History.

In the 1940s a British breeder named Janet Robertson exported some Abyssinian kittens to Australia, New Zealand and North America. Descendants of these cats occasionally produced kittens with long or fuzzy coats. In 1963, Mary Mailing, a breeder from Canada, entered one into a local pet show. Ken McGill, the show's judge, asked for one for breeding purposes.  The first known long-haired Abyssinian, named 'Raby Chuffa of Selene', appeared in America in 1953. Breeders assume that the long-haired gene was passed down through his ancestry. Most breeders were appalled by the sudden difference in appearance in their litters and refused to mention them. However, some breeders were intrigued and continued to breed the long-haired Abyssinian. At first, other Abyssinian breeders looked down upon the new development of the Somali and refused to associate them with the Abyssinian. They worked hard to keep the long-haired gene out of their own cats.  An American Abyssinian breeder Evelyn Mague also received longhairs from her cats, which she named "Somalis". Mague put out a call for other cats to breed with her own long-haired Abyssinians and found the many other breeders internationally that had been breeding long-haired Abyssinians for several years already. Don Richings, another Canadian breeder, used kittens from McGill, and began to work with Mague. The first Somali recognized as such by a fancier organization was Mayling Tutsuta, one of McGill's cats. In 1979, the breed was recognized by the CFA in North America. The new breed was accepted in Europe in 1982. By 1991, the breed was broadly (though not universally) accepted internationally.  The name "Somali" is in reference to the African nation, Somalia. Somalia borders Abyssinia, which is modern day Ethiopia. The name of the breed is a unique interpretation of the Ethiopian-Somali conflict; Mague charitably assumed that since the land borders were a human creation, so are the genetic borders between the Abyssinian cat and the long-haired Abyssinian.  Mague also founded the Somali Cat Club of America, which included members from Canada as well. The SCCA worked to grant the breed championship status by the CFA, which occurred in 1979. In 1975, the CFA founded the International Somali Cat Club.

Appearance.

Description.

The Somalis are recognized for their bushy tails, large almond eyes, and large pointed ears, earning the breed its nickname of "Fox Cat." Their ticked coats, containing between four and twenty colors on each hair, are very fine in texture, making their coats softer to the touch than those of other cat breeds. The cat itself is medium-large in size.

Colors and patterns.

The usual or ruddy Somali is golden brown ticked with black. There are 28 colors of Somali in total although certain organizations accept only some of these colors. All organizations that register Somalis permit usual (also known as ruddy), sorrel (a.k.a. red), blue, and fawn. Most clubs also recognize usual/ruddy silver, sorrel/red silver, blue silver, and fawn silver. Other colors that may be accepted by some registries include chocolate, lilac, red, cream, usual-tortie, sorrel-tortie, blue-tortie, fawn-tortie, chocolate-tortie, lilac-tortie, and silver variants of these (e.g. blue-tortie silver).

Health.

The Somali cat is usually healthy, with few breed-related health issues, though some problems may occur. These include gingivitis, tooth decay, and renal amyloidosis, which are also seen in many other breeds of cats. Renal amyloidosis (often called RA) is a condition in which there is a deposition of the protein, amyloid, in various tissues which hinders that part of the body's normal functioning. Other problems that are prevalent in most cat breeds, the Somali included, are feline infectious anemia (FIA) and autoimmune-mediated hemolytic anemia (AIHA). Some AIHA-related diseases are inherited erythrocyte disorders, such as pyruvate kinase deficiency and osmotic fragility.  Recently found in cats has been myelodysplasia. It is normally known to affect humans but was recently found in a litter of Somali kittens. Like AIHA, myelodysplasia causes anemia and is speculated to be the cause of anemia in Somalis in the past.  Somalis may also have hereditary retinal degeneration due to a mutation in the rdAc allele. This mutation is also seen in Abyssinians, Siamese cats, and other related breeds.

The Somali cat is often described as a long-haired African cat; a product of a recessive gene in Abyssinian cats, though how the gene was introduced into the Abyssinian gene pool is unknown. It is believed that they originated from Somalia, long lost cousin of the Abyssinian cat; which has origins in Ethiopia.


History.

Swatch began development in the early 1980s, under the leadership of the then ETA SA's CEO, Ernst Thomke with a small team of watch engineers led by Elmar Mock and Jacques Müller.  Conceived as a standard timekeeper in plastic, Franz Sprecher, a marketing consultant hired by Thomke to give the project an outsider's consideration, sought to create a fashionable line of watches.  Swatch was originally intended to re-capture entry level market share lost by Swiss manufacturers during the quartz crisis and the subsequent growth of Japanese companies such as Seiko and Citizen in the 1960s and 1970s, and to re-popularize analog watches at a time when digital watches had achieved wide popularity.  In 1983, the group hired Jacques Irniger—who formerly served as the marketing executive for Colgate, Nestlé—to launch the swatch.  In 1997, the Swatch group opened about 60 stores worldwide.  The first collection of twelve Swatch models was introduced on 1 March 1983 in Zürich, Switzerland. Initially the price ranged from CHF 39.90 to CHF 49.90 but was standardized to CHF 50.00 in autumn of the same year. Sales targets were set to one million timepieces for 1983 and 2.5 million the year after. With an aggressive marketing campaign and relatively low price for a Swiss-made watch, it gained instant popularity in its home market. Compared to conventional watches, a Swatch was 80% cheaper to produce by fully automating assembly and reducing the number of parts from the usual 91 or more to 51 components, with no loss of accuracy.  Lebanese entrepreneur, Nicolas G. Hayek together with a group of Swiss investors took over a majority shareholding of Swatch during 1985 in the newly consolidated group under the name Societe Suisse de Microelectronique et d'Horlogerie, or SMH. He became Chairman of the board of directors, and CEO in 1986. Later he changed company’s name to Swatch Group.  This combination of marketing and manufacturing expertise restored Switzerland as a major player in the world wristwatch market. Synthetic materials were used for the watchcases as well as a new ultra-sonic welding process and assembly technology.

Product lines.

There are families under the Swatch brand:

Swatch Originals.

The "Originals" are plastic-cased watches. They are available in various sizes, shapes, and designs. The "Originals" consist of various sub-families as well.

Swatch Irony.

The "Irony" family contains all the metal-cased watches produced by Swatch. These include both quartz driven and serviceable, automatic mechanical watches. The automatics have a 21J/23J ETA 2842 movement. This movement is exclusive to Swatch and is derived from 2824-2. "Irony Chronograph" was introduced in Aug 2013.

Swatch Skin.

The "Skin" family contains two sub families: "Original Skin" and "Skin Chronograph". The "Original Skin" was introduced on 6 October 1997 as a thinner version of the original Swatch watch. It is ultra thin, standing at, hence the name "Swatch Skin". The "Swatch Skin" later went on to enter the Guinness Book of World Records as the world's thinnest plastic watch. The "Swatch Chronograph" is simply the "Swatch Skin" with a chronograph function, adding two additional buttons on the side of the watch.

Swatch Bijoux.

The "Bijoux" line is the jewelry line that Swatch released in the new millennium. It partnered with Swarovski to encrust the "Bijoux" line of watches.

Swatch Digital Touch.

The "Digital Touch" line, launched in 2011, derives its name from the touchscreen technology used. In contrast to other Swatch families, a digital LCD shows the time. Various models in different colors of the display are available, which include backlighting for reading in the dark.

Swatch Bellamy and Pay.

These Swatch models of wristwatches with a quartz movement are additionally equipped with a near-field communication (NFC) chip to accommodate contactless payment. As an improved second generation, Swatch introduced model "Pay" for the Chinese market in July 2017. Unlike the "Bellamy", model "Pay" can be programmed and activated in Swatch shops using a Cloud Computing service operated by several Chinese banks.

