Structural variety and biosynthesis.

The aglycone (glycoside-free) portions of the saponins are termed sapogenins. The number of saccharide chains attached to the sapogenin/aglycone core can varygiving rise to another dimension of nomenclature (monodesmosidic, bidesmosidic, etc.)as can the length of each chain. A somewhat dated compilation has the range of saccharide chain lengths being 1–11, with the numbers 2–5 being the most frequent, and with both linear and branched chain saccharides being represented. Dietary monosaccharides such as -glucose and -galactose are among the most common components of the attached chains.  The lipophilic aglycone can be any one of a wide variety of polycyclic organic structures originating from the serial addition of 10-carbon (C10) terpene units to compose a C30 triterpene skeleton, often with subsequent alteration to produce a C27 steroidal skeleton. The subset of saponins that are steroidal have been termed saraponins. Aglycone derivatives can also incorporate nitrogen, so some saponins also present chemical and pharmacologic characteristics of alkaloid natural products. The figure at right above presents the structure of the alkaloid phytotoxin solanine, a monodesmosidic, branched-saccharide steroidal saponin. (The lipophilic steroidal structure is the series of connected six- and five-membered rings at the right of the structure, while the three oxygen-rich sugar rings are at left and below. Note the nitrogen atom inserted into the steroid skeleton at right.)

Sources.

Saponins have historically been understood to be plant-derived, but they have also been isolated from marine organisms such as sea cucumber. Saponins are indeed found in many plants, and derive their name from the soapwort plant (genus "Saponaria", family Caryophyllaceae), the root of which was used historically as a soap. Saponins are also found in the botanical family Sapindaceae, including its defining genus "Sapindus" (soapberry or soapnut) and the horse chestnut, and in the closely related families Aceraceae (maples) and Hippocastanaceae). It is also found heavily in "Gynostemma pentaphyllum" ("Gynostemma", Cucurbitaceae) in a form called gypenosides, and ginseng or red ginseng ("Panax", Araliaceae) in a form called ginsenosides. Saponins are also found in the unripe fruit of Manilkara zapota (also known as sapodillas), resulting in highly astringent properties. Within these families, this class of chemical compounds is found in various parts of the plant: leaves, stems, roots, bulbs, blossom and fruit. Commercial formulations of plant-derived saponins, e.g., from the soap bark (or soapbark) tree, "Quillaja saponaria", and those from other sources are available via controlled manufacturing processes, which make them of use as chemical and biomedical reagents. In China, the rhizomes (tubers) of "Dioscorea zingiberensis" C.H. Wright also produces steroidal saponins (TSS) as part of a treatment for cardiovascular disease.  Uses plant Gogo (bark) "Entada phaseoloides" as control. The positive result shows a honeycomb froth that is higher than 2 cm that persists for 10 minutes or longer.

Test.

Blood Agar Media (BAM): Is an agar cup semi-quantitative method that shows positive result of hemolytic halos.

Role in plant ecology and impact on animal foraging.

In plants, saponins may serve as anti-feedants, and to protect the plant against microbes and fungi. Some plant saponins (e.g. from oat and spinach) may enhance nutrient absorption and aid in animal digestion. However, saponins are often bitter to taste, and so can reduce plant palatability (e.g., in livestock feeds), or even imbue them with life-threatening animal toxicity. Some saponins are toxic to cold-blooded organisms and insects at particular concentrations. Further research is needed to define the roles of these natural products in their host organisms, which have been described as "poorly understood" to date.

Ethnobotany.

Most saponins, which readily dissolve in water, are poisonous to fish. Therefore, in ethnobotany, they are primarily known for their use by indigenous people in obtaining aquatic food sources. Since prehistoric times, cultures throughout the world have used fish-killing plants, mostly those containing saponins, for fishing.  Although prohibited by law, fish-poison plants are still widely used by indigenous tribes in Guyana.  On the Indian subcontinent, the Gondi people are known for their use of poison-plant extracts in fishing.  Many of California's Native American tribes traditionally used soaproot, (genus "Chlorogalum") and/or the root of various yucca species, which contain saponin, as a fish poison. They would pulverize the roots, mixing in water to create a foam, and then add the suds to a stream. This would kill, or incapacitate, the fish, which could be gathered easily from the surface of the water. Among the tribes using this technique were the Lassik, the Luiseño, and the Mattole.

Research and uses.

The amphipathic nature of saponins gives them activity as surfactants with potential ability to interact with cell membrane components, such as cholesterol and phospholipids, possibly making saponins useful for development of cosmetics and drugs. Saponins have also been used as adjuvants in development of vaccines, such as Quil A, an extract from the bark of "Quillaja saponaria". This makes them of interest for possible use in subunit vaccines and vaccines directed against intracellular pathogens. In their use as adjuvants for manufacturing vaccines, toxicity associated with sterol complexation remains a concern.  While saponins are promoted commercially as dietary supplements and are used in traditional medicine, there is no high-quality clinical evidence that they have any beneficial effect on human health. Quillaja is toxic when consumed in large amounts, involving possible liver damage, gastric pain, diarrhea, or other adverse effects.  The plant Çöven, Gypsophila "simonii" is widely distributed throughout Çankırı, where it is a native species, and Turkey. In this study, chemical and physical properties of unripe saponins obtained by extraction from the roots of Gypsophila "simonii", an endemic plant, were isolated and investigated. Purified aglycones recovered from acid hydrolysis of the saponins were separated by reversed chromatography on a thin layer of silica gel. Phytochemical tests showed the presence of terpenoids in the crude extracts.  Saponins are used for their effects on ammonia emissions in animal feeding.  Dioscin, the saponin from Dioscorea spp. remains an important source for diosgenin, which is then utilized in the semi-synthetic or biosynthetic production of progesterone and corticosteroids.

Saponins a class of chemical compounds found in particular abundance in various plant species. More specifically, they are amphipathic glycosides grouped phenomenologically by the soap-like foam they produce when shaken in aqueous solutions, and structurally by having one or more hydrophilic glycone moieties combined with a lipophilic triterpene or steroid derivative.


History.

Fenugreek is believed to have been brought into cultivation in the Near East. It is uncertain which wild strain of the genus "Trigonella" gave rise to domesticated fenugreek. Charred fenugreek seeds have been recovered from Tell Halal, Iraq (carbon dated to 4000 BC), and Bronze Age levels of Lachish and desiccated seeds from the tomb of Tutankhamen. Cato the Elder lists fenugreek with clover and vetch as crops grown to feed cattle.  In one first-century A.D. recipe, the Romans flavoured wine with fenugreek. In the 1st century AD, in Galilee, it was grown as a staple food, as Josephus mentions it in his book, the "Wars of the Jews". The plant is mentioned in the 2nd-century compendium of Jewish Oral Law (Mishnah) under its Hebrew name "tiltan".

Etymology.

The English name derives via Middle French "fenugrec" from Latin "faenugraecum", "faenum Graecum" meaning "Greek hay".

Production.

India is a major producer, with fenugreek production in India derived from numerous states. Rajasthan accounts for over 80% of India's output.

Uses.

Fenugreek is used as a herb (dried or fresh leaves), spice (seeds), and vegetable (fresh leaves, sprouts, and microgreens). Sotolon is the chemical responsible for the distinctive maple syrup smell of fenugreek.  Cuboid-shaped, yellow- to amber-coloured fenugreek seeds are frequently encountered in the cuisines of the Indian subcontinent, used both whole and powdered in the preparation of pickles, vegetable dishes, dal, and spice mixes such as "panch phoron" and "sambar" powder. They are often roasted to reduce inherent bitterness and to enhance flavour.

Cooking.

Fresh fenugreek leaves are an ingredient in some curries, such as with potatoes in cuisines of the Indian subcontinent to make "aloo methi" ("potato fenugreek") curry. Sprouted seeds and fenugreek greens are used in salads. When harvested as greens, fenugreek is known as "samudra methi" in Maharashtra, especially in and around Mumbai, where it is often grown in sandy tracts near the sea, hence the name "samudra", "ocean" in Sanskrit. "Samudra methi" is also grown in dry river beds in the Gangetic plains. When sold as a vegetable, the young plants are harvested with their roots still attached and sold in small bundles in the markets and bazaars. Any remaining soil is washed off to extend their shelf life.  In Turkish cuisine, fenugreek seeds are used for making a paste known as "çemen". Cumin, black pepper, and other spices are added into it, especially to make "pastırma".  In Iranian cuisine, fenugreek leaves are called "shanbalileh". They are one of several greens incorporated into the herb stew "ghormeh sabzi", the herb frittata kuku sabzi and a soup known as "eshkeneh".  In Georgian cuisine, a related species—"Trigonella caerulea" called "blue fenugreek"—is used.  In Egyptian cuisine, fenugreek is known by the Arabic name "hilba" or "helba" حلبة. Seeds are boiled to make a drink that is consumed at home, as well as in coffee shops. Peasants in Upper Egypt add fenugreek seeds and maize to their pita bread to produce "aish merahrah", a staple of their diet. Basterma, a cured dried beef, has its distinctive flavour from the fenugreek used as a coating.  Fenugreek is used in Eritrean and Ethiopian cuisine. The word for fenugreek in Amharic is "abesh" (or "abish"), and the seed is used in Ethiopia as a natural herbal medicine in the treatment of diabetes.  Yemenite Jews following the interpretation of Rabbi Shelomo Yitzchak (Rashi) believe fenugreek, which they call "hilbah", "hilbeh, hilba, helba", or" halba" "חילבה", to be the Talmudic "rubia" "רוביא". When the seed kernels are ground and mixed with water they greatly expand; hot spices, turmeric and lemon juice are added to produce a frothy relish eaten with a sop. The relish is also called "hilbeh"; it is reminiscent of curry. It is eaten daily and ceremonially during the meal of the first and/or second night of the Jewish New Year, Rosh Hashana.

Nutritional profile.

In a 100 g amount, fenugreek seeds provide of food energy and contain 9% water, 58% carbohydrates, 23% protein and 6% fat, with calcium at 40% of the Daily Value (DV, table). Fenugreek seeds (per 100 g) are a rich source of protein (46% DV), dietary fiber, B vitamins, and dietary minerals, particularly manganese (59% DV) and iron (262% DV) (table).

Risks and side effects.

