History.

Bass Hotels.

The origins of the business can be traced back to 1777, when William Bass established the Bass Brewery in Burton-upon-Trent. In 1875, its red triangle logo was the first ever trademark registered in the United Kingdom.  The company later changed its name and, in 1969, Bass Charrington, as it was known at the time, launched the Crest Hotel chain, marking its first entry into the lodging sector.  In 1988, the British government limited the number of pubs which brewers could directly own, resulting in Bass's further investing in the expansion of its hotel business. This led to it purchasing Holiday Inn International from shareholders.

InterContinental.

Pan American Airways founder Juan Trippe established the American Intercontinental Hotels chain as a division of Pan Am and opened the first hotel in Belém, Brazil in 1946. On 19 August 1981, Pan Am sold the holding company Inter-Continental Hotels Corporation (IHC) to UK-based Grand Metropolitan for $50 million. As GrandMet focused its core business and expanded into fast food through the purchase of Burger King, it sold IHC to the Japanese-based Saison Group in 1988.  In March 1998, Saison Group sold IHC to the British brewery Bass. In 2000, Bass sold its brewing assets (and the rights to the Bass name) to the Belgian brewer Interbrew for £2.3 billion and changed its name to Six Continents.  In 2003, the independent corporation InterContinental Hotels Group (IHG) was created after Six Continents split into two companies: Mitchells & Butlers took control of the restaurant assets, while IHG focused on hotels and soft drinks. IHG retained Britvic, the soft drinks division, until December 2005 when it sold its interest in the company by an initial public offering. In April/May 2014, the company reportedly rejected a $10 billion takeover bid from a publicly unknown suitor, believed to be Starwood.  In April 2017, the company announced that it been the subject of a malware attack and hackers had stolen credit card details.

Operations.

The company worldwide headquarters and Europe offices are in Denham, Buckinghamshire in England. The Americas office is in Dunwoody, Georgia in Greater Atlanta. The South East Asia & Korea offices are in Singapore, Australasia offices in Sydney, Japan offices in Tokyo, India Middle East & Africa offices in Dubai, and the Greater China offices are in Pudong, Shanghai. In 2006, IHG and Lend Lease Group (Lend Lease US Public Partnerships), joined forces in the Privatization of Army Lodging program.  As of 2012, of IHG's more than 5,400 hotels, 4,433 are operated under franchise agreements, 907 were managed by the company but separately owned, and eight were directly owned. As at 31 March 2019, IHG has 842,759 guest rooms and 5,656 hotels across nearly 100 countries.

Criticism.

International boycott.

The InterContinental Hotels Group became the target of an international boycott campaign in May 2013, over their plan to operate an Intercontinental-brand luxury hotel in Lhasa, Tibet. According to campaigners from the Free Tibet campaign, the hotel was a "PR coup for the Chinese government".

Price fixing.

In July 2012, the Office of Fair Trading alleged that IHG had broken competition law by preventing online travel agents from discounting the price of room-only hotel accommodation. In February 2014, IHG agreed to end the practice of price fixing.

Data breach.

In February 2017, the hotel chain admitted to a data breach. They asserted that the compromise was minor, having impacted 12 properties. However, in April 2017 it raised the number to 1,200 hotels. The attackers had installed malware designed to access payment card data, which could be used to clone cards and make fraudulent payments.

VAT rules.

In May 2012, the UK Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) warned IHG that it must not use adverts showing prices for hotel rooms excluding VAT. Because the ASA thought the adverts were likely to be viewed by consumers who must pay VAT, it had decided the adverts were misleading. It ordered IHG that the ads must not appear in their current form again. However, in August 2012, a report by "Which?" magazine showed that the hotel chain was still breaching VAT rules.

Living wage.

In November 2017, the Mayor of London, Sadiq Khan, accused the hotel chain of reneging on a commitment to pay the living wage.

Food poisoning.

In July 2016 Intercontinental Adelaide was responsible for giving at least 70 diners salmonella food poisoning. Twenty-one of these people had to be treated at hospital.

Hygiene standards.

In September 2017 a consumer rights group accused Intercontinental Beijing Sanlitun of substandard hygiene conditions. Specifically during an undercover operation they had marked bed linen and toilets with an invisible stamp. Upon returning the next day the marks were still there.

Loyalty scheme.

In April 2015 IHG changed the terms and conditions of their Priority Club. Up until then the points were awarded for life and members were told that they would never expire. Following the change, points will now expire if no 'earn' or'redeem' activity occurs within 12 consecutive months. Many of those members never received any communication about the change and their points expired.

Brands.

IHG Group has several brands, including:

Notable properties.

The Crowne Plaza Liverpool John Lennon Airport is the former terminal building of Liverpool Speke Airport, constructed in the 1930s and used until 1986. Its notable art deco features led to its listing as a heritage building, and subsequent adaption as a hotel.  The hotel in the Wilshire Grand Tower in downtown Los Angeles is the largest InterContinental in the Americas and the tallest building in Los Angeles.  The InterContinental Davos is well known for its modern architecture.  The Hotel International Prague was owned by the InterContinental Hotels Group, until being sold in 2014.  InterContinental Group is eliminating the travel-sized tubes of shampoo, conditioner and bath gel from its 843,000 rooms across its global chain of hotels.

IHG Rewards Club.

IHG Rewards Club is the loyalty programme for over 5,600 hotels under the IHG umbrella. There are three elite tiers of IHG rewards club which include Gold Elite, Platinum Elite and Spire Elite.

InterContinental Hotels Group plc, informally InterContinental Hotels or IHG, is a British multinational hospitality company headquartered in Denham, Buckinghamshire, England. IHG has about 842,749 guest rooms and 5,656 hotels across nearly 100 countries. IHG owns several brands, including InterContinental, Regent Hotels, Six Senses Hotels, Kimpton Hotels and Resorts, Hualuxe, Crowne Plaza, voco Hotels, Hotel Indigo, Holiday Inn, Holiday Inn Express, Holiday Inn club vacations, avid, Candlewood Suites, EVEN Hotels, and Staybridge Suites. It is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index.


Designs.

The Minié ball is a conical bullet with three exterior grease-filled grooves and a conical hollow in its base. The bullet was designed by Minié with a small iron plug and a lead skirting. Its intended purpose was to expand under the pressure of the powder deflagration, pressing the skirt out to grip the rifling, and secondarily to obturate the barrel and increase muzzle velocity.  The precursor to the Minié ball was created in the 1830s by the French Army captains Montgomery and Henri-Gustave Delvigne. Their design was made to allow rapid muzzle loading of rifles, an innovation that brought about the widespread use of the rifle rather than the smoothbore musket as a mass battlefield weapon. Delvigne had invented a ball that could expand upon ramming to fit the grooves of a rifle in 1826. The design of the ball had been proposed in 1832 as the cylindro-conoidal bullet by Captain John Norton, but had not been adopted.  Captain James H. Burton, an armorer at the Harpers Ferry Armory, developed an improvement on Minié's design when he added a deep cavity at the base of the ball, which filled up with gas and expanded the bullet's rim upon firing. The result was not only better range, but also a cheaper bullet, which was used in the Crimean War and then the American Civil War. Burton's version of the ball weighed 1.14 ounces.

Use.

The bullet could be quickly removed from the paper cartridge with the gunpowder poured down the barrel and the bullet pressed past the muzzle rifling and any detritus from prior shots. It was then rammed down the barrel with the ramrod, which ensured that the charge was packed and the hollow base was filled with powder. When the rifle was fired, the expanding gas pushed forcibly on the base of the bullet, deforming the skirt to engage the rifling. This provided spin for accuracy, a better seal for consistent velocity and longer range, and cleaning of barrel detritus.

Effects.

Wounds inflicted by the conical Minié ball were different from those caused by the round balls from smoothbore muskets, since the conical ball had a higher muzzle velocity and greater mass, and easily penetrated the human body. Round balls tended to remain lodged in the flesh, and they were often observed to take a winding path through the body. Flexed muscles and tendons, as well as bone, could cause the round ball to deviate from a straight path. The Minié ball tended to cut a straight path and usually went all the way through the injured part; the ball seldom remained lodged in the body. If a Minié ball struck a bone, it usually caused the bone to shatter. The damage to bones and resulting compound fractures were usually severe enough to necessitate amputation. A hit on a major blood vessel could also have serious and often lethal consequences.  One of the more famous documented cases involving Minié ball injuries concerned a Confederate soldier wounded during Jubal Early's raid on Washington, D.C. on July 12, 1864. The soldier, a private in the 53rd North Carolina Infantry, was hit in the side of the head by a.58 caliber Minié ball, which shattered his skull and lodged in the right hemisphere of the brain. He went into convulsions and became paralyzed on one side of his body, but started recovering within eight days of being hospitalized. However, within three more days, his condition deteriorated and he eventually lost consciousness and died, having survived with his wound for 16 days. An autopsy of the soldier found that the right hemisphere of the brain was extensively damaged and large areas of it had necrosed. The brain was removed, preserved in formaldehyde and donated to the Army Museum in Washington. The primary cause of death had been infection caused by both the initial injury and subsequent necrosis of brain tissue. With 21st-century medical treatment, the soldier might well have survived with some degree of physical disability.

The Minié ball, or Minni ball, is a type of muzzle-loading spin-stabilized bullet for rifled muskets named after its developer, Claude-Étienne Minié, inventor of the French Minié rifle. It came to prominence in the Crimean War and American Civil War.


Description.

Most of the species are herbaceous perennial plants, but some are annuals. They have sturdy stems with opposite heart-shaped, green to gray-green leaves. "Nepeta" plants are usually aromatic in foliage and flowers.  The tubular flowers can be lavender, blue, white, pink, or lilac, and spotted with tiny lavender-purple dots. The flowers are located in verticillasters grouped on spikes; or the verticillasters are arranged in opposite cymes, racemes, or panicles – toward the tip of the stems.  The calyx is tubular or campanulate, they are slightly curved or straight, and the limbs are often 2-lipped with five teeth. The lower lip is larger, with 3-lobes, and the middle lobe is the largest. The flowers have 4 hairless stamens that are nearly parallel, and they ascend under the upper lip of the corolla. Two stamen are longer and stamens of pistillate flowers are rudimentary. The style protrudes outside of the mouth of the flowers.  The fruits are nutlets, which are oblong-ovoid, ellipsoid, ovoid, or obovoid in shape. The surfaces of the nutlets can be slightly ribbed, smooth or warty.

Selected species.

Species include:

Uses.

Cultivation.

Some "Nepeta" species are cultivated as ornamental plants. They can be drought tolerant – water conserving, often deer repellent, with long bloom periods from late spring to autumn. Some species also have repellent properties to insect pests, including aphids and squash bugs, when planted in a garden.  "Nepeta" species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species including "Coleophora albitarsella", and as nectar sources for pollinators, such as honey bees and hummingbirds.