Swatch Sistem51.

Swatch introduced Sistem51 at Baselworld 2013 as "the world's first mechanical movement with entirely automated assembly." The movement uses 51 components anchored to a central screw with automatic winding and a 90-hour power reserve – and is 100% Swiss made on a automated assembly line in clean-room conditions, without human intervention.  The movement is permanently sealed in its case with structural adhesive securing both the acrylic crystal over the dial and the caseback, making it invulnerable to environmental conditions including moisture, dust or foreign objects – and also making it maintenance free – i.e. impossible to service.  The movement is made from ARCAP, an anti-magnetic alloy of copper, nickel, and zinc – designed to free the movement from adjustment. The escapement has no manual adjustment or regulator; the initial rate is factory laser-set. Swatch reports precision of −5/+5 seconds per day. The design's peripheral bi-directional rotor allows viewing of movement components through the caseback.

Swatch (stylized as swatch) is a Swiss watchmaker founded in 1983 by Nicolas Hayek and a flagship subsidiary of The Swatch Group. The Swatch product line was developed as a response to the "quartz crisis" of the 1970s and 1980s, in which Asian-made digital watches were competing against traditional European-made mechanical watches.


Naming.

The common name honors David Douglas, a Scottish botanist and collector who first reported the extraordinary nature and potential of the species. The common name is misleading since it is not a true fir, i.e., not a member of the genus "Abies". For this reason the name is often written as Douglas-fir (a name also used for the genus "Pseudotsuga" as a whole).  The specific epithet "menziesii" is after Archibald Menzies, a Scottish physician and rival naturalist to David Douglas. Menzies first documented the tree on Vancouver Island in 1791. Colloquially, the species is also known simply as Doug fir or Douglas pine (although the latter common name may also refer to "Pinus douglasiana"). Other names for this tree have included Oregon pine, British Columbian pine, Puget Sound pine, Douglas spruce, false hemlock, red fir, or red pine (although again the latter may refer to a different tree species—"Pinus resinosa").  One Coast Salish name for the tree, used in the Halkomelem language, is. In the Lushootseed language, the tree is called.

Description.

Douglas-firs are medium-size to extremely large evergreen trees, tall (although only coast Douglas-firs reach such great heights) and up to in diameter. The leaves are flat, soft, linear, long, generally resembling those of the firs, occurring singly rather than in fascicles; they completely encircle the branches, which can be useful in recognizing the species. As the trees grow taller in denser forest, they lose their lower branches, such that the foliage may start as high as off the ground. Douglas-firs in environments with more light may have branches much closer to the ground.  The female cones are pendulous, with persistent scales, unlike those of true firs. They are distinctive in having a long tridentine (three-pointed) bract that protrudes prominently above each scale (it resembles the back half of a mouse, with two feet and a tail).

Distribution.

"Pseudotsuga menziesii" var. "menziesii", the coast Douglas-fir, grows in the coastal regions from west-central British Columbia southward to central California. In Oregon and Washington, its range is continuous from the eastern edge of the Cascades west to the Pacific Coast Ranges and Pacific Ocean. In California, it is found in the Klamath and California Coast Ranges as far south as the Santa Lucia Range, with a small stand as far south as the Purisima Hills in Santa Barbara County. One of the last remaining old growth stands of conifers is in the Mattole Watershed, and is under threat of logging. In the Sierra Nevada, it ranges as far south as the Yosemite region. It occurs from near sea level along the coast to above sea level in the mountains of California.  Another variety exists further inland, "Pseudotsuga menziesii" var. "glauca", the Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir or interior Douglas-fir. Interior Douglas-fir intergrades with coast Douglas-fir in the Cascades of northern Washington and southern British Columbia, and from there ranges northward to central British Columbia and southeastward to the Mexican border, becoming increasingly disjunct as latitude decreases and altitude increases. Mexican Douglas-fir ("P. lindleyana"), which ranges as far south as Oaxaca, is often considered a variety of "P. menziesii".  Fossils (wood, pollen) of "Pseudotsuga" are recorded from the Miocene and Pliocene of Europe (Siebengebirge, Gleiwitz, Austria).

Ecology.

Douglas-fir prefers acidic or neutral soils. However, it exhibits considerable morphological plasticity, and on drier sites "P. menziesii" var. "menziesii" will generate deeper taproots. "Pseudotsuga menziesii" var. "glauca" exhibits even greater plasticity, occurring in stands of interior temperate rainforest in British Columbia, as well as at the edge of semi-arid sagebrush steppe throughout much of its range, where it generates even deeper taproots than coast Douglas-fir is capable. Mature or "old-growth" Douglas-fir forest is the primary habitat of the red tree vole ("Arborimus longicaudus") and the spotted owl ("Strix occidentalis"). Home range requirements for breeding pairs of spotted owls are at least 400 ha () of old growth. Red tree voles may also be found in immature forests if Douglas-fir is a significant component. The red vole nests almost exclusively in the foliage of the trees, typically above the ground, and its diet consists chiefly of Douglas-fir needles. A parasitic plant sometimes utilizing "P. menziesii" is Douglas-fir dwarf mistletoe ("Arceuthobium douglasii").  The leaves are also used by the woolly conifer aphid "Adelges cooleyi"; this 0.5 mm long sap-sucking insect is conspicuous on the undersides of the leaves by the small white "fluff spots" of protective wax that it produces. It is often present in large numbers, and can cause the foliage to turn yellowish from the damage it causes. Exceptionally, trees may be partially defoliated by it, but the damage is rarely this severe. Among Lepidoptera, apart from some that feed on "Pseudotsuga" in general (see there) the gelechiid moths "Chionodes abella" and "C. periculella" as well as the cone scale-eating tortrix moth "Cydia illutana" have been recorded specifically on "P. menziesii". The coast Douglas-fir variety is the dominant tree west of the Cascade Mountains in the Pacific Northwest, occurring in nearly all forest types, competes well on most parent materials, aspects, and slopes. Adapted to a moist, mild climate, it grows larger and faster than Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir. Associated trees include western hemlock, Sitka spruce, sugar pine, western white pine, ponderosa pine, grand fir, coast redwood, western redcedar, California incense-cedar, Lawson's cypress, tanoak, bigleaf maple and several others. Pure stands are also common, particularly north of the Umpqua River in Oregon.  Poriol is a flavanone, a type of flavonoid, produced by "P. menziesii" in reaction to infection by "Poria weirii".

Uses.

The species is extensively used in forestry as a plantation tree for softwood timber. The timber is used for joinery, veneer, flooring and construction due to its strength, hardness and durability. It is also naturalised throughout Europe, Argentina and Chile (called "Pino Oregón"), and in New Zealand it is considered to be an invasive species, called a wilding conifer, and subject to control measures.  The species has ornamental value in large parks and gardens.  The buds have been used to flavor eau de vie, a clear, colorless fruit brandy.  Native Hawaiians built "waʻa kaulua" (double-hulled canoes) from coast Douglas-fir logs that had drifted ashore.  Douglas-fir has been commonly used as a Christmas tree since the 1920s, and the trees are typically grown on plantations.  Douglas-fir pine leaves can be used to make pine-needle tea.  Many different Native American groups used the bark, resin, and pine needles to make herbal treatments for various diseases.  The only wooden ships still currently in use by the United States Navy are minesweepers, made of Douglas-fir.

Pseudotsuga menziesii is an evergreen conifer species in the pine family, Pinaceae. It is native to western North America and is known as Douglas fir, Douglas-fir, Oregon pine, and Columbian pine. Despite its common name, it is not a true fir (i.e. it is not a member of the genus "Abies"). There are three varieties: coast Douglas-fir ("P. menziesii" var. "menziesii"), Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir ("P. menziesii" var. "glauca") and Mexican Douglas fir ("P. menziesii" var. "lindleyana").