Although once a folk remedy for an insufficient milk supply when nursing, there is no good evidence that fenugreek is effective or safe for this use. Fenugreek may affect uterine contractions and be unsafe for women with hormone-sensitive cancers. Fenugreek is likely not safe for use during pregnancy as it may have abortifacient effects.  Some people are allergic to fenugreek, including those with peanut allergies or chickpea allergies. Fenugreek seeds can cause diarrhea, dyspepsia, abdominal distention, flatulence, perspiration, and a maple-like smell to sweat, urine or breast milk. There is a risk of hypoglycemia particularly in people with diabetes, and it may interfere with the activity of anti-diabetic drugs. Because of the high content of coumarin-like compounds in fenugreek, it may interfere with the activity and dosing of anticoagulants and antiplatelet drugs.  Fenugreek sprouts, cultivated from a single specific batch of seeds imported from Egypt into Germany in 2009, were implicated as the source of the of in Germany and France. Identification of a common producer and a single batch of fenugreek seeds was evidence for the origin of the outbreaks.

Dietary supplement.

Fenugreek dietary supplements are manufactured from powdered seeds into capsules, loose powders, teas, and liquid extracts in many countries. Powders may also be used as a topical medication or dressing for skin wounds or eczema. There is no evidence these products have any clinical effectiveness.

Animal feed.

Fenugreek is sometimes used as animal feed. It provides a green fodder palatable to ruminants. The seeds are also used to feed fish, domestic rabbits and ruminants.

Food additive.

Fenugreek seeds and leaves contain the molecule sotolone, which imparts the aroma of fenugreek and curry in high concentrations, and maple syrup or caramel in lower concentrations. Fenugreek is used as a flavoring agent in imitation maple syrup or tea, and as a dietary supplement.  A mysterious odor of maple syrup – the maple syrup event occurring in New York City in 2005 – was eventually traced to a nearby New Jersey factory of a food additives company processing fenugreek seeds.

Research.

Constituents of fenugreek seeds include flavonoids, alkaloids, coumarins, vitamins, and saponins; the most prevalent alkaloid is trigonelline and coumarins include cinnamic acid and scopoletin. Research into whether fenugreek reduces biomarkers in people with diabetes and with pre-diabetic conditions is of limited quality. As of 2016, there was no high-quality evidence for whether fenugreek is safe and effective to relieve dysmenorrhea.  Because research on potential biological effects of consuming fenugreek has provided no high-quality evidence for health or anti-disease effect, fenugreek is not approved or recommended for clinical use by any governmental health agency.

Fenugreek (; "Trigonella foenum-graecum") is an annual plant in the family Fabaceae, with leaves consisting of three small obovate to oblong leaflets. It is cultivated worldwide as a semiarid crop. Its seeds and leaves are common ingredients in dishes from the Indian subcontinent. Also used in traditional medicine, fenugreek can increase the risk for serious medical side effects, though its culinary use (in smaller quantities) is usually believed to be safe. Fenugreek is not approved or recommended for clinical use by any governmental health agency.


Early life.

Innitzer was born in Neugeschrei (Nové Zvolání), part of the town Weipert (Vejprty) in Bohemia, at that time Austria-Hungary, (now Czech Republic). He was the son of a passamentier Wilhelm Innitzer in Vejprty, House Nr. 362, later a textile factory worker, and his wife Maria born Seidl, daughter of a mining clerk. After completing the minimum mandatory school, Innitzer became an apprentice in a textile factory. The dean of his home parish supported the young Theodor, which allowed him to attend a gymnasium (1890–1892 Communal-Gymnasium), and Staatsgymnasium (1892–1898) in Kaaden (Kadaň).

Political activity and assessment.

The Anschluss.

Innitzer's role in early 20th century Austrian history remains disputed, because of his involvement in politics. After initially offering support to the Anschluss, Innitzer became a critic of the Nazis and was subject to violent intimidation from them.  This assessment stems from his cooperation with the Austro-fascist government of Engelbert Dollfuß and Kurt Schuschnigg from 1934 to 1938, which based many of its economic and social policies on the teachings of the Catholic Church. He and the other Austrian Catholic bishops signed a declaration endorsing the Anschluss, set up by Gauleiter Josef Bürckel, and signed by Innitzer with "Heil Hitler!". Without the bishops' consent the Nazi regime disseminated this statement throughout the German Reich. Upon hearing of this act, Pope Pius XI ordered Cardinal Innitzer to sign a clarification, which was then published in "L'Osservatore Romano".  Vatican Radio had recently broadcast a vehement denunciation of the Nazi action, and Cardinal Pacelli (soon to become Pope Pius XII) ordered Innitzer to report to the Vatican. Before meeting with Pius XI, Innitzer met with Pacelli, who had been outraged by Innitzer's statement. He made it clear that Innitzer needed to retract and was made to sign a new statement, issued on behalf of all the Austrian bishops, which provided: "The solemn declaration of the Austrian bishops... was clearly not intended to be an approval of something that was not and is not compatible with God's law". The Vatican newspaper also reported that the bishops' earlier statement had been issued without the approval of the Holy See, with the fairly neutral Pope Pius XI disagreeing totally with Innitzer.  In the subsequent months Germany had cancelled the concordat between itself and the Holy See and prohibited Church institutions and Catholic newspapers. Following the Anschluss, the Nazi regime proceeded to repress the Catholic Church - arresting clergy, closing schools and institutions. Innitzer protested, at first privately, and later publicly.

Nazi intimidation.

In April 1938, in honour of Hitler’s birthday, Cardinal Innitzer had ordered that all Austrian churches fly the swastika flag, ring bells, and pray for Hitler. Despite this Innitzer called a day of prayer in the Cathedral of St. Stephen of Vienna for October 7, 1938, which was attended by almost 9,000 parishioners, mostly young people. In the sermon Innitzer declared that "we must confess our faith in our Führer, for there is just one Führer: Jesus Christ", which greatly angered the Nazi leaders: about 100 Nazis, among them many older members of the Hitler Youth, ransacked the archbishop's residence the very next day. In Britain, the "Catholic Herald" provided the following contemporary account on 14 October 1938:

World War II.

Innitzer's ambiguous relationship with the Nazi regime brought him a lot of criticism after World War II (he was referred to as the "Heil Hitler Cardinal"). During the War Innitzer was critical of the anti-Semitic and racist policies of the Nazis towards the Austrian Jews and also the Catholic gypsies of the Austrian countryside.  He openly, though moderately, supported the war effort against the Soviet Union, however. Years before, he had campaigned against Soviet policies. In 1933, based on data collected by undercover investigation and photographs, Innitzer sought to raise awareness in the West of the many deaths by hunger and even cases of cannibalism that were occurring in the Ukraine and the North Caucasus at that time.  In October 1944 Innitzer preached in the parish of Vienna- Reindorf, which also included members of the NSDAP local group who listened and wrote a report about it. In their report, they criticized that Innitzer's speech was “cleverly demoralized”. Thereby, statements like the following are thought: “You don't know what will come. It is possible that Vienna will also become a theater of war. ”However, Innitzer attributed the war to God directly; he saw it as a punishment for misconduct by the people. Innitzer also expressed his regret for the low participation in church life: children grow up without communion and confession, have no religious instruction at school, there are no more seminaries, and only one sixth of the Catholics go to Holy Mass. Such indications can also be understood as indirect criticism of the National Socialist government, since their measures have suppressed the church's influence.

Death.

Theodor Cardinal Innitzer died in Vienna, Austria on 9 October 1955.

Kardinal Innitzer Prize.

The Archdiocese of Vienna annually awards the Kardinal-Innitzer-Preis to scientists and scholars, which is named in honor of Innitzer.

Cultural references.

In the 1963 movie "The Cardinal", Innitzer was played by Josef Meinrad in scenes interpreting the events of the Anschluss including the statement and the sacking of the residence.

Theodor Innitzer (25 December 1875 – 9 October 1955) was Archbishop of Vienna and a cardinal of the Catholic Church.


Use in botany.

The term "basionym" is used in botany only for the circumstances where a previous name exists with a useful description, and the "International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants" does not require a full description with the new name. A basionym must therefore be legitimate. Basionyms are regulated by the code's articles 6.10, 7.3, 41, and others.  When a current name has a basionym, the author or authors of the basionym are included in parentheses at the start of the author citation. If a basionym is later found to be illegitimate, it becomes a replaced synonym and the current name's author citation must be changed so that the basionym authors do not appear.

"Combinatio nova".

The basionym of the name "Picea abies" (the Norway spruce) is "Pinus abies". The species was originally named "Pinus abies" by Carl Linnaeus and so the author citation of the basionym is simply "L." Later on, botanist Gustav Karl Wilhelm Hermann Karsten decided this species should not be grouped in the same genus ("Pinus") as the pines, so he transferred it to the genus "Picea" (the spruces). The new name "Picea abies" is "combinatio nova", a new combination (abbreviated "comb. nov."). With author citation, the current name is ""Picea abies" (L.) Karst."

"Status novus".

In 1964, the subfamily name Pomoideae, which had been in use for the group within family Rosaceae that have pome fruit like apples, was no longer acceptable under the code of nomenclature because it is not based on a genus name. Claude Weber did not consider the family name Malaceae to be taxonomically appropriate, so he created the name Maloideae at the rank of subfamily, referring to the original description of the family, and using the same type. This change of rank from family to subfamily is an example of "status novus" (abbreviated "stat. nov."), also called a "name at new rank".

In the scientific name of organisms, basionym or basyonym means the original name on which a new name is based; the author citation of the new name should include the authors of the basionym in parentheses. The term original combination or protonym is used in the same way in zoology. Bacteriology uses a similar term, basonym, spelled without an "i".


François-Henri de Montmorency, duc de Luxembourg

Early years.

François Henri de Montmorency was born at Paris. His father, the François de Montmorency-Bouteville, had been executed six months before his birth for participating in a duel against the Marquis de Beuvron. His aunt, Charlotte Marguerite de Montmorency, Princess of Condé, took charge of him and educated him with her son, the Duke of Enghien. The young Montmorency (or Bouteville as he was then called) attached himself to his cousin, and shared his successes and reverses throughout the troubles of the Fronde. He returned to France in 1659 and was pardoned, and Condé, then much attached to the, Montmorency's sister, contrived the marriage of his adherent and cousin to the greatest heiress in France, Madeleine de Luxembourg, Princess of Tingry and heiress of the Luxembourg dukedom (1661), after which he was created Duke of Luxembourg and peer of France.

Luxembourg as general.

War of Devolution and the Franco-Dutch War.

