Vita.

Spahn studied History of theatre, German language and literature, Philosophy, and History of art at the University of Cologne. He received his doctorate ('Dr. Phil.') in 1969 for his dissertation "The history of the theatre of the Ruhr region up to 1933". He worked as a TV journalist for the WDR from 1969 to 2005. He produced numerous series, portraits and documentaries in the field of cultural and educational policy.  He became known both nationally and internationally through chess programmes. Between 1983 and 2005, he presented the annual live broadcast Chess of the Grandmasters ("Schach der Großmeister"), where players including Garry Kasparov, Anatoly Karpov, Viswanathan Anand and Vladimir Kramnik competed for the TV Cup.  It was on his initiative and under his direction that the WDR regularly reported on the Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting.

Series / Films.

The series written and produced by Spahn included "Keine Angst vorm Fliegen" ("Don't be afraid to fly") and "Der Elternführerschein" ("The driving licence for parents"). Together with Lida Winiewicz, Spahn wrote the 12-part TV serial "Wenn die Liebe hinfällt" ("When love ends"). He was awarded the "Medal of German Cancer Aid" for "Niemand soll der Nächste sein!" ("Nobody should be the next"). In 1979, Spahn received the "German Industrial Film Prize" for the TV series "Computer können nicht vergessen!" ("Computers can't forget") in connection with the Federal Data Protection Act. Under the title and with the TV production "Don't be afraid to fly", Spahn and Rainer Pieritz founded seminars to allay the fear of flying in Germany. As author and director, Spahn produced two impressive portraits on Carl Djerassi, the chemist, author, art collector and "Father of the pill", and Otto Erich Deutsch, the Schubert researcher ("Deutsch Catalog").

Awards.

Claus Spahn was awarded the "Ehrenteller des Deutschen Schachbundes" ("Commemorative Plate of the German Chess Federation") in 1992. He received the "Deutscher Schachpreis" ("German Chess Award") of the German Chess Federation on two occasions (1983/2001) for his commitment to the sport of chess, as well as the Medal of the European Chess Union (ECU) and the of the World Chess Federation FIDE in 2002.  In 2001, he was awarded the "Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany" by Federal President Johannes Rau for his many years of outstanding journalistic and editorial work.

Claus Spahn (born 15 May 1940 in Bottrop, Germany) is a former TV programme editor of Germany's Westdeutscher Rundfunk (WDR) broadcasting corporation, a presenter, producer and author. He was awarded the Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany in 2001.


Organizational structure.

There are three general sections:

History.

The National Library's history has origins in the 18th century (Załuski Library) including items from the collections of John III Sobieski which were obtained from his grand daughter Maria Karolina Sobieska, Duchess of Bouillon. However, the Załuski collection was confiscated by troops of Russian tsarina Catherine II in the aftermath of the second Partition of Poland and sent to Saint Petersburg, where the books formed the mass of the Imperial Public Library on its formation in 1795. Parts of the collection were damaged or destroyed as they were mishandled while being removed from the library and transported to Russia, and many were stolen. According to the historian Joachim Lelewel, the Zaluskis' books, "could be bought at Grodno by the basket".  Because of that, when Poland regained her independence in 1918, there was no central institution to serve in the capacity of a national library. On 24 February 1928, by the decree of president Ignacy Mościcki, the National Library was created in its modern form. It was opened in 1930 and initially had 200 thousand volumes. Its first Director General was Stefan Demby, succeeded in 1934 by Stefan Vrtel-Wierczyński. The collections of the library were rapidly extended. For instance, in 1932 president Mościcki donated all of the books and manuscripts from the Wilanów Palace Museum to the library, some 40 thousand volumes and 20 thousand pictures from the collection of Stanisław Kostka Potocki.  Initially the National Library lacked a seat of its own. Because of that, the collections had to be accommodated in several places. The main reading room was located in the newly built library building of the Warsaw School of Economics. In 1935 the Potocki Palace in Warsaw became home for the special collections. A new, purpose-built building for the library was planned in what is now the Pole Mokotowskie, in a planned monumental "Government District". However, its construction was hampered by the outbreak of World War II.  Before World War II, the library collections consisted of:  In 1940 the Nazi occupants changed the National Library into Municipal Library of Warsaw and divided it as follows:  In 1944 the special collections were set ablaze by the Nazi occupants as a part of repressions after the Warsaw Uprising. This caused the destruction of 80,000 early printed books, including priceless 16th–18th century Polonica, 26,000 manuscripts, 2,500 incunables, 100,000 drawings and engravings, 50,000 pieces of sheet music and theatre materials. It is estimated that out of over six million volumes in Warsaw's major libraries in 1939, 3.6 million volumes were lost during World War II, a large part of them belonging to the National Library.

Collections.

Today the collections of the National Library are one of the largest in the country. Among 7,900,000 volumes (2004) held in the library are 160,000 objects printed before 1801, over 26,000 manuscripts (including 6,887 music manuscripts), over 114,000 music prints and 400,000 drawings. The library collections also include photographs and other iconographic documents, more than 101,000 atlases and maps, over 2,000,000 ephemera, as well as over 2,000,000 books and about 800,000 copies of journals from the 19th to 21st centuries. Notable items in the collection include 151 leaves of the "Codex Suprasliensis", which was inscribed in UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme Register in 2007 in recognition for its supranational and supraregional significance.  In 2012 the library signed an agreement to add 1.3 million Polish library records to WorldCat.

The National Library of Poland () is the central Polish library, subject directly to the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage of the Republic of Poland.


Background.

Kata originally were teaching and training methods by which successful combat techniques were preserved and passed on. Practising kata allowed a company of persons to engage in a struggle using a systematic approaches, rather by practising in a repetitive manner the learner develops the ability to execute those techniques and movements in a natural, reflex-like manner. Systematic practice does not mean permanently rigid. The goal is to internalize the movements and techniques of a kata so they can be executed and adapted under different circumstances, without thought or hesitation. A novice's actions will look uneven and difficult, while a master's appear simple and smooth.  "Kata" is a loanword in English, from the 1950s in reference to the judo kata due to Jigoro Kano, and from the 1970s also of karate kata; but the word has come to be used as a generic term for "forms" in martial arts in general, or even figuratively applied to other fields.

Japanese martial arts.

In Japanese martial arts practice, kata is often seen as an essential partner to "randori" training with one complementing the other. However, the actual type and frequency of kata versus "randori" training varies from art to art. In iaido, solo kata using the Japanese sword (katana) comprises almost all of the training. Whereas in judo, kata training is de-emphasized and usually only prepared for dan grading.  In kenjutsu, paired kata at the beginners level can appear to be stilted. At higher levels serious injury is prevented only by a high sensitivity of both participants to important concepts being taught and trained for. These include timing and distance, with the kata practised at realistic speed. This adjustability of kata training is found in other Japanese arts with roles of attacker and defender often interchanging within the sequence. Many martial arts use kata for public demonstrations and in competitions, awarding points for such aspects of technique as style, balance, timing, and verisimilitude (appearance of being real).

Karate.

The most popular image associated with kata is that of a karate practitioner performing a series of punches and kicks in the air. The kata are executed as a specified series of approximately 20 to 70 moves, generally with stepping and turning, while attempting to maintain perfect form. There are perhaps 100 kata across the various forms of karate, each with many minor variations. The number of moves in a kata may be referred to in the name of the kata, e.g., "Gojū Shiho", which means "54 steps." The number of moves may also have links with Buddhist spirituality. The number 108 is significant in Buddhism & Hinduism, and kata with 54, 36, or 27 moves (divisors of 108) are common. The practitioner is generally counselled to visualize the enemy attacks, and his responses, as actually occurring, and "karateka" are often told to "read" a kata, to explain the imagined events. Kata can contain techniques beyond the superficially obvious ones. The study of the meaning of the movements is referred to as the bunkai, meaning analysis, of the kata.  One explanation of the use of kata is as a reference guide for a set of moves. Not to be used following that "set" pattern but to keep the movements "filed". After learning these kata, this set of learned skills can then be used in a sparring scenario (particularly without points). The main objective here is to try out different combinations of techniques in a safe environment to ultimately find out how to defeat your opponent.  Recently, with the spread of Extreme Martial arts or XMA, a style of kata called CMX kata has formed. These kata are performed in tournaments and include gymnastics related elements, such as backflips, cartwheels, and splits. These kata can also be performed with weapons such as the Bo staff.

Judo.

Judo has several kata, mostly created in the late 19th century by Kano Jigoro, the founder of judo. The judo kata involve two participants. Judo kata preserve a number of techniques that are not permitted in competition or in "randori", including punches, kicks, and the use of the katana and other weapons. The study of kata is usually begun typically at around the green belt level. The most commonly studied judo kata is Nage-no-kata, which consists of fifteen throwing techniques. The Katame-no-kata is composed of pinning techniques, chokes, and joint locks. Kime-no-kata is a long kata consisting of self-defense techniques against both unarmed attacks, and attacks with swords and knives.

Non-Japanese martial arts.

While the Japanese term is most well known in the English language, forms are by no means exclusive to Japan. They have been recorded in China as early as the Tang dynasty, and are referred to in Mandarin as "taolu".  South and Southeast Asian martial arts incorporate both preset and freestyle forms. In silat these are referred to as "jurus" and "tari" respectively. Malay folklore credits the introduction of forms to the Buddhist monk Bodhidharma.  In such as taekwondo and Tang Soo Do, the word "hyung" or "hyeong" is usually employed, though in some cases other words are used. The International Taekwon-Do Federation uses the word "tul", while the World Taekwondo Federation uses the word "poomsae" or simply the English translations "pattern" or "form." Taekwondo patterns have multiple variations including "Palgwe" and the more popular "Taeguk" forms used by the WTF. Forms are included in certain taekwondo competitions and are a key element of gradings.  In Sanskrit, forms are known either as "yudhan" (combat form) or "pentra" (tactical deployment). Other Asian martial arts refer to forms by various terms specific to their respective languages, such as the Burmese word "aka", the Vietnamese "quyen" and the Kashmiri "khawankay".  In the Historical European martial arts and their modern reconstructions, there are forms, plays, drills and flourishes.