Nepeta is a genus of flowering plants in the family Lamiaceae. The genus name is reportedly in reference to Nepete, an ancient Etruscan city. There are about 250 species.


History.

1911 beginnings and controversy.

In 1909 the "Automobile Club de Monaco" ("Sport Automobile Velocipédique Monégasque") started planning a car rally at the behest of Albert I, Prince of Monaco. The Monte Carlo Rally was to start at points all over Europe and converge on Monte Carlo. In January 1911 23 cars set out from 11 different locations and Henri Rougier was among the nine who left Paris to cover a route. The event was won by Rougier in a Turcat-Méry 25 Hp. The rally comprised both driving and then somewhat arbitrary judging based on the elegance of the car, passenger comfort and the condition in which it arrived in the principality. The outcry of scandal when the results were published changed nothing, so Rougier was proclaimed the first winner.

1966 controversy.

The 1966 event was the most controversial in the history of the Rally. The first four finishers, driving three, Timo Mäkinen, Rauno Aaltonen and Paddy Hopkirk, and Roger Clark's 4th-placed Ford Cortina were all disqualified because they used non-dipping single filament quartz iodine bulbs in their headlamps, in place of the standard double filament dipping glass bulbs, which are fitted to the series production version of each models sold to the public. This elevated Pauli Toivonen (Citroën ID) into first place overall. Rosemary Smith (Hillman Imp) was also disqualified from sixth place, after winning the "Coupe des Dames", the ladies' class. In all, ten cars were disqualified. Teams threatened to boycott the event. The headline in "Motor Sport" read "The Monte Carlo Fiasco."

Recent history.

From 1973 to 2008 the rally was held in January as the first event of the FIA World Rally Championship, but between 2009 to 2011 it has been the opening round of the Intercontinental Rally Challenge (IRC) programme, a championship for N/A 4WD cars, before returning to the WRC championship season again in 2012. As recently as 1991, competitors were able to choose their starting points from approximately five venues roughly equidistant from Monte Carlo (one of Monaco's administrative areas) itself.  With often varying conditions at each starting point (typically comprising dry tarmac, wet tarmac, snow, and ice, sometimes all in a single stage of the rally), this event places a big emphasis on tyre choices, as a driver has to balance the need for grip on ice and snow with the need for grip on dry tarmac. For the driver, this is often a difficult choice as the tyres that work well on snow and ice normally perform badly on dry tarmac.  The Automobile Club de Monaco confirmed on 19 July 2010 that the 79th Monte-Carlo Rally would form the opening round of the new Intercontinental Rally Challenge season. To mark the centenary event, the Automobile Club de Monaco has also confirmed that Glasgow, Barcelona, Warsaw and Marrakesh have been selected as start points for the rally.

Col de Turini.

This rally features one of the most famous special stages in the world. The stage is run from La Bollène-Vésubie to Sospel, or the other way around, over a steep and tight mountain road with many hairpin turns. On this 31km route it passes over the "Col de Turini", a mountain pass road which normally has ice and/or snow on sections of it at that time of the year. Spectators also throw snow on the road—in 2005, Marcus Grönholm and Petter Solberg both ripped a wheel off their cars when they skidded on snow probably placed there by spectators, and crashed into a wall. Grönholm went on to finish fifth, but Solberg was forced to retire as the damage to his car was extensive. In the same event, Sébastien Loeb set one of the fastest times in the modern era, with 21 minutes 40 seconds.  Sospel has an elevation of 479m, and the D70 has a maximum elevation of 1603m, for an average gradient of 6.7%. The Turini is also driven at night, with thousands of fans watching the "Night of Turini", also known as the "Night of the Long Knives" due to the strong high beam lights cutting through the night. In the 2007 edition of the rally, the Turini was not used, but it returned for the 2008 route. For both the 2009 and 2010 event the stage was run at night and shown live on Eurosport.

Past winners.

"(list by driver / co-driver and vehicle type)"

The Monte Carlo Rally or Rallye Monte Carlo (officially Rallye Automobile de Monte-Carlo) is a rallying event organised each year by the Automobile Club de Monaco which also organises the Formula One Monaco Grand Prix and the "Rallye Monte-Carlo Historique". The rally now takes place along the French Riviera in the Principality of Monaco and southeast France. Previously, competitors would set off from all four corners of Europe and 'rally', in other words, meet, in Monaco to celebrate the end of a unique event. From its inception in 1911 by Prince Albert I it was an important means of demonstrating improvements and innovations to automobiles.


"Mutant Message Down Under".

Marlo Morgan self-published a book in 1990 titled "Mutant Message Down Under", which purported to chronicle the journey of a middle-aged, white, American woman with a group of 62 desert Aborigines, the "Real People", across the continent of Australia. The author states the book was written after the fact inspired by actual experience.  "Mutant Message Down Under" quickly attained word of mouth popularity with the New Age movement in the United States, was picked up for bookstore distribution by Bookpeople, then consequently picked up by giant publishing firm HarperCollins, and marketed as fiction by them. Nearly a million copies of the HarperCollins publication have been sold around the world. Morgan completed many lecture tours promoting the book in the United States and Europe. In her lectures Ms Morgan speaks of her actual experience with the "Real People" and states she is an Aborigine.  According to the 90-page report published by the Perth-based "Dumbartung Aboriginal Corporation", a survey of Aboriginal groups in Central and Western Australia failed to uncover any indication whatsoever of Ms Morgan’s presence in the area or of the existence of the "Real People" tribe. They claim that Aboriginal groups believe Ms Morgan’s desert journey to be fabricated and that her book and teaching lack credibility. The "Dumbartung Aboriginal Corporation" stated that it was deeply offensive to Aboriginal people for a white person to be misrepresenting Aboriginal culture for self-promotion and profit. Aboriginal people expressed anger that Ms Morgan’s false message is being accepted as fact by a naive American and European market and were extremely concerned about the resulting long-term implications for their culture.  In 1996 a group of Aboriginal elders, seriously disturbed by the book's implications, received a grant to travel to the States and confront Marlo Morgan about her book and to try to prevent a Hollywoodisation of it. She admitted publicly that she had faked it but this received little publicity in the USA. The Aboriginal people are angry that this book continues to be promoted and sold widely because it gives a false picture of their traditional culture and of their current political and social status. This is regarded as damaging to their struggle for survival.

Marlo Morgan (born September 29, 1937) is an American author, best known for the bestselling book "Mutant Message Down Under". She has also written "Message from Forever" (1998), another novel based on Australian Aboriginal themes. In 1996, she was confronted about the veracity of her book by Aborginal protesters and admitted the stories from her books were fake.


Early life and education.

Leonard was born in Westwood, New Jersey, to Joyce Patricia (née Peterson), a nurse, and Robert Leonard, a teacher at Collier High School. He grew up in Ridgewood, where he attended Ridgewood High School before moving on to Fordham University and later the Columbia University School of General Studies. He studied theatre at HB Studio.

Career.

Because he shares his birth name with another actor, Leonard modified his name for his Screen Actors Guild membership with "Sean", the name of his brother.  Leonard is a three-time Tony Award nominee, winning Best Featured Actor in a Play in 2001 for his role as A. E. Housman in Tom Stoppard's "The Invention of Love". He had a prior association with Stoppard's work, playing the role of Valentine in the New York premiere of "Arcadia" at Lincoln Center in 1995. His 2003 Tony nomination was for his portrayal of Edmund Tyrone in a well-received revival of Eugene O'Neill's "Long Day's Journey Into Night" that co-starred Philip Seymour Hoffman, Brian Dennehy and Vanessa Redgrave. Leonard has also appeared in Broadway musical productions, in 2001 replacing Craig Bierko as the lead performer in a revival of "The Music Man". On February 8, 2011, it was announced that Leonard would co-star as Paul Verrall in the 2011 Broadway revival of "Born Yesterday" beginning in March.  In 1997, Leonard received rave reviews for his role in the Christopher Reeve-directed television film "In the Gloaming". "Entertainment Weekly" said that, in the film, Leonard "does a first-rate job of juggling Danny's mixture of despair, neediness, and mordant jokiness."  From 2004, he played Dr. James Wilson, head of the oncology department, on the FOX TV series "House", until the series ended in 2012. In 2007 Leonard appeared on "Entertainment's Weekly"s 100 list as "Dr. Underrated."  In 2016, Leonard played King Arthur in David Lee's adaptation of the musical "Camelot" at the Westport Country Playhouse in Westport, Connecticut. From February to April 2017, he appeared in the Broadway revival of "Sunday in the Park with George" as Jules/Bob.

Personal life.

Leonard maintains a close friendship with "House" co-star Hugh Laurie. He is also a friend since childhood of Ethan Hawke, his costar in "Dead Poets Society" and "Tape". Hawke and Leonard founded the Malaparte theater company, along with James Waterston, Steve Zahn, and Frank Whaley. Leonard has been married to Gabriella Salick since 2008. They have two daughters: Eleanor (born 2009) and Claudia (born 2012).

Robert Lawrence Leonard (born February 28, 1969), known by his stage name Robert Sean Leonard, is an American actor. He is known for playing Dr. James Wilson in the television series "House" (2004–2012) and Neil Perry in the film "Dead Poets Society". Leonard won a Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Play for his performance in "The Invention of Love" in 2001. His other theater credits include "Candida", "Long Day's Journey Into Night", "Breaking the Code", "The Speed of Darkness", "Philadelphia, Here I Come!", "Arcadia", "The Music Man", "Born Yesterday", and "To Kill a Mockingbird". From 2013 to 2014, Leonard had a recurring role as Dr. Roger Kadar on the television series "Falling Skies". He also starred as the leading role in "Swing Kids" and played Peter.


Early life.

According to the "Annals of Fulda", Rastislav was a nephew of Mojmir I, the first known ruler of Moravia. His career before 846 is unknown, but it is conceivable that he served as a hostage for his uncle at Louis the German's court. The latter invaded Moravia in 846, deprived Mojmir I of his throne, and installed Rastislav as the new duke of Moravia. Rastislav seems to have already been Christian when he became duke, but there is no doubt that he was baptized at the latest in 846 as part of the conditions for his support by the East Frankish king.

Towards independence.