Damage.

"Cameraria ohridella" causes significant damage, mainly late summer browning, to the appearance of horse-chestnut trees. Despite the poor appearance of these infested trees, there is no evidence that damage by the moth leads to tree death. Seed weight, photosynthetic storage and reproductive capacity may however be reduced. Trees survive repeated infestations and re-flush normally in the following year. It appears that most of the damage caused by the moth occurs too late in the growing season to greatly affect tree performance. Consequently, there is no reason to fell and remove trees just because they are attacked by "C. ohridella".  The larva feeds in a mine in the leaves of the tree, damaging the leaves and stunting growth. Infected leaves are covered in small brown patches which spread rapidly across the entire tree, giving an autumnal appearance. Eventually the leaves die and drop off; when new ones grow they are again infected. This cycle can repeat itself several times in one season.

Description.

The moth is up to 5mm long, with shiny, bright brown forewings with thin, silvery white stripes. The hindwings are dark grey with long fringes. Each female moth lays between 20 and 40 eggs singly on the upper surface of leaves, and once these hatch 2–3 weeks later, the larvae develop through five feeding phases (or instars) and two prepupal (spinning) phases before the pupal phase. The first stage creates a small cavity (or mine) parallel to a vein in the leaf and is "sap-sipping" rather than "tissue-feeding". By the third instar, the larva creates a mine approximately 8mm in diameter; this is further expanded by later instars until one mine can cover several square centimeters. The larva starts to pupate around four weeks after the egg hatches and, except when hibernating as a pupa in the mine, the adult emerges around two weeks later. In severe infestations, the mines of individuals can merge and almost the entire leaf area may be utilised. When this occurs it may lead to high moth mortality as the larvae compete for space and food. The moth is able to go through up to five generations each year, if the weather is hot and dry; on average in western Europe, the moth goes through three generations each year. The last generation of the year pupates for over six months so as to survive the winter. The pupae are extremely frost tolerant and have been recorded to survive temperatures as low as. This allows its populations to increase even after hard winters.  The dead patches that the horse-chestnut leaf miner causes on leaves are similar to damage caused to horse-chestnut trees by the fungus "Guignardia" "aesculi", but can be distinguished by the fungal infection often being outlined by a conspicuous yellow band which the mines lack. The pupae can be mistaken for pupae of the genus "Phyllonorycter" but can be distinguished because "C. ohridella" pupae do not have a cremaster and the first five abdominal sections have strong lateral spines on them.

Distribution and dispersal.

"Cameraria ohridella" has now been found in Albania, Austria, Belgium, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, England and Wales, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Kosovo, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Moldova, Montenegro, the Netherlands, North Macedonia, Poland, Serbia, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey and Ukraine. Although horse-chestnut occurs naturally mostly above the 700–1000 m. contours the moth does well in well-watered places such as parks in cities and at low elevation but not well in the hotter parts of Europe e.g. Spain. Probably aided greatly by vehicular transport, the moth has attained a very rapid dispersal rate across Europe of 60 km. per year.

Origin and epidemiology.

"Cameraria ohridella" was first noticed from outbreaks near Ohrid Lake, Yugoslavia in 1984, and was described as a new species by Deschka and Dimić in 1986. A likely Balkan origin for this moth was evidenced from a decrease in genetic diversity from natural towards artificial horse-chestnut stands that were planted around Europe since around 1600. This Balkan origin is further documented by numerous herbarium samples that date back to 1879. These include an outbreak which occurred in horse-chestnut specimens collected by F.K. Meyer in 1961 in Albania. Of the 30 known mitochondrial haplotypes for the species only three (known as A, B and C) have invaded the rest of Europe since 1989, and only A is dominant. It is likely that the frequency of haplotype A has been increasing even in Balkan natural sites, aided by the late development of roads in the region.

Host plants.

As well as colonising the leaves of the common horse-chestnut, "C. ohridella" is also able to feed on "Aesculus pavia", "Acer platanoides" and "Acer pseudoplatanus", on which in particular one mitochondrial race, haplotype B, seems to develop successfully when nearby horse-chestnut leaves are exhausted, but is not thought to pose such a strong risk to these species unlike to the common horse-chestnut.

Control.

Parasitoids.

Over 60 generalist parasitoids have been recorded. However, for biological control a highly specialist parasitoid still needs to be found.

Predators.

A number of natural predators of the larval stages of "C. ohridella" have been recorded. Observations have shown that blue tits ("Parus caeruleus"), great tits ("Parus major") and marsh tits ("Parus palustris") feed on the larvae. Between them, three tit species are thought to prey on between 2 and 4% of the larvae. The southern oak bushcricket ("Meconema meridionale") has also been found to prey on "C. ohridella", consuming around 10 larvae per day. Overall the predation by the southern oak bushcricket is insignificant compared to that by birds however. Experiments with the predatory mite "Euseius finlandicus", bush crickets ("Phaneroptera" sp.), ladybirds and lacewings found that none prey on "C. ohridella".

Procedures.

Inadvisably, trees can be removed, or better, leaves cleared and burned before adult emergence by the end of March. Use of the systemic insecticide imidacloprid is usually banned as it kills bees. Fenoxycarb causes up to 100% pupal mortality, has low environmental toxicity and can be combined successfully with manual leaf removal. A synthetic pheromone can be used to trap males, but effective control may be hard to thus achieve. In any case, infestation levels could diminish over time as "Cameraria ohridella" starts to recruit generalist members of the local parasitoid wasp community.

Projects.

A number of projects have been launched to investigate the biology and biological control of "Cameraria ohridella" and its impact since 2001, for example, an EU-wide multidisciplinary project, CONTROCAM ("Control of "Cameraria"") and the HAM-CAM Project.

The horse-chestnut leaf miner ("Cameraria ohridella") is a leaf-mining moth of the family Gracillariidae. The horse-chestnut leaf miner was first observed in North Macedonia in 1984, and was described as a new species in 1986. Its larvae are leaf miners on the common horse-chestnut ("Aesculus hippocastanum"). The horse-chestnut leafminer was first collected and inadvertently pressed in herbarium sheets by the botanist Theodor von Heldreich in central Greece in 1879.


Early life.

Robert Miles was born in Fleurier, Switzerland.  Miles became proficient at playing the piano during his youth in Friuli, Italy, in the small town of Fagagna, where his family moved when he was young, and had been in the music scene since 1984. He worked as a DJ in some Italian clubs and private radio networks and in 1990, he used his savings to establish his own recording studio and a pirate radio station.

Music career.

1994–1997: Breakthrough and "Dreamland".

In 1994, Miles wrote a trance and chill-out piece based on acoustic guitar chords and soft synthesizer effects, "Children", which was later developed into a dream house song featuring a piano theme on top. The single picked up sales slowly, but within two weeks of its official release in 1995, it had sold more than 350,000 copies all over Europe and topped the charts in many countries. The single received an unprecedented "Essential Tune of The Week", three weeks in a row on Pete Tong's show causing a furious bidding war. It was then signed to Deconstruction Records in the UK by Giles Goodman of Dynamik Music (who represented Platipus Records the initial UK licensee). After occupying the Euro Top 100 chart number 1 spot for thirteen consecutive weeks, by 1997, "Children" had sold more than 5 million copies worldwide. It earned Miles platinum records in many countries, a Brit Award (Robert Miles is, to date, the only Italian artist who has received the award) as Best International Male Newcomer 1997, a World Music Award as World's Best Selling Male Newcomer and various other awards.  Miles' next single was "Fable". Part of this song was used in the theatrical trailer for the U.S. movie "Ever After" starring Drew Barrymore and Dougray Scott. His debut album "Dreamland" was released on 7 June 1996 in Europe, and released in the United States about a month later, with covering "One and One" of Polish pop diva Edyta Górniak. This cover became very popular (it reached number 1 in the Euro Top 100 Singles Chart during the Christmas period and remained in the top spot for six consecutive weeks) and was later released as a single in Europe and the U.S.