Outside martial arts.

More recently kata has come to be used in English in a more general or figurative sense, referring to any basic form, routine, or pattern of behavior that is practised to various levels of mastery.  In Japanese language "kata" (though written as 方) is a frequently-used suffix meaning “way of doing,” with emphasis on the form and order of the process. Other meanings are “training method” and “formal exercise.” The goal of a painter's practising, for example, is to merge his consciousness with his brush; the potter's with his clay; the garden designer's with the materials of the garden. Once such mastery is achieved, the theory goes, the doing of a thing perfectly is as easy as thinking it.  Kata is a term used by some programmers in the Software Craftsmanship movement. Computer programmers who call themselves "Software Craftsmen" will write 'Kata' - small snippets of code that they write in one sitting, sometimes repeatedly, often daily, in order to build muscle memory and practise their craft.  One of the things that characterize an organization's culture is its kata – its routines of thinking and practice. Edgar Schein suggests an organization's culture helps it cope with its environment, and one meaning of "kata" is, "a way to keep two things in sync or harmony with one another." A task for leaders and managers is to create and maintain the organizational culture through consistent role modeling, teaching, and coaching, which is in many ways analogous to how kata are taught in the martial arts.

Kata is a Japanese word (型 or 形) meaning literally "form" referring to a detailed choreographed pattern of martial arts movements made to be practised alone, and also within groups and in unison when training. It is practised in Japanese martial arts as a way to memorize and perfect the movements being executed. Korean martial arts with Japanese influence (hapkido, Tang Soo Do) use the derived term "hyeong" (hanja: 形) and also the term "pumsae" (hanja: 品勢 hangeul: 품새).


History.

From the beginning of 1961 to 1988, "Vasa" was housed in a temporary structure called Wasavarvet ("The Vasa Shipyard") where she was treated with polyethylene glycol. Visitors could only view the ship from two levels and the maximum distance was only 5 m (17 ft). In 1981, the Swedish government decided that a permanent "Vasa" museum was to be constructed and a competition for the design of the museum building was organized. A total of 384 architects sent in models of their ideas and the final winners were Marianne Jakobbäck and Göran Månsson with "Ask" ("box"). The construction of the new building began on and around the dry dock of the old naval yard with an inauguration ceremony hosted by Prince Bertil on 2 November 1987. "Vasa" was towed into the flooded dry dock under the new building in December 1987, and during the summer of 1989, when visitors were allowed onto the construction site, 228,000 people visited the half-finished museum. The museum was officially opened on 15 June 1990. So far, "Vasa" has been seen by over 25 million people. In 2017, the museum had a total of 1,495,760 visitors.  The main hall contains the ship itself, and various exhibits related to the archaeological findings of the ships and early 17th-century Sweden. "Vasa" has been fitted with the lower sections of all three masts, a new bowsprit, winter rigging, and has had certain parts that were missing or heavily damaged replaced. The replacement parts have not been treated or painted and are therefore clearly visible against the original material that has been darkened after three centuries under water.  The new museum is dominated by a large copper roof with stylized masts that represent the actual height of "Vasa" when she was fully rigged. Parts of the building are covered in wooden panels painted in dark red, blue, tar black, ochre yellow and dark green. The interior is similarly decorated, with large sections of bare, unpainted concrete, including the entire ceiling. Inside the museum the ship can be seen from six levels, from her keel to the very top of the sterncastle. Around the ship are numerous exhibits and models portraying the construction, sinking, location and recovery of the ship. There are also exhibits that expand on the history of Sweden in the 17th century, providing background information for why the ship was built. A movie theatre shows a film in alternating languages on the recovery of the "Vasa".  The museum is in the process of publishing an 8-volume archaeological report to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the salvage. "Vasa I: The Archaeology of a Swedish Warship of 1628" was published at the end of 2006. Subsequent volumes will be published annually.  The museum also features four other museum ships moored in the harbour outside: the ice breaker "Sankt Erik" (launched 1915), the lightvessel "Finngrundet" (1903), the torpedo boat "Spica" (1966) and the rescue boat "Bernhard Ingelsson" (1944).

The Vasa Museum () is a maritime museum in Stockholm, Sweden. Located on the island of Djurgården, the museum displays the only almost fully intact 17th century ship that has ever been salvaged, the 64-gun warship "Vasa" that sank on her maiden voyage in 1628. The Vasa Museum opened in 1990 and, according to the official web site, is the most visited museum in Scandinavia. Together with other museums such as the Stockholm Maritime Museum, it belongs to the Swedish National Maritime Museums (SNMM).


History.

The name of the settlement was first recorded in the 12th century and it was of Slavic origin. It comes from a personal Slavic name "Wyszemir". Wismar was part of the Western Slavic Obotrites territory.  Wismar received its civic rights in 1229, and came into the possession of Mecklenburg in 1301. In 1259 it had entered a pact with Lübeck and Rostock, in order to defend itself against the numerous Baltic sea pirates. This developed into the Hanseatic League. During the 13th and 14th centuries it was a flourishing Hanseatic town, with important woollen factories. Though a plague carried off 2,000 of the inhabitants in 1376, the town seems to have remained tolerably prosperous until the 16th century.

Under Swedish rule.

Under the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 Wismar passed into the possession of Sweden. Through Wismar and the other dominions in the Holy Roman Empire, the Swedish monarchs in their roles as princes, or "Reichsfürsten", took part in the Imperial Diets. From 1653 it was the seat of the highest court for that part of Sweden. In 1803 Sweden pledged both the town and lordship to Mecklenburg-Schwerin for 1,258,000 Riksdaler, reserving, however, the right of redemption after 100 years. In view of this contingent right of Sweden, Wismar was not represented at the diet of Mecklenburg-Schwerin until 1897. In 1903 Sweden finally renounced its claims on the town. Wismar still retains a few relics of its old privileges, including the right to fly its own flag.

20th century.

At the turn of the 19th century the most important manufacturing industries of Wismar were iron, machinery, paper, roofing-felt and asphalt. There was also considerable trade, especially by sea, in exports including grain, oil-seeds and butter, and the imports coal, timber and iron. The harbour was deep enough to admit vessels of 5 meters (16.4 feet) draught, permitting sizeable steamers to unload at its quays. Wismar was the home to the Dornier aircraft plant, and to railway rolling-stock factories.  In World War II Wismar was heavily damaged by Allied air raids. At the end of the war in Europe, as the line of contact between Soviet and other Allied armies formed, Wismar was captured by the British 6th Airborne Division's 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion on 2 May 1945. This prevented further Soviet advance into north Germany and Denmark. On 7 May 1945 Field Marshal Montgomery and Marshal Konstantin Rokossovsky met in Wismar. On 1 July 1945, due to the occupation zone agreements of the Yalta Conference making Wismar a part of the Soviet Zone of Germany, the British troops departed and Soviet troops took over.  During the period of the German Democratic Republic ("Deutsche Demokratische Republik"), from 1949 to 1990, Wismar was developed as a port and shipbuilding city, becoming East Germany's second-largest port, after Rostock. Although the DDR government pledged to restore churches that had been heavily bomb-damaged during the war, this commitment was for the most part not fulfilled.  After German reunification in 1990, churches and other historic buildings in the city's "Altstadt" were restored, and the old towns of Wismar and Stralsund, some 100 miles to the east, were listed as UNESCO world heritage sites. In 2011, Wismar became the capital of the "Landkreis" (district) of Nordwestmecklenburg (Northwest Mecklenburg).

Main sights.

The centre of the old town is the huge Market Place, one of the largest in northern Germany (10,000 square metres), surrounded by elegant buildings with styles ranging from 14th-century North German Gothic to 19th-century Romanesque revival to Art Nouveau. The square's focal point is the "Wasserkunst", an elaborate wrought-iron fountain imported from Holland in 1602. The northern side of the square is occupied by the Town Hall, built in neoclassical style in 1817–1819. Another notable building in the square is a Brick Gothic "Bürgerhaus" (patrician's home) called the "Alter Schwede" (The Old Swede), erected around 1380.  St. George's Church, the third so-named edifice on the site, dates from 1404. It had escaped major damage during most of World War II, but was heavily damaged by "Blockbuster bombs" dropped by the British Royal Air Force on 14 April 1945, three weeks before the end of the war. After German reunification, reconstruction costing some 40 million euros was completed in 2010.  The 80 m high tower church of St. Mary's Church (the "Marienkirche") is the only remainder of the original Brick Gothic edifice, built in the first half of the 13th century. It suffered heavy damage in World War II, and was partially razed in 1960 by the East German government.  The church of St. Nicholas ("Nikolaikirche"), built in 1381–1460, with very lofty vaulting, together with the Marienkirche, are regarded as good examples of the influence exercised in these northern provinces by the large church of St Mary in Lübeck. The "Fürstenhof", at one time a ducal residence, and later occupied by the municipal authorities, is a richly decorated specimen of the Italian early Renaissance style. Built in 1552–1565, it was restored in 1877–1879. The "Old School", dating from about 1300, has been restored. The town hall, rebuilt in 1829, contains a collection of pictures. The main gallery for fine arts is the Municipal Gallery "Baumhaus" located in the old harbour area of Wismar.

Economy.

Nordic Yards Wismar is a shipbuilder located in Wismar and shipbuilding has existed since 1946 at the site.