In the first eight years of Rastislav's reign there is no report of Moravian rebellion, which suggests that he remained loyal to Louis the German. In this period Rastislav seems to have acquired new territories in the east and established a border with the First Bulgarian Empire. According to the "Annals of St-Bertin", in 853 Charles the Bald, king of West Francia, bribed the Bulgarians to ally with the Slavs (apparently the Moravians) and together attack Louis the German's kingdom. In the course of the Bulgarian–Moravian attack, Louis the German deposed his prefect of the Eastland, Ratpot, who soon allied with Rastislav. The alliance suggests that, by this time, Rastislav felt secure enough to challenge Frankish overlordship.  In 855 the East Frankish king gathered a large army to invade Moravia. His army, however, foundered before the walls of one of Rastislav's strongholds, perhaps at Mikulčice (now in the Czech Republic) that seems to have been rebuilt in the previous years. Unprepared for a prolonged siege, the king was forced to withdraw from the region. As the king was retreating, his army defeated a large Moravian force that attacked his camp. Nevertheless, Rastislav's army followed the Franks and pillaged many of their estates on the river Danube. In 856 Louis the German turned over the command of the southeastern marches of his kingdom to his son, Carloman with the responsibility to hold the Moravians in check. According to the "Annals of Fulda", Carloman led a new expedition against Rastislav in 858, but this campaign was also a failure, for Rastislav remained defiant. Carloman even struck an alliance with Rastislav against his father.  Pribina, the Slavic "dux" of Lower Pannonia, died fighting the Moravians in 861, which suggests that Carloman also had conceded this province to Rastislav. In response to the ongoing rebellion of his son and Rastislav, Louis the German negotiated a counteralliance with Boris I of Bulgaria. The king made it seem that he was leading a new campaign against Rastislav, but at the last moment he moved against Carloman, who thus had no choice but to surrender.

Mission of Saints Cyril and Methodius.

In order to increase his maneuverability, Rastislav attempted to curtail the activities of the Frankish missionaries in his realm. For this purpose, in around 862 he turned first to Rome. Having met with no success, he then asked for "teachers" in Constantinople, in order to educate local Moravians as priests. His embassy also emphasized the need for "teachers" capable of working in Slavic language.  Rastislav's request was granted when Constantine and Methodius, two brothers who had learned the Slavic dialect spoken in Thessaloniki (Greece), arrived with a few disciples in Moravia in 863. The two brothers undertook the task assigned to them by using the Slavonic language for teaching and for divine mass, and Constantine even created a script for the Slavs. The Frankish clergy soon came to realize that the activities of the two Byzantine brothers represented a threat to their influence. As the Byzantine missionaries enjoyed Rastislav's protection, Louis the German dispatched Bishop Solomon of Constance to Rome where he described how the diocese of Passau had been "fragmented and brought to ruin" by the defection of the Moravians.  Louis the German was also planning to launch a major campaign against Rastislav with the support of Boris I of Bulgaria. Although at the last minute the latter pulled out of the campaign, Louis' new expedition against Rastislav was a success. In August 864 Louis the German invaded Moravia, crossing the Danube to besiege the "civitas Dowina" (identified, although not unanimously, with Devín Castle in Slovakia). The king apparently took Rastislav by surprise, and trapped him within the fortress. Unable to escape the Frankish siege, Rastislav surrendered, turned over a numerous high-ranking hostages and swore a new oath of fidelity.  The king's campaign, however, did not result in the subjugation of Rastislav. In 865, according to the "Annals of St-Bertin", Louis the German sent his hosts against the "Wends" (Slavs), and the "Annals of Fulda" reports for the same year that Werner, a count in Upper Pannonia, was summoned before the king, accused of conspiring with Rastislav. In late 866 Constantine and Methodius departed from Moravia for Venice where the pope's envoys persuaded them to come to Rome. Here Pope Hadrian II approved their Slavic translations of the Scriptures, consecrated their Slavic disciples as priests, and even allowed them to sing the Slavic liturgy in Rome's churches.

Last years.

Early in 868 Louis the German's son Carloman fought two successful engagements against Rastislav and returned with plunder. In August the king himself was planning to invade Moravia again, but he suddenly fell ill. Now the king's youngest son, Charles the Fat, advanced on Rastislav's stronghold and burned all of his fortifications, seized treasures, and defeated all who came against him in battle. By that time, according to the "Annals of Fulda", Rastislav, who had earlier granted his "old city" to his nephew Svatopluk, ruled from his "indescribable fortress" that might be identified with Mikulčice (Czech Republic). In 869 Pope Hadrian II who had decided to revive the archdiocese of Illyricum consecrated Methodius archbishop of Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) and papal legate of all the Slavs living in the territories ruled by Rastislav, Svatopluk and Pribina's son, Koceľ.  Svatopluk, in the meantime, entered into negotiations with Carloman without Rastislav's knowledge, and accepted Carloman's lordship over his person and his realm. Rastislav was "beside himself with rage" when he learned of his nephew's betrayal, and arranged for assassins to strangle Svatopluk at a banquet. The latter, however, was warned of the plan and evaded death by pretending to go hawking. When Rastislav set out with his soldiers to hunt down his nephew, Svatopluk captured his uncle and sent him in bonds to Carloman.  Rastislav was dispatched under guard to Regensburg (Louis' capital city) while Carloman invaded Rastislav's realm and subdued all of his fortresses. Louis the German had Rastislav presented to him bound with a heavy chain. While the assembled Franks, Bavarians, and Slavs condemned Rastislav to death for treason, the king commuted his punishment to blinding and imprisonment. Rastislav died in prison. Rastislav was canonised in 1994 by the Czech and Slovak Orthodox Church in Prešov.

Rastislav or Rostislav, also known as St. Rastislav, (Latin: "Rastiz", Greek: Ῥασισθλάβος / "Rhasisthlábos") was the second known ruler of Moravia (846–870). Although he started his reign as vassal to Louis the German, king of East Francia, he consolidated his rule to the extent that after 855 he was able to repel a series of Frankish attacks. Upon his initiative two brothers, Cyril and Methodius. sent by the Byzantine Emperor Michael III in 863, translated the most important Christian liturgical books into Slavonic. Rastislav was dethroned by his nephew Svatopluk I of Moravia, who handed him over to the Franks.


Background.

The aircraft carrier "São Paulo" was built in France between 1957 and 1960, and served in the French Navy as "Foch". In September 2000, she was purchased by Brazil for US$30 million – no aircraft were included in the price – to replace the aged World War II-era carrier, which had been in commission for over 40 years. Brazil had previously approached other countries, such as Spain, who wanted to construct a US$500 million carrier for Brazil, about the acquisition of a carrier. The government had already purchased a flotilla of 23 used A-4 Skyhawk fighter planes from Kuwait for $70 million; these planes, along with existing helicopters already in the national defense inventory, were to compose the "São Paulo" fighter-bomber group. These A-4s (designated AF-1) are capable of carrying armament including rockets, free-fall bombs, and Sidewinder air-to-air missiles.  The "Clemenceau"-class aircraft carriers, of which "São Paulo" is the last surviving member, are of conventional CATOBAR design. The flight deck is long by wide; the landing area is angled at 8 degrees off of the ship's axis. The forward aircraft elevator is to starboard, and the rear elevator is positioned on the deck edge to save hangar space. The forward of two catapults is on the bow to port; the second catapult is farther back on the angled landing deck. The hangar deck dimensions are by with overhead.  In September 2000, "São Paulo" was purchased while still operational, an unusual process for such a large ship. She was received by the Brazilian Navy and was incorporated into the Brazilian Navy on 15 November 2000. The incorporation of "São Paulo" and the AF-1 fighter group marked the realization of Brazil's long-held goal of being able to conduct aerial defense of its naval forces with fixed-wing aircraft.  President Fernando Henrique Cardoso noted during the transfer ceremony that: Since her construction, "São Paulo" has received multiple upgrades, leaving her with a diverse range of technologies.  The carrier arrived in Rio de Janeiro on 17 February 2001.

Brazilian service.

In her first three years of service as "São Paulo", the ship completed several missions, some in foreign waters, particularly Operations ARAEX, PASSEX, and TEMPEREX, which is used annually to qualify and train the Argentine Navy's Super Étendards and S-2T Turbo Trackers.  Toward the end of its commissioned life, "São Paulo" mainly served to train pilots to fly carrier operations. She was actively used for the qualification and re-qualification of rotary and fixed-wing pilots (with about 500 catapult launches), and she was used during the first Brazilian exercises to practice carrier-based attack missions.

2005 fire.

On 17 May 2005, an explosion took place in the steam network of the engine room. The explosion initially killed one crew member and injured ten others. All casualties were airlifted by helicopter to the Marcilio Dias Naval Hospital, Rio de Janeiro. Two of the injured crew later died in hospital from their injuries. Cause of the explosion was a rupture in the steam pipeline. After this accident, the Navy decided to undertake an extensive overhaul to repair and modernize the ship.

Upgrade (2005–2010) and sea trials.

During 2005–10, "São Paulo" underwent extensive modernization. The upgrade included inspection and repair of the steam turbines; maintenance of the surface condensers; retubing of boilers; repair of two high-pressure compressors; revision of the AC electrical generator; purchase of spare parts; maintenance of pumps, valves, and structural items; addition of two API oil-water separators; installation of two water cooling units; upgrade of the chemical oxygen generator; repair and treatment of oil tanks; substitution of the Naval Tactical Data System; installation of a closed-circuit television system; installation of an IFF transponder; installation of a MAGE system (ESM); flight deck inspection, repair, and painting; upgrade of the Optical Landing System processing unit; and revision of the aircraft catapults. The upgrade was completed in July 2009, and the "São Paulo" was initially due to be fully operational by August 2010.  Twelve Brazilian Navy A-4 Skyhawks were also scheduled to be upgraded by Embraer at a cost of $140 million. The upgrade was similar to the ones done for the AMX and F-5EM aircraft of the Brazilian Air Force. The program included restoring the aircraft and their current systems, as well as implementing new avionics, radar (specifically the Elta 2032 radar system), power production, and autonomous oxygen generating systems. Possible weapons to be included in the upgrade were MAA-1B, Python 4, and Derby AAMS.  The Brazilian Navy contracted Marsh Aviation to convert four S-2T Turbo Trackers to an airborne early warning (AEW) configuration, and four more for tanking and Carrier Onboard Delivery duties.  According to an article in the October 2010 issue of Air Forces Monthly, it has been confirmed that Brazil has purchased ex-Australian and ex-Uruguayan C-1 Trader airframes, for conversion into AEW planes and Tanker aircraft. All of the planes were to be upgraded to S-2T Turbo Tracker configuration with Honeywell TPE 331-14GR engines. The purchase included nine airframes, of which two were for tanker conversion to refuel the AF-1 Skyhawks, and three were for AEW. The rest were purchased as for spares or for cargo duties. The AEW radar requirement was to have a range of 250 miles at 25,000 feet. Operational lifespan for the airframes was to be 10 years. They were expected to be ready in 2011 and 2012.  "São Paulo"s SH-3 helicopter fleet was to be replaced by six S-70B Seahawk helicopters. They were purchased in 2008, upgraded, and refurbished for delivery. The helicopters and a package of engines and support equipment were scheduled for delivery in 2009.  At the end of 2010, sea trials began, and as of 2011 "São Paulo" had been evaluated by the CIASA (Inspection Commission and Training Advisory).