1997–1998: "23am".

In November 1997, Miles released another track, "Freedom", which was one of the key tracks on his second album "23am" featuring vocals provided by Kathy Sledge of Sister Sledge. Containing a different feel from the previously more club-oriented "Dreamland", "23am" incorporated more lyrics-driven songs than its predecessor while maintaining Miles' trademark piano sound from the first album.

1998–2002: Departure from label and "Organik".

After splitting from Deconstruction, BMG and his former management in London, he set up his own independent record label Salt Records (stylised as S:alt Records, with S:alt being short for suitably:alternative) in 2001 and released his third album, "Organik", featuring the new single "Paths" with vocals provided by Nina Miranda of Smoke City. Guests on the album included Trilok Gurtu, Bill Laswell and Nitin Sawhney. Music from "Organik" was used on various movie soundtracks such as "The Bourne Identity", "Derrida", and "City of Ghosts". It was licensed to Narada Productions' Shakti Records label in the USA. In 2002, an album containing mainly remixes of songs found on "Organik" was released. The album, appropriately entitled "Organik Remixes", contained remixes by the winners of the remixing contest held on Robert Miles's Web site, as well as remixes from well-known artists such as Future Sound of London, Riton, and Alexkid among others. The album also had one new track, "Bhairav", which featured the vocals of Amelia Cuni.

2004–2005: "Miles_Gurtu".

In 2004, Miles released "Miles Gurtu", his fourth album, which was a collaboration with percussionist Trilok Gurtu and included jazz and electronica elements. Also guesting on the album were Nitin Sawhney, Jon Thorne, Mike Patto and Paul Falloon.

2011–2012: "Thirteen".

His fifth album entitled "Thirteen" was released worldwide on Salt Records in February 2011. For this album, Miles produced a blend of alternative and progressive rock with ambient and electronic soundscapes.  In 2012 Miles finished working on the soundtrack for the movie documentary "The Turn of THIS Century", directed by Peter Beyak and featuring the photography of Life Magazine. He founded a new FM and online alternative radio station, "Open Lab", broadcasting from Ibiza, a project bringing together culture, arts, media, technology and innovation.

Death.

Miles died in Ibiza, Spain, on 9 May 2017 at the age of 47 after a 9-month battle with stage 4 metastatic cancer.  Miles’ Open Lab station was taken off-air shortly afterwards pending discussions on the future of the station. After receiving many messages from people expressing dismay at the station's suspension, it was announced that the station would be returning soon in 2019 starting with a live radio stream in January 2019 followed by a reboot to radio on 106.4 FM in Ibiza in April 2019.

Discography.

Studio albums

Roberto Concina (3 November 1969 – 9 May 2017), known professionally as Robert Miles, was a Swiss-born Italian record producer, composer, musician and DJ. His 1995 composition "Children" sold more than 5 million copies and topped the charts in many countries.


Appearance.

The Australian Silky Terrier is a small and compact short-legged terrier, at the withers, alert and active. The long silky grey and white or blue and tan coat is an identifying feature, hanging straight and parted along the back, and described as "flat, fine and glossy". All proportions and aspects of the body and head as well as desirable shades of grey and white and placement of markings are extensively described in the breed standard.  The Silky Terrier should be slightly longer than tall (about one fifth longer than the height at withers). This is a dog that was historically used for hunting and killing rodents and snakes, so its body should have enough substance to fit this role. The coat requires quite a lot of regular grooming and shampooing to retain its silkiness.  The Silky Terrier has a strong, wedge-shaped head. The eyes are small and almond-shaped. According to the standards, light-colored eyes are considered a fault. The ears are small and carried erect. The Silky Terrier has a high-set tail and small, almost catlike, feet. The coat should be long, but not so long to approach floor length. The hair on the face and ears is normally cut.

History.

The ancestors of the Australian Silky Terrier include the Yorkshire Terrier and the Australian Terrier (which descends from the rough coated type terriers brought from Great Britain to Australia in the early 19th century); few records indicate whether early dogs were just Australian Terriers born with silky fur, or whether there was an attempt to create a separate breed.<ref name="Clark/Brace"></ref> According to the American Kennel Club, the breed was created at the end of the 19th century when Yorkshire Terriers were crossed with Australian Terriers. At first the breed was known as the Sydney Silky, as it was found primarily in the city of Sydney, Australia. Although most other Australian breeds were working dogs, the Silky Terrier was bred primarily to be an urban pet and companion, although it is also known for killing snakes in Australia. Up until 1929 the Australian Terrier, the Australian Silky Terrier, and the Yorkshire Terrier were not clearly defined. Dogs of three different breeds might be born in the same litter, to be separated by appearance into the different types once they were grown. After 1932 in Australia, further crossbreeding was discouraged, and in 1955 the breed's name officially became the Australian Silky Terrier. The breed was recognised by the Australian National Kennel Council in 1958 in the Toy Group.  During and after World War II American servicemen who had been stationed in Australia brought back to the United States a few Silky Terriers. Newspaper photographs of the breed in 1954 caused an upsurge of popularity and hundreds of Silkies were imported from Australia to the United States. The American Kennel Club recognised the breed as the Silky Terrier in 1959, as did the United Kennel Club (US) in 1965 where it is shown as a Terrier; it is also recognised as the Silky Terrier by the Canadian Kennel Club. The breed is recognised by all the major kennel clubs in the English speaking world, and internationally by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale as breed number 236. It may also be recognised by various minor kennel clubs and internet breed registry businesses.

Breed Groups.

The Australian Silky Terrier is a terrier, but is usually placed in the Toy Group rather than the Terrier Group due to its small size. As breed groupings are done mostly to organise groups of breeds for dog shows, it is safer for the little dogs to be with others their own size, rather than with larger dogs. The Fédération Cynologique Internationale has a special section of the Terrier Group that includes only the smallest dogs, while other kennel clubs place the breed in the Toy Group, but it is universally agreed that the breed's type is Terrier.

Temperament.

The breed standard describe the ideal Australian Silky Terrier temperament as keenly alert and active. They love to be given chances to run and play, but must have a tightly fenced yard. They also enjoy brisk walks and playing ball. The Silky is able to do well in an apartment, although they are also an active indoor breed. It is important they are kept busy and social to discourage boredom. In a survey administered by Dogs 101, ninety-one small breed dogs (16 inches tall and under 22 lbs) were ranked by ability to learn quickly - the Silky Terrier placed in the top twenty. However, training one can be difficult, as this breed is often stubborn and deliberately willful.  They are more independent than other toy breeds, yet are affectionate and loyal to their owners. They bark readily, especially when greeting strangers.

Care.

The Silky Terrier's coat is highly susceptible to tangles and matting and requires daily brushing and combing. This breed requires a deep commitment from the owners. To keep the coat lustrous, regular shampooing is necessary. Use of an aloe and oatmeal shampoo helps alleviate the itchy, dry skin of this breed.  This particular breed should be groomed regularly. Care should also be taken while grooming near the neck area, and a harness leash should be used to protect the Silky Terrier from tracheal collapse.

The Australian Silky Terrier or simply Silky Terrier (depending on the breed registry) is a small breed of dog of the terrier dog type. The breed was developed in Australia, although the ancestral types and breeds were from Great Britain. It is closely related to the Australian Terrier and the Yorkshire Terrier. The breed is called the "Silky Terrier" in North America, but is called the "Australian Silky Terrier" in its country of origin and in the rest of the world.


Overview.