International relations.

Twin towns – sister cities.

Wismar is twinned with:  In addition, since 1991 there is a friendship with Halden in Norway.

Wismar () is a port and Hanseatic city in Northern Germany on the Baltic Sea, in the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. It is located about east of Lübeck and north of Schwerin, and is part of the Hamburg Metropolitan Region. Its natural harbour, located in the Bay of Wismar, is protected by a promontory. The population was 42,219 in 2013. It is the capital of the district of Nordwestmecklenburg.


Early life and reign.

Lothair was born in 795, to Louis the Pious and Ermengarde of Hesbaye. His father was the son of the reigning Emperor, Charlemagne. Little is known of Lothair's early life, which was probably passed at the court of his grandfather Charlemagne. In 814, the elderly emperor died, and left his sole surviving legitimate son Louis the Pious as successor to his vast empire. The next year, Lothair would be sent to govern Bavaria for his father, the new emperor. In 817, Louis the Pious drew up his "Ordinatio Imperii". In this, Louis designated Lothair as his principal heir and ordered that Lothair would be the overlord of Louis' younger sons Pippin of Aquitaine (who was 20) and Louis the German (who was 13), as well as his nephew (Lothair's cousin) Bernard of Italy. Lothair would also inherit their lands if they were to die childless. Lothair, aged 22, was then crowned joint emperor by his father at Aachen. At the same time, Aquitaine and Bavaria were granted to his brothers Pippin and Louis, respectively, as subsidiary kingdoms. Following the death of Bernard by Louis the Pious, Lothair also received the Kingdom of Italy. In 821, Lothair married Ermengarde (d. 851), daughter of Hugh the Count of Tours.  In 822, he assumed the government of Italy, and at Easter, 5 April 823, he was crowned emperor again by Pope Paschal I, this time at Rome. In November 824, Lothair promulgated a statute, the "Constitutio Romana", concerning the relations of pope and emperor, which reserved the supreme power to the secular potentate, and he afterwards issued various ordinances for the good government of Italy.  On Lothair's return to his father's court, his stepmother Judith won his consent to her plan for securing a kingdom for her son Charles, a scheme which was carried out in 829, when the young prince was given Alemannia as king. Lothair, however, soon changed his attitude and spent the succeeding decade in constant strife over the division of the Empire with his father. He was alternately master of the Empire, and banished and confined to Italy, at one time taking up arms in alliance with his brothers and at another fighting against them, whilst the bounds of his appointed kingdom were in turn extended and reduced.

Breaking kingdom.

The first rebellion began in 830. All three brothers fought their father, whom they deposed. In 831, their father was reinstated and he deprived Lothair of his imperial title and gave Italy to Charles. The second rebellion was instigated by Angilbert II, Archbishop of Milan, in 833, and again Louis was deposed in 834. Lothair, through the loyalty of the Lombards and later reconciliations, retained Italy and the imperial position through all remaining divisions of the Empire by his father.  When Louis the Pious was dying in 840, he sent the imperial insignia to Lothair, who, disregarding the various partitions, claimed the whole of the Empire. He was 45 years old when his father died. Negotiations with his brother Louis the German and his half-brother Charles, both of whom resisted this claim, were followed by an alliance of the younger brothers against Lothair. A decisive battle was fought at Fontenay-en-Puisaye on 25 June 841, when, in spite of his and his allied nephew Pepin II of Aquitaine's personal gallantry, Lothair was defeated and fled to Aachen. With fresh troops he began a war of plunder, but the forces of his brothers were too strong, and taking with him such treasure as he could collect, he abandoned his capital to them. He met with the leaders of the "Stellinga" in Speyer and promised them his support in return for theirs, but Louis and then the native Saxon nobility put down the "Stellinga" in the next years.  Peace negotiations began, and in June 842 the brothers met on an island in the Saône. They agreed to an arrangement which developed, after much difficulty and delay, into the Treaty of Verdun, signed in August 843. By this, Lothair received the imperial title as well as northern Italy and a long stretch of territory from the North Sea to the Mediterranean, essentially along the valleys of the Rhine and the Rhône; this territory includes the regions Lorraine, Alsace, Burgundy, and Provence. He soon ceded Italy to his eldest son, Louis, and remained in his new kingdom, engaging in alternate quarrels and reconciliations with his brothers and in futile efforts to defend his lands from the attacks of the Northmen (as Vikings were known in Frankish writings) and the Saracens (as those loyal to the various Fatimids, Umayyads and Abbasides are known in Frankish writings).  In 845 the count of Arles, Fulcrad, led a rebellion in Provence. The emperor put it down and the count joined him in an expedition against the Saracens in Italy in 846.

Death and aftermath.

In 855 he became seriously ill, and despairing of recovery renounced the throne, divided his lands among his three sons, and on 23 September entered the monastery of Prüm, where he died six days later. He was buried at Prüm, where his remains were found in 1860. It was at Prüm that Lothair was most commemorated.  The same year, Lothair's kingdom was divided between his three sons in a deal called the Treaty of Prüm: the eldest, Louis II, received Italy and the title of emperor; the second, Lothair II, received Lotharingia; the youngest, Charles, received Provence.

Family.

He married Ermengarde of Tours in 821, who died in 851.  One illegitimate child is known.

Lothair I or Lothar I (Dutch and Medieval Latin: "Lotharius"; German: "Lothar"; French: "Lothaire"; Italian: "Lotario") (795 – 29 September 855) was emperor (817–855, co-ruling with his father until 840), and the governor of Bavaria (815–817), King of Italy (818–855) and Middle Francia (840–855).


Early life.

Dobrev was born Nikolina Kamenova Dobreva in Sofia, Bulgaria, and moved to Canada at age two, where she was raised in Toronto, Ontario. She has an older brother, Aleksandar Dobrev. Her father, Kamen Dobrev, is a computer specialist and her mother, Michaela Dobreva (née Radeva), is an artist.  Dobrev attended Vradenburg Junior Public School and J. B. Tyrrell Sr. Public School, where she started ballet and jazz classes and competed in rhythmic gymnastics. She took acting classes at Armstrong Acting Studios in Toronto. Dobrev subsequently attended the arts program at Wexford Collegiate School for the Arts in Scarborough until her graduating year.  Dobrev entered post-secondary studies at Ryerson University in Toronto, majoring in Sociology, though her pursuit of an acting career prevented her from graduating.

Career.

Dobrev's first major acting role was as Mia on the teen drama television series "", a role she played for three seasons starting in 2006. She appeared in several feature films in the mid-2000s, including "Fugitive Pieces" and "Away from Her". Dobrev also headlined a number of television films, including Sci Fi Channel's "Never Cry Werewolf", MTV's The American Mall, and two Lifetime original movies. In 2007 she appeared in the music video of "You Got That Light" performed by Wade Allain-Marcus and David Baum.  Dobrev left "Degrassi" in 2009 to star in The CW's supernatural drama series "The Vampire Diaries", a television adaptation of the book series of the same name, playing the lead role of Elena Gilbert. Dobrev recurrently played a 500-year-old doppelgänger vampire named Katherine Pierce. She played the Petrova dopplegänger progenitor Amara, also known as the world's first immortal, in season 5. She crossed over to "The Vampire Diaries" spinoff "The Originals", as doppelgänger character Tatia, in an episode in 2014. In April 2015, Dobrev announced via Instagram that she would be leaving "The Vampire Diaries" after portraying Elena for six seasons. In January 2017, it was announced that Dobrev would return as Elena and Katherine in "The Vampire Diaries" series finale.  Dobrev had a minor role in the erotic thriller "Chloe", theatrically released by Sony Pictures Classics on March 26, 2010. The film had enjoyed commercial success and became director Atom Egoyan's biggest moneymaker ever. She also had a small role in the 2011 film "The Roommate". In April 2011, Dobrev was cast as Candace Kelmeckis in the film adaptation of "The Perks of Being a Wallflower", alongside Logan Lerman, Emma Watson, and Paul Rudd. In August 2014, she starred alongside Jake Johnson and Damon Wayans Jr. in the 20th Century Fox comedy "Let's Be Cops".  Dobrev played the role of Vicki Summers in the 2015 horror comedy film "The Final Girls". In September 2015, Dobrev was cast in the film "Arrivals", opposite Asa Butterfield and Maisie Williams, portraying the role of flight attendant Izzy; the film was later retitled "Departures", and was scheduled to go into production in April 2017. The same year, she was cast in the romantic comedy "Crash Pad", alongside Domhnall Gleeson and Christina Applegate, which began filming in Vancouver in fall 2015.  In 2017, Dobrev co-starred as weapons specialist Becky Clearidge in the action film sequel "", opposite Vin Diesel and Samuel L. Jackson; the film was released January 20. Also that year, Dobrev co-starred as Marlo in the film remake "Flatliners", opposite Ellen Page.  In March 2018, Dobrev was cast in the role of Clem in the comedy "Fam", a CBS television pilot that was picked up to series in May 2018. The sitcom premiered January 10, 2019. On May 10, 2019, the series was cancelled after one season. Dobrev starred as Chloe in the Roger Avary thriller "Lucky Day", released 2019. In 2019, she joined the cast of the film "Run This Town", which was released in March 2020.

Personal life.

Dobrev speaks English, French and Bulgarian. While filming "The Vampire Diaries", Dobrev lived in Atlanta, but moved to Los Angeles after leaving the series in 2015.

Activism and charity.