At the opening of the War of Devolution (1667–68), Condé, and consequently Luxembourg, had no command, but during the second campaign he served as Condé's lieutenant general in the conquest of Franche-Comté. During the four years of peace which followed, Luxembourg cultivated the favour of Louvois, and in 1672 held a high command against the Dutch during the Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678). He defeated a counterattack by the forces of Prince William III of Orange at Woerden but was blocked by the Dutch Water Line. On 27 December the inundations were frozen over and he began to cross over the ice, but a sudden thaw cut his force in half. Retreating, de Luxembourg found the fortress town of Bodegraven abandoned by its garrison and ordered the entire civilian population to be burned alive with their houses. The Dutch anti-French propaganda quickly exploited this massacre and when de Luxembourg bragged to Louis XIV that he had roasted any Dutchman he could find in the town, he was surprised to find that some at court considered such cruelties unnecessary. In 1673 he made his famous retreat from Utrecht to Maastricht with only 20,000 men in face of 70,000, an exploit which placed him in the first rank of generals. In 1674 he was made captain of the Garde du Corps, and in 1675 Marshal of France.  In 1676 he was placed at the head of the army of the Rhine replacing Condé, who was in bad health. However, he could not relieve the siege of Philippsburg. This fortress had been invested by Imperial troops under Charles V, Duke of Lorraine on 1 May and fell on 17 September. In 1677 he stormed Valenciennes; and in 1678 he defeated the Prince of Orange, who attacked him at St Denis after the signature of the Peace of Nijmegen. His reputation was now high and it is reputed that he quarrelled with Louvois, who managed to involve him in the "affair of the poisons" and get him sent to the Bastille. Rousset in his "Histoire de Louvois" has shown that this quarrel is probably apocryphal. Luxembourg doubtlessly spent some months of 1680 in the Bastille, but on his release took up his post at court as "capitaine des gardes".

War of the Grand Alliance 1688-97.

By 1690, during the War of the Grand Alliance, Luxembourg was entrusted with the command of King Louis' army in the Spanish Netherlands, superseding Louis de Crevant, Duke of Humières. On 1 July 1690 he won a great victory over William's allied commander, the Prince of Waldeck, at Fleurus. In the following year he was again victorious at Leuze on 18 September 1691.  In the next campaign he covered the king's 1692 Siege of Namur, and defeated William at Steenkerque in 1692; and on 29 July 1693 he won his greatest victory over his old adversary at Neerwinden, after which he was called "le tapissier de Nôtre Dame" from the number of captured colours that he sent to the cathedral. He was received with enthusiasm at Paris by all but the king, who looked coldly on a relative and adherent of the Condés. St-Simon describes in the first volume of his "Memoirs" how, instead of ranking as eighteenth peer of France according to his patent of 1661, he claimed through his wife to be duc de Piney of an old creation of 1571, which would place him second on the roll. The affair is described with St-Simon's usual interest in the peerage, and was chiefly checked through his assiduity.  In the campaign of 1694, Luxembourg did little in Flanders, except conducting a famous march from Vignamont to Tournai in face of the enemy.

Death.

On his return to Versailles for the winter he fell ill, and died. In his last moments he was attended by the famous Jesuit priest Bourdaloue, who said on his death, "I have not lived his life, but I would wish to die his death." Luxembourg was considered immoral, even in those times, but as a general he was Condé's grandest pupil. Though slothful like Condé in the management of a campaign, at the moment of battle he seemed seized with happy inspirations, against which no ardour of William's and no steadiness of Dutch or English soldiers could stand. His death and Catinat's disgrace close the second period of the military history of the reign of Louis XIV, and Catinat and Luxembourg, though inferior to Condé and Turenne, were far superior to Tallard and Villeroi.

Reputation.

St-Simon said of Luxembourg:...in his final calculations no one was ever more conscientious than M. de Luxembourg; no one more brilliant, prudent and far-sighted in the face of the enemy or in battle. He had daring and confidence, and at the same time a cool-headedness that allowed him to observe and foresee in the midst of the fiercest cannonade, in dangerously critical moments. That was when he was truly great. At all other times he was idleness itself; no exercise, except where absolutely necessary; gambling; conversing with intimates; every night a small supper party; nearly always with the same company, and, if they happened to be near a town, an agreeable mingling of the sexes. He was distinguished for a pungent wit. One of his retorts referred to his deformity. "I never can beat that cursed humpback", William was reputed to have said of him. "How does he know I have a hump?" retorted Luxembourg, "he has never seen my back." He left four sons, the youngest of whom was a marshal of France as Marechal de Montmorency.

Marriage and children.

On 17 March 1661 François-Henri de Montmorency married Madeleine de Clermont-Tonnerre, duchess of Luxembourg, princess of Tingry, comtess of Ligny, baronness of Dangu, and had 5 children:

François Henri de Montmorency-Bouteville, Duke of Piney-Luxembourg, called Luxembourg, (8 January 1628 – 4 January 1695) was a French general, marshal of France, famous as the comrade and successor of the great Condé.


Etymology.

The specific epithet "aquifolium" denotes "sharp-leafed" (as in "Ilex aquifolium", the common holly), referring to the spiny foliage.  The common name is often, and always in the United Kingdom, left unhyphenated as "Oregon grape", though doing so invites confusion with the true grapes. Some authors avoid this confusion by using "Oregon grape-holly" or "Oregon holly-grape" as a vernacular name for any species of "Mahonia". It is also occasionally printed as "Oregongrape".  "Mahonia aquifolium" is not closely related to either the true holly ("Ilex aquifolium") or the true grape ("Vitis vinifera" cv.).  Several common species of Oregon-grape are known, and many have numerous cultivars. Among these are tall Oregon grape ("Mahonia aquifolium"); Cascade, low, dull, or dwarf Oregon grape ("M. nervosa"); and creeping Oregon grape ("M. repens").

Description.

"Mahonia aquifolium" grows to tall by wide, with pinnate leaves up to long, each leaf made up of spiny leaflets. The leathery leaves resemble those of holly and the stems and twigs have a thickened, corky appearance. The flowers, borne in dense clusters in late spring, are yellow, and are followed by spherical dark dusty blue berries, which give rise to the common name "Oregon grape".

Taxonomy.

Some authors place "Mahonia" in the barberry genus, "Berberis". The Oregon-grape is not related to true grapes, but gets its name from the purple clusters of berries whose color and slightly dusted appearance are reminiscent of grapes.

Distribution.

"Mahonia aquifolium" is a native plant in the North American West from Southeast Alaska to Northern California, and eastern Alberta to central New Mexico, often occurring in the understory of Douglas fir forests (although other forest types contain the species) and in brushlands in the Cascades, Rockies, and northern Sierras.  In some areas outside its native range, "M. aquifolium" has been classified as an invasive exotic species that may displace native vegetation.

Cultivation.

"Mahonia aquifolium" is a popular subject in shady or woodland plantings. It is valued for its striking foliage and flowers, which often appear before those of other shrubs. It is resistant to summer drought, tolerates poor soils, and does not create excessive leaf litter. Its berries attract birds.  Numerous cultivars and hybrids have been developed, of which the following have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:

Uses.

The small purplish-black fruits, which are quite tart and contain large seeds, are included in smaller quantities in the traditional diets of Pacific Northwest aboriginal peoples, mixed with salal or another sweeter fruit. Today, they are sometimes used to make jelly, alone or mixed with salal. Oregon-grape juice can be fermented to make wine, similar to European barberry wine folk traditions, although it requires an unusually high amount of sugar. The berries can also be eaten raw after the season's first frosts.  The inner bark of the larger stems and roots of Oregon grape yields a yellow dye; the berries give purple dye. As the leaves of Oregon grape are holly-like and resist wilting, the foliage is sometimes used by florists for greenery and a small gathering industry has been established in the Pacific Northwest.

Herbal medicine.

Some Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau use Oregon grape for indigestion.

Chemical constituents.

"Mahonia aquifolium" contains 5'-methoxyhydnocarpin (5'-MHC), a multidrug resistance pump inhibitor, which works to decrease bacterial resistance "in vitro".

Culture.

Oregon-grape is the state flower of Oregon.

Mahonia aquifolium, the Oregon grape, is a species of flowering plant in the family Berberidaceae, native to western North America. It is an evergreen shrub growing to tall by wide, with pinnate leaves consisting of spiny leaflets, and dense clusters of yellow flowers in early spring, followed by dark bluish-black berries.


Characteristics and affinities.

Like most burrowing mammals with similar habits, the Chrysochloridae have short legs with powerful digging claws, very dense fur that repels dirt and moisture, and toughened skin, particularly on the head. Their eyes are non-functional and covered with furred skin. The external ears are just tiny openings. In particular, golden moles bear a remarkable resemblance to the marsupial moles of Australia, family Notoryctidae, which they resemble so suggestively that at one time, the marsupial/placental divide not withstanding, some argued that they were related. Considerations that influenced the debate might have included the view that the Chrysochloridae are very primitive placentals and the fact that they have many mole-like specializations similar to specializations in marsupial moles. The rhinarium is a greatly enlarged, dry leathery pad that protects their nostrils while the animal digs. In this respect too, they resemble the marsupial moles. Some authors claim their primary sense is of touch, and they are particularly sensitive to vibrations which may indicate approaching danger. Note below however, the observations on the malleus in the middle ear.  The species range in size from about 8 to about 20 cm. They have muscular shoulders and the forelimbs are radically adapted for digging; all the toes on the forefeet have been reduced, except for a large, pick-like third claw on the third toe. The fifth digit is absent and the first and fourth digits are vestigial. The adaptations of the hind feet are less dramatic, they retain all five toes and are webbed as an adaptation to efficient backward shovelling of soil loosened by the front claws.  At one time the Chrysochloridae were regarded as primitive. Supporting arguments included: that they were thought to have originated in Gondwana, that they had a low resting metabolic rate, and they could switch off thermoregulation when inactive. Like the tenrecs, they possess a cloaca, and males lack a scrotum. However, such points are no longer regarded as strongly suggestive of golden moles as undeveloped "reptilian mammals"; some are seen rather as adaptations to regional climatic conditions. Going into a torpor when resting or during cold weather enables them to conserve energy and reduce urgent requirements for food. Similarly, they have developed particularly efficient kidneys and most species do not need to drink water at all; in fact they tend to drown easily if they fall into water.

Habits and ecology.