Most species are hermaphrodites, "Rubus chamaemorus" being an exception.  The blackberries, as well as various other "Rubus" species with mounding or rambling growth habits, are often called brambles. However, this name is not used for those like the raspberry that grow as upright canes, or for trailing or prostrate species, such as most dewberries, or various low-growing boreal, arctic, or alpine species.  The generic name means blackberry in Latin and was derived from the word "ruber", meaning "red".  The scientific study of brambles is known as "batology".  Examples of the hundreds of species of "Rubus" include:  The British National Collection of "Rubus" is held by Barry Clark at Houghton, Hampshire. His collection stands at over 200 species and, although not within the scope of the National Collection, he also grows many cultivars.

Hybrid berries.

The term "hybrid berry" is often used collectively for those fruits in the genus "Rubus" which have been developed mainly in the USA and UK in the last 130 years. As "Rubus" species readily interbreed and are apomicts (able to set seed without fertilisation), the parentage of these plants is often highly complex, but is generally agreed to include cultivars of blackberries, ("Rubus ursinus", "R. fruticosus") and raspberries ("R. idaeus").  The hybrid berries include:-

Scientific classification.

The genus "Rubus" is a very complex one, particularly the blackberry/dewberry subgenus ("Rubus"), with polyploidy, hybridization, and facultative apomixis apparently all frequently occurring, making species classification of the great variation in the subgenus one of the grand challenges of systematic botany.  "Rubus" species have a basic chromosome number of seven. Polyploidy from the diploid (14 chromosomes) to the tetradecaploid (98 chromosomes) is exhibited.  Some treatments have recognized dozens of species each for what other, comparably qualified botanists have considered single, more variable species. On the other hand, species in the other "Rubus" subgenera (such as the raspberries) are generally distinct, or else involved in more routine one-or-a-few taxonomic debates, such as whether the European and American red raspberries are better treated as one species or two. (In this case, the two-species view is followed here, with "Rubus idaeus" and "R. strigosus" both recognized; if these species are combined, then the older name "R. idaeus" has priority for the broader species.)  Molecular data have backed up classifications based on geography and chromosome number, but following morphological data, such as the structure of the leaves and stems, do not appear to produce a phylogenetic classification.  The classification presented below recognizes 13 subgenera within "Rubus", with the largest subgenus ("Rubus") in turn divided into 12 sections. Representative examples are presented, but many more species are not mentioned here. A comprehensive 2019 study found subgenera "Orobatus" and "Anoplobatus" to be monophyletic, while all other subgenera to be paraphyletic or polyphyletic.

Fossil record.

The genus has a likely North American origin, with the oldest fossils known from the Eocene, and expansion into Eurasia and elsewhere during the Miocene. Fossil seeds from the early Miocene of "Rubus" have been found in the Czech part of the Zittau Basin.

Rubus is a large and diverse genus of flowering plants in the rose family, Rosaceae, subfamily Rosoideae, with 250–700 species.


Background.

The immediate cause of the War of the Austrian Succession was the death in 1740 of Emperor Charles VI, last male Habsburg in the direct line. This left his eldest daughter, Maria Theresa, as heir to the Habsburg Monarchy, whose laws excluded women from the succession. The 1713 Pragmatic Sanction waived this and allowed her to inherit, but this was challenged by Charles of Bavaria, the closest male heir.  The dispute became a European issue because the Monarchy formed the most powerful single element in the Holy Roman Empire. A federation of mostly German states, it was headed by the Holy Roman Emperor, in theory an elected position but held by the Habsburgs since 1440. In January 1742, Charles of Bavaria became the first non-Habsburg Emperor in 300 years, with the support of France, Prussia and Saxony. Maria Theresa was backed by the so-called Pragmatic Allies, which in addition to Austria included Britain, Hanover and the Dutch Republic.  In December 1740, Prussia invaded the Austrian province of Silesia, whose mining, weaving and dyeing industries provided 10% of total Imperial income. France, Saxony and Bavaria occupied Habsburg territories in Bohemia, while Spain joined the war, hoping to regain possessions in Northern Italy lost to Austria in 1713. By early 1742, Austria's position seemed desperate; Britain agreed to send a naval squadron to the Mediterranean and 17,000 troops to the Austrian Netherlands, under the Earl of Stair.  However, Austria made peace with Prussia in the June 1742 Treaty of Breslau; by December, they occupied most of Bavaria while the French armies were devastated by disease. The focus of the 1743 campaign switched to Germany; the Austrians defeated the Bavarians at Simbach and in mid-June, the Allied army arrived at Aschaffenburg, on the north bank of the River Main. Here they were joined by George II, who was attending the coronation of a new Elector of Mainz.  By late June, the Allies were running short of supplies; the nearest depot to Aschaffenburg was at Hanau, the road to which ran through Dettingen. Here, French commander, the duc de Noailles, positioned 23,000 troops under his nephew, the duc de Gramont.

Battle.

Around 1:00 am on 27 June, the Allies left Aschaffenburg in three columns, and marched along the north bank of the Main, heading for Hanau. The French position at Dettingen was extremely strong; De Gramont's infantry held a line anchored on the village, and running to the Spessart Heights, with the cavalry on level ground to their left. Noailles instructed de Vallière to place his guns on the south bank of the Main, which allowed them to fire into the left flank of the Pragmatic army.  Inadequate reconnaissance was a problem for the Pragmatic Army throughout the war, and the French presence in Dettingen took them by surprise. Their danger became clear when Noailles sent another 12,000 troops over the Main at Aschaffenburg, into the Allied rear; he had high hopes of destroying their entire army. Ilton, commander of the Allied infantry, ordered the British and Hanoverian Foot Guards back to Aschaffenburg, while the remainder changed from column of march into four lines to attack the French position. As they did so, they were fired on by the French artillery, although this caused relatively few casualties.  Despite being ordered three times by Noailles to hold their position, around midday the elite Maison du Roi cavalry charged the Allied lines. Who initiated it is disputed, de Gramont being the most common choice; French historian De Périni suggests the Maison de Roi, who not seen action since Malplaquet in 1709, saw an opportunity to win the battle on their own. They were followed by the Gardes Françaises infantry, in a disjointed and piecemeal attack.  However, led by the duc d'Harcourt, they broke through the first three lines, capturing a number of standards, and throwing the inexperienced British cavalry into confusion. De Vallière ceased fire for fear of hitting his own troops, and the British infantry in the fourth line were able to hold their ground. A Hanoverian artillery battery began firing at close range into the French infantry, while an Austrian brigade took them in the flank. After three hours of fighting, the French retreated to the left bank of the Main, most of their casualties occurring when one of the bridges collapsed.  The Pragmatic army continued towards Hanau; although suggested they could have exploited their victory, they were in no shape to attempt a contested river crossing. Their precarious position was demonstrated by the need to abandon their wounded in order to move faster.

Aftermath.

Although George II handed out numerous promotions and rewards to his subordinates, Dettingen was a lucky escape. The Allies, short of supplies and in retreat, had escaped, but had to abandon their wounded, and would have suffered a serious defeat if Noailles' orders had been followed. Unable to agree how to best exploit their 'victory', they ended by doing nothing, and in October, took up winter quarters in the Netherlands.  It was the last battle for several senior officers; in 1744, Noailles was appointed Foreign Minister, while de Gramont was killed at Fontenoy in 1745. The 70 year old Stair retired, and was replaced by the equally elderly George Wade.  The Allied cavalry performed woefully, failing to locate 23,000 men across their line of retreat, less than 8 miles away, while many troopers were allegedly unable to control their horses. Only the infantry's training and discipline saved the army from destruction; in recognition, one of the training companies at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst is named 'Dettingen.'  In honour of the battle, and his patron George II, Handel composed the "Dettingen Te Deum" and "Dettingen Anthem."