Dobrev is an enthusiastic volunteer and uses her reputation to support many charitable causes, including Puma’s 2011 non-profit "Project Pink" which supports numerous breast cancer charities and "Hunger Bites" organization that is dedicated to reducing hunger in 27 districts across Pennsylvania. Dobrev is also recognized for her long term involvement with WE movement, a Canadian-based charity which empowers youth to be agents of change. Dobrev took part in a Me to We volunteer trip to Kenya to help build a school. She has hosted We Day event in Toronto back in 2011 and made an appearance on stage at WE Day California 2019. Other social and charity issues Dobrev has been involved with include communities in Schools, school supplies, Elton John AIDS Foundation and "Rape Foundation" which gives comprehensive care to rape victims and sexually abused children.

Nikolina Kamenova Dobreva (, ; born January 9, 1989), known professionally as Nina Dobrev ( ), is a Canadian actress and model. Her first acting role was as Mia Jones in the drama series "". She later became known for portraying Elena Gilbert and Katherine Pierce on The CW's supernatural drama series "The Vampire Diaries".


Gameplay.

The goal of "Machinarium" is to solve a series of puzzles and brain teasers. The puzzles are linked together by an overworld consisting of a traditional "point and click" adventure story. The overworld's most radical departure is that only objects within the player character's reach can be clicked on.  "Machinarium" is notable in that it contains no dialogue, spoken or written, and apart from a few tutorial prompts on the first screen, is devoid of understandable language entirely. The game instead uses a system of animated thought bubbles. Easter egg backstory scenes in the same format can only be revealed by idling in certain areas.  The game employs a two-tier hint system. Once per level, the player can receive a hint, which becomes increasingly vague as the game progresses. "Machinarium" also comes with a walkthrough, that can be accessed at any time by playing a minigame. As with dialogue, the walkthrough is not in written or spoken form, but instead a series of sketches describing the puzzle at hand and its solution. However, the walkthrough only reveals what must be done in that area, and not how that puzzle relates to the game chronology.

Plot summary.

"Machinarium" opens with an overview of the eponymous city as a disposal flier launches from the pinnacle of its highest tower. The player character, a robot called Josef (named after Josef Čapek, the creator of the word "robot" and brother to Karel Čapek) is dumped on a scrapheap, where he re-assembles himself and sets off for the city. Entering the city, he discovers a plot by the Black Cap Brotherhood, his three criminal antagonists, to blow up the city's tower. He is himself then discovered and locked up. After breaking out of prison, Josef aids the citizens of the city, as he discovers the mischief which the Brotherhood has been working. Shortly after flooding the Brotherhood's room (leaving them helpless), Josef locates his girlfriend Berta, who has been locked up and forced to cook. Unable to free her, he works his way to the top of the tower. After he foils the Black Cap Brotherhood's plot by disarming the bomb taped to the tower, Josef reaches the highest room, in which the story began. A huge-headed robot, the "head" of the city, sits in the middle of the room, incapacitated and gibbering. Josef recalls how the three of them lived happily until the Black Cap Brotherhood zapped this friend, leaving him disabled, and kidnapped Berta. When a garbage sucker arrived to dispose of the Black Cap thug, it apprehended Josef instead. After this revelation, Josef restores his friend to sanity, dumps the Brotherhood down a drain, and frees Berta. The two of them climb back to the tower, wave goodbye to their friend, and fly off into the sunset. In the final closing scene, their vehicle suffers a collision and falls, and they are seen being carried away separately by two fliers.

Development.

"Machinarium" was developed over a period of three years, by seven Czech developers, who financed the project with their own savings. The marketing budget for the game was $1,000.  The game was in development for the Xbox 360 platform for a period of six months; however, Microsoft, whom the developers had approached to publish the title on Xbox Live Arcade, ultimately decided not to do so. Microsoft does not allow games to be released on Xbox Live Arcade without a publisher attached to the title, and the developers were reluctant to approach a third party to publish the game, as this would mean that profits for the developers from sales over Xbox Live Arcade would be greatly reduced. Subsequently, Amanita Design approached Sony, whose policies do allow for self-publishing on the PlayStation Network platform, and have submitted the game to them for approval, in order to release the game on the PlayStation Network.  In 2011 it was mentioned that a sequel to "Machinarium" "is possible" but something the team has yet to fully consider. "We don't look far through the future", said Jakub Dvorský.

Reception.

Critical response.

"Machinarium" was well-received on release; on the critic aggregate sites GameRankings and Metacritic, the game has an average score of 85% and 85/100, respectively.  In 2008, it won the Aesthetics award at IndieCade (the International Festival of Independent Games). It won the Excellence in Visual Art award at the 12th Annual Independent Games Festival and the Best Soundtrack award from PC Gamer in 2009. It was nominated for an Outstanding Achievement in Art Direction award by the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences and a Milthon award in the 'Best Indie Game' category at the Paris Game Festival.  Gaming site Kotaku named it a runner-up for "PC Game of the Year 2009" alongside "Torchlight", losing to winner "". Gamasutra, Gamerview and the Turkish site of Tom's Hardware all selected "Machinarium" as the 'Best Indie Game' of 2009. AceGamez named "Machinarium" the 'Best Traditional Adventure Game' of 2009.  In 2011, Adventure Gamers named "Machinarium" the 17th-best adventure game ever released.

Pirate amnesty.

On 5 August 2010, Amanita Design announced that according to their estimates, only 5–15% of "Machinarium" players had actually paid for the game. In an effort to increase sales, the game's price was lowered from the regular $20 to $5 until 12 August as an incentive for pirates to purchase the game legally. The campaign was later extended until 16 August, resulting in 20,000 game copies sold over the whole amnesty period.

Sales.

"Machinarium" has sold over 4 million units from which 49% is for PC, 44% mobile devices and 7% consoles.

Editions.

"Machinarium" was released in several physical and digital formats.

Other media.

Josef has been featured as a playable character in the platform game "Super Meat Boy", and makes a cameo in the puzzle game ilomilo.  Josef was also included in the Video Game Character alphabet, created by Fabian Gonzalez.  Josef also made a cameo in Amanita Design's second full-scale game, "Botanicula".  "Machinarium" and its soundtrack inspired the poem "The Machingeon", written by Andrew Galan and published in Establishment Magazine Issue 1.  Josef is included in the "Good Friends" Character DLC pack for "Runner2".

Machinarium is a puzzle point-and-click adventure game developed by Amanita Design. It was released on 16 October 2009 for Microsoft Windows, OS X, Linux, on 8 September 2011 for iPad 2 on the App Store, on 21 November 2011 for BlackBerry PlayBook, on 10 May 2012 for Android, on 6 September 2012 on PlayStation 3's PlayStation Network in Europe, on 9 October 2012 in North America and on 18 October 2012 in Asia, and was also released for PlayStation Vita on 26 March 2013 in North America, on 1 May 2013 in Europe and on 7 May 2013 in Asia. Demos for Windows, Mac and Linux were made available on 30 September 2009. A future release for the Wii's WiiWare service was cancelled due to WiiWare's 40MB limit.


Biography.

Sante Caserio was a Lombardy-born son of a peasant family, who had many brothers and sisters. His father was a boatman and named him Geronimo in honor of the Apache leader. His father died of pellagra, at the time a common disease among farmers whose poor diet was often almost exclusively corn. At ten years old, Sante Caserio left the family home and went to Milan, where he got a job as an apprentice baker and had his first contacts with anarchists.  In Milan he joined a small group called "On Foot" (at the time signifying "without money"). Pietro Gori, referring to Caserio, remembered him as a generous person. Among the workers and unemployed, he divided bread and anarchist pamphlets he printed with his meager salary. In 1892 he was sentenced to eight months in prison for distributing anarchist leaflets. Identified and singled out during a public demonstration, he was forced to flee from Italy at the age of 18. Declared a deserter, he first went to Switzerland and sought a job as a baker in Vienne. He then moved to Lyon on July 21, 1893 where he worked as a messenger.

Trial and execution.

At his trial, Caserio described the assassination in detail: He also stated to those in attendance:Well, if the rulers can use against us rifles, shackles and prisons, we must, we anarchists to defend our lives, we must stick to our principles? No. On the contrary, our response to the rulers will be dynamite, pump, stiletto, dagger. In short, we must do everything possible to destroy the bourgeoisie and the government. You who are representatives of bourgeois companies, if you want my head, you can take it!He never attempted to deny his actions or ask the judges for mercy. He was offered the opportunity to plead insane, in exchange for giving the names of some of his accomplices, but he refused. He told the police "Caserio is a baker, never an informer." The Board of Pardons decided against all appeals for clemency on 14 August. Caserio was executed by guillotine in Lyon at precisely 5am, 16 August 1894. In front of the guillotine, he exclaimed ""Coraggio cugini—evviva l'anarchia!"" ("Courage, cousins—long live anarchy!") His death mask is now in possession of Jean-Marie Le Pen, the former leader of the French party National Front.

Sante Geronimo Caserio (; 8 September 187316 August 1894) was an Italian anarchist and the assassin of Marie François Sadi Carnot, President of the French Third Republic. Caserio was born in Motta Visconti, Lombardy. On 24 June 1894, he fatally stabbed President Carnot after a banquet, to avenge Auguste Vaillant and Émile Henry.


History.