Most species of Chrysochloridae live almost exclusively underground in their respectively preferred environments, beneath either grassveld, forest, swamps, deserts, or mountainous terrain. However, "Chrysospalax" species tend to forage above ground in leaf litter in forests or in meadows. "Eremitalpa" species such as Grant's golden mole live in the sandy Namib desert, where they cannot form tunnels because the sand collapses. Instead during the day, when they must seek shelter, they "swim" through the loose sand, using their broad claws to paddle, and dive down some 50 cm to where it is bearably cool. There they enter a state of torpor, thus conserving energy. At night they emerge to forage on the surface rather than wasting energy shifting sand. Their main prey are termites that live under isolated grass clumps, and they might travel for 6 kilometres a night in search of food. They seek promising clumps by listening for wind-rustled grass-root stresses and termites' head-banging alarm signals, neither of which can be heard easily above ground, so they stop periodically and dip their heads under the sand to listen.  Most other species construct both foraging superficial burrows and deeper permanent burrows for residence. Residential burrows are relatively complex in form, and may penetrate as far as a metre below ground and include deep chambers for use as bolt-holes, and other chambers as latrines. They push excavated soil up to the surface as mole-hills, or compact it into the tunnel walls. They feed on small insects and earthworms or small vertebrates such as lizards or burrowing snakes. They depend on their sense of hearing to locate much of their prey, and the cochleas of a number of golden mole species have been found to be long and highly coiled, which may indicate a greater ecological dependence on low frequency auditory cues than we see in Talpid moles.  Some species also have hypertrophied middle ear ossicles, in particular the malleus, which apparently is adapted towards the detection of seismic vibrations. In this respect there is some apparent convergent evolution to burrowing reptiles in the family Amphisbaenidae.

Reproduction.

Females give birth to one to three hairless young in a grass-lined nest within the burrow system. Breeding occurs throughout the year. The adults are solitary, and their burrowing territory may be aggressively defended from intruders, especially where resources are relatively scarce.

Status.

Of the 21 species of golden mole, no fewer than 11 are threatened with extinction. The primary causes are sand mining, poor agricultural practices, increasing urbanisation, and predation by domestic cats and dogs.

Classification.

The taxonomy of the Chrysochloridae is undergoing a review in the light of new genetic information. They have traditionally been listed with the shrews, hedgehogs and a grab-bag of small, difficult-to-place creatures as part of the order Insectivora. Some authorities retain this classification, at least for the time being. Others group the golden moles with the tenrecs in a new order, which is sometimes known as Tenrecomorpha, while others call it Afrosoricida and reserve Tenrecomorpha for the family Tenrecidae.

Golden moles are small insectivorous burrowing mammals endemic to Southern Africa, where their Afrikaans names are gouemolle or kruipmolle (singular "gouemol" or "kruipmol"). They comprise the family Chrysochloridae and as such they are taxonomically distinct from the true moles, family Talpidae, and other mole-like families, all of which, to various degrees, they resemble as a result of evolutionary convergence.


Geography.

Baden is located at the mouth of the Schwechat River's St Helena Valley (') in the Vienna Woods (') range. It takes its name from the area's 13 hot springs, which vary in temperature from and contain lime sulphate. They lie for the most part at the foot of Mt Calvary ("; ).  The highest point in the area is the Iron Gate (' or '), whose can be ascended in about three hours.

History.

The celebrity of Baden dates back to the days of the Romans, who knew it by the name of'or '. Some ruins are still visible. The settlement was mentioned as Padun in a deed from 869. The nearby abbey of Heiligenkreuz's Romanesque church was constructed in the 11th century; it subsequently served as the burial place for members of the Babenberg family. The castle Rauheneck was constructed on the right bank of the river at the entrance to the valley in the 12th century; the castle Rauhenstein was built on the opposite bank at the same time. The town received its legal privileges in 1480. Although repeatedly sacked by Hungarians and Turks, it soon flourished again each time. The town was largely destroyed by a fire in 1812 but was excellently rebuilt in a Biedermeier style according to plans by architect Joseph Kornhäusel, it is therefore sometimes referred to as the "Biedermeierstadt". Archduke Charles, the victor of Aspern, constructed the Château Weilburg at the foot of Rauheneck between 1820 and 1825. In the 19th century, it was connected to the railway running between Vienna and Graz, which led to thousands of Viennese visiting each year to take the waters, including members of the imperial family, who constructed extensive villas nearby. The town boasted a theater, military hospital, and casino. The composer Ludwig van Beethoven stayed a number of times in Baden and his residences still form local tourist spots. The location at Rathausgasse 10 now forms a museum open to the public. Mayerling, a hunting lodge about up the valley, was the site of Crown Prince Rudolf's murder-suicide in 1889. Its primary export in the 19th century were steel razors, which were reckoned of excellent quality.  The City Theater (') was built in 1909 by Ferdinand Fellner. By the time of the First World War, Baden was Vienna's principal resort: came each year, double the town's local population. In addition to a modern "Curehouse" ('), there were 15 separate bathing establishments and several parks. During the war, Baden served as a temporary seat of the Austro-Hungarian high command. A new casino in 1934 made the town the premier resort throughout Austria. The Château Weilburg was destroyed during World War II. After World War II, Baden served as the headquarters of Soviet forces within occupied Austria until 1955.

Transport.

Baden can be reached by the Süd Autobahn (A2). It has two rail stations: the Baden railway station for S-Bahn and regional trains, and the local Badner Bahn tram-train.

Government.

Kurt Staska (ÖVP) was Baden's Bürgermeister as a result of elections of 2015, but he resigned at the end of 2016 and Stefan Szirucsek became the new Bürgermeister (Mayor). His deputy is Helga Krismer from the Greens.  City council () consists of 41 seats:

Baden (German for "Baths"; Central Bavarian: "Bodn"), unofficially distinguished from other Badens as Baden bei Wien (Baden near Vienna), is a spa town in Austria. It serves as the capital of Baden District in the state of Lower Austria. Located about south of Vienna, the municipality consists of cadastral areas Baden, Braiten, Gamingerhof, Leesdorf, Mitterberg, Rauhenstein, and Weikersdorf.


Early life.

Mieszko was the second son of Władysław II the Exile and Agnes of Babenberg. From 1146, after the deposition of his father, Mieszko and his family mainly lived in the town of Altenburg in Saxony, which was granted as a temporary possession to Władysław II by Agnes's half-brother King Conrad III of Germany. During his time in exile, Mieszko studied in Michaelsberg and Bamberg.  The exile for the deposed high duke turned out to be permanent; he died in Altenburg in 1159. His sons continued the fight to recover their inheritance, and finally three years later, in 1163, and thanks to the intervention of the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, Mieszko and his older brother Bolesław I the Tall returned to Silesia.

Duke of Racibórz.

Mieszko and Bolesław I the Tall co-ruled the Duchy of Wrocław during the period 1163–1173. At first, their rule did not extend over the major Silesian cities, which remained under the control of Bolesław IV the Curly, then the high duke of Poland. The brothers retook them in the year 1165, taking advantage of Bolesław IV's involvement in a crusade against the Prussians.  Eventually, Mieszko began efforts to obtain his own Duchy, in part because his older brother Bolesław took all the government into his hands and left little participation for Mieszko there. In 1172, Mieszko began an open rebellion against his brother. He also supported Bolesław's eldest son, Jarosław, who was forced to become a priest thanks to the intrigues of his stepmother Christina, who wished for her sons to be the only heirs. The rebellion was a complete surprise to Bolesław, who was forced to escape to Erfurt, Germany. However, the intervention of the Emperor favored the return of Bolesław soon afterwards, but he was forced to give separate lands to both Mieszko (who received the towns of Racibórz and Cieszyn) and Jarosław (who received Opole).

Bytom and Oświęcim.

In 1177 Mieszko supported his uncle and namesake Mieszko III the Old when he had to fight to maintain his rule over the Duchy of Kraków. This renewed the disputes between him and Bolesław I the Tall, who wished to obtain the Duchy and with this the Seniorate. However, Bolesław suffered an unexpected defeat by Mieszko and his own son Jarosław, who distracted him from his advance over Kraków. In his place was his younger uncle and ally, Casimir II the Just, who captured the city and was proclaimed the new High Duke of Poland. Mieszko III the Old found himself in exile in Racibórz and it seemed that a war between Mieszko Tanglefoot and Casimir II the Just was now just a matter of time. Casimir II, however, went a different route, and in order to gain the favor of the Duke of Racibórz, gave him the towns of Oświęcim and Bytom (with the fortress of Oświęcim, Bytom, Mikołów, Siewierz and Pszczyna, although some historians estimate that these fortress had belonged to Mieszko only since 1179). On the other hand, Bolesław the Tall suffered a further diminution of his authority when he was compelled to give Głogów to his youngest brother Konrad, who had recently returned from Germany and claimed his part over the Silesian inheritance.  In 1195 Mieszko and his nephew Jarosław supported Mieszko III the Old in his new attempt to recover Kraków and the Seniorate. The death of Casimir II the Just and the minority of his sons gave them the opportunity to attack and regain control over Lesser Poland. However, Kraków and the nobility of Sandomierz, led by the voivode Nicholas, had other plans and decided to support Casimir II's eldest son, Leszek the White. Both sides clashed in the bloody Battle of Mozgawa (Mozgawą) near Jędrzejów (13 September 1195), where Mieszko III was seriously injured and his son Bolesław of Kuyavia died. The Silesian troops, led by Mieszko and Jarosław, arrived to the battlefield too late, soon after Mieszko III withdrew to Kalisz. Over the forces of the Count palatine, who also arrived to help Leszek's troops, the Silesians obtained a great victory; however, because Mieszko III was not present, this victory only brought them benefits in terms of prestige and the ransoms obtained from captured Sandomierz nobles.

Duke of Opole.

On 22 March 1201 Jarosław of Opole died. The Duchy of Opole was then inherited by his father Bolesław the Tall, with whom the late duke had recently reconciled. However, Bolesław died only nine months later, on 7/8 December 1201, leaving all his lands to only surviving son, Henry the Bearded.  Mieszko was determined to obtain Opole and made a surprise attack at the beginning of 1202. The Duke managed to obtain Opole, which was from then on definitively joined to his lands. Despite this victory, Mieszko wanted additional territories, but this was against the wishes of the Church, which strongly supported Henry I the Bearded. Thanks to the intervention of Henryk Kietlicz, Archbishop of Gniezno, and Cyprian, Bishop of Wroclaw, Henry I maintained his frontiers, but he had to pay 1000 pieces of silver to his supporters.

High Duke of Poland.