The Battle of Dettingen () took place on 27 June 1743 during the War of the Austrian Succession, at Dettingen, now Karlstein am Main in Bavaria. It was fought between a Pragmatic Army, composed of British, Hanoverian and Austrian troops, and a French army commanded by the duc de Noailles.


Early life.

William was born on 19 February 1817 in the Palace of the Nation in Brussels, which was part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands at the time. He was the eldest son of the future king William II of the Netherlands and Anna Pavlovna of Russia. He had three brothers, one of whom died in infancy, and one sister.  In 1827, at the age of ten, he was made an honorary colonel in the Royal Netherlands Army. In the 1830s, he served as lieutenant in the Grenadiers Regiment. In 1834, he was made honorary commander of the Grenadiers Regiment of Kiev nr. 5 in the Imperial Russian Army.  He married his first cousin, Sophie, daughter of King William I of Württemberg and Grand Duchess Catherine Pavlovna of Russia, in Stuttgart on 18 June 1839. This marriage was unhappy and was characterized by struggles about their children. Sophie was a liberal intellectual, hating everything leaning toward dictatorship, such as the army. William was simpler, more conservative, and loved the military. He prohibited intellectual exercise at home, for which action Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom, who corresponded with Princess Sophie, called him an uneducated farmer. His extramarital enthusiasms, however, led the "New York Times" to call him "the greatest debauchee of the age". Another cause of marital tension (and later political tension) was his capriciousness; he could rage against someone one day, and be extremely polite the next.  William loathed the 1848 constitutional changes initiated by his father (William II) and Johan Rudolf Thorbecke. His father saw them as key to the monarchy's survival in changing times. Sophie, who was a liberal, also shared this view. William himself saw them as useless limitations of royal power, and would have preferred to govern as an enlightened despot in the mold of his grandfather, William I.  He considered relinquishing his right to the throne to his younger brother Henry and later to his older son. His mother convinced him to cancel this action. The Dutch constitution provided no way to relinquish one's claim to the throne.  On 17 March 1849 his father died and William succeeded to the throne of the Netherlands. He was at that moment a guest of the Duchess of Cleveland in Raby Castle. Representatives of the Dutch government traveled to London to meet their new king in London. William was reluctant to return, but he was convinced to do so. Upon arrival the new Queen welcomed her spouse with the question "did you accept?". The new king nodded, but he remained uncertain about the matter for some time.

Reign.

William repeatedly contemplated abdicating as soon as his eldest son William, Prince of Orange, turned eighteen. This occurred in 1858, but as William was uncomfortable making a decision he remained king. His first act was the inauguration of the parliamentary cabinet of Thorbecke, the liberal designer of the 1848 constitution, whom William loathed.  When the Roman Catholic hierarchy of bishops was restored in 1853 he found growing conservative support and a reason to dismiss Thorbecke. In the first two decades of his reign, he dismissed several cabinets and disbanded the States-General several times, installing royal cabinets which ruled as long as there was support in the elected second chamber of parliament.  In what became known as the "Luxembourg Coup of 1856", William unilaterally instituted a new, reactionary constitution for Luxembourg, which he ruled personally, separate from the Netherlands crown.  In 1867, France offered to buy Luxembourg, leading to the Luxembourg Crisis, which almost precipitated war between Prussia and France. However, the subsequent Second Treaty of London re-established Luxembourg as a fully independent country.  During his reign, the king became more and more unpopular with his bourgeois-liberal subjects, his whims provoking their resistance and mockery, but remained quite popular with the common man.  The king was a man of immense stature and with a boisterous voice. He could be gentle and kind, then suddenly he could become intimidating and even violent. He kicked and hit his servants about. He was inclined to terrorize and humiliate his courtiers. The king was cruel to animals as well. His ministers were afraid of him. Most people around him agreed that he was, to some degree, insane.  The king could be erratic, he ordered the dismissal and even the arrest and execution of those that he found in lack of respect, including a Mayor of The Hague. Orders like these were disregarded. The king who thought of himself as a specialist on all matters military frequently tried to take command of manoeuvres, creating chaos wherever he went.  In 1877, Queen Sophie died and years of war in the palace came to an end. In the same year, King William announced his intention to marry Émilie Ambre, a French opera singer, whom he ennobled as countess d'Ambroise – without government consent. Under pressure from society and the government, he abandoned these marriage plans.  William remained eager to remarry. In 1878, he first proposed to his niece, Princess Elisabeth of Saxe-Weimar. He then considered marriage with Princess Pauline of Waldeck and Pyrmont, a small German principality, and Princess Thyra of Denmark, who had her own private scandalous history.  He finally decided to marry Pauline's younger sister Emma. Some politicians were quite angry, as she was 41 years the king's junior. Emma showed herself, however, as a cordial woman. William asked permission from parliament, this was easily granted. The couple were quickly married in Arolsen on 7 January 1879.  Emma had a relieving influence on William's capricious personality and the marriage was extremely happy. The last decade was without any doubt the best of his reign. The king had stopped interfering with most aspects of government. In 1880, Wilhelmina was born. She became heiress presumptive in 1884 after the death of the last remaining son from William's first marriage. Many potential male heirs had died between 1878 and 1884.  King William became seriously ill in 1887. He was suffering from a kidney-ailment. However, in 1888, he personally presented a gold medal of honor to the lifeboat hero Dorus Rijkers, for saving the lives of 20 people.  In 1888 and 1889 the ailing king became increasingly demented. The Council of State and then Queen Emma became regents. William III died in Het Loo in 1890. Because Wilhelmina had not yet reached adulthood, Emma became regent for her daughter. She would remain regent until Wilhelmina's eighteenth birthday in 1898.  Because the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg could only be inherited through the male Nassau line under the terms of the house-treaty of the House of Nassau, it went to William's 17th cousin once removed (and incidentally Emma's uncle on her mother's side), Adolphe, Duke of Nassau. His branch of the House of Nassau still governs the Grand Duchy.

Family and issue.

Of William III's four legitimate children, three reached adulthood, two sons from his marriage to Queen Sophie and one daughter from his marriage to Queen Emma:  Standing at 6'5" (196 cm) he was an exceptionally large and strong man by the standards of his age. William III was known to be a philanderer and had several dozen illegitimate children from various mistresses. Through one of his out-of-wedlock children, William III was a maternal ancestor of kickboxer Alistair Overeem.

William III (Dutch: "Willem Alexander Paul Frederik Lodewijk"; English: "William Alexander Paul Frederick Louis"; 19 February 1817 – 23 November 1890) was King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg from 1849 until his death in 1890. He was also the Duke of Limburg from 1849 until the abolition of the duchy in 1866.


Biography.

Leclair was born in Lyon, but left to study dance and the violin in Turin. In 1716, he married Marie-Rose Casthanie, a dancer, who died about 1728. Leclair had returned to Paris in 1723, where he played at the Concert Spirituel, the main semi-public music series. His works included several sonatas for flute and basso continuo.  In 1730, Leclair married for the second time. His new wife was the engraver Louise Roussel, who prepared for printing all his works from Opus 2 onward. Named "ordinaire de la musique" by Louis XV in 1733, Leclair resigned in 1737 after a clash with Guidon over control of the musique du Roy.  Leclair was then engaged by the Princess of Orange – a fine harpsichordist and former student of Handel – and from 1738 until 1743, served three months annually at her court in Leeuwarden, working in The Hague as a private for the remainder of the year. He returned to Paris in 1743. His only opera "Scylla et Glaucus" was first performed in 1746 and has been revived in modern times. From 1740 until his death in Paris, he served the Duke of Gramont, in whose private theatre at Puteaux were staged works to which Leclair is known to have contributed. They included, in particular, a lengthy divertissement for the comedy (1749) and one complete entrée,, for the opéra-ballet by various authors, (1750).  Leclair was renowned as a violinist and as a composer. He successfully drew upon all of Europe's national styles. Many suites, sonatas, and concertos survive along with his opera, while some vocal works, ballets, and other stage music are lost.