The Rochester estate of George Eastman (1854–1932) was bequeathed upon his death to the University of Rochester. University presidents (first Benjamin Rush Rhees, then Alan Valentine) occupied Eastman's mansion as a residence for ten years. In 1948, the university transferred the property to the museum and the Georgian Revival Style mansion was adapted to serve the museum's operations.  George Eastman House was chartered as a museum in 1947. From the outset, the museum's mission has been to collect, preserve, and present the history of photography and film. The museum opened its doors on November 9, 1949, displaying its core collections in the former public rooms of Eastman's house. In October 2015, the museum changed its name from "George Eastman House" to the "George Eastman Museum".  The museum's original collections included the Medicus collection of Civil War photographs by Alexander Gardner, Eastman Kodak Company's historical collection, and the massive Gabriel Cromer collection of nineteenth-century French photography. The Eastman Museum has received donations of entire archives, corporate and individual collections, and the estates of leading photographers, as well as thousands of motion pictures and massive holdings of cinematic ephemera.  By 1984, the museum's holdings were considered by many to be among the world's finest, but with the collections growing at a rapid pace, the museum was increasingly burdened by its own success. Additional space became critical to store and study the increasing number of collected objects. The museum's expansion facility opened to the public in January 1989.  In 1999, the George Eastman Museum launched the Mellon Advanced Residency Program in Photograph Conservation, made possible with grant support from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. The program trained top photograph archivists and conservators from around the world.  In 1996, the museum opened the Louis B. Mayer Conservation Center in nearby Chili. One of only four film conservation centers in the United States (as of March 2006), the facility houses the museum's rare 35 mm prints made on cellulose nitrate. That same year, the Eastman House launched the first school of film preservation in the United States to teach restoration, preservation, and archiving of motion pictures. The L. Jeffrey Selznick School of Film Preservation was founded with support from The Louis B. Mayer Foundation.  George Eastman Museum has organized numerous groundbreaking exhibitions, including "New Topographics: Photographs of a Man-Altered Landscape" in 1975.

Governance.

Directors.

The current director of the George Eastman Museum is Bruce Barnes who was appointed in September 2012.

Board of Trustees.

The George Eastman Museum is headed by a board of trustees. Kevin Gavagan is the current chair of board.

Finances.

The George Eastman Museum's annual budget is approximately $10 million. As of December 2014, its endowment exceeded $35 million.

Collections.

The museum's holdings comprise more than 400,000 photographs and negatives dating from the invention of photography to the present day; 28,000 motion picture films; three million other cinematic objects, including letters, scripts, musical scores, lobby cards, posters, film stills, and celebrity portraits; more than 16,000 objects of photographic and cinematographic technology; an internationally renowned research collection of books, periodicals, and other materials on photography and moving images; and George Eastman's home furnishings and decorative arts, personal and business correspondence, private library, photographs, negatives, films, and related personal items.

Photography collection.

The photography collection embraces numerous landmark processes, objects of great rarity, and monuments of art history that trace the evolution of the medium as a technology, as a means of scientific and historical documentation, and as one of the most potent and accessible means of personal expression of the modern era. More than 14,000 photographers are represented in the collection, including virtually all the major figures in the history of the medium. The collection includes original vintage works produced by nearly every process and printing medium employed. Notable holdings include:  The museum's collection includes works by leading contemporary artists, including Andy Warhol, Candida Höfer, David Levinthal, Cindy Sherman, Adam Fuss, Vik Muniz, Gillian Wearing, Ori Gersht, Mickalene Thomas, Chris McCaw, and Matthew Brandt.

Moving image collection.

The George Eastman Museum Motion Picture Collection is one of the major moving image archives in the United States. It was established in 1949 by the first curator of film, James Card (1915–2000) who helped to build the George Eastman Museum as a leading force in the field with holdings of over 25,000 titles and a collection of stills, posters and papers with over 3 million artifacts. The George Eastman Museum's collection includes the complete moving-image works of William Kentridge.

George Eastman Legacy Collection.

This collection includes George Eastman's house and the George Eastman Archive and Study Center. Opened in April 1999, the George Eastman Archive and Study Center contains Eastman's personal possessions and documents pertaining to Kodak's early history. It has over half a million items within its climate controlled vault. The archive is accessible from the second floor of the house. Items within the house itself include fragments of Eastman's coffin, a mounted elephant head, and an Aeolian pipe organ.

George Eastman Awards.

The George Eastman Museum established the George Eastman Award for distinguished contribution to the art of film in 1955 as the first award given by an American film archive and museum to honor artistic work of enduring value.

George Eastman's Estate.

George Eastman built his residence at 900 East Avenue between 1902 and 1905. He created a unique urban estate complete with of working farm land, formal gardens, greenhouses, stables, barns, pastures, and a, 50-room Colonial Revival mansion with a fireproof structure made of reinforced concrete.  Eastman's house presented a neoclassical Georgian Revival facade of decorative craftsmanship. Beneath this exterior were such modern conveniences as an electrical generator, an internal telephone system with 21 stations, a built-in vacuum cleaning system, a central clock network, an elevator, and a great Aeolian pipe organ. Eastman used the house as a center of the city's rich musical life from 1905 until his death in 1932.  The estate was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1966.

The George Eastman Museum, the world's oldest museum dedicated to photography and one of the world's oldest film archives, opened to the public in 1949 in Rochester, New York.


Early life.

Fesch's father was a wealthy banker of Belgian origin, an artist and atheist, distant from his son. Jacques was a young aimless dreamer. Brought up a Roman Catholic, he abandoned religion by the age of 17, after his parents divorced. He was expelled from school for laziness and misconduct. At 21, he married his pregnant girlfriend Pierrette in a civil ceremony. He gave up a position at his father's bank, lived the life of a playboy, left his wife and their daughter, and fathered an illegitimate son with another woman. Disillusioned with his life, he dreamed of escaping to sail around the South Pacific Ocean, but his parents refused to pay for a boat.

Crime.

On 24 February 1954, to fund the purchase of a boat, he went to rob Alexandre Silberstein, a money changer, of gold coins. Silberstein was struck but not unconscious, and raised the alarm. Fesch fled, losing his glasses, and shot wildly at Jean Vergne, a pursuing police officer, killing him. Minutes later he was arrested. Murdering a police officer was a heinous crime and public opinion, inflamed by newspaper reports, was strongly in favour of his execution. The Cour d'assises of Paris condemned him to death on 6 April 1957.

Religious conversion.

At first Fesch was indifferent to his plight and mocked his lawyer's Catholic faith whom he nicknamed : "the panther of God". However, after a year in prison, he experienced a profound religious conversion, became very pious, and bitterly regretted his crime. He corresponded regularly with his family, notably his brother and stepmother, and kept a spiritual journal. He accepted his punishment serenely and was reconciled to his wife the night before his execution. His last journal entry was "In five hours, I will see Jesus!". An appeal for clemency to President René Coty failed, and he was guillotined.

Legacy.

After his death his wife and daughter honoured his memory as an example of redemption. At first he was excoriated by the public, but with the work of Soeur Véronique, a Carmelite nun, and Father Augustin-Michel Lemonnier, the family effected publication of his writings, and from the 1970s these served as an inspiration to many.  On September 21, 1987 the Archbishop of Paris, Cardinal Jean-Marie Lustiger, opened a diocesan inquiry into his life; the cause for his beatification was formally opened in 1993. This has proved controversial, with those who feel his early crimes make him unfitting as a role model opposed to those who emphasize the hope of his final conversion.

Theatrical plays about Fesch.

The story of Jacques Fesch remains relatively unknown in France. However, inspired by the true events of this "murderer turned Christian," the students of Ss Cyril and Method High School in Nitra, Slovakia, under the direction of Maria Marthe Galová, wrote and performed a theatrical play, "Spomeň si na mňa" (Remember Me), which is based on the life and conversion of Jacques.The play premiered on March 11, 2018, in the Andrej Bagar Theatre, Nitra.

Jacques Fesch (April 6, 1930, Saint-Germain-en-Laye – October 1, 1957, La Santé Prison, Paris) was the murderer of a French police officer, who became such a devout Roman Catholic while in prison awaiting execution that he has been proposed for beatification.


Description.

"Epinephelus marginatus" is a very large, oval-bodied and large-headed fish with a wide mouth which has a protruding lower jaw. The head and upper body are coloured dark reddish brown or greyish, usually with yellowish gold countershading on the ventral surfaces; the base colour is marked by a vertical series of irregular pale greenish yellow or silvery grey or whitish blotching which is normally rather conspicuous on the body and head; the black maxillary streak varies in its markedness; dark brown median fins; distal edges of the anal and caudal fins and also often pectoral fins have narrow white terminal bands; the pelvic fins are black towards their tips while the pectoral fins are dark reddish-brown or grey; the margin of spiny dorsal fin and basal part of the pectoral fins are often golden yellow in colour. There are eleven spines and 13-16 soft rays in the dorsal fin. This species can grow up to 150 cm in standard length but is more often 90 cm.

Distribution.

"Epinephelus marginatus" has two disjunct distribution centres, the main one is in the eastern Atlantic from the west coast of Iberia south along the western coast of Africa to the Cape of Good Hope, extending east into the south-western Indian Ocean, as far as southern Mozambique, with doubtful records from Madagascar and possibly Oman. It is found throughout the Mediterranean too. The second population occurs in the south western Atlantic off the coast of South America in southern Brazil, Uruguay and northern Argentina. In the eastern Atlantic it is not normally found further north than Portugal but there have been rare records from the Bay of Biscay and in the English Channel as far north as northern France, Great Britain and Ireland.

Habitat.

"Epinephelus marginatus" is demersal, normally found in and around rocky reefs from surface waters down to as much as 300 metres in depth. It often occurs in the vicinity of beds of "Poseidonia" sea grass. Juveniles are generally found more inshore than the adult fish, even being found in rock pools. Where they are protected, in marine nature reserves and no take zones, both adults and juveniles occur in shallow waters, but the depths at which juveniles are found is always shallower than the preferred depths of adults.

Biology.