On 9 June 1210, a papal bull was decreed by Pope Innocent III, under which all of the seniorate rulers (included High Duke Leszek the White) were deposed and excommunicated. The bull demanded that the Piast princes adhere to the testament of Bolesław III Wrymouth, which proposed that the most senior of the Piast dukes is the ruler in the seniorate. Strangely, in the bull an unnamed duke of Silesia (who was assumed to be Henry the Bearded, because he actually used that title) was exempted from the ban. The country was full of consternation, because nobody knew who had real power.  Archbishop Henryk Ketlicz decided to call the, where he tried to find a solution to this delicate issue. At the convention, in addition to the hierarchy of the Church, Henry I the Bearded and the other junior dukes attended. Leszek the White, wanting to ensure the support of the Church, along with other Piast princes, then gave a great privilege, which ensured the integrity of territorial possession of the bishops (the privilege was not signed by Henry I and Władysław III Spindleshanks, but they did comply with the provisions established there). Mieszko, however, was not present in Borzykowa; with the support of the Gryfici family, he decided to lead his army and march into Kraków, where the confusion among the citizens left him in total control over the capital without fighting. This was the zenith of Mieszko's career, as he died less than one year later, on 16 May 1211. According to Jan Długosz, he was probably buried in the Cathedral of Kraków (Wawel Cathedral). Only after Mieszko's death could Leszek the White return to Kraków without major difficulties.

Marriage and issue.

By 1178, Mieszko married Ludmila (died after 20 October 1210), whose origins are unknown. Her name indicates that she may have a Bohemian origin, probably a member of the Přemyslid dynasty. According to the majority of historians, she could be the daughter of, Duke of Olomouc, by his wife. There are also minority hypotheses that put her as a daughter of Duke Soběslav I of Bohemia; ; or, son of Otto III Detleb (who would be her brother according to the majority opinion).  Mieszko and Ludmila had five children:

Mieszko IV Tanglefoot () (ca. 1130 – 16 May 1211) was Duke of Kraków and High Duke of Poland from 9 June 1210 until his death one year later. He was also Duke of Silesia from 1163 to 1173 (with his brother as co-ruler), Duke of Racibórz from 1173, and Duke of Opole from 1202.


Development.

During the 1920s and 1930s, a number of countries experimented with very large, multi-turreted tanks. The British built a single example of the Vickers A1E1 Independent in 1926. This inspired the Soviet T-35, which was built in limited numbers from 1933.  Development of the "Neubaufahrzeug" started in 1933 when the then Reichswehr gave a contract for the development of a "Großtraktor" ("heavy tractor") to both Rheinmetall and Krupp. "Großtraktor" was a codename for the development of a heavy tank, Germany being still forbidden to develop tanks under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. The technical details of the Vickers A1E1 Independent were then available to the Germans as they were amongst the information sold to them by a British officer, Norman Baillie-Stewart, who acted as a German spy before his arrest in 1933.  Although the Neubaufahrzeug came after the Großtraktor, and they are not the same tank, the Rheinmetall and Krupp designs resembled each other to a large extent, the main difference being the weapons placement. Each had a main turret armed with a 75 mm KwK L/24 main gun and secondary 37 mm KwK L/45. Rheinmetall's design mounted the second gun above the 75 mm KwK L/24, while the Krupp design had it mounted next to the 75 mm KwK L/24. Both designs had a secondary turret mounted to the front and the rear of the main turret. These turrets were slightly adapted Panzer I turrets, with the standard machine gun armament.  Rheinmetall's design was designated PzKpfw NbFz V ("PanzerKampfwagen NeubauFahrzeug V"), and the Krupp design PzKpfw NbFz VI. It was intended that these designs would fulfill the role of heavy tank in the armored forces, but the design proved to be too complex and unreliable for this role. Nevertheless, development continued in order for the nascent German military to gain experience with multi-turreted tanks.  In 1934 Rheinmetall built two mild steel prototypes, both with their own turret design. Three more prototypes were built with proper armor and the Krupp turret in 1935 and 1936.

Combat history.

Though these tanks were never placed in production, they provided a propaganda tool for Nazi Germany, for example being shown at the International Automobile Exposition in Berlin in 1939.  This propaganda role was extended with the German invasion of Norway, when "Panzer Abteilung z.b.V. 40" ("zur besonderen Verwendung" - "for special purpose") was formed for supporting the invasion of Norway, and the three Neubaufahrzeuge were assigned to that unit. One vehicle was assigned to "Kampfgruppe Fischer" advancing north through the Østerdalen Valley, while the other two were assigned to "Kampfgruppe Pellengahr" advancing up the Gudbrand Valley. The one assigned to "Kampfgruppe Fischer" was immobilized with mechanical problems on its way to Lillehammer, while one of the two assigned to Kampfgruppe Pellengahr also had mechanical problems just north of Lillehammer. Only one tank actually made it to the front; it was immediately put in action with the German force advancing up the Gudbrand Valley with other elements of "Panzer Abteilung z.b.V. 40".  The Neubaufahrzeuge first saw combat against British and Norwegian positions on April 22, near the small town of Balberg at the far south end of the Gudbrand Valley. The British Expeditionary Force was equipped with 0.55 inch calibre Boys Anti-tank rifles that easily penetrated the Neubaufahrzeug. After dozens of hits, including one that killed a crew member, the tank retreated and the crew was hesitant to advance further. Other German units pushed further through, flanking the British forces and forcing them to retreat.  It is unclear what happened to the tanks after the Norway campaign, but none of them survived the war. The surviving vehicles were ordered to be scrapped in 1941, and this took place in 1942 according to documents captured by the British in 1945. The dates when the vehicles were scrapped are unclear, but it is thought that the beginning of the construction of the "Sturer Emil" prototypes dates from the same time.  According to contemporary German sources, three NbFz were attached to the 1st Panzer Army and destroyed in battle with Soviet BT-7 tanks in present-day Ukraine in June 1941.  The last known surviving Neubaufahrzeug was used by a Lehr instruction unit in late 1944 as a target for training the Volkssturm in the use of the Panzerschreck 43 and other anti-tank weapons.  All that survives of these tanks is a small number of running gear parts, preserved in the "Gudbrandsdal Krigsminnesamling" (Gudbrand Valley War Memorial collection), at Kvam in Norway.

The German Neubaufahrzeug (German for "new-build vehicle"—a cover name) series of tank prototypes were a first attempt to create a heavy tank for the Wehrmacht after Adolf Hitler had come to power. Multi-turreted, heavy and slow, they were not considered successful, which led to only five being produced. These were primarily used for propaganda purposes, though three took part in the Battle of Norway in 1940.


Design and development.

Nakajima began development of the Ki-44 in 1940 as a pure interceptor with emphasis being placed on airspeed and rate of climb rather than maneuverability. The Japanese Army Air Force specification called for a maximum speed of 600 km/h (370 mph) at 4,000 m (13,130 ft), to be attained in five minutes. A set of Ki-43-like "butterfly" combat flaps was fitted for improved maneuverability. Armament consisted of a pair of 7.7 mm (.303 in) and a pair of 12.7 mm (.50 in) machine guns.  The engine selected for the new interceptor was Nakajima's Ha-41 (a development of the Nakajima Ha-5) 14-cylinder double-row radial, originally intended for bomber aircraft. Although the Ha-41 was not the ideal choice due to its large-diameter cross section, the design team was able to marry this engine to a much smaller fuselage with a narrow cross section. At 1,260 mm in diameter, the Ha-41 was 126 mm larger in diameter than the 1,144 mm Nakajima Sakae (used in the Mitsubishi A6M "Zero" and Nakajima Ki-43 "Hayabusa"). However, the Sakae was only 27.8L in displacement and 1,000 hp, while the Ha-41 was 37.5L and made 1,260 hp (1,440 in the later Ha-109 version). In any case, since the Sakae wasn't powerful enough, the only alternative available was the Mitsubishi Kinsei, which was slightly smaller than the Ha-41 in diameter, five liters smaller in displacement, and was less powerful. Unfortunately, this was already in demand for many other aircraft, so the Ha-41 was chosen as the best powerplant. In order to achieve its design goals, the wing area was relatively small leading to a high wing loading and a comparatively high landing speed that could be daunting to the average Japanese pilot, who was more used to aircraft with a low wing loading like the Ki-44's predecessors, the Ki-43 and Ki-27.  The first Ki-44 prototype flew in August 1940 and the initial test flights were generally encouraging, with handling considered acceptable considering the high wing loading. Problems encountered included a high landing speed and poor forward visibility during taxiing due to the large radial engine.  A second pre-production batch of 40 aircraft were ordered, which featured four 12.7mm machine guns, a relocated air cooler and main gear doors.

Operational history.

The Nakajima Ki-44 at one point equipped 12 "sentai" ("groups/wings") of the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force: "9, 22, 23, 29, 47, 59, 64, 70, 85, 87, 104" and "246" "Sentai". The Manchukuo Air Force also operated some Ki-44s.  Pre-production Ki-44 aircraft and two of the prototypes were turned over to the Army for service trials on 15 September 1941. The type commenced operations when nine aircraft were received by an experimental unit, "47th Chutai" ""Kawasemi Buntai"" ("Kingfisher Flight, 47th Squadron"), commanded by Major Toshio Sakagawa at Saigon, Indochina in December 1941.  The Ki-44 also saw significant action with "87th Sentai" in the air defense role, while based at Palembang, Sumatra. Other units equipped with the Ki-44 during the early part of the war were stationed in China, Burma, The Philippines and Korea.  Later in the war, the type saw action in an air defense role over the home islands – mainly around Japan's large industrial cities. "47 Chutai", after it was transferred to air defense roles in Japan, was expanded to become "47 Sentai".  The Ki-44-II "Otsu" (also known as the Ki-44-IIb) could be armed with a Ho-301 40 mm autocannon. While this was a relatively high-caliber weapon, it used caseless ammunition with a low muzzle velocity and short range, which was effective only in close attacks. Some of these aircraft were used against USAAF bombers by a special "Shinten Seiku Tai" (air superiority unit), comprising at least four aircraft, that was part of "47th Sentai", based at Narimasu airfield in Tokyo. Pilots from such units attempted to shoot down B-29s and, once their ammunition was expended, to ram them – effectively a suicide attack. While the concept appeared straightforward, ramming a B-29 at high altitudes was difficult to achieve in practice.  By the end of the war, Ki-44 variants were being replaced by the Nakajima Ki-84 "Hayate", which was regarded as vastly superior – in aspects other than maintenance and reliability.  During 1946–49, both sides in the Chinese Revolution operated Ki-44s surrendered or abandoned by Japanese units. Air units of the People's Liberation Army obtained aircraft formerly belonging to "22" and "85 Sentai", which had disbanded in Chosen. Some of these aircraft were reportedly flown by Japanese veterans. Within the Republic of China Air Force 18th Squadron (12th Fighter Group) was equipped with Ki-44s formerly of "9th Sentai", which had disbanded in Nanking, and "29th Sentai", which had disbanded at Formosa and they saw action in. Following the retreat of the Nationalists the People's Liberation Army Air Force (formed in 1949) used the Ki-44 until the early 1950s.