Murder.

In 1758, after the break-up of his second marriage, Leclair purchased a small house in a dangerous Parisian neighborhood in the northern part of Le Marais near the old Temple, where he was found stabbed to death on October 23, 1764. Although the murder remains a mystery, there is a possibility that his ex-wife may have been behind it – her motive being financial gain – although the strongest suspicion rests on his nephew, Guillaume-François Vial.

Jean-Marie Leclair l'aîné, also known as Jean-Marie Leclair the Elder (10 May 1697 – 22 October 1764), was a Baroque violinist and composer. He is considered to have founded the French violin school. His brothers Jean-Marie Leclair the younger (1703–77), Pierre Leclair (1709–84) and Jean-Benoît Leclair (1714–after 1759) were also musicians.


Name.

The genus name, "Trifolium", derives from the Latin ', "three", and ', "leaf", so called from the characteristic form of the leaf, which usually but not always has three leaflets (trifoliolate); hence the popular name "trefoil". The species name, "", is Latin for "creeping".

Description.

It is a herbaceous, perennial plant. It is low growing, with heads of whitish flowers, often with a tinge of pink or cream that may come on with the aging of the plant. The heads are generally wide, and are at the end of 7-cm (2.8-in) peduncles or inflorescence stalks. The flowers are mostly visited by bumblebees and often by honey bees. The leaves are trifoliolate, smooth, elliptic to egg-shaped and long-petioled and usually with light or dark markings. The stems function as stolons, so white clover often forms mats, with the stems creeping as much as a year, and rooting at the nodes. The leaves form the symbol known as shamrock. Almost always, a white clover will be trifoliolate. However, one can, but only rarely, possess four leaflets.

Distribution.

It is native in Europe and Central Asia, ubiquitous throughout the British Isles, introduced in North America, South Africa, New Zealand, Japan and elsewhere, and globally cultivated as a forage crop.

Ancestry.

"Trifolium repens" is a tetraploid (4n=32) with two diploid ancestors. In order to increase genetic diversity for breeding, research is focused on finding these ancestors. Proposed ancestors of "Trifolium repens" include "Trifolium nigrescens, Trifolium occidentale, Trifolium pallescens," and "Trifolium uniflorum."" " Additionally, it is possible that one of the diploid ancestors has yet to be analyzed, either because it has not been discovered or is extinct.

Cultivation and uses.

Forage.

White clover has been described as the most important forage legume of the temperate zones. Symbiotic nitrogen fixation (up to 545 kg N per hectare per year, although usually much less, e.g. about 110 to 170 kg N per hectare per year) in root nodules of white clover obviates synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use for maintaining productivity on much temperate zone pasture land. White clover is commonly grown in mixtures with forage grasses, e.g. perennial ryegrass ("Lolium perenne"). Such mixtures can not only optimize livestock production, but can also reduce the bloat risk to livestock that can be associated with excessive white clover in pastures. Such species mixtures also tend to avoid issues that could otherwise be associated with cyanogenic glycoside (linamarin and lotaustralin) intake on pure or nearly pure stands of some white clover varieties. However, problems do not inevitably arise with grazing on monocultures of white clover, and superior ruminant production is sometimes achieved on white clover monocultures managed to optimize sward height. Formononetin and biochanin A play a role in arbuscular mycorrhiza formation on white clover roots, and foliar disease can stimulate production of estrogenic coumestans in white clover. However, while there have been a few reports of phytoestrogenic effects of white clover on grazing ruminants, these have been far less common than such reports regarding some varieties of subterranean and red clover. Among forage plants, some white clover varieties tend to be favored by rather close grazing, because of their stoloniferous habit, which can contribute to competitive advantage.

Companion planting, green manure, and cover crops.

White clover grows well as a companion plant among lawns, grain crops, pasture grasses, and vegetable rows. It is often added to lawn seed mixes, as it is able to grow and provide green cover in poorer soils where turfgrasses do not perform well. White clover can tolerate close mowing and grazing, and it can grow on many different types and pHs of soil (although it prefers clay soils). As a leguminous and hardy plant, it is considered to be a beneficial component of natural or organic pasture management and lawn care due to its ability to fix nitrogen and out-compete weeds. Natural nitrogen fixing reduces leaching from the soil and by maintaining soil health can reduce the incidence of some lawn diseases that are enhanced by the availability of synthetic fertilizer. For these reasons, it is often used as a green manure and cover crop.

Culinary uses.

Besides making an excellent forage crop for livestock, its leaves and flowers are a valuable survival food: they are high in proteins, and are widespread and abundant. The fresh plants have been used for centuries as additives to salads and other meals consisting of leafy vegetables. They are not easy for humans to digest raw, however, but this is easily fixed by boiling the harvested plants for 5–10 minutes. Dried white clover flowers may also be smoked as an herbal alternative to tobacco.

Medicinal uses.

In India, "T. repens" is considered a folk medicine against intestinal helminthic worms, and an experimental in-vivo study validated that the aerial shoots of "T. repens" bear significant anticestodal properties.

Etymology.

"Trifolium" means 'trefoil' (three-lobed leaves); this is Pliny’s name for trifoliate plants.  "Repens" means 'creeping' or'stoloniferous'.

References.

Tangpu, V., Temjenmongla & Yadav, A. K. 2004. Anticestodal activity of Trifolium repens extract. Pharmaceutical Biology 42: 656–658.

Trifolium repens, the white clover (also known as Dutch clover, Ladino clover, or Ladino), is a herbaceous perennial plant in the bean family Fabaceae (previously referred to as Leguminosae). It is native to Europe, including the British Isles, and central Asia and is one of the most widely cultivated types of clover. It has been widely introduced worldwide as a forage crop, and is now also common in most grassy areas (lawns and gardens) of North America and New Zealand. The species includes varieties often classed as small, intermediate and large, according to height, which reflects petiole length. The term “white clover” is applied to the species in general, “Dutch clover” is often applied to intermediate varieties (but sometimes to smaller varieties), and “ladino clover” is applied to large varieties.


Description.

Red clover is a herbaceous, short-lived perennial plant, variable in size, growing to tall. It has a deep taproot which makes it tolerant to drought and gives it a good soil structuring effect. The leaves are alternate, trifoliate (with three leaflets), each leaflet long and broad, green with a characteristic pale crescent in the outer half of the leaf; the petiole is long, with two basal stipules that are abruptly narrowed to a bristle-like point. The flowers are dark pink with a paler base, long, produced in a dense inflorescence, and are mostly visited by bumblebees.

Distribution.

The red clover is native to Europe, Western Asia, and northwest Africa, but it has been naturalized in other continents, like North and South America. Specifically, the red clover was brought to Argentina and Chile over 100 years ago, although it is not clear how exactly it was introduced. The red clover has become increasingly important as a source of economic stability in Chile, which has made the need for pollinators even more important. One important pollinator, which was also brought from Europe, is "Bombus ruderatus", or the large garden bumblebee. This bumblebee has been one of the important pollinators of red clover in South America and other countries such as New Zealand.

Uses.

It is widely grown as a fodder crop, valued for its nitrogen fixation, which increases soil fertility. For these reasons, it is used as a green manure crop. Several cultivar groups have been selected for agricultural use, mostly derived from "T. pratense" var. "sativum". It has become naturalised in many temperate areas, including the Americas and Australasia as an escape from cultivation.  Due to its beauty, it is used as an ornamental plant.  Red clover's flowers and leaves are edible, and can be added as garnishes to any dish. They can be ground into a flour.  The flowers often are used to make jelly and tisanes, and are used in essiac recipes. Their essential oil may be extracted and its unique scent used in aromatherapy.