"Epinephelus marginatus" adults are solitary and territorial, preferring areas with a rocky substrate but both adults and juveniles will enter brackish waters, such as estuaries. Their main food is molluscs, crustaceans and octopii but as they grow larger other fish form an increasingly important part of their diet, with reef fish being preferred.  "E. marginatus" is a protogynous hermaphrodite, meaning that all fish begin adult life as females but as they grow larger and older they develop into males. They attain sexual maturity at quite a late age, females begin to breed when they are around five years of age, and then between their 9th and 16th years they change into males, most commonly at 12. The fish start to transform into males at a length of 65 cm, although most change sex when they are between 80 and 90 cm in total length. In some populations the presence of large female fish suggests that not all females change sex. During the breeding season small clusters of a few tens of individuals form at specific spawning sites, an exception to their normally solitary existence. Known sites where "E. marginatus" traditionally gather to spawn include the Medes Islands Marine Reserve in Spain, off Lampedusa in Italy and Port-Cros National Park in France, all in the Mediterranean; fishermen in Brazil suspect there are aggregations off the coast of Santa Catarina but so far none has been definitely found. In the Mediterranean spawning lasts from June to September, mating is polygynous and the spawning clusters normally have seven females to each male. Off Brazil "E. marginatus" reproduces in the early summer, between November and December. While spawning, the dominant males set up territories and aggressively defend them from neighbouring males and smaller females. They are reported to live for up to 50 years.

Fishing.

"Epinephelus marginatus" is a popular food fish and is caught across its range by commercial fishermen while large adult fish are targeted as trophies by spear-fishing, and is readily taken by anglers. The slow growth rate of this species and its particular mode of reproduction make it vulnerable to over-exploitation, for example the targeting of large males by spear fishers may skew the sex ratio even further and affect reproductive productivity. There have been attempts to grow and breed this fish in aquaculture in Italy.  In some countries the dusky grouper is considered a delicacy. Referring to its preference among restaurant guests, the Spanish say 'De la mar el mero y de la tierra el carnero' (From the sea the dusky grouper, from the land the lamb).

Conservation.

"Epinephelus marginatus" catch declined by 88% in seven countries between 1990–2001, these countries forming a significant part of its overall distribution. In other regions, such as West Africa, where this species is heavily exploited, there is little data about the status of this fish. For these reasons, the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed E. marginatus as being Vulnerable, citing a suspected reduction in the population size reduction in excess 50% over the last three generations and where the causes of the decline continue. Conservation measures have included a spearfishing ban for ten years in France and bag limits in South Africa. In addition, a number of Marine Protected Areas have been established to protect the habitat of "E. marginatus". In Turkey recommended actions have included no take zones along the Aegean and Mediterranean Sea coasts and a total fisheries ban for a minimum of 3–5 years.

Epinephelus marginatus, the dusky grouper, the yellowbelly rock cod or yellowbelly grouper, is the best known grouper of the Mediterranean Sea and North Africa coast.


History.

The sport was invented in Acapulco, Mexico, by Enrique Corcuera in 1969. It is currently most popular in Spain, Mexico and Andorra as well as Hispanic American countries such as Argentina, although it is now beginning to spread rapidly across Europe and other continents.  Padel Pro Tour (PPT) was the professional padel circuit which was created in 2005 as a result of the agreement between a group of organizers of matches of padel and Association of Professional Players of Pádel (AJPP) and the Spanish Feminine Association of Pádel (AFEP). Nowadays, the most important padel circuit is World Padel Tour (WPT), which started in Spain though it has already reached international expansion. In 2014 WPT has traveled to Portugal, Argentina and Dubai.  The sport's popularity along the Costa del Sol in southern Spain and the Algarve in southern Portugal has exposed it to a large number of British visitors, leading to an increased popularity of the sport in the UK and a launch of the UK Padel Federation in 2011.

United States of America.

The US Padel Association was founded in Chattanooga, Tennessee in 1993 and opened two courts in the Chattanooga area. The American Paddle Association was formed in 1995 and built its first courts at a private club in Houston, Texas for exhibition games. The first public courts opened in Miami, Florida in 2009, and several clubs have opened nearby, as well as in Los Angeles, since then.

Singapore.

In 2014, the Swiss Club in Singapore opened the first padel court in Singapore.

Egypt.

In 2014, Mohamed Atef, Mohamed Saada, and Amir El Samahy introduced the sport to the country with the collaboration of technicians from Spain. The first court was built in Katameya Heights in New Cairo. More courts have been built since and the sport has gained in popularity since its introduction.

The court.

Padel rules states that the playing field should be a rectangle wide and long (with a 0.5% tolerance), enclosed by walls. At the middle of the playing field there will be a net dividing the court in two, the net has a maximum height of 88 cm in the center raising to at sides (with a tolerance).  The back walls should be high covering the entire back of the field and the side walls should be high and long ending on another wall high and long (known as step-type, see picture). The diagonal-type side wall is also accepted, instead of a step, it runs as straight line between the two heights of the side wall. The rest of the court is closed using a metallic mesh also high, the wall closed sides can also have a metallic mesh up to tall.  The service lines are placed before the back wall and there will be also another line in middle that divides the central rectangle in half. All lines have a width and should be clearly visible.  The minimum height between the playing field and an obstacle (for e.g. the ceiling) is.

Padel is a racquet sport. It is different from the sport known in the US and Canada as paddle tennis.


Description.

Appearance.

Males should stand between, and females should stand between at the withers. The weight ranges between with the males being the larger of the two. Strong and harmonious build of medium size, showing balanced proportions with a lot of quality and elegance. In upright posture the dog displays flowing outlines with a horizontally carried, well flagged tail. The dog should appear to be strong and balanced with a distinguished head. Its front legs are well feathered, the hind legs with breeches. The coat should be medium length, glossy, dense, and straight or slightly wavy. The dog's movement should be graceful and far reaching.  The coloration of the dog is large patches of brown on a ticked or solid white background.

Temperament.

Small Münsterländers are extremely intelligent, trainable, and attentive but require gentle and patient training. Coupled with their intelligence, if they determine an owner to be inconsistent or indecisive, the owner might find that the dog will challenge the owner. For training, both voice and hand signals are used, and a Small Münsterländer will routinely look back to check in with the hunter for silent signals at intervals when on hold or pointing. They have a very strong prey drive and enjoy rewarding their owner with productive hunts. They thrive with hunting or comparable challenging exercise for an hour or more every day. They are strong swimmers, especially when compared to other short-haired hunting breeds.  Lack of regular and sufficient exercise and mental challenge will likely result in unwanted behavior, which is common in highly intelligent, driven breeds. The Small Münsterländer is a happy, affectionate family pet when in the house, while remaining a keenly focused, even driven, hunter-pointer-retriever when in the field. They are not suited to life in a kennel because of their sociable nature and need to interact with people – they need to live in the home of their family. Small Münsterländers will pick an individual person to bond most closely with, typically the one who hunts with the dog, but will revel in the company of the rest of the family as well. When raised with other pets in the household, such as cats, they can coexist happily though they may enjoy a game of chase and point. Unfamiliar small animals outdoors will not be tolerated in the same way.

Health.

Due to the breed organizations, responsible kennels, and owners having a strong commitment to the health of the breed, breed programs are overwhelmingly very selective in breeding dogs that are OFA/Penn Hip, CERF, and temperament clear. As a result, instances of congenital diseases and conditions are extremely low and any dog clearly showing physical or behavioral abnormalities shall be disqualified from the breeding program. The breed is robustly healthy with rare issues save dry skin in colder climates and water in its ears after swimming.

History.

Originally a dog bred exclusively for noble families and to work with their families' falconers before guns were used in bird and small game hunting, ancestors of the Small Münsterländer (formerly the Kleiner Münsterländer Vorstehhund) had to work in upland areas to flush prey for the falcon, then allow the falcon to keep the prey until the falconer could retrieve it while the dog pointed at the catch. To this day the Small Münsterländer has excellent close searching and pointing drive. All privileges and immunities of the German nobility as a legally defined class were abolished on August 11, 1919 with the promulgation of the Weimar Constitution, recognising all Germans as equal before the laws of their country. With wider availability of guns and land use for commoners, hunting became more popular, and the breed was further developed as a retriever that worked equally well in the field and water. The breed is considered to be uniquely effective in working as a team with the huntsman in all phases of the hunt, akin to the close cooperation between a sheep herder and Border Collie. It is an elite hunter within the versatile hunting dog arena and is trained to retrieve, hunt, and track the following: woodcock, rail, grouse, dove, partridge, chukar, quail, pheasant, duck, goose, rabbit, deer and fox. The Small Münsterländer is not a far-ranging dog, usually hunting close in heavier cover and ranging 100-150 yards in light cover, all in an effort to maintain the hunting partnership with its owner.  The Small Münsterländer is one of the four oldest versatile breeds and the longhaired versatile hunting dogs evolved from the Small Münsterländer and Flat-Coated Retriever. The Small Münsterländer is thought to be well over 500 years old, originating from the Munster region of Germany but not related to the Large Münsterländer, and documentation of ancestors around the 13th and 14th centuries. By the 1800s the breed had fallen into obscurity. Small Munsterlanders were little known, kept by a few families on farms around Munster. For a half century the few dogs that were bred were primarily companions, and used when hunting to feed the family rather than for sport. It developed a local reputation as the dog to have when a hunter's success or failure determined whether his family would have enough to eat. At the end of the 19th century, a concerted effort was made to re-establish the breed from the remaining lines in the Munster region. The fortunate outcome of the companion phase in the Small Münsterländer history was its excellent in-home personality. Cultural and wildlife use changes slowly put an end to the "bread hunting" and was replaced by recreational hunting. With the advance in firearms, falconry too became outmoded. At the turn of the century, Edmund Lons, brother of the famous hunting and nature poet Hermann Lons, discovered Small Münsterländers in two towns in Lower Saxony. Lons obtained dogs from two lines. One line consisted of fine boned, agile, lively and intelligent dogs, well known for their "track sound" on the trail. Dogs of the other line were slow in search, of strong build, and excellent in their use of nose. The background and breeding of these dogs could be traced for several generations.