Survivors.

No complete surviving examples of the Ki-44 exist. However a wing center section is preserved at the Northwestern Polytechnical University Aviation Museum, at Xi'an in China.

Variants.

Total production: 1,227

The Nakajima Ki-44 "Shoki" (鍾馗, "Demon") was a single-seat fighter-interceptor developed by the Nakajima Aircraft Company and operated by the Imperial Japanese Army from 1942 to 1945 during World War II. Its official designation is Army Type 2 Single-Seat Fighter (二式単座戦闘機) and its Allied reporting name was Tojo.


Early life.

As was the custom of this time, John is denoted by the village of Capestrano, in the Diocese of Sulmona, in the Abruzzi region, Kingdom of Naples. His father had come to Italy with the Angevin court of Louis I of Anjou, titular King of Naples. He studied law at the University of Perugia.  In 1412, King Ladislaus of Naples appointed him Governor of Perugia, a tumultuous and resentful papal fief held by Ladislas as the pope's champion, in order to effectively establish public order. When war broke out between Perugia and the Malatestas in 1416, John was sent as ambassador to broker a peace, but Malatesta threw him in prison. It was during this imprisonment that he began to think more seriously about his soul. He decided eventually to give up the world and become a Franciscan Friar, owing to a dream he had in which he saw St. Francis and was warned by the saint to enter the Franciscan Order. He had married before the war, but asserted the marriage was never consummated and received permission to take holy orders.

Friar and preacher.

Together with James of the Marches, John entered the Order of Friars Minor at Perugia on 4 October 1416. Along with James, he studied theology at Fiesole, near Florence, under St. Bernardine of Siena. He soon gave himself up to the most rigorous asceticism, violently defending the ideal of strict observance and orthodoxy, following the example set by Bernardine. From 1420 onwards, he preached with great effect in numerous cities and eventually became well known. He was ordained in 1425.  Unlike most Italian preachers of repentance in the 15th century, John was effective in northern and central Europe—in German states of Holy Roman Empire, Bohemia, Moravia, Austria, Hungary, Croatia and the Kingdom of Poland. The largest churches could not hold the crowds, so he preached in the public squares—at Brescia in Italy, he preached to a crowd of 126,000.

Reformer.

When he was not preaching, John was writing tracts against heresy of every kind. This facet of his life is covered in great detail by his early biographers, Nicholas of Fara, Christopher of Varese and Girlamo of Udine. While he was thus evangelizing, he was actively engaged in assisting Bernardine of Siena in the reform of the Franciscan Order, largely in the interests of a more rigorous discipline in the Franciscan communities. Like Bernardine, he strongly emphasized devotion to the Holy Name of Jesus, and, together with that saint, was accused of heresy on this account. In 1429, these Observant friars were called to Rome to answer charges of heresy, and John was chosen by his companions to speak for them. They were both acquitted by the Commission of Cardinals appointed to judge the accusations.  He was frequently deployed to embassies by Popes Eugene IV and Nicholas V: in 1439, he was sent as legate to Milan and Burgundy, to oppose the claims of the Antipope Felix V; in 1446, he was on a mission to the King of France; in 1451 he went at the request of the emperor as Apostolic Nuncio to Austria. During the period of his nunciature, John visited all parts of the Empire, preaching and combating the heresy of the Hussites; he also visited Poland at the request of Casimir IV Jagiellon. As legate, or inquisitor, he prosecuted the last Fraticelli of Ferrara, the Jesuati of Venice, the Crypto-Jews of Sicily, Moldavia and Poland, and, above all, the Hussites of Germany, Hungary and Bohemia; his aim in the last case was to make talks impossible between the representatives of Rome and the Bohemians, for every attempt at conciliation seemed to him to be conniving at heresy.  John, in spite of this tireless life, found time to work—both during the lifetime of his mentor, Bernardine, and afterwards—on the reform of the Order of Friars Minor. He also upheld, in his writings, speeches and sermons, theories of papal supremacy rather than the theological wranglings of councils (see Conciliar Movement). John, together with his teacher, Bernardine, his colleague, James of the Marche, and Albert Berdini of Sarteano, are considered the four great pillars of the Observant reform among the Friars Minor.

Anti-Jewish incitement.

John was known as the "Scourge of the Jews" for his inciting of antisemitic violence. Like some other Franciscans, he ranged over a broad area on both sides of the Alps, and his preaching to mass open-air congregations often led to pogroms. In 1450 the Franciscan "Jew-baiter" arranged a forced disputation at Rome with a certain Gamaliel called "Synagogæ Romanæ magister". Between 1451 and 1453, his fiery sermons against Jews persuaded many southern German regions to expel their entire Jewish population, and in Silesia, then Kingdom of Bohemia, at Wroclaw many were burned at the stake.

The soldier saint.

After the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottoman Empire, under Sultan Mehmed II, threatened Christian Europe. That following year Pope Callixtus III sent John, who was already aged seventy, to preach a Crusade against the invading Turks at the Imperial Diet of Frankfurt. Gaining little response in Bavaria and Austria, he decided to concentrate his efforts in Hungary. John succeeded in gathering together enough troops to march onto Belgrade, which at that time was under siege by Turkish forces. In the summer of 1456, these troops, together with John Hunyadi, managed to raise the siege of Belgrade; the old and frail friar actually led his own contingent into battle. This feat earned him the moniker of 'the Soldier Priest'.  Although he survived the battle, John fell victim to the bubonic plague, which flourished in the unsanitary conditions prevailing among armies of the day. He died on 23 October 1456 at the nearby town of Ilok (now a Croatian border town on the Danube).

Sainthood and feast day.

The year of John of Capistrano's canonization is variously given as 1690, by Pope Alexander VIII or 1724 by Pope Benedict XIII. In 1890, his feast day was included for the first time in the General Roman Calendar and assigned to 28 March. In 1969, Saint Pope Paul VI moved his feast day to 23 October, the day of his death. Where Mass and the Office are said according to the 1962 Roman Missal and its concomitant calendar, his feast day is still kept on March 28.

Eponym.

As a Franciscan reformer preaching simplicity, John became the eponym of two Spanish missions founded by the Franciscan friars in the north of the then-Spanish Americas: Mission San Juan Capistrano in today's Southern California and Mission San Juan Capistrano just outside the city center of today's San Antonio in Texas.

Patron saint.

He is patron saint of military chaplains and jurists.

Saint John of Capistrano ("Italian": San Giovanni da Capestrano, "Hungarian": Kapisztrán János, "Polish": Jan Kapistran, "Croatian": Ivan Kapistran", Serbian": Јован Капистран, Jovan Kapistran) (24 June 1386 – 23 October 1456) was a Franciscan friar and Catholic priest from the Italian town of Capestrano, Abruzzo. Famous as a preacher, theologian, and inquisitor, he earned himself the nickname 'the Soldier Saint' when in 1456 at age 70 he led a crusade against the invading Ottoman Empire at the siege of Belgrade with the Hungarian military commander John Hunyadi.


Roman operation.

Hypocausts were used for heating hot baths and other public buildings in Ancient Rome, but their use in homes was limited due to their high cost. The ruins of Roman hypocausts have been found throughout Europe (for example in Italy, England, Spain, France, Switzerland and Germany) and in Africa as well.  The ceiling of the hypocaust was raised above the ground by pillars, called pilae stacks, supporting a layer of tiles, followed by a layer of concrete, then the floor tiles of the rooms above. Hot air and smoke from the furnace would circulate through this enclosed area and then up through clay or tile flues in the walls of the rooms above to outlets in the roof, thereby heating the floors and walls of the rooms above. These tile flues were referred to as "caliducts".  Rooms intended to be the warmest were located nearest to the furnace below, the heat output of which was regulated by adjusting the amount of wood fed to the fire. It was expensive and labour-intensive to run a hypocaust, as it required constant attention to the fire and a lot of fuel, so it was a feature usually encountered only in large villas and public baths.  Vitruvius describes their construction and operation in his work "De architectura" in about 15 BC, including details about how fuel could be conserved by building the hot room (caldarium) for men next to that for women, with both adjacent to the tepidarium, so as to run the public baths efficiently. He also describes a device for adjusting the heat by a bronze ventilator in the domed ceiling.  Remains of many Roman hypocausts have survived throughout Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa.

Non-Roman analogues.

Excavations at Mohenjo-daro in what is now Pakistan have unearthed what is believed to be a hypocaust lined with bitumen-coated bricks. If it fulfilled a similar role, the structure would pre-date the earliest Roman hypocaust by as much as 2000 years.  In 1984–1985, in the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic, excavations in the ancient settlement of Dzalisi uncovered a large castle complex, featuring a well-preserved hypocaust built between 200–400 BC.  Dating back to 1000 BC, Korean houses have traditionally used "ondol" to provide floor heating on similar principles as the hypocaust, drawing smoke from a wood fire typically used for cooking. Ondol heating was common in Korean homes until the 1960s, by which time dedicated ondol installations were typically used to warm the main room of the house, burning a variety of fuels such as coal and biomass.  On a smaller scale, in Northern China the Kang bed-stove has a long history.

After the Romans.

With the decline of the Roman Empire, the hypocaust fell into disuse, especially in the western provinces. In Britain, from c.400 until c.1900, it was thought that central heating did not exist, and hot baths were rare. However, an evolution of the hypocaust was used in some monasteries in calefactories, or warming rooms, which were heated via underground fires, as in the Roman hypocaust, but retained heat via granite stones. In Eastern Europe, the development of radiant ceramic or stone stoves were also used. In the Iberian Peninsula, the Roman system was adopted for the heating of Hispano-Islamic (Al Andalus) baths (hammams). A derivation of hypocaust, the gloria, was in use in Castile until the arrival of modern heating. After the fuel (mainly wood) was reduced to ashes, the air intake was closed to keep hot air inside and to slow combustion.