Refit and decommissioning (2012–2018).

"São Paulo" was expected to rejoin the fleet in late 2013, but suffered another major fire in 2012. As of September 2016, she continued to undergo repairs; the commander of the Brazilian Navy, Admiral Eduardo Leal Ferreira, said plans were in place to renew the carrier's propulsion system. The ship's catapult was also reported to have problems. On 14 February 2017, the Navy announced the ship would be demobilised and subsequently decommissioned, citing the uneconomical cost of further repairs. The Brazilian Navy formally decommissioned the aircraft carrier NAe "São Paulo" on 22 November 2018. As of February 2020, there is an effort to turn the ship into a museum.

Crew.

"São Paulo"s complement is 1,920 (the ship's company is 64 officers and 1274 sailors, with an additional 582 in the air group).

NAe São Paulo (pennant number A12) was a in service with the Brazilian Navy. "São Paulo" was first commissioned in 1963 by the French Navy as and was transferred in 2000 to Brazil, where she became the new flagship of the Brazilian Navy. IHS Jane's reported that during its career with the Brazilian Navy, "São Paulo" suffered from serviceability issues and never managed to operate for more than three months at a time without the need for repairs and maintenance. On 14 February 2017, the navy announced the ship's demobilisation and subsequent decommissioning.


Education and work.

Han graduated high school in Beijing but did not attend college or university. Despite this, Han was an avid reader of everything from Greek to Chinese classics and worked as an assistant librarian at Beijing Normal University. In 1983, attracted by higher wages, Han began a job at the Fengtai Locomotive Maintenance Section in Beijing. While working there Han's feelings about workers' rights were emboldened, as he saw China's "savage" economic policies had a lack for regard for China's "society and environment." Because of this, Han believed that workers needed to protect and represent their own interests, which most likely served as a key incentive for him to join the BWAF.

Public Security Soldiers Corps.

In 1980, Han decided to join the "Gong An Bing", or Public Security Soldiers Corps. After going through basic training at the Qinghe prison labor camp, Han was given command of a squad consisting of 12 men. During an annual review of the camp, Han claimed that officers were stealing a third of the food rations from his men, and that his men were also being beaten and abused. Han then claimed that these acts were in violation of Chairman Mao's teachings that officers and soldiers should share good and bad fortunes and be treated as equals. Han's application to join the Communist Party was then allegedly destroyed by a battalion commandant the following day.

Tiananmen Square.

On April 17, 1989, Han gave a speech at the Tiananmen Square protests that praised the moral courage of the students at the Square and advocated for the protection and constitutional right for Chinese workers to freely organize. During this speech, Han also focused his attention towards the People’s Liberation Army, claiming that the army and the people "are like fish and water" and should not antagonize or attack one another. While it was considered normal for many workers to hide their identities in the early stages of the protests, Han gave his name freely to those who asked. Han said he did this because he felt like he needed to set an example and encourage others to own their words and be prepared to "face the consequences" for what they said. Han made more impromptu speeches throughout the movement, often accompanied by his wife Chen Jingyun.  Despite Han’s speeches and fervor for the movement, many student protesters at Tiananmen Square were apprehensive and questioned whether or not workers should be welcome or permitted into the Tiananmen protests. Many of the student leaders, particularly the security members, were concerned about the movement being infiltrated by government agents or police who would purposefully provoke violence or "hooliganism." Likewise, many students felt that the movement needed to remain solely run by students to avoid giving the government grounds for accusing them of trying to start a revolution.

Beijing Workers' Autonomous Federation.

Han joined the movement and became a leader within BWAF when its membership numbered just a few hundred. Han and Li Jinjin wrote appeals for workers and students to join together in the Tiananmen protests. The BWAF tried to read some of these documents on the student owned loudspeakers in Tiananmen Square, but were turned down by the students. Undeterred, the BWAF pooled their money together and bought their own hand cranked system to use as a loudspeaker.  Han said that he saw the BWAF as an opportunity to educate workers about China's constitution and how much of their rights were not put into practice. Han did not have much faith that the BWAF or the Tiananmen Protests would survive very long, but he felt that the BWAF was important since its legacy would live on through the workers who would be educated about China's constitution.

Han's arrest after Tiananmen protests.

After finding out he was at the top of the most wanted list, Han wanted to avoid the "humiliation" of being tracked down the police and turned himself in to "straighten out" the police and tell them what really happened at the protests. Han then spent 22 months in prison, where he often debated with interrogators and prison guards about the formation of the Tiananmen protests, particularly about the protests’ spontaneous rather than planned nature. Han was freed in 1992 after an international campaign pressured the Chinese government to release him to the United States for treatment of tuberculosis, which he contracted while imprisoned. Han then attempted to travel back to China but was expelled to Hong Kong, where he founded the "China Labor Bulletin".

Han Dongfang (born 1963) is a Chinese advocate for workers' rights. He won the 1993 Democracy Award from the U.S. National Endowment for Democracy.


Biography.

Mojmir succeeded his father Svatopluk I as the king of Great Moravia in 894. At the same time, the Principality of Nitra was given as an appanage to his brother Svatopluk II. But Svatopluk II, supported by Arnulf of Carinthia, king of East Francia, rebelled against Mojmir II in 895 and again in 897, when he concluded an agreement of cooperation with Arnulf. As a result, Mojmir II attacked his brother, but was defeated by East Frankish troops sent to support Svatopluk II's rebellion.  Weakened by internal conflict, Great Moravia lost its peripheral territories: It ceded the Balaton Principality to the Eastern Franks in 894, after Magyar tribes had looted this region. Bohemia, seceding from Great Moravia in the following year, became Arnulf’s vassal, and Lusatia followed suit in 897. Another danger emerged, when Magyars crossed the Carpathians to settle permanently in the Carpathian Basin (895/896). In 896, they settled or were settled in the scarcely populated territories of Great Moravia, residing around the upper/middle Tisza River in 900/901. After several looting raids in Europe, they moved to Transdanubia.  Despite these disasters, Mojmir managed to consolidate his power. In 898 he asked the Pope to consecrate new Great Moravian clerics in order to decrease the influence of Bavarian clerics in his country. The Bavarians (Eastern Franks), upset by the 898 demand, sent troops to Great Moravia, which Mojmir defeated. Moreover, Mojmir captured the still rebellious Svatopluk II, but the latter was eventually rescued by the Bavarian troops, with whom he fled to Germany.  After the death of Arnulf, the Pope finally sent his legates to consecrate a Great Moravian archbishop and three bishops in 899, thus decreasing the influence of the Bavarian clergy. The only thing we know about them is that the archbishop allowed liturgies to be conducted in Old Church Slavonic again (i.e., as opposed to Latin liturgies) and one of them had his seat in Nitra.  As mentioned above, in 900 the Magyars invaded Transdanubia (a former Great Moravian territory occupied by Franks) and raided Bavaria together with Mojmir’s troops. Eastern Francia was compelled to conclude a peace treaty with Great Moravia in 901 and Mojmir was reconciled with his brother, who is assumed to have returned to Great Moravia about this time. The peace treaty with the Eastern Franks also put an end to wars between Great Moravia and the Frankish vassal Bohemia lasting since 895. When and whether the territory that is now southern Poland seceded from Great Moravia is unknown.  Nevertheless, the Magyars became dangerous for both Eastern Francia and Great Moravia. Mojmir stopped their attacks in 902 and 906. In 904, he was even assisted by a Bavarian contingent. Mojmir II and Svatopluk II probably died in 906, a year of intense warfare with the Magyars.  In 907, the Magyars routed the Bavarian army at the three battles of Bratislava. Mojmir or any name of a successor is not mentioned in connection with these important battles.  After 907 the Great Moravian Empire began to disintegrate. The remnants of the core territory of Great Moravia were divided between the newly established states of Bohemia and the Kingdom of Hungary, and small local rulers continued to rule for some decades in the mountains of what is now Slovakia.

Mojmir II (Latin: "Moymirus", Czech and Slovak: "Mojmír II.", born after 871, died after 901) was a member of the House of Mojmir and since 894 the last known ruler of Great Moravia. He probably died in the beginning of the 10th century in a battle against the Magyars.


Early life.

Grace was born in New York City, the son of Pat, an assistant to the schoolmaster of the New Canaan Country School, and John Grace, a Madison Avenue executive. He has a sister, Jenny.  Grace grew up in Darien, Connecticut, where actress Kate Bosworth was a middle-school friend, and actress Chloë Sevigny—who later appeared with him in high school stage plays—was sometimes his babysitter.

Career.

Grace was cast as Eric Forman on Fox's "That '70s Show", which debuted in 1998. He played the role until the show's 8th and final season. His character was written out and replaced with a new character named Randy Pearson (Josh Meyers). Grace made a brief guest appearance in the final episode.  Grace played a prep school student who used marijuana and introduced his girlfriend to freebasing in director Steven Soderbergh's 2000 film "Traffic", as well as having uncredited cameos as himself in Soderbergh's "Ocean's Eleven" and its 2004 sequel, "Ocean's Twelve". "The joke is that you're supposed to play the worst version of yourself and I don't think too many people are comfortable with that. I never thought for a second that people were really going to think that's what I was like. I think that people will know that I was faking it in those movies", he told "Flaunt" magazine in 2007.  He planned to cameo in "Ocean's Thirteen". However, due to his role in "Spider-Man 3", he had to abandon these plans. As Grace said, "I was doing reshoots on "Spider-Man 3". I was bummed. I actually talked to Steven Soderbergh about that and we had a thing and then I couldn't do it." He appeared in director Mike Newell's 2003 film "Mona Lisa Smile". In 2004, Grace played the leading roles in "Win a Date with Tad Hamilton!" and "In Good Company". That same year, he starred in "P.S.", which received only a limited theatrical release. Grace won the National Board of Review's 2004 award for Breakthrough Performance Actor for his work in "In Good Company" and "P.S."  On January 15, 2005, Grace hosted "Saturday Night Live".  In 2007, Grace portrayed Eddie Brock/Venom in "Spider-Man 3", directed by Sam Raimi. Grace himself was a fan of the comics and read the Venom stories as a child. In 2009, Grace became the subject of a recurring column on the entertainment/pop culture site "Videogum", entitled "What's Up With Topher Grace?"  In 2010, Grace appeared in the ensemble comedy "Valentine's Day" and played the character of Edwin in "Predators".  In 2011, Grace appeared in the 1980s retro comedy "Take Me Home Tonight". He co-wrote the script and co-produced the film. Grace also starred opposite Richard Gere in the spy thriller "The Double".  In 2012, Grace starred alongside Mary Elizabeth Winstead and Matthew Gray Gubler in the social film "The Beauty Inside", which won a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding New Approach to an Original Daytime Program or Series in 2013. The film was directed by Drake Doremus and written by Richard Greenberg.  In 2014, Grace starred in the indie thriller "The Calling", alongside Susan Sarandon, and appeared in Christopher Nolan's sci-fi adventure "Interstellar", in a supporting role.  In October 2013, Grace joined HBO comedy pilot "People In New Jersey" with Sarah Silverman, but in January 2014, the pilot was passed on.  Grace co-starred in the comedy film "American Ultra" (2015), alongside Jesse Eisenberg and Kristen Stewart, playing a CIA agent. That same year, he co-starred in "Truth", with Robert Redford and Cate Blanchett, and based on the story of CBS's "60 Minutes" report that George W. Bush had received preferential treatment to keep him out of the Vietnam War. Grace played Mike Smith, a researcher on the story.  In January 2018, Grace joined the supernatural-thriller "Delirium", which centers on a man recently released from a mental institute who inherits a mansion after his parents die. After a series of disturbing events, he comes to believe it is haunted.  In 2019, he played Billy Bauer in the 2nd episode of "Black Mirror"’s 5th season, titled "Smithereens".  In 2020, Grace was cast in ABC's "Home Economics" pilot.