International popularity.

The Small Münsterländer is a rare breed in the United States, numbering around 2000, and demand from hunters outstrips the number of available dogs, so breeders typically give preference to hunters. They are especially hard to come by for non-hunters there and regardless are required to have their dog tested in the field and adhere to maintaining an updated health profile. They are more numerous in Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, and the Czech Republic and are bred, trained and tested to high standards to maintain the superior versatility.  Due to very low prevalence and high standards of the breed organizations, kennels and owners having a strong commitment to the health of the breed, breed programs are overwhelmingly very selective in breeding dogs and are required to maintain OFA/Penn Hip, CERF and temperament clear. As a result, instances of congenital diseases and conditions are extremely low.  In the United Kingdom, the breed is rarer still. Recognized by The Kennel Club as an imported breed in 2006, they are still to be established in the hunting community.

The Small Münsterländer (also SM or Kleiner Münsterländer) is a versatile hunting-pointing-retrieving dog breed that reached its current form in the area around Münster, Germany. The Large Münsterländer is from the same area, but was developed from different breeding stock and is not related as the names would suggest. Small Münsterländers bear a resemblance to both spaniels and setters but are more versatile while hunting on land and water. The Small Münsterländer is recognized by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale under Group 7, Section 1.2, Continental Pointing Dogs of Spaniel type, by the American Kennel Club as a Foundation Stock Service breed, and by The Kennel Club and the United Kennel Club as a gun dog. It is related to the Epagneul Français and the Drentsche Patrijshond.


Characteristics.

The Sri Lankan leopard has a tawny or rusty yellow coat with dark spots and close-set rosettes, which are smaller than in Indian leopards. Seven females measured in the early 20th century averaged a weight of and had a mean head-to-body-length of with a long tail, the largest being with a long tail; 11 males averaged, the largest being, and measured with a long tail, the largest being with a long tail.  According to a BBC article, the Sri Lankan leopard has evolved to become a rather large leopard subspecies with very large males reaching almost, due to the fact that it is an apex predator without competition by other large wild cat species in the country.  Melanistic leopards are rare in this subspecies. Only four records exist, from Mawuldeniya, Pitadeniya and Nallathanniya. In October 2019, the Department of Wildlife Conservation recorded live footage of melanistic individuals for the first time, reportedly documenting four different animals – one female, one male, and two cubs. Previously, three individuals were killed by snare traps in the Sinharaja conservation area, one of which is stuffed and displayed at the Giritale Wildlife Museum. On 26 May 2020, another wounded leopard was found and rescued at the Lakshapana Estate in Nallathanniya, Hatton. Later, it was transported to the Randenigala Veterinary Hospital for treatment. Then the animal was transferred to Elephant Transit Home in Udawalawa, where it died while receiving treatments. The snare had heavily injured its neck.

Distribution and habitat.

The Sri Lankan leopard used to occur in all habitats throughout the island. These habitat types can be broadly categorized into: In Sri Lanka's central hills, leopards have been recorded in forest patches, tea estates, grasslands, home gardens, pine and eucalyptus plantations.

Ecology and behaviour.

A study in Yala National Park indicates that Sri Lankan leopards are not any more social than other leopard subspecies. They are solitary hunters, with the exception of females with young. Both sexes live in overlapping territories with the ranges of males overlapping the smaller ranges of several females, as well as overlapping the ranges of neighbouring males. They prefer hunting at night, but are also active during dawn and dusk, and daytime hours. They rarely haul their kills into trees, which is likely due to the lack of competition and the relative abundance of prey. Since the leopard is the apex predator in Sri Lanka, it does not need to protect its prey. In 2001 to 2002, adult resident leopard density was estimated at 17.9 individuals per in Block I of Yala National Park in Sri Lanka's southeastern coastal arid zone. This block encompasses, contains coastal plains and permanent human-made and natural waterholes, which combined allow for a very high density of prey species.  The Sri Lankan leopard hunts by silently stalking its prey, until it is within striking distance where it unleashes a burst of speed to quickly pursue and pounce on its victim. The prey is usually dispatched with a single bite to the throat. Like most cats, it is pragmatic in its choice of diet which can include small mammals, birds, reptiles as well as larger animals. Axis or spotted deer make up the majority of its diet in the dry zone. The animal also preys on sambar, barking deer, wild boar and monkeys.  There appears to be no birth season or peak, with births scattered across months. A litter usually consists of two to four cubs.  The leopard is sympatric with the Sri Lankan sloth bear.

Conservation.

The survival of the Sri Lankan leopard is threatened due to habitat loss and fragmentation primarily with some levels of direct poaching and direct and indirect human-leopard related leopard deaths.  Further research into the Sri Lankan leopard is needed for any conservation measure to be effective. The Leopard Project under the Wilderness and Wildlife Conservation Trust (WWCT) is working closely with the Government of Sri Lanka to ensure this occurs. The Sri Lanka Wildlife Conservation Society will also undertake some studies. The WWCT is engaged throughout the island with targeted work ongoing in the central hills region where fragmentation of the leopard's habitat is rapidly occurring.

In captivity.

As of December 2011, there are 75 captive Sri Lankan leopards in zoos worldwide. Within the European Endangered Species Programme 27 male, 29 female and 8 unsexed individuals are kept.  The EEP breeding program is managed by Zoo Cerza, France.

Cultural significance.

Local names.

The leopard is colloquially known as "kotiya" () and "chiruthai" (). "Panthera pardus kotiya" is the kotiyā proper.  In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the word 'kotiya' was being frequently incorrectly translated into English as "tiger" in Sri Lankan media due to incorrect information that was received from the then head of the Wildlife Department in Sri Lanka. He allegedly said that "there are no kotiyas (tigers) in Sri Lanka but diviyās", misinterpreting "P. p. kotiya" as "diviyā". The word "diviyā" refers to small wild cats such as "Handun Diviyā" or "Kola Diviyā". Both names are used interchangeably for the fishing cat and the rusty-spotted cat. Traditional Sinhala idioms such as 'a change in the jungle will not change the spots of a "kotiyā"', confirms the traditional use of 'kotiyā' to refer to the leopard and not to the tiger.

As a symbol.

The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (Tamil Tigers) were colloquially known to the Sinhala-speaking community as 'Koti', the plural form of 'Kotiyā'. The Tamil Tigers have chosen the Sri Lankan leopard as the national animal of the aspired state of Tamil Eelam, and the Chola Tiger as its flag. A soccer team which is called the Tamil Eelam national football team which plays on ConIFA has the Sri Lankan leopard on their emblem.

See also.

Leopard subspecies: African leopard Arabian leopard Anatolian leopard Persian leopard Indian leopard Indochinese leopard Javan leopard Amur leopard "Panthera pardus spelaea"

The Sri Lankan leopard ("Panthera pardus kotiya") is a leopard subspecies endemic to Sri Lanka. It was first described in 1956 by the Sri Lankan zoologist Paules Edward Pieris Deraniyagala.


Description.

Wolfberry species are deciduous woody shrubs, growing high, somewhat shorter than "L. barbarum". The stems are highly branched. Branches are pale gray, slender, curved or pendulous, with thorns long.

Leaves.

"Lycium chinense" leaves form on the shoot either solitary in an alternating arrangement or in bundles of 2 to 4. Their shape may be ovate, rombic, lanceolate, or linear-lanceolate, usually long and wide (but up to long and wide in cultivated plants).

Flowers.

The flowers grow in groups of one to three in the leaf axils, with pedicels long. The bell-shaped or tubular calyx (eventually ruptured by the growing berry) splits halfway into short, triangular, densely ciliate lobes. The corollae is a tube that splits into lavender or light purple petals, wide with five or six lobes longer than the tube, with short hairs at the edge. The stamens are structured with filaments longer than the anthers, slightly shorter or longer than the corolla, with a villous ring slightly above the base and the adjacent corolla tube. The anthers are longitudinally dehiscent.

Fruit and seeds.

"Lycium chinense" produces a bright orange-red berry, whose shape is ovoid or oblong, long and 5 to 8 mm wide (but up to long and wide in cultivation). It contains compressed yellow seeds, from 2.5 to 3 mm wide, with a curved embryo; their number varies widely based on cultivar and fruit size, from 10 to 60. The berries ripen from July to October in the Northern Hemisphere.

Disease.

It can be parasitized by the oomycete species Peronospora lycii.

Use.

The fruits may be infused with hot water to make goji tea. The plant has been used for centuries in traditional Chinese medicine for treating various disorders, although there is no high-quality clinical evidence that consuming it has any effect on health or disease.

Chemistry.

The fruit composition is similar to that of "L. barbarum". Polysaccharides, carotenoids and flavonoids are the typical constituents. Rutin is the main flavonoid. The main carotenoid is zeaxanthin dipalmitate (49% of the carotenoid fraction). The fruit contains zeaxanthin, β-carotene, two cerebrosides, and three pyrrole derivatives.  Dozens of secondary metabolites have been isolated and identified from the roots, root bark and leaves, including cyclic peptides, alkaloids, and flavonoids. Citric acid is the major nonvolatile organic acid in the leaves followed by oxalic acid.

Lycium chinense is one of two species of boxthorn shrub in the family Solanaceae. Along with "Lycium barbarum", it produces the goji berry ("wolfberry"). Two varieties are recognized, "L. chinense" var. "chinense" and "L. chinense" var. "potaninii". It is also known as Chinese boxthorn, Chinese matrimony-vine, Chinese teaplant, Chinese wolfberry, wolfberry, and Chinese desert-thorn.


History.