A hypocaust () is a system of central heating in a building that produces and circulates hot air below the floor of a room, and may also warm the walls with a series of pipes through which the hot air passes. This air can warm the upper floors as well. The word derives from the Ancient Greek meaning "under" and, meaning "burnt" (as in "caustic"). The earliest reference to such a system suggests that the temple of Ephesus in 350 BC was heated in this manner, although Vitruvius attributes its invention to Sergius Orata in c. 80 BC. Its invention improved the hygiene and living conditions of citizens, and was a forerunner of modern central heating.


Biography and works.

Lagerkvist was born in Växjö (Småland). He received a traditional religious education – he would later say, with little exaggeration, that he "had had the good fortune to grow up in a home where the only books known were the Bible and the Book of Hymns". In his teens he broke away from Christian beliefs, but, unlike many other writers and thinkers in his generation, he did not become vehemently critical of religious beliefs as such. Though he was politically a socialist for most of his life, he never indulged in the idea that "religion is the opium of the people". Much of his writing is informed by a lifelong interest in man and his symbols and gods, and in the position of Man (both as individual and mankind) in a world where the Divine is no longer present, no longer speaking.  In his early years Lagerkvist supported modernist and aesthetically radical views, as shown by his manifesto "Ordkonst och bildkonst" ("Word Art and Picture Art", 1913) and the play "Den Svåra Stunden" ("The Difficult Hour").  One of the author's earliest works is "Ångest" ("Anguish", 1916), a violent and disillusioned collection of poems. His anguish was derived from his fear of death, the World War, and personal crisis. He tried to explore how a person can find a meaningful life in a world where a war can kill millions for very little reason. "Anguish, anguish is my heritage / the wound of my throat / the cry of my heart in the world." ("Anguish", 1916.) "Love is nothing. Anguish is everything / the anguish of living." ("Love is nothing", 1916.) This pessimism, however, slowly faded, as testified by his subsequent works, "Det eviga leendet" ("The Eternal Smile", 1920), the autobiographical novel "Gäst hos verkligheten" ("Guest of Reality", 1925) and the prose monologue "Det besegrade livet" ("The defeated Life", 1927), in which the faith in man is predominant. From "The Eternal Smile" on, his style largely abandoned the expressionist pathos and brusque effects of his early works and there was a strong striving for simplicity, classical precision and clean telling, sometimes appearing close to naivism. The content, however, was never truly naive. A Swedish critic remarked that "Lagerkvist and John the Evangelist are two masters at expressing profound things with a highly restricted choice of words".  Ten years after "Ångest", Lagerkvist married for the second time, a union which was to provide a pillar of safety in his life until the death of his wife forty years later. "Hjärtats sånger" ("Songs of the Heart") (1926) appeared at this time, bearing witness to his pride and love for his consort. This collection is much less desperate in its tone than "Ångest", and established him as one of the foremost Swedish poets of his generation.  His prose novella "Bödeln" ("The Hangman", 1933), later adapted for the stage ("The Hangman", 1933; play, 1934), shows his growing concern with the totalitarianism and brutality that began to sweep across Europe in the years prior to World War II. Nazism was one of the main targets of the work and "Der Stürmer" responded with a very dismissive review. Criticism against Fascism is also present in the play "Mannen utan själ" ("The Man Without a Soul", 1936).  Lagerkvist's 1944 novel "Dvärgen" ("The Dwarf"), a searching, ironic tale about evil, was the first to bring him positive international attention outside of the Nordic countries. The work was followed in 1949 by the unusual, lyrical play "Låt människan leva" ("Let Man Live").  "Barabbas" (1950), which was immediately hailed as a literary masterpiece (by fellow Nobel laureate André Gide, among others) is probably Lagerkvist's most famous work. The novel is based on a Biblical story. Jesus of Nazareth was sentenced to die by the Roman authorities immediately before the Jewish Passover, when it was customary for the Romans to release someone convicted of a capital offense. When the Roman procurator Pontius Pilate offers to free either Jesus or Barabbas (a convicted thief and murderer), a Jerusalem mob demands the release of Barabbas, who later watches Jesus as he bears the cross to Golgotha, witnesses the crucifixion, and then spends the rest of his life trying to understand why he was chosen to live rather than Jesus. A movie based upon the novel was filmed in 1961, with Anthony Quinn playing the title role.  Lagerkvist died in Stockholm in 1974 at the age of 83, his wife having died in 1967.

Works.

Prose and Poetry  Theatre

Pär Fabian Lagerkvist (23 May 1891 – 11 July 1974) was a Swedish author who received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1951.


Distribution.

Purslane has an extensive distribution, assumed to be mostly anthropogenic, extending from North Africa and Southern Europe through the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent to Malesia and Australasia. The species status in the Americas is uncertain. In general, it is often considered an exotic weed, but there is evidence that the species was in Crawford Lake deposits (Ontario) in 1350–1539, suggesting that it reached North America in the pre-Columbian era. Scientists suggested that the plant was already eaten by native Americans, who spread its seeds. How it reached the Americas is currently unknown.

Description.

Purslane has smooth, reddish, mostly prostrate stems and the leaves, which may be alternate or opposite, are clustered at stem joints and ends. The yellow flowers have five regular parts and are up to wide. Depending upon rainfall, the flowers appear at any time during the year. The flowers open singly at the center of the leaf cluster for only a few hours on sunny mornings. The tiny seeds are formed in a pod, which opens when the seeds are mature. Purslane has a taproot with fibrous secondary roots and is able to tolerate poor compacted soils and drought.

Metabolism.

"P. oleracea" is one of very few plants able to utilize both CAM and C4 photosynthesis pathways, for a long time believed to be incompatible with each other despite biochemical similarities. P. oleracea will switch from C4 to CAM pathways during times of drought and there is transcription regulation and physiological evidence for C4-CAM hybrid photosynthesis during mild drought.

History.

Purslane is widely used in East Mediterranean countries. Archaeobotanical finds are common at many prehistoric sites. In historic contexts, seeds have been retrieved from a protogeometric layer in Kastanas, as well as from the Samian Heraion dating to seventh century BC. In the fourth century BC, Theophrastus names purslane, (), as one of the several summer pot herbs that must be sown in April ("Enquiry into Plants" 7.1.2). As "Portulaca" it figures in the long list of comestibles enjoyed by the Milanese given by Bonvesin de la Riva in his "Marvels of Milan" (1288).  In antiquity, its healing properties were thought so reliable that Pliny the Elder advised wearing the plant as an amulet to expel all evil ("Natural History" 20.210).

Uses.

Culinary.

Purslane may be eaten as a leaf vegetable. William Cobbett noted that it was "eaten by Frenchmen and pigs when they can get nothing else. Both use it in salad, that is to say, raw". It has a slightly sour and salty taste and is eaten throughout much of Europe, the Middle East, Asia, and Mexico. The stems, leaves and flower buds are all edible. Purslane may be used fresh as a salad, stir-fried, or cooked as spinach is, and because of its mucilaginous quality it also is suitable for soups and stews. The sour taste is due to oxalic and malic acid, the latter of which is produced through the crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) pathway that is seen in many xerophytes (plants living in dry conditions), and is at its highest when the plant is harvested in the early morning.  Aboriginal Australians use the seeds of purslane to make seedcakes. Greeks, who call it () or (), use the leaves and the stems with feta cheese, tomato, onion, garlic, oregano, and olive oil. They add it in salads, boil it, or add it to casseroled chicken. In Turkey, besides being used in salads and in baked pastries, it is cooked as a vegetable similar to spinach, or is mixed with yogurt to form a tzatziki variant. In Egypt, it is also cooked like spinach as a vegetable dish, but not in salads.

Companion plant.

As a companion plant, purslane provides ground cover to create a humid microclimate for nearby plants, stabilising ground moisture. Its deep roots bring up moisture and nutrients that those plants can use, and some, including corn, will follow purslane roots down through harder soil that they cannot penetrate on their own.

Nutrition.

Raw purslane is 93% water, 3% carbohydrates, 2% protein, and contains negligible fat (table). In a 100 gram reference amount, purslane supplies 20 calories, and rich amounts (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of vitamin E (81% DV) and vitamin C (25% DV), with moderate content (11-19% DV) of several dietary minerals (table).

Portulaca oleracea (common purslane, also known as verdolaga, red root, or pursley) is an annual succulent in the family Portulacaceae, which may reach in height.


Life.

Little is known of his life, but he seems to have been from Troyes or at least intimately connected with it. Between 1160 and 1172 he served (perhaps as herald-at-arms, as Gaston Paris speculated) at the court of his patroness Marie of France, Countess of Champagne, daughter of King Louis VII and Eleanor of Aquitaine, who married Count Henry I of Champagne in 1164. Later, he served the court of Philippe d'Alsace, Count of Flanders.

Works.

Chrétien's works include five major poems in rhyming eight-syllable couplets. Four of these are complete: "Erec and Enide" (c. 1170); "Cligès" (c. 1176); "Yvain, the Knight of the Lion"; and "Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart", the latter two written simultaneously between 1177 and 1181. "Yvain" is generally considered Chrétien's most masterful work. Chrétien's final romance was "Perceval, the Story of the Grail", written between 1181 and 1190, but left unfinished, though some scholars have disputed this. It is dedicated to Philip, Count of Flanders, to whom Chrétien may have been attached in his last years. He finished only 9,000 lines of the work, but four successors of varying talents added 54,000 additional lines in what are known as the Four Continuations. Similarly, the last thousand lines of "Lancelot" were written by Godefroi de Leigni, apparently by arrangement with Chrétien. In the case of "Perceval", one continuer says the poet's death prevented him from completing the work; in the case of "Lancelot", no reason is given. This has not stopped speculation that Chrétien did not approve of "Lancelot"s adulterous subject (in which case he seems unlikely to have invented Lancelot).  There are also several lesser works, not all of which can be securely ascribed to Chrétien. "Philomela" is the only one of his four poems based on Ovid's "Metamorphoses" that has survived. Two short-lyric chansons on the subject of love are also very likely his, but the attribution of the pious romance "Guillaume d'Angleterre" to him is now widely doubted. It has also been suggested that Chrétien might be the author of two short verse romances titled "Le Chevalier à l'épée" and "La Mule sans frein", but this theory has not found much support. Chrétien names his treatments of Ovid in the introduction to "Cligès", where he also mentions his work about King Mark and Iseult. The latter is presumably related to the legend of Tristan and Iseult, though Tristan is not named. Chrétien's take on Tristan has not survived, though in the introduction of Cligès, Chrétien himself says that his treatment of Tristan was not well received, possibly explaining why it does not survive. Chrétien's works are written in vernacular Old French, although it is marked by traits of the regional Champenois dialect (which is still fairly similar to the "standard" French of Paris).