Medical uses of the plant.

"Trifolium pratense" is used in traditional medicine of India as deobstruent, antispasmodic, expectorant, sedative, anti-inflammatory and antidermatosis agent.  In alternative medicine, red clover is promoted as a treatment for a variety of human maladies, including symptoms of menopause, coughs, disorders of the lymphatic system and a variety of cancers. Several systemic reviews and meta-analyses concluded that red clover extract reduces the frequency of menopause hot flashes. Most added that further research is needed to confirm the results. There is no evidence in the human trial literature that red clover has been tested for effects on cough, lymphatic system or cancer prevention/treatment. Dietary amounts of red clover are safe, but dietary supplement extracts may cause rash-like reactions, muscle ache, headache, nausea, vaginal bleeding in women, and slow blood clotting.  Red clover contains coumestrol, a phytoestrogen. Due to its activity on oestrogen receptors, red clover is contraindicated in people with a history of breast cancer, endometriosis, ovarian cancer, uterine cancer, uterine fibroids or other oestrogen-sensitive conditions, although some authors have suggested the high isoflavone content counteracts this, and even provides benefits in these conditions. It is said to be a blood cleanser.  Due to its coumarin derivatives, "T. pratense" should be used with caution in individuals with coagulation disorders or currently undergoing anticoagulation therapy.  It is metabolised by CYP3A4 and therefore caution should be used when taking it with other drugs using this metabolic pathway.

Diseases.

Red clover is subject to bacterial as well as fungal diseases, including the red clover rust, "Uromyces trifolii-repentis" var. "fallens". Other problems include parasitic nematodes (roundworms) and viruses.

Symbolism.

"Trifolium pratense" is the national flower of Denmark and the state flower of Vermont.

Trifolium pratense, the red clover, is a herbaceous species of flowering plant in the bean family Fabaceae, native to Europe, Western Asia, and northwest Africa, but planted and naturalised in many other regions.


Life.

Dreyer was born illegitimate in Copenhagen, Denmark. His birth mother was an unmarried Scanian maid named Josefine Bernhardine Nilsson, and he was put up for adoption by his birth father, Jens Christian Torp, a married Danish farmer living in Sweden who was his mother's employer. He spent the first two years of his life in orphanages until his adoption by a typographer named Carl Theodor Dreyer, and his wife, Inger Marie (née Olsen). He was named after his adoptive father, but in accordance with Danish practice, there is no "Senior" or "Junior" added to their names to distinguish them from each other.  His adoptive parents were emotionally distant and his childhood was largely unhappy. He later recalled that his parents "constantly let me know that I should be grateful for the food I was given and that I strictly had no claim on anything, since my mother got out of paying by lying down to die." But he was a highly intelligent school student, who left home and formal education at the age of sixteen. He dissociated himself from his adoptive family, but their teachings were to influence the themes of many of his films.  Dreyer was ideologically conservative. According to David Bordwell, "As a youth he belonged to the Social Liberal party, a conservative group radical only in their opposition to military expenditures...'Even when I was with "Ekstrabladet",' Dreyer recalled, 'I was conservative...I don't believe in revolutions. They have, as a rule, the tedious quality of pulling development back. I believe more in evolution, in the small advances.'"  Dreyer died of pneumonia in Copenhagen at age 79. The documentary "" contains reminiscences from those who knew him.

Career.

As a young man, Dreyer worked as a journalist, but he eventually joined the film industry as a writer of title cards for silent films and subsequently of screenplays. He was initially hired by Nordisk Film in 1913.  His first attempts at film direction had limited success, and he left Denmark to work in the French film industry. While living in France he met Jean Cocteau, Jean Hugo and other members of the French artistic scene and in 1928 he made his first classic film, "The Passion of Joan of Arc". Working from the transcripts of Joan's trial, he created a masterpiece of emotion that drew equally on realism and expressionism. Dreyer used private finance from Baron Nicolas de Gunzburg to make his next film as the Danish film industry was in financial ruin. "Vampyr" (1932) is a surreal meditation on fear. Logic gave way to mood and atmosphere in this story of a man protecting two sisters from a vampire. The movie contains many indelible images, such as the hero, played by de Gunzburg (under the screen name Julian West), dreaming of his own burial and the animal blood lust on the face of one of the sisters as she suffers under the vampire's spell. The film was shot mostly silent but with sparse, cryptic dialogue in three separate versions – English, French and German.  Both films were box office failures, and Dreyer did not make another movie until 1943. Denmark was by now under Nazi occupation, and his "Day of Wrath" had as its theme the paranoia surrounding witch hunts in the seventeenth century in a strongly theocratic culture. With this work, Dreyer established the style that would mark his sound films: careful compositions, stark monochrome cinematography, and very long takes. In the more than a decade before his next full-length feature film, Dreyer made two documentaries. In 1955, he made "Ordet" ("The Word") based on the play of the same name by Kaj Munk. The film combines a love story with a conflict of faith. Dreyer's last film was 1964's "Gertrud". Although seen by some as a lesser film than its predecessors, it is a fitting close to Dreyer's career, as it deals with a woman who, through the tribulations of her life, never expresses regret for her choices.  The great, never finished project of Dreyer's career was a film about Jesus. Though a manuscript was written (published 1968) the unstable economic conditions and Dreyer's own demands of realism together with his switching engagement let it remain a dream.

Carl Theodor Dreyer (; 3 February 1889 – 20 March 1968), commonly known as Carl Th. Dreyer, was a Danish film director. His movies are renown for their emotional austerity and slow, stately pacing. Frequent themes that his films explore are unequal struggle of women and the innocent against repression and social intolerance, the inescapability of fate and death, the power of evil in earthly life. His 1928 movie The Passion of Joan of Arc is considered to be one of the greatest movies of all time, renown for its cinematography and use of close-ups. It frequently appears on Sight & Sound's lists of the greatest films ever made, and in 2012's poll it was voted the 9th best film ever made by film critics and 37th by film directors.


Plot.

In the small town of Endora, Iowa, Gilbert Grape (Johnny Depp) is busy caring for Arnie (Leonardo DiCaprio), his mentally impaired brother, as they wait for the many tourists' trailers to pass through town during an annual Airstreamers' Club gathering at a nearby recreational area. His father had hanged himself 7 years earlier, and since then his mother, Bonnie (Darlene Cates), has spent most of her days on the couch watching TV and eating. With Bonnie's morbid obesity leaving her unable to care for her children on her own, Gilbert has taken responsibility for repairing the old house and looking after Arnie, who has a habit of climbing the town water tower, while his sisters Amy (Laura Harrington) and Ellen (Mary Kate Schellhardt) do the rest. The relationship between the brothers is of both care and protection, as Gilbert continually enforces a "nobody touches Arnie" policy. A new FoodLand supermarket has opened, threatening the small Lamson's Grocery where Gilbert works. In addition, Gilbert is having an affair with a married woman, Betty Carver (Mary Steenburgen).  The family is looking forward to Arnie's 18th birthday. A young woman named Becky (Juliette Lewis) and her grandmother are stuck in town when the International Harvester Travelall pulling their trailer breaks down. Gilbert's unusual life circumstances threaten to get in the way of their budding romance. In order to spend time with Becky to watch the sunset, Gilbert leaves Arnie alone in the bath. He returns home late and finds that Arnie is still in the bath the following morning, shivering in the now cold water; his guilt is compounded by his family's anger and Arnie's subsequent aquaphobia. His affair with Betty ends when she leaves town in search of a new life following her husband's death—who drowned in the family's wading pool after suffering a heart attack. