bologna, which was in a city that was hostile to the imperial power.  The University of Naples was arguably the first to be formed from scratch by a higher authority, not based upon an already-existing private school. Although its claim to be the first state-sponsored university can be challenged by Palencia (which was founded by the Castilian monarch c.1212), Naples certainly was the first chartered one.  The artificiality of its creation posed great difficulties in attracting students; Thomas Aquinas was one of the few who came in these early years. Those years were further complicated by the long existence, in nearby Salerno, of Europe's most prestigious medical faculty, the Schola Medica Salernitana. The fledgling faculty of medicine at Naples had little hope of competing with it, and in 1231 the right of examination was surrendered to Salerno. The establishment of new faculties of theology and law under papal sponsorship in Rome in 1245 further drained Naples of students, as Rome was a more attractive location. In an effort to revitalize the dwindling university, in 1253, all the remaining schools of the university of Naples moved to Salerno, in the hope of creating a single viable university for the south. But that experiment failed and the university (minus medicine) moved back to Naples in 1258 (in some readings, Naples was "refounded" in 1258 by Manfred Hohenstaufen, as by this time there were hardly any students left). The Angevin reforms after 1266 and the subsequent decline of Salerno gave the University of Naples a new lease on life and put it on a stable, sustainable track.

Academics.

The university has 13 faculties:

Noted people.

Notable alumni.

Among those who have attended the University of Naples Federico II are Italian presidents Enrico De Nicola, Giovanni Leone and Giorgio Napolitano; Italian political leader Luigi de Magistris; business executive Fabrizio Freda; and philosophers Benedetto Croce and Nicola Abbagnano.

Rankings.

Several professors from various disciplines are among the top Italian Scientists by H-index. According to the 2016 QS World University Rankings by subject the University of Federico II ranks in the following ranges respectively: 51–100 for civil engineering, 101–150 for mechanical engineering, pharmacy and pharmacology, agriculture and forestry and physics and astronomy, 151–200 for law and legal studies, medicine and chemical engineering, 201–250 for electrical and electronic engineering, mathematics, economics and econometrics, 251–300 for biological sciences, computer science and chemistry. In November 2018 Expertscape recognized it as No. 10 in the world for expertise in Celiac Disease.

The University of Naples Federico II () is a university in Naples, Italy. Founded in 1224, it is the oldest public non-sectarian university in the world, and is now organized into 26 departments. It was Europe's first university dedicated to training secular administrative staff, and one of the oldest academic institutions in continuous operation. Federico II is the third University in Italy by number of students enrolled, but despite its huge size it is still one of the best universities in Italy, being particularly notable for research; in 2015 it was ranked among the top 100 universities in the world by citations per paper. As of 2016 it is the only generalist Italian university in the Times higher education reputation, which considers the 200 best universities in the world. The university is named after its founder Frederick II. In October 2016 the University hosted the first ever Apple IOS Developer Academy and in 2018 the Cisco Digital Transformation Lab.


Etymology.

The genus name "Dryopithecus" comes from Ancient Greek "drus" "oak tree" and "pithekos" "ape" because the authority believed it inhabited an oak or pine forest in an environment similar to modern day Europe. The species "D. fontani" was named in honour of its discoverer, local collector M. Fontan.

Taxonomy.

The first "Dryopithecus" fossils were described from the French Pyrenees by French paleontologist Édouard Lartet in 1856, three years before Charles Darwin published his "On the Origin of Species". Subsequent authors noted similarities to modern African great apes. In his "The Descent of Man", Darwin briefly noted that "Dryopithecus" casts doubt on the African origin of apes: "Dryopithecus" taxonomy has been the subject of much turmoil, with new specimens being the basis of a new species or genus based on minute differences, resulting in several now-defunct species. By the 1960s, all non-human apes were classified into the now-obsolete family Pongidae, and extinct apes into Dryopithecidae. In 1965, English palaeoanthropologist David Pilbeam and American palaeontologist Elwyn L. Simons separated the genus–which included specimens from across the Old World at the time–into three subgenera: "Dryopithecus" in Europe, "Sivapithecus" in Asia, and "Proconsul" in Africa. Afterwards, there was discussion over whether each of these subgenera should be elevated to genus. In 1979, "Sivapithecus" was elevated to genus, and "Dryopithecus" was subdivided again into the subgenera "Dryopithecus" in Europe, and "Proconsul", "Limnopithecus", and "Rangwapithecus" in Africa. Since that time, several more species were assigned and moved, and by the 21st century, the genus included "D. fontani", "D. brancoi", "D. laietanus", and "D. crusafonti". However, the 2009 discovery of a partial skull of "D. fontani" caused many of them to be split off into different genera, such as the newly erected "Hispanopithecus", because part of the confusion was caused by the fragmentary nature of the "Dryopithecus" holotype with vague and incomplete diagnostic characteristics. Currently, there is only one uncontested species, "D. fontani". Specimens are:  "Dryopithecus" is classified into the namesake great ape tribe Dryopithecini, along with "Hispanopithecus", "Rudapithecus", "Ouranopithecus", "Anoiapithecus", and "Pierolapithecus", though the latter two may belong to "Dryopithecus", the former two may be synonymous, and the former three can also be placed into their own tribes. Dryopithecini is either regarded as an offshoot of orangutans (Ponginae), an ancestor to African apes and humans (Homininae), or its own separate branch (Dryopithecinae).  "Dryopithecus" was a part of an adaptive radiation of great apes in the expanding forests of Europe in the warm climates of the Miocene Climatic Optimum, possibly descending from early or middle Miocene African apes which diversified in the proceeding Middle Miocene disruption (a cooling event). It is possible great apes first evolved in Europe or Asia, and then migrated down into Africa.

Description.

Based on measurements of the femoral head of the Spanish IPS41724, the living weight for a male "Dryopithecus" was estimated to be.  "Dryopithecus" teeth are most similar to those of modern chimps. The teeth are small and have a thin enamel layer. "Dryopithecus" has a slender jaw, indicating it was not well-suited for eating abrasive or hard food. Like modern apes, the males have pronounced canine teeth. The molars are wide, and the premolars wider. It has a wide roof of the mouth, a long muzzle (prognathism), and a large nose which is oriented nearly vertically to the face. In total, the face shows many similarities to the gorilla; since early to middle Miocene African apes do not share such similarities, gorilla-like features likely evolved independently in "Dryopithecus" rather than as a result of close affinities.  The humerus, measuring an approximate, is similar in size and form to the bonobo. Like in bonobos, the shaft bows outward, and the insertion for the triceps and deltoids was poorly developed, suggesting "Dryopithecus" was not as adept to suspensory behaviour as orangutans. The femoral neck, which connects the femoral head to the femoral shaft, is not very long nor steep; the femoral head is positioned low to the greater trochanter; and the lesser trochanter is positioned more towards the backside. All these characteristics are important in the mobility of the hip joint, and indicate a quadrupedal mode of locomotion rather than suspensory. However, fruit trees in the time and area of the Austrian "Dryopithecus" were typically high and bore fruit on thinner terminal branches, suggesting suspensory behaviour to reach them.

Paleobiology.