Sources and influence.

The immediate and specific sources for his romances are uncertain, as Chrétien speaks in the vaguest way of the materials he used. Geoffrey of Monmouth or Wace might have supplied some of the names, but neither author mentioned Erec, Lancelot, Gornemant and many others who play an important role in Chrétien's narratives. One is left to guess about Latin or French literary originals which are now lost, or upon continental lore that goes back to a Celtic source in the case of Béroul, an Anglo-Norman who wrote around 1150. For his "Perceval, the Story of the Grail", the influence of the story is clearly tied to the story of Saint Galgano (Galgano Guidotti) who died in 1180–1181 and was canonized in 1185: a knight struck by god's vision, planted his sword in the ground that immediately solidified (kept in Abbey San Galgano). However, Chrétien found his sources immediately at hand, without much understanding of its primitive spirit, but appreciating it as a setting for the ideal society dreamed of, although not realized, in his own day. And Chrétien's five romances together form the most complete expression from a single author of the ideals of French chivalry. Though so far there has been little critical attention paid to the subject, it is not inaccurate to say that Chrétien was influenced by the changing face of secular and canonical law in the 12th century. This is particularly relevant for his "Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart", which makes repeated use of the customary law prevalent in Chrétien's day.  William Wistar Comfort praised de Troyes' "significance as a literary artist and as the founder of a precious literary tradition [which] distinguishes him from all other poets of the Latin races between the close of the Empire and the arrival of Dante." Chrétien's writing was very popular, as evidenced by the high number of surviving copies of his romances and their many adaptations into other languages. Three of Middle High German literature's finest examples, Wolfram von Eschenbach's "Parzival" and Hartmann von Aue's "Erec" and "Iwein", were based on "Perceval", "Erec", and "Yvain"; the Three Welsh Romances associated with the "Mabinogion" ("Peredur, son of Efrawg", "Geraint and Enid", and "Owain, or the Lady of the Fountain") are derived from the same trio. Especially in the case of "Peredur", however, the connection between the Welsh romances and their source is probably not direct and has never been satisfactorily delineated. Chrétien also has the distinction of being the first writer to mention the Holy Grail ("Perceval"), Camelot ("Lancelot"), and the love affair between Queen Guinevere and Lancelot ("Lancelot"), subjects of household recognition even today.  There is a specific Classical influence in Chrétien's romances, the likes of which (the "Iliad", the "Aeneid", the "Metamorphoses") were "translated into the Old French vernacular during the 1150s". Foster Guyer argues that specifically "Yvain, the Knight of the Lion" contains definite Ovidian influence: "Yvain was filled with grief and showed the Ovidian love symptoms of weeping and sighing so bitterly that he could scarcely speak. He declared that he would never stay away a full year. Using words like those of Leander in the seventeenth of Ovid's Epistles he said: 'If only I had the wings of a dove/to fly back to you at will/Many and many a time I would come'."  Chrétien has been termed "the inventor of the modern novel". Karl Uitti argues: "With [Chrétien's work] a new era opens in the history of European story telling... this poem reinvents the genre we call narrative romance; in some important respects it also initiates the vernacular novel." A "story" could be anything from a single battle scene, to a prologue, to a minimally cohesive tale with little to no chronological layout. Uitti argues that "Yvain" is Chrétien's "most carefully contrived romance... It has a beginning, a middle, and an end: we are in no doubt that Yvain's story is over." This very method of having three definite parts, including the build in the middle leading to the climax of the story, is in large part why Chrétien is seen to be a writer of novels five centuries before novels, as we know them, existed.  "This article incorporates material from an essay by W. W. Comfort, published in 1914."

Chrétien de Troyes ( ; 1135?–1185?, 1160–1191) was a French poet and trouvère known for his writing on Arthurian subjects, and for possibly originating the character of Lancelot. Chrétien's works, including "Erec and Enide", "Lancelot", "Perceval", and "Yvain", represent some of the best-regarded of medieval literature. His use of structure, particularly in "Yvain", has been seen as a step towards the modern novel.


German National Academy of Sciences Leopoldina

History.

The Leopoldina was founded in the imperial city of Schweinfurt on 1 January 1652 under the Latin name sometimes translated into English as "Academy of the Curious as to Nature." It was founded by four local physicians- Johann Laurentius Bausch, the first president of the society, Johann Michael Fehr, Georg Balthasar Metzger, and Georg Balthasar Wohlfarth; and was the only academy like it at the time making it the oldest academy of science in Germany. The archives of Leopoldina are some of the oldest in the world based on the fact that the records date back to the 17th century. These records will provide a window into the German sciences of the last 350 years.  In 1670 the society began to publish the Ephemeriden or Miscellanea Curiosa, one of the earliest scientific journals and one which had a particularly strong focus on medicine and related aspects of natural philosophy, such as botany and physiology. It was recognized by Emperor Leopold I who raised it to an academy in 1677, and then declared it an Imperial Academy in 1687, naming it Sacri Romani Imperii Academia Caesareo-Leopoldina Naturae Curiosorum and allowing it to carry his name.  At first, the society conducted its business by correspondence and was located wherever the president was working. After Schweinfurt, the Academy was rooted in many places before it was permanently located in Halle in 1878. Following Schweinfurt in chronological order: Nuremberg, Augsburg, Altdorf, Erfurt, Halle, Nuremberg, Erlangen, Bonn, Jena, Dresden, and finally Halle.  There were many efforts during years of national prosperity to elevate the Academy to the status of a 'national institute,' but all such early efforts failed. In those times the Academy was not on the nation's agenda at a political or academic level. Later, however,its members began to enrich the Academy with an obligation to be present at its proceedings so as to improve their public standing. Thus they began to hold regular monthly meetings, even in the challenging conditions of 1924, which had to be attended by all local members.  When Adolf Hitler became Germany's Chancellor in 1933, the Leopoldina started to exclude its Jewish members. Albert Einstein was one of the first victims,and more than 70 followed until 1938. Eight of them were murdered by the Nazis over the course of World War II. Nevertheless, the Leopoldina did not suffer as much influence from the Nazi regime as other German academies, thanks to the president of the Leopoldina at the time, Emil Abderhalden. While Jewish members were certainly expelled, the president of the Leopoldina made sure it did not go to the lengths that other academies went to at the time. He resisted the Nazi pressures by reorganizing Sections of the Academy and introducing a new series 'Biographies of German Natural Scientists' in 1932.  After Word War II, Halle became part of East Germany. During this time, the German Democratic Republic shut down all societies, leading the members of the Leopoldina to meet unofficially and in private. Efforts were made to reestablish the Academy, however. An edition of Goethe's 'The Works of Science' began to be edited under the Academy's name in 1947, and lectures started again in 1948. However, the Academy was not officially reopened until 1952. This reopening came just in time for the Academy to celebrate its tercentenary.  After reopening, the Leopoldina successfully resisted attempts from the German Democratic Republic to reconstitute the Academy as a specifically East German institute and continued to think of itself as an institution for the whole of Germany. This was greatly affected by the building of the Berlin Wall in August of 1961. The Academy was able to stay independent of national politics, which allowed it to bridge East and West Germany through scientific ideas. The yearly meeting of the Academy was planned for October of that year in West Germany; invitations had been sent out in June announcing that they would be discussing energy; but less than two months later letters of cancellation were sent out, stating that members living in the GDR would not be given permission to travel.  In 1991, after German reunification, the Leopoldina was granted the status of a non-profit organisation. It is funded jointly by the German government and the government of the state of Saxony-Anhalt. A new section was also created for the history of culture with the emphasis on medicine and the natural sciences.  In November 2007, German science minister Annette Schavan announced the renaming of the Leopoldina to "German Academy of Sciences" ("Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften"), and said that "due to its international prestige, the Leopoldina is predestined to represent Germany within the circle of international academies." Karsten Jedlitschka says that the Academy was named the first national science Academy in Germany in February of 2008. As the German Academy of Sciences, it is a counterpart to the rights and responsibilities of institutions such as Britain's Royal Society and the United States' National Academy of Science. As the national academy, the Leopoldina will act as a consulting service on matters of science and science related policy for the German government, including parliament and social and political organizations.

Activities.

The Leopoldina is the first and foremost academic society in Germany to advise the German government on a variety of scientific matters, for instance on climate change and disease control.  The Leopoldina gives conferences and lectures and continues to publish the "Ephemeriden" under the name "Nova Acta Leopoldina". It issues various medals and awards, offers grants and scholarships and elects new members to itself. The Academy also maintains a library and an archive and it also researches its own history and publishes another journal, "Acta Historica Leopoldina" devoted to this subject.  Consistently with its national preeminence, it also collaborates extensively with other learned societies in international exchanges of ideas and policy recommendations. Details of such initiatives are included on its multilingual website.

Honours.

Apart from being a fellow, excellence can also be rewarded by receiving one of the following honours:

Membership.

Three quarters of the members are from German-speaking countries (Germany, Austria, Switzerland) and one quarter from about 30 other nations. The election to membership of the Leopoldina is the highest academic honour awarded by an institution in Germany. Some laureates are also fellows of the Leopoldina.  Among the most noted of fellows are for instance:  Members might also attribute discoveries and success to the academy. For example, the asteroid 893 Leopoldina is named in its honor.

Leadership.

At the head of the Academy there is a Presidium, elected by the Senate, consisting of the President, acting as the chair, four Vice Presidents, and other members at large. These position terms are five years long and can only be held twice by the same person. The Senate of the Academy currently consists of 39 members representing different sections and disciplines of science, as well as representatives from Switzerland and Austria. Senate members serve for four years and can only be re-elected once. The latest President of the Academy, Dr. Gerald Haug, from Berlin, became the Academy's 27th president when he took office on March 1st, 2020.  Past presidents of the Leopoldina with time and place of office:

The German National Academy of Natural Sciences Leopoldina (), short Leopoldina, is the national academy of Germany, and is located in Halle (Saale). Founded on January 1, 1652, based on academic models in Italy, it was originally named the "Academia Naturae Curiosorum" until 1687 when Emperor Leopold I raised it to an academy and named it after himself. It was since known under the German name "Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina" until 2007, when it was declared to be Germany's National Academy of Sciences. The Leopoldina has a claim to be the oldest continuously existing learned society in the world. The validity of the claim depends in part on how certain definitional and historical questions are answered.