Editing and "Lou's Cafe".

Grace has long held an interest in making his own edits of popular films, particularly those involving "Star Wars." He has stated that this has become a source of relaxation for him. His edits were shared on his now-gone pop-culture website, Cereal Prize.  In 2012, he edited the "Star Wars" Prequel trilogy into one 85-minute film, titled "Star Wars: Episode III.5: The Editor Strikes Back" and showed it to select audiences. The edit utilized original footage, music from the series, and a portion from Anthony Daniels' audiobook recordings.  In 2014, he created a cut of "Boogie Nights" that served as a reconstruction of the character Brock Landers' fake movie "Angels Live in My Town".  In 2018, he created his own edit of "The Hobbit", stating that “I think that maybe "The Hobbit" should’ve been one movie, and many people would agree. Money drives a lot of those franchises. It's better when the art leads”. He specifically edited this as a way to relax while portraying David Duke in Spike Lee's "BlacKkKlansman".  In 2019, Grace and editor Jeff Yorkes started a Twitter account for "Lou's Cafe", the pseudonym by which the two credit their work. The name comes from the diner featured in the film "Back to the Future". Later that year, he and Yorkes were commissioned by Pixar to edit a retrospective for "Toy Story 4", which was titled "Toy Story 4 Ever" and released on Pixar's YouTube account.

Personal life.

Grace started dating actress Ashley Hinshaw in January 2014, and the two became engaged in January 2015. On May 29, 2016, Grace and Hinshaw married near Santa Barbara, California. On August 1, 2017, Hinshaw confirmed that she and Grace were expecting their first child. Their daughter, Mabel Jane Grace, was born on November 1, 2017. On January 5, 2020, Hinshaw confirmed that she and Grace are expecting their second child together.  Grace is a supporter of FINCA International, a microfinance organization.<ref name="http://www.finca.org/">Topher Grace about FINCA on Jimmy Fallon, finca.org, March 20, 2011.</ref

Christopher John "Topher" Grace ( ; born July 12, 1978) is an American actor. He is known for playing Eric Forman in the Fox sitcom "That '70s Show", Eddie Brock / Venom in Sam Raimi's film "Spider-Man 3", Pete Monash in "Win a Date with Tad Hamilton!", Carter Duryea in "In Good Company", Edwin in "Predators", Getty in "Interstellar", Adrian Yates in "American Ultra", and David Duke in Spike Lee's film "BlacKkKlansman". His other film roles include "Traffic", "Mona Lisa Smile", "Valentine's Day", "Take Me Home Tonight", "The Big Wedding", "War Machine" and "Breakthrough".


History.

Construction of the temple is thought to have begun in the later years of the Roman Kingdom under Tarquinius Superbus. Its inauguration by the consul Titus Lartius took place in the early years of the Republic, making it the oldest Republican temple after the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. The altar of Saturn, which stood in front of the temple, is thought to have been much older and was associated with Saturn's founding of the city on the Capitoline Hill. The temple was completely reconstructed by Munatius Plancus in 42 BC.  The present ruins represent the third phase of the Temple of Saturn, which was built after a fire in 360 AD. The extant inscription on the frieze commemorates this restoration undertaken after the fire. This late 4th century rebuilding reflects pagan revivalism during this time period. The temple would have been closed during the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire.  In Roman mythology, Saturn ruled during the Golden Age, and he continued to be associated with wealth. His temple housed the treasury, the "aerarium", where the Roman Republic's reserves of gold and silver were stored. The state archives and the insignia and official scale for the weighing of metals were also housed there. Later, the "aerarium" was moved to another building, and the archives transferred to the nearby "Tabularium". The temple's podium, constructed out of concrete covered with travertine, was used for posting bills.

Architecture.

Collapse has left little standing but the remains of the front porch. The partially preserved pediment displays the inscription:  meaning "The Senate and People of Rome restored [the temple] consumed by fire." The pediment and eight surviving columns represent one of the iconic images of Rome's ancient architectural heritage. Except for the Ionic columns capitals carved in the Late Antique style, all of the materials remaining were taken from other buildings. Examples of the "spolia" used to construct the Temple of Saturn include Egyptian granite column shafts and a late Republican acanthus frieze.  Based on other cult images of Saturn, the statue of the god in the interior was veiled and equipped with a scythe. The image was made of wood and filled with oil. The legs were covered with bands of wool which were removed only on December 17, the day of the Saturnalia. On this feast day, slaves were allowed temporary freedom and family members exchanged gifts.

The Temple of Saturn (Latin: "Templum Saturni" or "Aedes Saturni"; ) was an ancient Roman temple to the god Saturn. Its ruins stand at the foot of the Capitoline Hill at the western end of the Roman Forum. The original dedication of the temple is traditionally dated to 497 BC, but ancient writers disagreed greatly about the history of this site.


Rebellion.

After the German Peasants' War (1524–1525), a forceful attempt to establish theocracy was made at Münster, in Westphalia (1532–1535). Here the group had gained considerable influence, through the adhesion of Bernhard Rothmann, the Lutheran pastor, and several prominent citizens; and the leaders, Jan Matthys (also spelled Matthijs, Mathijsz, Matthyssen, Mathyszoon), a baker from Haarlem, and Jan Bockelson (or Beukelszoon), a tailor from Leiden. Bernhard Rothmann was a tireless and vitriolic opponent of Catholicism and a writer of pamphlets that were published by his ally and wealthy wool merchant Bernhard Knipperdolling. The pamphlets at first denounced Catholicism from a radical Lutheran perspective, but soon started to proclaim that the Bible called for the absolute equality of man in all matters including the distribution of wealth. The pamphlets, which were distributed throughout northern Germany, successfully called upon the poor of the region to join the citizens of Münster to share the wealth of the town and benefit spiritually from being the elect of Heaven.  With so many adherents in the town, at the elections for the magistracy, Rothmann and his allies had little difficulty in obtaining possession of the town, and placing Bernhard Knipperdolling as the mayor after deposing the mainly Lutheran magistrates, who, until then, had seen him as an ally in their own distrust of, and dislike for, Catholics. Matthys was a follower of Melchior Hoffman, who, after Hoffman's imprisonment at Strasbourg, obtained a considerable following in the Low Countries, including Bockelson, who became known as John of Leiden. John of Leiden and Gerrit Boekbinder had visited Münster, and returned with a report that Bernhard Rothmann was there teaching doctrines similar to their own. Matthys identified Münster as the "New Jerusalem", and on January 5, 1534, a number of his disciples entered the city and introduced adult baptism. Rothmann apparently accepted "baptism" that day, and well over 1000 adults were soon baptised. Vigorous preparations were made, not only to hold what had been gained, but to spread their beliefs to other areas. The many Lutherans who left were outnumbered by the arriving Anabaptists, there was an orgy of iconoclasm in cathedrals and monasteries, and rebaptism became compulsory. The property of the emigrants was shared out with the poor and soon a proclamation was issued that all property was to be held in common.

Siege.

The city was then besieged by Franz von Waldeck, its expelled bishop. In April 1534 on Easter Sunday, Matthys, who had prophesied God's judgment to come on the wicked on that day, made a sally forth with only twelve followers, believing that he was a second Gideon, and was cut off with his entire band. He was killed, his head severed and placed on a pole for all in the city to see, and his genitals nailed to the city gate.  The 25-year-old John of Leiden was subsequently recognized as Matthys' religious and political successor, justifying his authority and actions by the receipt of visions from heaven. His authority grew, eventually proclaiming himself to be the successor of David and adopting royal regalia, honors and absolute power in the new "Zion". There were at least three times as many women of marriageable age as men now in the town and he made polygamy compulsory and himself took sixteen wives. (John is said to have beheaded Elisabeth Wandscherer in the marketplace for refusing to marry him; this act might have been falsely attributed to him after his death.) Meanwhile, most of the residents of Münster were starving as a result of the year-long siege.  After lengthy resistance, the city was taken by the besiegers on June 24, 1535 and John of Leiden and several other prominent Anabaptist leaders were captured and imprisoned. In January 1536 John of Leiden, Bernhard Knipperdolling and one more prominent follower, Bernhard Krechting, were tortured and executed in the marketplace of Münster. Their bodies were exhibited in cages, which hung from the steeple of St. Lambert's Church. The bones were removed later, but the cages hang there still.

Aftermath.

The Münster Rebellion was a turning point for the Anabaptist movement. It never again had the opportunity of assuming political importance, as both Catholic and Lutheran civil powers adopted stringent measures to counter this. It is difficult to trace the subsequent history of the group as a religious body, through changes in the names used and beliefs held.  The Batenburgers under Jan van Batenburg preserved the violent millennialist stream of Anabaptism seen at Münster. They were polygamous and believed force was justified against anyone not in their sect. Their movement went underground after the suppression of the Münster Rebellion, with members posing as Catholics or Lutherans as necessary. Some nonresistant Anabaptists found leaders in Menno Simons and the brothers Obbe and Dirk Philips, Dutch Anabaptist leaders who repudiated the distinctive doctrines of the Münster Anabaptists. This group eventually became known as the Mennonites after Simons. They rejected any use of violence and preached a faith based on compassion and love of enemy.  In August 1536 the leaders of Anabaptist groups influenced by Melchior Hoffman met in Bocholt in an attempt to maintain unity. The meeting included followers of Batenburg, survivors of Münster, David Joris and his sympathisers, and the nonresistant Anabaptists. At this meeting the major areas of dispute between the sects were polygamous marriage and the use of force against non-believers. Joris proposed compromise by declaring the time had not yet come to fight against the authorities, and that it would be unwise to kill any non-Anabaptists. The gathered Anabaptists agreed to the compromise of no more force, but the meeting did not prevent the fragmentation of Anabaptism.