"Dryopithecus" likely predominantly ate fruit (frugivory), and evidence of cavities on the teeth of the Austrian "Dryopithecus" indicates a high-sugar diet, likely deriving from ripe fruits and honey. Dental wearing indicates "Dryopithecus" ate both soft and hard food, which could either indicate they consumed a wide array of different foods, or they ate harder foods as a fallback. Nonetheless, its unspecialized teeth indicate it had a flexible diet, and large body size would have permitted a large gut to aid in the processing of less-digestible food, perhaps stretching to include foods such as leaves (folivory) in times of famine like in modern apes. Unlike modern apes, "Dryopithecus" likely had a high carbohydrate, low fibre diet.  A high-fructose diet is associated with elevated levels of uric acid, which is neutralized by uricase in most animals except great apes. It is thought they stopped producing it by 15 mya, resulting in increased blood pressure, which in turn led to increased activity, and a greater ability to build up fat reserves. The palaeoenvironment of late Miocene Austria indicates an abundance of fruiting trees and honey for nine or ten months out of the year, and "Dryopithecus" may have relied on these fat reserves during the late winter. High uric acid levels in the blood are also associated with increased intelligence.  "Dryopithecus" males had larger canines than females, which is associated with high levels of aggression in modern primates.

Paleoecology.

The remains of "Dryopithecus" are often associated with several large mammals, such as elephants (e. g., though not limited to, "Gomphotherium"), rhinos (e. g., "Lartetotherium"), pigs (e. g., "Listriodon"), antelope (e. g., "Miotragocerus"), horses (e. g., "Hippotherium"), hyaenas (e. g., "Protictitherium"), and big cats (e. g., "Pseudaelurus"). Other associated primates are the great apes "Hispanopithecus", "Anoiapithecus", and "Pierolapithecus"; and the monkey "Pliopithecus". These fauna are consistent with a warm, forested, paratropical wetland environment, and it may have lived in a seasonal climate. For the Austrian "Dryopithecus", plants such as "Prunus", grapevines, black mulberry, strawberry trees, hickory, and chestnuts may have been important fruit sources; and the latter two, oak, beech, elm, and pine honey sources.  The late Miocene was the beginning of a drying trend in Europe. Increasing seasonality and dry spells in the Mediterranean region and the emergence of a Mediterranean climate likely caused the replacement of forestland and woodland by open shrubland; and the uplift of the Alps caused tropical and warm-climate vegetation in Central Europe to retreat in favor of mid-latitude and alpine flora. This likely led to the extinction of great apes in Europe.

Dryopithecus is a genus of extinct great apes from the middle–late Miocene boundary of Europe 12.5 to 11.1 million years ago (mya). Since its discovery in 1856, the genus has been subject to taxonomic turmoil, with numerous new species being described from single remains based on minute differences amongst each other, and the fragmentary nature of the holotype specimen makes differentiating remains difficult. There is currently only one uncontested species, the type species "D. fontani", though there may be more. The genus is placed into the tribe Dryopithecini, which is either an offshoot of orangutans, African apes, or is its own separate branch.


Background.

The Kvant spacecraft represented the first use of a new kind of Soviet space station module, designated 37K. An order authorising the beginning of development was issued on 17 September 1979. The basic 37K design consisted of a 4.2 m diameter pressurised cylinder with a docking port at the forward end. It was not equipped with its own propulsion system. The original authorisation was for a total of eight 37K's of various configurations:  The 37KE was designated Kvant and was equipped with an astrophysics payload. It also used the Salyut-5B digital flight control computer and Gyrodyne flywheel orientation system developed for Almaz. As the module neared completion Salyut 7 experienced numerous technical problems and Kvant was retargeted for a docking with Mir. But at that time Mir was planned to be in a 65 degree orbit, and Kvant was 800 kg too heavy for the Proton launch vehicle to place in such an orbit. In January 1985 Mir was changed to a 51.6 degree orbit, which solved one problem. But now it was planned that Kvant would dock with the rear port of Mir, requiring the addition of lines to conduct rocket propellant from Progress tanker spacecraft to Mir's storage tanks. This increased weight again, forcing the FGB to have its propellant load reduced to 60% in the high pressure tanks and empty low pressure tanks. With a reported total launch weight varying between, Kvant-1 was supposedly at that time the heaviest payload lifted by Proton, requiring special custom modifications to its launch vehicle.

Description.

Kvant-1 consisted of two pressurized working compartments, one unpressurized experiment compartment and one small airlock for access to the telescopes and film change and retrieval. It also carried additional life support systems including an Elektron oxygen generator and equipment for removing carbon dioxide from the air.  Scientific equipment onboard Kvant-1 included:  To allow astronomical observations, Kvant-1 carried – in addition to two Earth horizon sensors, two star sensors, and three star trackers – six gyrodines which permitted extremely accurate pointing of the entire Mir complex. As the gyrodines were powered by electricity, they also reduced significantly the amount of attitude control propellant needed by the Mir base block's control thrusters – saving 15 tons of propellant in the first two years. They did, however, use a great deal of electricity – the average consumption of the Kvant-1 module was estimated to have been 6.90 kW.

Launch and docking.

Kvant-1 was originally intended to be launched and docked to Salyut 7, but delays forced it to be launched to Mir instead. Kvant-1 did not have any propulsion systems of its own and to reach Mir, Kvant-1 was mated with a Functional Service Module (FSM) – carrying propulsion and electrical systems – to act as a space tug. The FSM was derived from the TKS spacecraft, which would later form the basis for the Functional Cargo Block of the Kvant-2, Kristall, Spektr, and Priroda modules.  Kvant-1 and its FSM were launched on March 30, 1987 – at the time of the launch the Mir station was manned by the EO-2 crew, which had already docked on the front port with the Soyuz TM-2 spacecraft. On April 9, Kvant-1 achieved a soft dock with the aft port on Mir. However, the Kvant-1 was not able to achieve a hard dock which meant that the two spacecraft were only loosely connected – in this configuration, Mir could not orient itself or else damage would occur.  The EO-2 crew conducted an emergency EVA on April 11 to investigate the problem. The crew found a piece of debris, probably a trash bag, that was left by Progress 28. After removing it, Kvant-1 was finally able to achieve a hard dock with the station on the same day. The Kvant-FSM, which contained the now unneeded propulsion of the Kvant-1 module, was finally jettisoned on April 12, revealing Kvant-1's rear docking port.

Initial operation.

After finally achieving hard-dock and jettisoning of the Kvant-FSM, tests of the onboard systems of Kvant-1 were conducted until the end of April. May was spent in preparation of the extension of the electrical power with activities which required little electricity, like medical experiments and Earth resources photography – much needed additional electrical power would enable experiments like the Korund 1-M kiln, which was used to conduct melts lasting several days and power Kvant-1's gyrodines, needed for astronomical observations. For this, Kvant had carried stowed solar arrays, which were attached to the Mir base block during an EVA on June 12.  With the testing of Kvant-1 concluded, additional solar panels installed and Kvant's gyrodines available, a major step in the construction of the Mir space station was achieved. The X-ray telescope onboard Kvant-1 could start with a bang: it was uniquely placed to study Supernova SN 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud, the peak of its light reaching Earth in May 1987. The cosmonauts onboard Mir could examine the exploding star during 115 sessions between June and September 1987.

Later modifications.

In January 1991, support structures that were designed to hold solar arrays were installed on Kvant-1. In July 1991, the crew constructed the Sofora girder during four EVAs. The Sofora girder was designed to test new construction techniques, mount a propulsion unit, and act as a place to hold experiments outside the station. In September, 1992, the crew installed the VDU propulsion unit on the end of the Sofora girder. It was delivered earlier by Progress M-14. The VDU was designed to increase the station's attitude control capability. The then six-year-old VDU propulsion unit was finally replaced in April 1998 by a new one that was delivered by Progress M-38.  In September 1993, the Rapana girder was constructed on Kvant-1 during two EVAs. The Rapana girder was designed to test girder assembly experiments for a possible Mir 2 space station. External experiments were also later held on the Rapana girder. In June, 1996, the Rapana girder was extended during an EVA.  On May 22, 1995, one of Kristall's solar panels was re-deployed on Kvant-1. During May 1996, the Mir Cooperative Solar Array, which was delivered with the Mir Docking Module, was deployed on Kvant-1. In November 1997, Kristall's old solar panel that was attached to Kvant-1 was disposed of and the all-Russian solar array, which was also delivered with the Docking Module, was attached in its place.