In the mid 1980s, VEB Mikromat in Dresden developed a program for DOS to design controlled feed axis systems and to perform hydraulic calculations. In 1993, ITI GmbH, founded by former Mikromat employees in 1990, introduced a simulation tool for Microsoft Windows designed for dynamic calculations of drive systems: ITI-SIM 1. With the release of ITI-SIM 2 in 1995, the software also allowed for fluid simulations. In 2002, the newly developed application SimulationX, based on the object-oriented description language Modelica, was introduced to the market. By the year 2007, ITI-SIM (then in version 3.8) had been completely replaced by SimulationX.  Since the beginning of 2016, ITI belongs to the ESI Group and now operates under the name ESI ITI GmbH.

Modeling and Functionality.

Simulation models are created on the basis of a discrete network approach. That means the system is broken down into logical parts which are linked through specific connections. These sub-systems are represented by preconfigured or custom model elements organized in domain-specific and custom model libraries. The sub-models are then parameterized and connected with each other. Models can be created either through the graphical user interface or by using Modelica command lines.

Libraries.

Model libraries can be obtained as modular packages from the software producer. There are various libraries available with basic models for the corresponding physical domains as well as libraries with advanced models for specific applications and industries. Depending on the objective, the user can choose from 1D, 2D and 3D model elements with respect to the modeling, simulation and parameterization requirements. Modelica-based third-party and custom-built libraries can also be integrated into SimulationX.  SimulationX libraries include:

Modelica.

SimulationX supports the Modelica modeling language to simulate individually created, realistic (sub-)models. Models of the Modelica Standard Library or the ones purely based on the Modelica language definition can be executed.

Interfaces.

SimulationX provides open, comprehensive CAx-interfaces to external programs for different purposes and applications, e.g. CAE (VehicleSim (CarSim, BikeSim, TruckSim)), CAD (Solid Edge, Unigraphics / NX, SolidWorks, Creo Elements/Pro, Autodesk Inventor, CATIA V5), CAM, Computer-aided optimization (e.g. Isight, modeFRONTIER, Optimus, optiSLang, OptiY), FEA/FEM (Abaqus, Ansys, COMSOL Multiphysics, MSC Nastran), CFD. Co-Simulation provides a general interface which can be used to link SimulationX to CAE tools with predefined setups for particular realizations (MSC.Adams, SIMPACK, MATLAB/Simulink, Fluent, Cadmould etc.). The coupling ensures the data exchange between the tools and the simulation software. Tools for a holistic structural and system analysis (equilibrium computation, natural frequencies, vibration modes, input-output analysis) and for linking a simulation model to the databases are available. A COM interface allows communication between SimulationX and other Windows applications for user-defined batch runs, embedded simulation, parameter studies, or optimizations.  Code-Export features support the generation of C source code for seamless model integration, Hardware-in-the-loop (HiL) applications and Rapid Control Prototyping, Functional Mock-up Virtual Machine. Throughout all stages of modern system design processes, engineers and scientists can work with a variety of seamlessly integrated tools. The connection of SimulationX to real-time testing and simulation platforms such as LabVIEW, NI VeriStand, dSPACE, ETAS LABCAR, and SCALE-RT heavily increases the productivity in the design cycle and shortens time-to-market of new products.  SimulationX supports the creation and import of Functional Mock-up Units defined by the Functional Mock-up Interface standard (development started by the MODELISAR project). Standardized interfaces facilitate the platform-independent exchange of simulation models and increase the flexibility in the connection of external simulation tools and models.

Industry usage.

SimulationX is used for designing, modeling and analyzing the dynamic behavior of complex mechatronic systems as well as for virtual tests in many industries, research and education including the automotive sector, railway and shipbuilding, heavy machinery and mining, power generation and building technology, aerospace and defense, mechanical engineering, medical engineering, oil and gas, precision instruments and home appliances as well as consumer electronics.

Academic usage.

SimulationX is widely used in education and research worldwide.

SimulationX is a CAE software application running on Microsoft Windows for the physical simulation of technical systems developed and sold by ESI ITI GmbH in Dresden, Germany.


Encryption protocols.

With the original design of email protocol, the communication between email servers was plain text, which posed a huge security risk. Over the years, various mechanisms have been proposed to encrypt the communication between email servers. Encryption may occur at the transport level (aka "hop by hop") or end-to-end. Transport layer encryption is often easier to set up and use; end-to-end encryption provides stronger defenses, but can be more difficult to set up and use.

Transport-level encryption.

One of the most commonly used email encryption extensions is STARTTLS. It is a TLS (SSL) layer over the plaintext communication, allowing email servers to upgrade their plaintext communication to encrypted communication. Assuming that the email servers on both the sender and the recipient side support encrypted communication, an eavesdropper snooping on the communication between the mail servers cannot use a sniffer to see the email contents. Similar STARTTLS extensions exist for the communication between an email client and the email server (see IMAP4 and POP3, as stated by RFC 2595). STARTTLS may be used regardless of whether the email's contents are encrypted using another protocol.  The encrypted message is revealed to, and can be altered by, intermediate email relays. In other words, the encryption takes place between individual SMTP relays, not between the sender and the recipient. This has both good and bad consequences. A key positive trait of transport layer encryption is that users do not need to do or change anything; the encryption automatically occurs when they send email. In addition, since receiving organizations can decrypt the email without cooperation of the end user, receiving organizations can run virus scanners and spam filters before delivering the email to the recipient. However, it also means that the receiving organization and anyone who breaks into that organization's email system (unless further steps are taken) can easily read or modify the email. If the receiving organization is considered a threat, then end-to-end encryption is necessary.  The Electronic Frontier Foundation encourages the use of STARTTLS, and has launched the 'STARTTLS Everywhere' initiative to "make it simple and easy for everyone to help ensure their communications (over email) aren’t vulnerable to mass surveillance." Support for STARTTLS has become quite common; Google reports that on GMail 90% of incoming email and 90% of outgoing email was encrypted using STARTTLS by 2018-07-24.  Mandatory certificate verification is historically not viable for Internet mail delivery without additional information, because many certificates are not verifiable and few want email delivery to fail in that case. As a result, most email that is delivered over TLS uses only opportunistic encryption. DANE is a proposed standard that makes an incremental transition to verified encryption for Internet mail delivery possible. The STARTTLS Everywhere project uses an alternative approach: they support a “preload list” of email servers that have promised to support STARTTLS, which can help detect and prevent downgrade attacks.

End-to-end encryption.

In end-to-end encryption, the data is encrypted and decrypted only at the end points. In other words, an email sent with end-to-end encryption would be encrypted at the source, unreadable to service providers like Gmail in transit, and then decrypted at its endpoint. Crucially, the email would only be decrypted for the end user on their computer and would remain in encrypted, unreadable form to an email service like Gmail, which wouldn't have the keys available to decrypt it. Some email services integrate end-to-end encryption automatically.  Notable protocols for end-to-end email encryption include:  OpenPGP is a data encryption standard that allows end-users to encrypt the email contents. There are various software and email-client plugins that allow users to encrypt the message using the recipient's public key before sending it. At its core, OpenPGP uses a Public Key Cryptography scheme where each email address is associated with a public/private key pair.  OpenPGP provides a way for the end users to encrypt the email without any support from the server and be sure that only the intended recipient can read it. However, there are usability issues with OpenPGP — it requires users to set up public/private key pairs and make the public keys available widely. Also, it protects only the content of the email, and not metadata — an untrusted party can still observe who sent an email to whom. A general downside of end to end encryption schemes—where the server does not have decryption keys—is that it makes server side search almost impossible, thus impacting usability.  The content of an email can also be end-to-end encrypted by putting it in an encrypted file (using any kind of file encryption tool) and sending that encrypted file as an email attachment.

Demonstrations.

The Signed and Encrypted Email Over The Internet demonstration has shown that organizations can collaborate effectively using secure email. Previous barriers to adoption were overcome, including the use of a PKI bridge to provide a scalable public key infrastructure (PKI) and the use of network security guards checking encrypted content passing in and out of corporate network boundaries to avoid encryption being used to hide malware introduction and information leakage.

Setting up and using email encryption.

Transport layer encryption using STARTTLS must be set up by the receiving organization. This is typically straightforward; a valid certificate must be obtained and STARTTLS must be enabled on the receiving organization's email server. To prevent downgrade attacks organizations can send their domain to the 'STARTTLS Policy List'  Most full-featured email clients provide native support for S/MIME secure email (digital signing and message encryption using certificates). Other encryption options include PGP and GNU Privacy Guard (GnuPG). Free and commercial software (desktop application, webmail and add-ons) are available as well.  While PGP can protect messages, it can also be hard to use in the correct way. Researchers at Carnegie Mellon University published a paper in 1999 showing that most people couldn't figure out how to sign and encrypt messages using the current version of PGP. Eight years later, another group of Carnegie Mellon researchers published a follow-up paper saying that, although a newer version of PGP made it easy to decrypt messages, most people still struggled with encrypting and signing messages, finding and verifying other people's public encryption keys, and sharing their own keys.  Because encryption can be difficult for users, security and compliance managers at companies and government agencies automate the process for employees and executives by using encryption appliances and services that automate encryption. Instead of relying on voluntary co-operation, automated encryption, based on defined policies, takes the decision and the process out of the users' hands. Emails are routed through a gateway appliance that has been configured to ensure compliance with regulatory and security policies. Emails that require it are automatically encrypted and sent.  If the recipient works at an organization that uses the same encryption gateway appliance, emails are automatically decrypted, making the process transparent to the user. Recipients who are not behind an encryption gateway then need to take an extra step, either procuring the public key, or logging into an online portal to retrieve the message.

Encrypted email providers.

Since 2000, the number of available encrypted email providers has increased significantly. Notable providers include:

Email encryption is encryption of email messages to protect the content from being read by entities other than the intended recipients. Email encryption may also include authentication.