The Münster rebellion (, "Anabaptist dominion of Münster") was an attempt by radical Anabaptists to establish a communal sectarian government in the German city of Münster then under the large Prince-Bishopric of Münster in the Holy Roman Empire.


Life and career.

Semyonov was born in Saratov, the son of Elena Dmitrieva and Nikolai Alex Semyonov. He graduated from the department of physics of Petrograd University (1913–1917), where he was a student of Abram Fyodorovich Ioffe. In 1918, he moved to Samara, where he was enlisted into Kolchak's White Army during Russian Civil War.  In 1920, he returned to Petrograd and took charge of the electron phenomena laboratory of the Petrograd Physico-Technical Institute. He also became the vice-director of the institute. In 1921, he married philologist Maria Boreishe-Liverovsky (student of Zhirmunsky). She died two years later. In 1923, Nikolay married Maria's niece Natalia Nikolayevna Burtseva. She brought Nikolay a son (Yuri) and a daughter (Lyudmila).  During that difficult time, Semyonov, together with Pyotr Kapitsa, discovered a way to measure the magnetic field of an atomic nucleus (1922). Later the experimental setup was improved by Otto Stern and Walther Gerlach and became known as Stern–Gerlach experiment.  In 1925, Semyonov, together with Yakov Frenkel, studied kinetics of condensation and adsorption of vapors. In 1927, he studied ionisation in gases and published an important book, "Chemistry of the Electron". In 1928, he, together with Vladimir Fock, created a theory of thermal disruptive discharge of dielectrics.  He lectured at the Petrograd Polytechnical Institute and was appointed Professor in 1928. In 1931, he organized the Institute of Chemical Physics of the USSR Academy of Sciences (which moved to Chernogolovka in 1943) and became its first director. In 1932, he became a full member of the Soviet Academy of Sciences.

Significant works.

Semyonov's outstanding work on the mechanism of chemical transformation includes an exhaustive analysis of the application of the chain theory to varied reactions (1934–1954) and, more significantly, to combustion processes. He proposed a theory of degenerate branching, which led to a better understanding of the phenomena associated with the induction periods of oxidation processes.  Semyonov wrote two important books outlining his work. "Chemical Kinetics and Chain Reactions" was published in 1934, with an English edition in 1935. It was the first book in the U.S.S.R. to develop a detailed theory of unbranched and branched chain reactions in chemistry. "Some Problems of Chemical Kinetics and Reactivity", first published in 1954, was revised in 1958; there are also English, American, German, and Chinese editions. In 1956, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (together with Sir Cyril Norman Hinshelwood) for this work.

Honours and awards.

Semyonov was also an Honorary Doctor of several universities: Oxford (1960), Brussels (1962), London (1965), Budapest Technical University (1965), Polytechnic Institute of Milan (1964) and others.

Nikolay Nikolayevich Semyonov (or Semënov), (; – 25 September 1986) was a Russian/Soviet physicist and chemist. Semyonov was awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on the mechanism of chemical transformation.


Early life.

Clostermann was born in Curitiba, Brazil, into a French diplomatic family. He was the only son of Madeleine Carlier from Lorraine and Jacques Clostermann from Alsace. After receiving flying tuition from German pilot Karl Benitz (died in 1943, Russia), he completed his secondary education in France and gained his private pilot's licence in 1937.

World War II.

On the outbreak of war in 1939 the French authorities refused his application for service, so he travelled to Los Angeles to become a commercial pilot, studying at the California Institute of Technology. Clostermann joined the in the United Kingdom in March 1942. After training at RAF Cranwell and 61 OTU, Clostermann, a sergeant pilot, was posted in January 1943 to No. 341 Squadron RAF (known to the Free French as "Groupe de Chasse n° 3/2 "Alsace""), flying the Supermarine Spitfire.  He scored his first two victories on 27 July 1943, destroying two Focke-Wulf Fw 190s over France. In October 1943, Clostermann received a commission as an officer, and was assigned to the British No. 602 Squadron RAF, remaining with the unit for the next ten months. He flew a variety of missions including fighter sweeps, bomber escorts, high-altitude interdiction over the Royal Navy's Scapa Flow base, and strafing or dive-bombing attacks on V-1 launch sites on the French coast. He flew air-cover for the through Normandy Landings, and was one of the first Free French pilots to land on French soil, at temporary airstrip B-11, near Longues-sur-Mer, Normandy on 18 June 1944. He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross shortly afterwards, after which he was reassigned to French Air Force Headquarters. In December 1944 he returned to the front line on re-secondment to the Royal Air Force as a supernumerary flight lieutenant. He joined No. 274 Squadron RAF flying the new Hawker Tempest Mk V. In an aircraft which he named "Le Grand Charles", Clostermann flew an intensive and highly successful round of fighter sweeps, airfield attacks, "rat scramble" interceptions of Messerschmitt 262 jet fighters, and rail interdiction missions over northern Germany over the next two months.  In March 1945 he briefly served with No. 56 Squadron, before transfer to No. 3 Squadron. On 24 March 1945 he was wounded in the leg by German flak, and after belly-landing his badly damaged aircraft was hospitalized for a week. From 8 April 1945 he was commander of "A" Flight, No. 3 Squadron RAF. He was awarded a bar to his DFC.  On 12 May 1945 during a victory fly-past to mark the war's conclusion, another Tempest collided with his, and as a result an air pile-up occurred with four close formation low-flying aeroplanes of his flight involved, with three pilots being killed. Clostermann bailed out, his parachute opening just a few yards above the ground. He continued operations with No. 122 Wing RAF until he left the military altogether on 27 July 1945 with the RAF rank of wing commander and the French rank of "lieutenant".  In his 432 sorties, Clostermann was credited officially with 33 victories (19 solo, 14 shared, most of them against fighters) and five "probables", with eight more "damaged". He also claimed 225 motor vehicles destroyed, 72 locomotives, five tanks, and two E-boats (fast torpedo boats). Many references credit him with 29 to 33 victories, although these probably include his "ground" kills of enemy aircraft. Recent, more detailed analysis of his combat reports and squadron accounts indicate that his actual score was 11 destroyed, with possibly another seven, for a total of 15–18 victories.

Later life.

Clostermann authored an account of his wartime experiences entitled "Le Grande Cirque" (translated into English and published as "The Big Show"). One of the very first post-war fighter pilot memoirs, its various editions have sold over two and a half million copies. William Faulkner commented that this is the finest aviation book to come out of World War II. The book was reprinted, in expanded form, in both paperback and hardcover editions in 2004. It was also adapted in comic book form by Manuel Perales, in close collaboration with Clostermann. Clostermann also wrote "Feux du Ciel" ("Flames in the Sky") published in 1957, a collection of heroic air combat exploits from both Allied and Axis sides.  After the war, Clostermann continued his career as an engineer, participating in the creation of Reims Aviation, supporting the Max Holste Broussard prototype, acting as a representative for Cessna, and working for Renault.  He served eight terms as a "député" (Member of Parliament) in the French National Assembly between 1946 and 1969.  He also briefly re-enlisted in the "Armée de l'Air" in 1956–57 to fly ground-attack missions during the Algerian War. He subsequently published a novel based on his experiences there, entitled "Leo 25 Airborne".  During the Falklands War in early 1982 comments publicly emerged from Clostermann expressing praise for the courage displayed by Argentine Air Force and Argentine Navy pilots during their air-to-sea attacks on the Royal Navy. Clostermann had written the comments, which were partly motivated by ethnic insults towards Argentinians that he had become aware of in the British press during the conflict, in a letter to a class of Argentine fighter-pilots who were being trained at that time in France at an Armée de l'Air establishment, at which his son was an instructor. The private letter's comments, from a renowned World War II military hero, swiftly found their way across the Atlantic Ocean to Buenos Aires, where they were published in newspapers as war propaganda. As a result of this perceived "betrayal" of his links with the United Kingdom via his war service in the Royal Air Force, Clostermann attracted hostility from parts of the British press.  He also attracted controversy in France for his vehement anti-war stance in the run-up to the 1991 Gulf War.

Death.

Clostermann died on 22 March 2006 at his home at Montesquieu-des-Albères, in the French Pyrenees.

Private life.

Closterman was married and had three sons.

Honours.

On 6 June 2004, a road in Longues-sur-Mer, near temporary airstrip B-11, was named after Clostermann.

Pierre Henri Clostermann (28 February 1921 – 22 March 2006) was a World War II French fighter pilot. During the conflict he achieved 33 air-to-air combat victories, earning the accolade "France's First Fighter" from General Charles de Gaulle. His wartime memoir, "The Big Show (Le Grand Cirque)" became a notable bestseller. After the war, he worked as an engineer and was a Member of France's Parliament.


Early Life and Career.

Daar was born on December 9, 1908, in the town of Beledweyne, situated in the south-central Hiraan region of Somalia. He hails from the Udejeen clan of Hawiye. He was an orphan, who lost his parents at a young age. Osman Daar, was an avid reader, and self taught on many subjects. He spoke Arabic, Somali, and Italian.

Political career.

Somali Youth League.

Daar joined the incipient Somali Youth League (SYL) political party in 1944, a nationalist organization that campaigned for an independent Somalia. Quickly rising through the ranks, he became the local secretary of the SYL's Beledweyne branch in 1946. A decade later, he became Chairman of the National Legislative Assembly, and would eventually lead the SYL itself two years afterwards.

Presidency.

By the time Somalia gained its independence in 1960, Daar had attained widespread prominence as a nationalist figure. In short order, he was elected the country's first President, a position he would assume from 1960 to 1967. In the 1967 presidential election, Daar was defeated by Abdirashid Ali Shermarke, his former Prime Minister. His term as president ended on July 6, 1967. Daar accepted the loss graciously, making history as the first head of state in Africa to peacefully hand over power to a democratically elected successor.  Shermarke was assassinated two years later by one of his own bodyguards. The slaying led to an unopposed, bloodless coup d'état by the Somali Army on October 21, 1969, the day after Shermarke's funeral. Spearheading the putsch was Major General Muhammad Siad Barre, who at the time commanded the army.

Manifesto.

In 1990, with the start of the civil war, Daar along with former Minister of Information Ismail Jim'ale Osoble, former Minister of Education Hassan Ali Mire, and about 100 other Somali politicians signed a manifesto expressing concern over the violence and advocating reconciliation. Daar was summarily arrested, and remained imprisoned until the ultimate collapse of Barre's regime the following year.

Later years.

After his release, Daar spent the better part of his later years on his farm in Janale, in southern Somalia.  On May 22, 2007, it was erroneously reported that he had died in a hospital in Nairobi, Kenya. He was, however, in critical condition and on life support. Daar died in hospital on June 8, 2007, at the age of 98.  The Transitional Federal Government, then headed by former President of Somalia Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed, declared 21 days of mourning, complete with a national memorial service, and issued a statement that Daar would receive a state funeral. It also renamed Mogadishu International Airport to Aden Adde International Airport in his honor.  President Adde is the longest-lived Somali President.

Aden Abdulle Osman Daar (, ) (December 9, 1908 – June 8, 2007), popularly known as Aden Adde, was a Somali politician who served as the first president of Somalia from July 1, 1960 to July 6, 1967. A leader of the Mudug Regional Council, he was the first President of the Somali Republic present-day known as Somalia. He previously served in the Somali Youth League In 1944. In 1946, he was named Secretary of the party's section in Beledweyne, Somalia. In 1951, the Mudug Regional Council appointed him for the Regional Council, and two years later, he became Vice President of the Regional Council. In 1944, he joined the Somali Youth League. From 1954 until 1956, he was the President of the Somali Youth League. He was re-elected in May of 1958, and he continued to hold this position simultaneously along with that of President of the Legislative Assembly until 1960.


History.

In 1944 Maria and Goffredo Bellonci started to host a literary salon at their home in Rome. These Sunday gatherings of writers, artists and intellectuals grew to include many of the most notable figures of Italian cultural life. The group became known as the "Amici della Domenica", or ‘Sunday Friends’. In 1947 the Belloncis, together with Guido Alberti, owner of the firm which produces the Strega liqueur, decided to inaugurate a prize for fiction, the winner being chosen by the Sunday friends.  The activities of the Bellonci circle and the institution of the prize were seen as marking a tentative return to ‘normality’ in Italian cultural life: a feature of the reconstruction which followed the years of Fascism, war, occupation and liberation.  The first winner of the Strega, elected by the Sunday Friends, was Ennio Flaiano, for his first and only novel "Tempo di uccidere", which is set in Africa during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War. It has been translated into English as "The Short Cut".  Maria Bellonci published a history of the Strega prize, titled "Come un racconto gli anni del premio Strega", in 1971.

The selection process.

Since the death of Maria Bellonci in 1986, the prize has been administered by the "Fondazione Maria e Goffredo Bellonci". The members of the now 400-strong prize jury, drawn from Italy’s cultural elite, are still known as the Sunday Friends. For a book to be considered it must have the support of at least two Friends. This initial long list is whittled down at a first ballot to a short list of five. The second round of voting, followed by the proclamation of the victor, takes place on the first Thursday in July in the nymphaeum of the Villa Giulia, Rome.

Sponsorship.

Telecom Italia have joined Liquore Strega as sponsors of the prize.

Premio Strega speciale, 2006.

In 2006, the seventieth year of the Strega Prize, a special award was made to the Constitution of Italy, a document which was drawn up and approved during 1946, the year of the Strega’s birth. The award was received by former President of the Italian Republic Oscar Luigi Scalfaro.

The Strega Prize ( ) is the most prestigious Italian literary award. It has been awarded annually since 1947 for the best work of prose fiction written in the Italian language by an author of any nationality and first published between 1 May of the previous year and 30 April.


Cultivation.

French tarragon is the variety used for cooking in the kitchen and is not grown from seed, as the flowers are sterile; instead it is propagated by root division.  Russian tarragon ("A. dracunculoides" L.) can be grown from seed but is much weaker in flavor when compared to the French variety. However, Russian tarragon is a far more hardy and vigorous plant, spreading at the roots and growing over a meter tall. This tarragon actually prefers poor soils and happily tolerates drought and neglect. It is not as strongly aromatic and flavorsome as its French cousin, but it produces many more leaves from early spring onwards that are mild and good in salads and cooked food. Russian tarragon loses what flavor it has as it ages and is widely considered useless as a culinary herb, though it is sometimes used in crafts. The young stems in early spring can be cooked as an asparagus substitute. Horticulturists recommend that Russian tarragon be grown indoors from seed and planted out in the summer. The spreading plants can be divided easily.  A better substitute for French tarragon is Spanish tarragon ("Tagetes lucida"), also known as Mexican mint marigold, Mexican tarragon, Texas tarragon, or winter tarragon. It is much more reminiscent of French tarragon, with a hint of anise. Although not in the same genus as the other tarragons, Spanish tarragon has a stronger flavor than Russian tarragon that does not diminish significantly with age.

Health.

Tarragon has an aromatic property reminiscent of anise, due to the presence of estragole, a known carcinogen and teratogen in mice. The European Union investigation revealed that the danger of estragole is minimal even at 100–1,000 times the typical consumption seen in humans. Estragole concentration in fresh tarragon leaves is about 2900 mg/kg.

Uses.

Culinary use.

Tarragon is one of the four "fines herbes" of French cooking, and is particularly suitable for chicken, fish, and egg dishes. Tarragon is the main flavoring component of Béarnaise sauce. Fresh, lightly bruised sprigs of tarragon are steeped in vinegar to produce tarragon vinegar.  Tarragon is used to flavor a popular carbonated soft drink in the countries of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia (where it originally comes from) and, by extension, Russia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan. The drink, named Tarkhuna, is made out of sugary tarragon concentrate and colored bright green.  Tarragon is one of the main ingredients in Chakapuli, Georgian national dish.  In Iran, tarragon is used as a side dish in sabzi khordan (fresh herbs), or in stews and in Persian style pickles, particularly khiar shoor (pickled cucumbers).  In Slovenia, tarragon is used in a variation of the traditional nut roll sweet cake, called "potica". In Hungary a popular kind of chicken soup is flavored with tarragon.  "cis"-Pellitorin, an isobutyramide eliciting a pungent taste, has been isolated from the tarragon plant.

Chemistry.

"A. dracunculus" oil contained predominantly phenylpropanoids such as methyl chavicol (16.2%) and methyl eugenol (35.8%). Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis of the essential oil revealed the presence of "trans"-anethole (21.1%), α-"trans"-ocimene (20.6%), limonene (12.4%), α-pinene (5.1%), "allo"-ocimene (4.8%), methyl eugenol (2.2%), β-pinene (0.8%), α-terpinolene (0.5%), bornyl acetate (0.5%) and bicyclogermacrene (0.5%) as the main components. The organic compound capillin was initially isolated from "Artemisia capillaris" in 1956.

Quotes.

James Andrew Beard, American cookbook author, teacher, syndicated columnist and television personality, was quoted as saying, "I believe that if ever I had to practice cannibalism, I might manage if there were enough tarragon around."  Fernand Point, French chef and restaurateur, was quoted as saying "A Bearnaise sauce is simply an egg yolk, a shallot, a little tarragon vinegar, and butter, but it takes years of practice for the result to be perfect."

Tarragon ("Artemisia dracunculus"), also known as estragon, is a species of perennial herb in the sunflower family. It is widespread in the wild across much of Eurasia and North America, and is cultivated for culinary and medicinal purposes.


Stadiums.

12 German cities were hosts for the 2007 Championship. The most modern stadiums – spread all over the country – had been selected. The final match took place in the "Kölnarena" in Cologne ("Köln").

Qualification.

"2007 World Men's Handball Championship – qualification"

Tournament structure.

Preliminary round.

The 24 competing teams will be drawn into six preliminary groups of four teams each, and the matches in the preliminary round are scheduled to be held from 20 to 22 January. The two top teams from each group then proceed to the main round, while the third and fourth-placed teams play in the Presidents-Cup.  On 14 July 2006, the groups of the tournament were determined:

Presidents-Cup.

The teams placed third and fourth in the preliminary round groups are divided into four groups of three teams, as such:  The matches are scheduled for 24 to 26 January. On 28 January, the winners of group I and II then play each other for the 13th place, the runners-up play each other for the 15th place, and the third-placed play off for 17th place. The Group III and IV teams play off for 19th, 21st and 23rd place in the same fashion.

Main round.

The main round is scheduled for 24 to 28 January, and the teams will be divided into two groups of six teams. The teams carry forward match results from matches against the other team from their group to qualify for the main round. Four teams from each main round group qualify for the quarter-finals.  No placement matches for the places 9 to 12 are scheduled.

Knockout stage.

The knockout stage is scheduled to make up the last week of the tournament, starting on Tuesday 30 January and continuing until Sunday 4 February. The quarter-finals are set up so that the winner of one group will face the fourth-placed team in the other. Semi-finals and consolation matches are held on 1 February; two days later, the 5th and 7th place play-offs take place on 3 February, with the 3rd place play-off and final is scheduled for the following day.

Seedings.

The seedings for the preliminary round have been partially determined; the full seedings will be revealed when all qualifying matches have been played. Currently, the following seedings (in IHF terminology, "performance row") have been confirmed:

The 2007 World Men's Handball Championship took place from 19 January to 4 February 2007 in Germany. 24 national teams played in 12 German cities. It was the 20th edition of the World Championship in team handball and was won by the hosts.


Life.

She was the daughter of Simon I de Montfort and Agnes of Evreux. Her brother was Amaury de Montfort.  In speaking of Fulk IV, Count of Anjou, the chronicler John of Marmoutier would recount: The lecherous Fulk then fell passionately in love with the sister of Amaury de Montfort, whom no good man ever praised save for her beauty.  Bertrade and Fulk were married, and they became the parents of a son, Fulk.  However, in 1092 Bertrade left her husband to live with King Philip I of France. Philip married her on 15 May 1092, despite the fact that they both had spouses living. He was so enamoured of Bertrade that he refused to leave her even when threatened with excommunication. Pope Urban II did excommunicate him in 1095, and Philip was prevented from taking part in the First Crusade.  According to Orderic Vitalis, Bertrade was anxious that one of her sons succeed Philip, and sent a letter to King Henry I of England asking him to arrest her stepson Louis. Orderic also claims she sought to kill Louis, first through the arts of sorcery and then by poison. Whatever the truth of these allegations, Louis succeeded Philip in 1108. William of Malmesbury says: Bertrade, still young and beautiful, took the veil at Fontevraud Abbey, always charming to men, pleasing to God, and like an angel. She lived on until 1117.  Her son from her first marriage, Fulk V of Anjou, later became King of Jerusalem "iure uxoris". The dynasties founded by Fulk's sons ruled for centuries, one of them in England (Plantagenet), the other in Jerusalem.