Kvant-1 (; English: Quantum-I/1) (37KE) was the first module to be attached in 1987 to the Mir Core Module, which formed the core of the Soviet space station "Mir". It remained attached to "Mir" until the entire space station was deorbited in 2001.


History.

During the Protestant Reformation, the popular tracts and catechisms of Martin Luther, John Calvin and other Reformers were sold in areas controlled by Protestant monarchs, who determined the faith in their region (see: "Cuius regio, eius religio"). Catholic Catechisms, published by individuals existed as well. The Jesuit Petrus Canisius had published such a Catechism in 1555 in both German and Latin language. The Council of Trent commissioned the first Church-wide Roman Catholic catechism. This catechism was directed to clergy. It included large parts of the Canisius catechisms including his addition to the Hail Mary: "Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for us sinners".  The Fathers of the council said they wished "to apply a salutary remedy to this great and pernicious evil, and thinking that the definition of the principal Catholic doctrines was not enough for the purpose, resolved also to publish a formulary and method for teaching the rudiments of the faith, to be used by all legitimate pastors and teachers" (Cat. praef., vii). This resolution was taken in the eighteenth session (26 February 1562) on the suggestion of Charles Borromeo; who was then giving full scope to his zeal for the reformation of the clergy. Pius IV entrusted the composition of the Catechism to four distinguished theologians:  Three cardinals were appointed to supervise the work. Charles Borromeo superintended the redaction of the original Italian text, which was finished in 1564. Cardinal William Sirletus then gave it the final touches, and the famous Humanists, Julius Pogianus and Paulus Manutius, translated it into classical Latin. It was then published in Latin and Italian as "Catechismus ex decreto Concilii Tridentini ad parochos Pii V jussu editus, Romae, 1566" (in-folio). Translations into the vernacular of every nation were ordered by the Council (Sess. XXIV, "De Ref.", c. vii).

Content and authority.

The Council intended the projected Catechism to be the Church's official manual of popular instruction. The seventh canon, "De Reformatione", of Sess. XXIV, runs: "That the faithful may approach the Sacraments with greater reverence and devotion, the Holy Synod charges all the bishops about to administer them to explain their operation and use in a way adapted to the understanding of the people; to see, moreover, that their parish priests observe the same rule piously and prudently, making use for their explanations, where necessary and convenient, of the vernacular tongue; and conforming to the form to be prescribed by the Holy Synod in its instructions (catechesis) for the several Sacraments: the bishops shall have these instructions carefully translated into the vulgar tongue and explained by all parish priests to their flocks...". In the mind of the Church the Catechism, though primarily written for the parish priests, was also intended to give a fixed and stable scheme of instruction to the faithful, especially with regard to the means of grace, so much neglected at the time. To attain this object the work closely follows the dogmatic definitions of the Council. It is divided in four parts:  It deals with the papal primacy, a point which was not defined at Trent; on the other hand, it is silent on the doctrine of indulgences, which is set forth in the "Decretum de indulgentiis", Sess. XXV. It states the common doctrine about servitude, allowed in some cases (prisoners of war, self-selling in extreme necessity, civil punishment): "To enslave a freeman, or appropriate the slave of another is called man-stealing"  The bishops urged in every way the use of the new Catechism; they enjoined its frequent reading, so that all its contents would be committed to memory; they exhorted the priests to discuss parts of it at their meetings, and insisted upon its being used for instructing the people.  To some editions of the Roman Catechism was prefixed a "Praxis Catechismi", i.e. a division of its contents into sermons for every Sunday of the year adapted to the Gospel of the day.  The Catechism has not of course the authority of conciliary definitions or other primary symbols of faith; for, although decreed by the Council, it was only published a year after the Fathers had dispersed, and it consequently lacks a formal conciliary approbation. During the heated controversies de auxiliis gratiae between the Thomists and Molinists, the Jesuits refused to accept the authority of the Catechism as decisive. Yet it possesses high authority as an exposition of Catholic doctrine. It was composed by order of a council, issued and approved by the Pope; its use has been prescribed by numerous synods throughout the whole Church; Pope Leo XIII, in a letter to the French bishops of 8 September 1899, recommended the study of the Roman Catechism to all seminarians, and Pope Pius X signified his desire that preachers should expound it to the faithful.

Early editions.

The earliest editions of the Roman Catechism are "Romae apud Paulum Manutium", 1566; "Venetiis, apud Dominicum de Farrisö, 1567; "Coloniae", 1567 (by Henricus Aquensis); "Parisuis, in aedibus. Jac. Kerver", 1568; "Venetiis, apud Aldum", 1575; and Ingolstadt, 1577 (Sartorius). In 1596 appeared at Antwerp the "Cat. Romanus... quaestionibus distinctus, brevibusque exhortatiunculis studio Andreae Fabricii, Leodiensis". This editor, A. Le Fevre, died in 1581. He probably made this division of the Roman Catechism into questions and answers in 1570.  George Eder, in 1569, arranged the Catechism for the use of schools. He distributed the main doctrines into sections and subsections and added perspicuous tables of contents. This work bears the title: "Methodus Catechismi Catholici".  The first known English translation was commissioned by James II of England, the last Catholic king of England, and is entitled “The Catechism for the Curats, compos’d by the Decree of the Council of Trent, And Published by Command of Pope Pius the Fifth.” Translated by John Bromley, Printed by Henry Hills, Printer to the King’s Most Excellent Majesty for His Houshold and Chappel, for him and Matthew Turner, London, M. DC. LXXXVII. (1687)  The next English translation is by Jeremy Donovan, a professor at Maynooth, published by Richard Coyne, Capel Street, Dublin, and by Keating & Brown, London, and printed for the translator by W. Folds & Son, Great Shand Street, 1829. An American edition appeared in the same year. Donovan's translation was reprinted at Rome by the Propaganda Press, in two volumes in 1839; it is dedicated to Cardinal Fransoni and signed "Jeremias Donovan, sacerdos hibernus, cubicularius Gregorii XVI, P. M." There is another English translation by T. A. Buckley (London, 1852), which is more elegant than Donovan's and claims to be more correct, but is spoiled by the doctrinal notes of the Anglican translator. The first German translation, by Paul Hoffaeus, is dated Dillingen, 1568. The translation into the Celtic Breton language of the "catechisme de Canisius," as it was known in France, was accomplished in 1568 by Gilles de Keranpuil, canon of the college of Carhaix and recteur of Motreff; he introduced his work in his transmittal letter to his superior as the effort '[de tradui en nostre langue brette [Breton]." This effort at translation set a precedent for the later successful efforts of Pere Julien Maunoir, S.J. of Plevin, Brittany.

The Roman Catechism (or Catechism of the Council of Trent, published 1566) was commissioned during the Catholic Counter-Reformation by the Council of Trent, to expound doctrine and to improve the theological understanding of the clergy. It differs from other summaries of Christian doctrine for the instruction of the people in two points: it is primarily intended for priests having care of souls ("ad parochos"), and it enjoyed an authority within the Catholic Church equalled by no other catechism until the "Catechism of the Catholic Church" (1992). The need of a popular authoritative manual arose from a lack of systematic knowledge among pre-Reformation clergy and the concomitant neglect of religious instruction among the faithful.


Synopsis.

The play takes place at Mr. Jourdain's house in Paris. Jourdain is a middle-aged "bourgeois" whose father grew rich as a cloth merchant. The foolish Jourdain now has one aim in life, which is to rise above this middle-class background and be accepted as an aristocrat. To this end, he orders splendid new clothes and is very happy when the tailor's boy mockingly addresses him as "my Lord". He applies himself to learning the gentlemanly arts of fencing, dancing, music and philosophy, despite his age; in doing so he continually manages to make a fool of himself, to the disgust of his hired teachers. His philosophy lesson becomes a basic lesson on language in which he is surprised and delighted to learn that he has been speaking prose all his life without knowing it.  « »"My faith! For more than forty years I have been speaking prose while knowing nothing of it, and I am the most obliged person in the world to you for telling me so."  Madame Jourdain, his intelligent wife, sees that he is making a fool of himself and urges him to return to his previous middle-class life, and to forget all he has learned. A cash-strapped nobleman called Dorante has attached himself to M. Jourdain. He secretly despises Jourdain but flatters his aristocratic dreams. For example, by telling Jourdain that he mentioned his name to the King at Versailles, he can get Jourdain to pay his debts. Jourdain's dreams of being upper-class go higher and higher. He dreams of marrying a Marchioness, Dorimène, and having his daughter Lucille marry a nobleman. But Lucille is in love with the middle-class Cléonte. Of course, M. Jourdain refuses his permission for Lucille to marry Cléonte.  Then Cléonte, with the assistance of his valet Covielle and Mme Jourdain, disguises himself and presents himself to Jourdain as the son of the Sultan of Turkey. Jourdain is taken in and is very pleased to have his daughter marry foreign royalty. He is even more delighted when the "Turkish prince" informs him that, as father of the bride, he too will be officially ennobled at a special ceremony. The play ends with this ridiculous ceremony, including Sabir standing in for Turkish.

Performances.

The original production brought together the finest actors and musicians of the time. Molière played the role of Monsieur Jourdain, clothed in bright colors trimmed with silver lace and multicolored feathers; André Hubert played Madame Jourdain (travesti); Mlle de Brie played Dorimène; Armande Béjart played Lucile; and the composer Jean-Baptiste Lully danced the mufti in the last act "cérémonie des Turcs".  "Le Bourgeois gentilhomme" reflected the then-current trend for "les turqueries," all things related to the Ottoman Empire. The work stemmed from the scandal caused by the Turkish ambassador Suleiman Aga who, upon visiting the court of Louis XIV in 1669, affirmed the superiority of the Ottoman court over that of the Sun King.  The first performance of "Der Bürger als Edelmann", a German version of the play, took place on 25 October 1912, adapted by Hugo von Hofmannsthal with incidental music by Richard Strauss. The "turquerie" was replaced by an appended operatic entertainment "Ariadne auf Naxos", composed by Strauss to a libretto by Hofmannsthal, in which Jourdain's eccentric requirements have led to Ariadne being marooned on a desert island where there just happens to be a "commedia dell'arte" troupe. The whole was directed by Max Reinhardt. The combination of play and opera proved problematic. Hofmannsthal created a revised version of the play, reinstating the "turquerie" and removing the opera. Strauss provided further incidental music including some arrangements of Lully. Meanwhile, the entertainment was provided with a separate operatic prologue and this is the form in which "Ariadne" is now usually given.  George Balanchine choreographed a number of modern versions, from the 1930s to the 1970s, using Strauss's score. The first version was performed in 1932 by Wassily de Basil & René Blum's Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo, featuring David Lichine and Tamara Toumanova, with sets by Alexandre Benois. In 1944, a new version of the ballet was performed by the second iteration of the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo, with Nicholas Magallanes (taking over for an injured Frederic Franklin), Maria Tallchief, and Nathalie Krassovska. The most well-known version, from 1979 for the New York City Opera, featured input from Jerome Robbins, who stepped in during a period of Balanchine's illness. Peter Martins also choreographed one scene near the end of the ballet. The production starred Jean-Pierre Bonnefoux, Patricia McBride, Rudolf Nureyev, Darla Hoover, Michael Puleo and students of the School of American Ballet.  In 2005 Le Poème Harmonique in collaboration with Benjamin Lazar (stage director) and Cecile Roussat (choreographer) presented "Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme" at the Utrecht Baroque Festival. Informed by the musical and theatrical traditions of 17th century France, the production revived the musical and dance interludes originally scored by Jean-Baptiste Lully and the work was presented in its entirety. The wardrobe was notably bourgeois and ridiculous, evidently the intent of the directors to present Monsieur Jordain as a naive, stunned and yet vulnerable man new to the world of money and privilege "victim and architect of the action". The use of candlelight as the only lighting source on stage and a frontal performance style even during conversations between characters gave the production a distinctly baroque air and was well received. The 2005 production was the first ever since the play's first performance to render it in its entirety, as faithful as possible to the original score and script by Molière and Lully.

Roles.

Many male and female musicians, instrumentalists, dancers, cooks, tailor's apprentices, and others are needed for the interludes.

Audio adaptations.

An hour-long version adapted by Harry McFadden was broadcast on the NBC radio series "Great Plays" on December 18, 1938.

Le Bourgeois gentilhomme (, "The Bourgeois Gentleman" or "The Middle-Class Aristocrat" or "The Would-Be Noble") is a five-act "comédie-ballet" — a play intermingled with music, dance and singing — written by Molière, first presented on 14 October 1670 before the court of Louis XIV at the Château of Chambord by Molière's troupe of actors. Subsequent public performances were given at the theatre of the Palais-Royal beginning on 23 November 1670. The music was composed by Jean-Baptiste Lully, the choreography was by Pierre Beauchamp, the sets were by Carlo Vigarani and the costumes were done by the chevalier d’Arvieux.


Exploration by "Opportunity".

After arriving at the crater, "Opportunity" performed a survey of the crater to plan the further steps in exploring the local geology. A site dubbed "Karatepe" was chosen to enter the crater and investigate the layering of the bedrock.  The picture to the right shows changes in the color of the bedrock layers. The layer "A" is closer to the rover and higher than the layers "B" to "E". Texture and rock chemistry also differed with depth. Thus scientists infer that the age of these layers is following a similar pattern, with the higher layers being younger than the lower layers.  "Opportunity" then went farther down into the crater to investigate the sand dunes. Various rock outcrops were investigated while the rover descended. It was decided not to drive into the dunes, for fear the rover might get stuck permanently. Instead, "Opportunity" did some work on some rocks surrounding the dunes before heading back up to the rim of the crater. On the way, it encountered a boulder, nicknamed 'Wopmay', that provided inconclusive evidence that rocks near the bottom of the crater were affected by water before and after the crater formed. The rover then headed off to Burns Cliff. Burns Cliff, named for the late mineralogist Roger Burns of MIT, was studied closely by "Opportunity". High amounts of slippage prevented the rover from using its robotic arm, however high resolution imaging was conducted with the Pancam. It shows layers of sediment that might indicate deposition by a liquid. The layers in the cliff would later be followed south of the crater to identify it as a geologic formation, in this case the "Burns Formation". These names are not official until made so by the International Astronomical Union.  Burns Cliff was the final science stop inside Endurance. The rover had some trouble making it out, noticing slippage, but prevailed. Leaving Endurance it headed for its heat shield where it would find the Meridiani Planum meteorite, which happened to be the first meteorite discovered on another planet.

Wet history.

"Opportunity" spent about half a year exploring Endurance. During that time, data collected by the rover supplanted and greatly expanded on the history of water at Meridiani Planum, in addition to the confirmation that there had been liquid water here in ancient times. Endurance provided mission scientists with a cross-section of the bedrock on this part of Mars, showing that liquid water hadn't flowed across the surface just once, but was of an episodic nature, and wasn't permanently present, with floods periodically washing over the landscape, and then drying up again. Interpretation of the materials (such as sulfates) in Endurance's evaporite outcrops led mission scientists to believe that this shallow sea was probably rather acidic in nature, but can't rule out that life couldn't have been present at some point.

Endurance is an impact crater lying situated within the Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle (MC-19) region of the planet Mars. This crater was visited by the "Opportunity" rover from May until December 2004. Mission scientists named the crater after the ship "Endurance" that sailed to the Antarctic through the Weddell Sea during the ill-fated 1914-1917 Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition, considered to be the last expedition of the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration organized by Ernest Shackleton.


Life and Politics.

He was born in Buenos Aires but soon after his birth, the family moved to Montevideo, where he grew up and went to school. At the age of twenty, he joined the armed forces in Buenos Aires, but later transferred to a regiment in Montevideo. During the British invasion of 1806, he was captured and sent to England. After the defeat of the British troops, he was released and went to Spain, where he fought in the Napoleonic Wars. When he returned to Montevideo in August 1810, he joined the independentist forces and was nominated military leader of the independentist armies of the "Banda Oriental", later Uruguay. His military successes in the various battles for Montevideo (including the Siege of Montevideo (1812–14)) won him the post of the military leader of the campaign in Peru, replacing José de San Martín, who had to resign due to health reasons.  In 1815, the Constituting General Assembly of the provinces of La Plata elected Rondeau their Supreme Director, but due to his absence, he never served as director. Ignacio Álvarez Thomas was named acting Supreme Director in his place. After two defeats against the Spanish royalist troops in Peru at Venta y Media and Sipe-Sipe, he was relieved from his command in 1816. He returned to Buenos Aires, where he became governor for a brief stint from June 5 to July 30, 1818. In 1819 he became Pueyrredón's successor as Supreme Director (serving this time), but had to resign the following year after the Battle of Cepeda.  Subsequently, Rondeau retreated to Montevideo and tried to keep out of the internal wars between competing generals of the independentists. Nevertheless, he led several military campaigns against the Indians and in the independence wars against Brazil. In 1828, after the Treaty of Montevideo, he was elected as the governor of the newly founded Eastern Republic of Uruguay. Rondeau occupied this post from December 22, 1828 until April 17, 1830, when he was forced to abdicate by his opponent Juan Antonio Lavalleja, who held the majority in the still young parliament. Lavalleja was named governor "ad interim".  Rondeau still served as general in the army, though. In the civil war of Uruguay from 1836 between the "Blancos" ("White") and the "Colorados" ("Red"), he fought on the side of the latter and served as their war minister. He was killed in 1844 during the Great Siege of Montevideo.

José Casimiro Rondeau Pereyra (March 4, 1773 – November 18, 1844) was a general and politician in Argentina and Uruguay in the early 19th century.


Çatalhöyük.

Between 1961 and 1965 James Mellaart led a series of excavations at Çatalhöyük, north of the Taurus Mountains in a fertile agricultural region of South-Anatolia. Striking were the many statues found here, which Mellaart suggested represented a Great goddess, who headed the pantheon of an essentially matriarchal culture. A seated female figure, flanked by what Mellaart describes as lionesses, was found in a grain-bin; she may have intended to protect the harvest and grain. He considered the sites as shrines, with especially the Seated Woman of Çatalhöyük capturing the imagination. There was also a large number of sexless figurines, which Mellaart regarded as typical for a society dominated by women: "emphasis on sex in art is invariably connected with male impulse and desire". The idea that there could have been a matriarchy and a cult of the mother goddess was supported by archaeologist Marija Gimbutas. This gave rise to a modern cult of the Mother Goddess with annual pilgrimages being organized at Çatalhöyük.  Since 1993, excavations were resumed, now headed by Ian Hodder with Lynn Meskell as head of the "Stanford Figurines Project" that examined the figurines of Çatalhöyük. This team came to different conclusions than Gimbutas and Mellaart. Only a few of the figurines were identified as female and these figurines were found not so much in sacred spaces, but seemed to have been discarded randomly, sometimes in garbage heaps. This rendered a cult of the mother goddess in this location as unlikely.

Contemporary religion.

Hinduism.

In Hinduism, Durga (Parvati) represents both the feminine aspect and the "shakti" (energy/power) of the One God (The "Brahman") as well as the empowering and protective nature of motherhood. From her forehead sprang Kali, a goddess whose name translates to the feminine form of MahaKala, meaning time; a more literal translation of her name being "the creator or doer of time." Kali is representational of, among other things, the primordial energy of time — her first manifestation. Following this, she manifests "space" as Tara, after which point further creation of the material universe progresses. The divine Mother, Devi Adi parashakti, manifests herself in various forms, representing the universal creative force. She becomes Mother Nature (Mula Prakriti Parvati), who gives birth to all life forms as plants, animals, and such from Herself, and she sustains and nourishes them through her body, that is the earth with its animal life, vegetation, and minerals. Ultimately she re-absorbs all life forms back into herself, or "devours" them to sustain herself as the power of death feeding on life to produce new life. She also gives rise to Maya (the illusory world) and to prakriti, the force that galvanizes the divine ground of existence into self-projection as the cosmos. The Earth itself is manifested by Adi parashakti. Hindu worship of the divine Mother can be traced back to pre-vedic, prehistoric India.  The form of Hinduism known as Shaktism is strongly associated with Samkhya, and Tantra Hindu philosophies and ultimately, is monist. The primordial feminine creative-preservative-destructive energy, Shakti, is considered to be the motive force behind all action and existence in the phenomenal cosmos. The cosmos itself is purusha, the unchanging, infinite, immanent, and transcendent reality that is the Divine Ground of all being, the "world soul". This masculine potential is actualized by feminine dynamism, embodied in multitudinous goddesses who are ultimately all manifestations of the One Great Mother. Mother Maya or Shakti, herself, can free the individual from demons of ego, ignorance, and desire that bind the soul in maya (illusion). Practitioners of the Tantric tradition focus on Shakti to free themselves from the cycle of karma.

New religious movements.

Some members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) believe in, but do not worship, a Heavenly Mother, the wife and female counterpart of the Heavenly Father. This belief is not emphasized, however, and typically, adherents pray to the "Father in Heaven".  Jang Gil-ja is a South Korean woman believed to be "God the Mother" (어머니 하나님) in the World Mission Society Church of God. Church members may call her "God the Mother", "Mother Jerusalem", "New Jerusalem Mother", or "Heavenly Mother".  In Theosophy, the Earth goddess is called the "Planetary Logos of Earth".  The Mother Goddess, or Great Goddess, is a composite of various feminine deities from past and present world cultures, worshiped by modern Wicca and others broadly known as Neopagans. She is considered sometimes identified as a Triple Goddess, who takes the form of Maiden, Mother, and Crone archetypes. She is described as Mother Earth, Mother Nature, or the Creatress of all life. She is associated with the full moon and stars, the Earth, and the sea. In Wicca, the Earth Goddess is sometimes called Gaia. The name of the mother goddess varies depending on the Wiccan tradition.  Carl Gustav Jung suggested that the archetypal mother was a part of the collective unconscious of all humans; various adherents of Jung, most notably Erich Neumann and Ernst Whitmont, have argued that such an archetype underpins many of its own mythologies and may even precede the image of the paternal "father." Such speculations help explain the universality of such mother goddess imagery around the world.  The Upper Paleolithic Venus figurines have been sometimes explained as depictions of an Earth Goddess similar to Gaia.