Children.

With Fulk IV, Count of Anjou:  With Philip I of France:

Bertrade de Montfort (c. 1070 – 14 February 1117) was a queen consort of France by her marriage to Philip I of France.


Dagesh kal.

A or (, or, also """ lene", "weak/light "dagesh"", opposed to "strong dot") may be placed inside the consonants "bet", "gimel", "dalet", "kaf", "pe" and "tav". They each had two sounds: the original "hard" (plosive) sound, and a "soft" (fricative) sound. Before the Babylonian captivity, the soft sounds did not exist in Hebrew, but were added as a result of Aramaic-influenced pronunciation of Hebrew after this point in history. The letters take on their hard sounds when they have no vowel sound before them, and take their soft sounds when a vowel immediately precedes them, across word boundaries in Biblical Hebrew, but not in Modern Hebrew. When vowel diacritics are used, the hard sounds are indicated by a central dot called "dagesh", while the soft sounds lack a "dagesh". In Modern Hebrew, however, the "dagesh" only changes the pronunciation of "bet", "kaf", and "pe" (traditional Ashkenazic pronunciation also varies the pronunciation of "tav", and some traditional Middle Eastern pronunciations carry alternate forms for "dalet").  <nowiki>***</nowiki> The letter "hey" (ה) when word final is usually silent in order to indicate the presence of a word-final vowel. But when it receives a "dagesh kal", the "hey" is pronounced instead of being silent. This is the rule in historic pronunciation, but in Modern Hebrew, this rule is generally ignored. However, when a non-silent word-final "hey" (הּ) occurs, it can take a furtive patach.

Pronunciation.

In Israel's general population, the pronunciation of some of the above letters has become pronounced the same as others:

Dagesh hazak.

"Dagesh ḥazak" or "dagesh ḥazaq" (, "strong dot", i.e. "gemination "dagesh"", or, also ""dagesh" forte") may be placed in almost any letter, this indicated a gemination (doubling) of that consonant in the pronunciation of pre-modern Hebrew. This gemination is not adhered to in modern Hebrew and is only used in careful pronunciation, such as reading of scriptures in a synagogue service, recitations of biblical or traditional texts or on ceremonious occasions, and then only by very precise readers.  The following letters, the gutturals, almost never have a dagesh: "aleph" א, "he" ה, "chet" ח, "ayin" ע, "resh" ר. (A few instances of "resh" with dagesh are masoretically recorded in the Hebrew Bible, as well as a few cases of "aleph" with a dagesh, such as in Leviticus 23:17.)  The presence of a dagesh ḥazak or consonant-doubling in a word may be entirely morphological, or, as is often the case, is a lengthening to compensate for a deleted consonant.  A "dagesh ḥazak" may be placed in letters for one of the following reasons:

Rafe.

In Masoretic manuscripts the opposite of a "dagesh" would be indicated by a "rafe", a small line on top of the letter. This is no longer found in Hebrew, but may still sometimes be seen in Yiddish and Ladino.

Unicode encodings.

In computer typography there are two ways to use a dagesh with Hebrew text. Here are Unicode examples:  Some fonts, character sets, encodings, and operating systems may support neither, one, or both methods.

The dagesh () is a diacritic used in the Hebrew alphabet. It was added to the Hebrew orthography at the same time as the Masoretic system of niqqud (vowel points). It takes the form of a dot placed inside a Hebrew letter and has the effect of modifying the sound in one of two ways.


Nickname.

The king’s nickname ”Klipping” or ”Glipping” refers to a medieval coin that has become ”clipped” (a "clipped penny") or cut in order to indicate devaluation. The nickname is an unkind reference to his lack of trustworthiness. He "short-changed" his people and the monarchy.

Regency.

When his father King Christopher I was murdered in 1259, Prince Eric was too young to rule in his own right. The Danish court appointed his mother, Queen Margaret Sambiria (Danish: "Sprænghest") as regent. She was the daughter of Sambor II, Duke of Pomerania and Matilda of Mecklenberg, and was a clever and intelligent woman. Immediately, she had to fight to keep her son on the throne from two powerful enemies; Archbishop Jacob Erlandsen (ca. 1220-1274) and Erik Abelsøn who was Duke of Schleswig from 1260 until his death in 1272. Archbishop Erlandsen had excommunicated the bishop who had anointed young Eric as king. Duke Eric was a nephew of King Christopher and had been in frequent conflict with the king.  Taking advantage of the situation, Chief Jaromar II of Rügen (c. 1218–1260) gathered an army of Wends and invaded Zealand. Queen Margaret raised an army, but was soundly defeated in 1259 near Ringsted. Jarimar went on to attack and pillage Copenhagen later that year. He shipped his army to Skåne inorder to continue his campaign. Unfortunately for him, he encountered the wrath of a farmer's wife, who killed him outright. The Wends fled back to Rűgen. Believing the Wendish incursion showed the Queen was weak, Duke Eric rebelled. The queen was forced to raise another army and march to Jutland to put the Duke in his place. She defeated the Duke, and while he negotiated a truce with her, he gathered allies in northern Germany to help him attack. The combined forces defeated Queen Margaret in 1261 at the Battle of Lohede south of Danevirke in Schleswig-Holstein. She and her son were captured and were forced to cede royal properties in southern Jutland to secure their release. In 1260, Queen Margaret had released Archbishop Erlandsen from prison thinking he would be grateful, but he subsequently issued an interdict over all of Denmark trying to force the Queen and her son, King Eric off the throne. In 1263, acting as regent of Denmark, the Queen wrote to Pope Urban IV asking him to intervene with Archbishop Erlandsen. After several years of quibbling, the Pope agreed to several items that the Queen wanted. He issued a dispensation to alter the terms of the Danish succession that would permit women to inherit the Danish throne. This would make it possible for one of King Eric's sisters to become the reigning Queen of Denmark in the event of his death, because he had no children. Although Pope Urban IV gave his consent, it never became an issue. King Eric's son, Prince Eric Menved, eventually succeeded to the Danish throne.

Reign.

As an adult ruler, King Eric V tried to enforce his power over the church and nobility. In the 1270s, the King attacked Småland. His conflict with the church was brought to a satisfying result, with the help of the Pope. By 1282, he had so offended the nobles throughout Denmark that he was forced to accept a charter (Danish: "håndfæstning" - a kind of a Danish Magna Carta) which limited his authority and guaranteed the ancient rights and customs that preserved the power of the nobles. The King signed the charter at Nyborg Castle, recognized as Denmark’s first-ever constitution in existence. However at the time of King Eric's death, the rights and guarantees the 1282 charter would lose their effectiveness, since the next king would not be bound by the same agreement.

Mysterious death.

Legend has it that several nobles swore an oath that they would murder Eric in revenge for personal slights or policies the king enforced that they did not like. Chief among the conspirators was marshal (Danish: "marsk") Stig Andersen Hvide and Jacob Nielsen, Count of Halland. They paid Rane Jonsen (1254-1294) one of the king's companions, to keep them informed as to the king's activities, in order to fulfill their oath.  November 1286 found the king at Viborg, in central Jutland. After a long day's hunt in the countryside led by Rane Jonsen, the king and a few attendants couldn't find their way back to the king's farm at Viborg. Rane suggested that they take shelter for the night of 22 November 1286 in the church barn in the village of Finderup ("Finderup Lade"). The assassins, dressed as Franciscan friars, were kept informed as to the kings' whereabouts and waited for everyone to settle down for the night. Once the king fell asleep, they rushed from their hiding places and stabbed and hacked the king to death. Tradition has it that he received 56 stab wounds. The folktale that grew up around this event has Stig Andersen personally striking the first blows in revenge for King Eric's seduction of Stig's wife while Stig himself was off with the king's army. Eric's bloody corpse was discovered the next morning.  The court immediately blamed the nation's most powerful noblemen Stig Andersen Hvide and Count Jacob of Halland and outlawed them and seven others. Only one was accused of killing the king, the others were accused of involvement. Whether they actually had anything to do with the murder remains a mystery. Stig Hvide fled the country to take up piracy. Certainly Stig Hvide was not the only person who had reason to want to see King Eric eliminated. Valdemar IV, who King Eric was forced to accept as Duke of Schleswig in 1283, as well as many of Archbishop Jakob Erlandsen's appointments to bishoprics, remained bitter enemies of the king until his death.

Issue.

King Eric V married Agnes of Brandenburg (c. 1257–1304) on 11 November 1273 at Schleswig. She was the daughter of John I, Margrave of Brandenburg (d. 1266) and Brigitte of Saxony. The marriage was probably agreed upon during King Eric's captivity in Brandenburg by Agnes' father from 1262 to 1264. Tradition claims that the King was released from captivity on his promise to marry Agnes without a dowry. They had the following issue:

Eric V Klipping (1249 – 22 November 1286) was King of Denmark (1259–1286) and son of King Christopher I of Denmark. From 1259-1266, he ruled under the auspices of his competent mother, Margaret Sambiria (1230-1282). Between 1261 and 1262, the young King Eric was a prisoner in Holstein following a military defeat. Afterwards, he lived in Brandenburg, where he was initially held captive by John I, Margrave of Brandenburg (c. 1213-1266).


History.

Early history.

According to oral tradition, the site where Saints Cyril and Methodius Cathedral stands was the site of a small church built by Bořivoj I, Duke of Bohemia, and dedicated by Saint Methodius himself. This link is based historically upon early and continuing reference to the name "Na Zderaze" for the existing church building. In 1091, the Czech lord Zderad was killed during the siege of Brno, and was buried in the earlier church which was near Prague. Zderad's name was then immortalized in the name of the street "Na Zderaze" which is adjacent to the cathedral, thus establishing a connection to this site that was hallowed by St. Methodius.  From 1115, the church of Saints Peter and Paul stood on the site of the present church, around which the Knights of the Cross built the Zderazsky monastery. During the Hussite Wars, the church was largely destroyed, leaving only a part of the choir standing. In 1705, the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Prague, Breuner, established a retirement home for priests on the site of the monastery next to which a church was later built.

World War II.

In 1942, during World War II, the cathedral was where a last stand was made by SOE-trained Czech and Slovak agents involved in the assassination of "SS-Obergruppenführer" Reinhard Heydrich. SS and Police Leader of Waffen-SS Karl Fischer von Treuenfeld commanded the Nazi forces that stormed the church on 18 June 1942. After a fierce gun battle, two of the Czechoslovaks were killed and the rest committed suicide to avoid capture.  There is a museum in the church crypt dedicated to them as national heroes.

External links.

"This article incorporates text from "" at under a license."

The Saints Cyril and Methodius Cathedral in Nové Město, Prague, the Czech Republic, is the principal Czech and Slovak Orthodox Church.