A mother goddess is a goddess who represents or is a personification of motherhood. When equated with the Earth or the natural world, such goddesses are sometimes referred to as Mother Earth or as the Earth Mother. The concept is complementary to a "Sky Father" or "Father Sky".


History.

The construction of the palace was begun in 1752 for Charles VII of Naples (Charles III of Spain), who worked closely with his architect, Luigi Vanvitelli. When Charles saw Vanvitelli's grandly scaled model for Caserta, it filled him with emotion "fit to tear his heart from his breast". In the end, he never slept a night at the Reggia, as he abdicated in 1759 to become King of Spain, and the project was carried to only partial completion for his third son and successor, Ferdinand IV of Naples.  The political and social model for Vanvitelli's palace was Versailles, which, though strikingly different in its variety and disposition, solves similar problems of assembling and providing for king, court and government in a massive building with the social structure of a small city, confronting a baroque view of a highly subordinated nature, "la nature forcée". This was part of the entire concept of the palace when it was first proposed by Mario Gioffredo sometime in 1750. According to Hersey, the proposal envisaged a palace "that was a virtual city, housing not just the court and king but all the main political and cultural elites of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies - university, museum, library, cabinet bureaus, military high commands, and so on."  The population of Caserta Vecchia was moved 10 kilometers to provide a work force closer to the palace. A silk manufactory at San Leucio resort was disguised as a pavilion in the immense parkland.  Another of the king's primary objects was to have a magnificent new royal court and administrative center for the kingdom in a location protected from sea attack, and distant from the revolt-prone and congested city of Naples. To provide the king with suitable protection, troop barracks were housed within the palace.  The Royal Palace of Madrid, where Charles had grown up, which had been devised by Filippo Juvarra for Charles' father, Philip V of Spain, and Charlottenburg Palace provided models. A spacious octagonal vestibule seems to have been inspired by Basilica di Santa Maria della Salute in Venice, while the palatine chapel is most often compared to the Royal Chapel at Versailles. Vanvitelli died in 1773: the construction was continued by his son Carlo and then by other architects; but the elder Vanvitelli's original project, which included a vast pair of frontal wings similar to Bernini's wings at St. Peter's, was never finished.  From 1923 to 1943 the palace was the location of the Accademia Aeronautica, the Italian Air Force Academy. From 1943, during the allied invasion the royal palace served as Allied Force Headquarters for the Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean area; Sir Maitland Wilson and later Sir Harold Alexander. In April 1945 the palace was the site of the signing of terms of the unconditional German surrender of forces in Italy. The agreement covered between 600,000 and 900,000 soldiers along the Italian Front including troops in sections of Austria. The first Allied war crimes trial took place in the palace in 1945; German general Anton Dostler was sentenced to death and executed nearby, in Aversa. In the left hand arc behind the façade, a set of barracks were built. During World War II the soldiers of the US Fifth Army recovered here in a "rest centre".

Layout of the Palace.

The palace has 5 floors, 1,200 rooms, including two dozen state apartments, a large library, and a theatre modelled after the Teatro San Carlo of Naples. A monumental avenue that would run 20 kilometers between the palace and Naples was planned but never realized.  The palace has a rectangular plan, measuring 247 × 184 m, and the four sides are connected by two orthogonal arms, forming four inner courts. Each floor measures approximately, but considering the five floors, the whole palace measures.  Caserta is by far the largest royal palace in the world in terms of volume, with more than 2 million m3 (70 million cu ft). Behind the façades of its matching segmental ranges of outbuildings that flank the giant forecourt, a jumble of buildings arose to facilitate daily business. The palace encloses four courts that feature what scholars describe as well-proportioned interior that evoke a monotonous dignity, unique in its time.  Of all the royal residences inspired by the Palace of Versailles, the Reggia of Caserta is the one that bears the greatest resemblance to the original model: the unbroken balustraded skyline and the slight break provided by pavilions within the long, somewhat monotonous façade. As at Versailles, a large aqueduct was required to bring water for the prodigious water displays. Like its French predecessor, the palace was intended to display the power and grandeur of an absolute Bourbon monarchy. A solecism at Caserta is that above the "piano reale", the King's floor, is another floor of equal magnificence. The enfilades of Late Baroque "saloni" were the heart and seat of government, as well as displays of national wealth. Caserta provided a royal refuge from the dust and factions of the capital, just as Versailles had freed Louis XIV from Paris. The royal palace has more than 40 monumental rooms completely decorated with frescoes when, in comparison, Versailles counts only 22 monumental rooms.

The park.

The garden, a typical example of the baroque extension of formal vistas, stretches for 120 ha, partly on hilly terrain. It is also inspired by the park of Versailles. The park starts from the back façade of the palace, flanking a long alley with artificial fountains and cascades. There is a botanical garden, called "The English Garden", in the upper part designed in the 1780s by Carlo Vanvitelli and the German-born botanist, nurseryman, plantsman-designer, John Graefer, trained in London and recommended to Sir William Hamilton by Sir Joseph Banks. It is an early Continental example of an "English garden" in the svelte naturalistic taste of Capability Brown.  The fountains and cascades, each filling a "vasca" (basin), with architecture and hydraulics by Luigi Vanvitelli at intervals along a wide straight canal that runs to the horizon, rivalled those at Peterhof outside St. Petersburg. These include:  A large number of figures from classical Antiquity were modelled by Gaetano Salomone for the gardens of the Reggia, and executed by large workshops.  Contemporary observers noted that the Caserta surpassed all other royal palaces in Europe, including its models, on one particular aspect: the combination of completeness and stateliness. This is attributed to the spacious oval piazza in front of the edifice's south side

UNESCO World Heritage site.

The palace was listed as a world heritage site in 1997. According to the rationale, the palace, "whilst cast in the same mould as other 18th century royal establishments, is exceptional for the broad sweep of its design, incorporating not only an imposing palace and park, but also much of the surrounding natural landscape and an ambitious new town laid out according to the urban planning precepts of its time."

The Royal Palace of Caserta ( ) is a former royal residence in Caserta, southern Italy, constructed by the House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies as their main residence as kings of Naples. It is the largest palace erected in Europe during the 18th century. In 1997, the palace was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site; its nomination described it as "the swan song of the spectacular art of the Baroque, from which it adopted all the features needed to create the illusions of multidirectional space". In terms of volume, the Royal Palace of Caserta is the largest royal residence in the world with over 1 million m3 and covering an area of 47,000 m2.


Gameplay.

Throughout the game, the player may indulge in intrigues, rise to a position in government, and obtain titles. Each title allows the player to upgrade their house by one level, which starts as a hovel and culminates in a palace. Each successively higher title increases the player's influence, allowing such things as sabotage, spying, blackmail, or taking opponents to court.  One of the main features of the title is the good and bad duality present in the various aspects throughout the character's life. The player may bribe people to get them on their side, or they may genuinely like them. The player may kidnap members from rival dynasties or forge alliances with them. This gives the game added replayability, since the scenarios are never the same.  Another prominent quality of "The Guild" is the nonlinear gameplay, or, the ability to extend the same game for a very long time if the player is careful and dedicated enough. Every time the player's current character dies, the heir takes his/her place as long as a certain age requirement is met.

Businesses.

In "The Guild", the player may follow whichever career path they choose. These range from Blacksmith to Innkeeper, going through Thief and Money Lender as well as a few others. As the character ages and gets richer, the option to acquire new professions will emerge. In this way, the fourth generation of the player's dynasty might have access to more than four professions, while the first one will have only one. Each profession within a family has its own business establishment.  To run a certain business, it's necessary to possess the respective title given by an "association" (a guild of sorts). Titles enable the player to have an establishment but it also determines what type it will be. Titles also come with levels and the higher the player goes on the ladder, the better the businesses available become. The player may only apply for the next level (or first, in case they're not specialized in that job) of the profession when a given criteria is met.  Managing the player's business can be approached in different ways. The player is able to micromanage their businesses, such as by purchasing raw goods, choosing what to manufacture, and setting prices of goods. However, it is not necessary to do this in order to become wealthy. Players are also given the option to hire a manager and have their business run for them by this manager. This usually results in lower profits in the long run. Lastly, the player may assign certain tasks to their manager while retaining other tasks for themself.  In an attempt to keep the realism in the game, cities have limited space to build structures, be they residential houses or businesses. However, should the player choose to, it is possible to buy a property, tear the structure down, and erect a different type of structure. This feature greatly extends the possibilities of the game.

Politics.

No matter what city the player chooses, the political structure is always the same. There's a Town Council that contains several different offices in different branches which are in a fixed hierarchy. Every time an office in the immediate upper level to the player's has an opening, the player is given the choice to run for it. When the character has no participation in the Town Council, they may submit their candidacy for the lowest level of office. The people occupying the offices above the one in question vote at the end of the year, and the candidate with the most votes gets elected.  Occupying a certain seat within the Town Council grants the player a set of privileges which are more beneficial as the office goes higher up in the hierarchy. For instance, while a Night Watchman might have the ability to arrest a citizen, a Judge is completely immune to any sort of lawsuit filed against them by their rivals.  Given the benefits that come with being in office, getting voted by their fellow citizens is often a hard feat to accomplish and there's always more than a few candidates to go up against. To get their way, players may opt for several different methods to secure their place, such as bribes, or by running for office where they know a member of their family is going to vote for them.

Reception.

"The Guild" shipped 100,000 copies in its first week, although it was first erroneously reported as having sold-through this number of units to costumers.  "Europa 1400" was a nominee for "The Electric Playground"s 2002 "Best Simulation for PC" award, but lost to "".

Europa 1400: The Guild is a simulation game set in Europe from the year 1400 up to 1815. In it, the player tries to guide a family dynasty to power and wealth, starting from one character of limited means. Players can choose from a variety of initial businesses (including iron smith, tavern, church and thieves' guild) and historic cities (including Berlin and London). As the family business and social standing grows, more options become available, even high political rank.


History.

The first human inhabitants of Nosy Be were small bands of Antankarana and Zafinofotsy, before the Sakalava migrated there and became the most numerous ethnic group on the island. These people were joined later by some Comorians, Indians or Antandroy.  Nosy Be made first major appearance in Madagascar's history when King Radama I announced that he intended to conquer the whole west of the red island up to the sea. That plan was eventually achieved when the Sakalava Kingdom of Boina came into his possession in 1837 when Queen Tsiomeko's army was defeated. The French colonized the island from 1840, founding an outpost named Hell-Ville (from French Admiral de Hell). In 1849, slavery was abolished by the French, though the slaves were owned by Malagasies. It caused a Malagasy revolt against the French. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the island was governed by the French as an internal protectorate within the colony of Madagascar. The French used both military force and diplomacy to maintain their position in the island, appointing the former ruler of Nosy Be Binao as the "gouverneur principal" of the island. Though it was difficult for the French to control the littoral, they founded a plantation colony in Nosy Be, mainly producing sugar and cash crops. During the Russo-Japanese War Nosy Be became a supply station for Russia's Second Pacific Squadron. The main fleet led by Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky reached Nosy Be on January 9, 1905, where it met a smaller detachment led by Admiral Dmitry von Fölkersam that had arrived already on December 28, 1904. The fleet stayed for two months for refurbishing and coaling, leaving on March 17 to meet its fate ten weeks later at the Battle of Tsushima.

Lynching of tourists, 2013.

The island, like most of Madagascar, suffers from an extreme level of uncertainty linked to crime and violence. Rumours quickly turn into accusations in Madagascar, and lynchings are common, even for allegations related to traffic accidents or theft. On October 3, 2013, the body of an 8-year-old boy was discovered at the beach of Ambatoloaka on the island. The condition of the body was poor after one week in the water, and a rumour was spread that the child had been murdered by Western organ-trafficking tourists. The uncle of the boy, a local named Zaidou, was detained by the local police for questioning, but a violent mob gathered to storm the local jail to punish the supposed murderer.  As the uncle was not found, the anger of the mob turned to the Westerners having been in contact with the person, French tourists Sébastien Judalet and Roberto Gianfalla. Judalet was found and dragged from his hotel to the beach of Ambatoloaka, where the large mob repeatedly hit him with sticks and stones. The police received at least five calls from bystanders or expatriates but did not respond. Two police officers actually joined the mob, one of which who was filming the lynching on his smartphone. After three hours of torture and humiliation, the naked and bleeding tourists were put into car tires and thrown alive into a bonfire on the beach. On the afternoon of October 3, 2013, the uncle Zaidou was found driving on the island. A mob of several hundred quickly lynched him by burning him alive on a public street next to a mosque.  Both events were filmed by the bystanders, publishing the murders on the internet. In spite of this mass of evidence, the local justice took two years of investigation to finally convict 4 members of the mob to lifetime imprisonment and 6 others to shorter sentences; 26 suspects in custody were released without charge as well as the two police officers. A local politician, Joseph Yoland, was accused of inciting the killings on his radio station at the island, but the charges were dropped when the court allegedly was unable to retrieve any recordings of the aired shows that evening. Following the events, the French authorities warned travellers for "high risk of assaults, that could be extremely violent", U.S. travellers are also advised "[to] be aware of the potential for mob violence and ‘popular justice’ that is sometimes directed towards foreign nationals.". The lynching in Nosy Be is a rare public murder of expatriates in Madagascar; most lynchings concern locals. However, expatriates are frequently subject to kidnapping and extortion, such as the January 2015 kidnapping of a 12-year old French child outside of his school, and two separate kidnappings of French citizens of Indo-Pakistani origin in April 2016 that triggered the intervention of the French police tactical unit GIGN in Madagascar.

Geography.

Nosy Be is located about eight kilometers () from the coast of Madagascar in the Mozambique Channel; several smaller islands are located nearby, including Nosy Komba, Nosy Mitsio, Nosy Sakatia, and Nosy Tanikely. The island's main town is Andoany.  The volcanic island has an area of about, and its highest peak is Mont Lokobe at ; the volcano is of Holocene origin but has not erupted in recorded history. There are eleven volcanic crater lakes on the island.  The island is known for having one of the world's smallest frogs ("Stumpffia pygmaea") and chameleon ("Brookesia minima"). The Lokobe Reserve is one of Madagascar's five Strict Nature Reserves ("Réserves Naturelles Intégrales"). Nosy Be is also home to a specific color of panther chameleon ("Furcifer pardalis").

Omura's whale.

Recent studies indicate that adjacent waters around the channel between Nosy Be and Madagascar host a habitat for notable number of Omura's whale, and this has allowed researchers to conduct field studies targeting this rare species for the first time.

Climate.

Nosy Be has a tropical monsoon climate. It is most humid in summer (December, January, February). The Tsaratanana massif partially protects the island from the strong north-east winds affecting the region in August or during tropical depressions. The wet season lasts from October until the beginning of May, followed by a relatively short dry season that lasts through September. As characteristic of its climate however, it still sees moderate amounts of precipitation even during this time. Daytime temperatures remain fairly steady throughout the year, hovering around 30°C (86 °F), while the nights are slightly cooler during the dry season.

Administration.

The island constitutes a department within Diana Region and is organized as the City of Nosy Be (Commune Urbaine de Nosy Be). Its mayor is Mr. Ali Aboudou.

Economy.

Once a major location of plantation of sugar cane and production of its derived products (sugar, rum), the island's main activities are now the plantation of ylang-ylang (for the production of essential oils) and tourism. Nosy Be is the most developed tourism destination in Madagascar. This is the only place in Madagascar where all-inclusive large resorts can be found.

Transportation.

The island is served by Fascene Airport. The airport is serviced by commercial flights with Air Madagascar, Air Austral, Ewa, Ethiopian Airlines, and has direct flights from Europe on Neos. Its main city and harbour, Hell-Ville, can be reached by boat from Ankify.

Education.

French international schools:

Twin towns—sister cities.

Nosy Be is twinned with:

Nosy Be (formerly Nossi-bé and Nosse Be) is an island off the northwest coast of Madagascar. Nosy Be is Madagascar's largest and busiest tourist resort. It has an area of, and its population was officially estimated at 73,010 in 2013.


Distribution.

This species is the most wide-ranging marine flowering plant in the Northern Hemisphere. It lives in cooler ocean waters in the North Atlantic and North Pacific, and in the warmer southern parts of its range it dies off during warmer seasons. It grows in the Arctic region and endures several months of ice cover per year. It is the only seagrass known from Iceland. It can be found in bays, lagoons, estuaries, on beaches, and in other coastal habitat. The several ecotypes each have specific habitat requirements. It occurs in calmer waters in the sublittoral zone, where it is rarely exposed to air. It anchors via rhizomes in sandy or muddy substrates and its leaves catch particulate debris in the water which then collects around the bases of the plants, building up the top layer of the seabed.

Description and reproduction.

This flowering plant is a rhizomatous herb which produces a long stem with hairlike green leaves that measure up to 1.2 cm wide and may reach over 1.0 m long. It is a perennial plant, but it may grow as an annual. The rhizome grows horizontally through the substrate, anchoring via clusters of roots at nodes. The plant is monoecious, with an individual bearing both male and female flowers in separate alternating clusters. The inflorescence is about 10 cm long. The fruit is a nutlet with a transparent coat containing the seed. The plant can also undergo vegetative reproduction, sprouting repeatedly from its rhizome and spreading into a meadow-like colony on the seabed known as a genet. One meadow of cloned eelgrass was determined to be 3000 years old, genetically. When undergoing sexual reproduction, the plant produces large quantities of seeds, at times numbering several thousand seeds per square meter of plants. The plant disperses large distances when its stems break away and carry the fertile seeds to new areas, eventually dropping to the seabed. The seagrass is a favorite food of several species of waterfowl, which may also distribute the seeds.

Ecology.

This Zostera grows in muddy and sandy shores only at and below spring tides. This plant is an important member of the coastal ecosystem in many areas because it helps to physically form the habitat and it plays a crucial role for many other species. For example, it provides a sheltered spawning ground for the Pacific herring ("Clupea pallasii"). Juvenile Atlantic cod ("Gadus morhua") hide in eelgrass beds as they grow. The blue mussel ("Mytilus edulis") attaches to its leaves. The green alga "Entocladia perforans", an endophyte, depends on this eelgrass. A great many animals use the plant for food, including the isopod "Idotea chelipes" and the purple sea urchin "Paracentrotus lividus". The Atlantic brant ("Branta bernicula hrota") subsists almost entirely on the plant. When the eelgrass dies, detaches, and washes up on the beach, a whole new ecosystem is founded; many species of insects and other invertebrates begin to inhabit the dead plant, including the amphipod "Talitrus saltator", the fly "Fucellia tergina", and the beetles "Stenus biguttatus", "Paederus littoralis", and "Coccinella septempunctata".  The bacterial species "Granulosicoccus coccoides" was first isolated from the leaves of the plant.

Threats.

Populations of the plant have been damaged by a number of processes, especially increased turbidity in the water; like most other plants, eelgrass requires sunlight to grow. One plant may adapt to light level by growing longer leaves to reach the sun in low-light areas; individuals in clear or shallow water may have leaves a few centimeters long, while individuals in deeper spots may have leaves over a meter long. Human activities such as dredging and trawling damage eelgrass meadows; practices used in scallop and mussel harvesting in the Wadden Sea have cleared much eelgrass from the sea bottom there. Aquaculture operations and coastal development destroy colonies. Pollution from many sources, including riverside farms, sewage lines, fish processing plants, and oil spills, damage eelgrass meadows. Conservation and restoration efforts of "Zostera marina" habitats have been plenty since their rapid decline started several decades ago.  Invasive species have been shown to have a negative effect on eelgrass and associated ecosystems. In Nova Scotia, the invasive exotic green crab ("Carcinus maenas") destroys eelgrass when it digs in the substrate for prey items, or by directly eating eelgrass seeds. The decline of eelgrass in Antigonish Harbour has resulted in fewer Canada geese, which feed on the rhizome, and fewer common goldeneye, which eat invertebrates that live in eelgrass meadows.  The slime mold "Labyrinthula zosterae" caused a "wasting disease" of eelgrass resulting in large-scale losses in the 1930s; localized populations are still affected by the slime mold today. During this time, populations of the eelgrass-eating Atlantic brant dropped. Remaining geese ate less-preferred food plants and algae, and hunters subsequently noticed that brant meat began to taste different. Even today, brants no longer migrate over the Nova Scotia area.

Genomics and evolutionary adaptations.

The "Zostera marina" genome has been sequenced and analyzed by Olsen "et al." in 2016 and the resulting article has been published in Nature. The approximate genome sequence of "Z. marina" is 202.3 Mb and encodes approximately 20450 protein-coding genes (of which 86,6% are supported by trancriptome data). The assembled genome was found to consist of large numbers of repeat elements accounting for 63% of the assembled genome. The researchers revealed key adaptations at the molecular biological level that have occurred during evolution of "Z. marina", an angiosperm that has adopted a marine lifestyle. Genome analysis revealed that "Z. marina" lost the entire repertoire of stomatal genes, genes involved in volatile compound biosynthesis and signaling (such as ethylene and terpenoids) as well as genes for ultraviolet protection and phytochromes used for far-red sensing. Besides these gene losses, also gene gain events have been described, mostly involving the adjustment to full salinity and ion homeostasis. Also macro-algae like cell wall components (low-methylated polyanionic pectins and sulfated galatans) have been described, unique for "Z. marina" compared to other angiosperms.

Human uses.

People have long used this plant species as roof thatching in some areas. It has been used as fertilizer and cattle fodder in Norway for centuries. It has also been dried and used as stuffing for mattresses and furniture.

Zostera marina is a species of seagrass known by the common names common eelgrass and seawrack. It is an aquatic plant native to marine environments on the coastlines of mostly northern sections of North America and Eurasia.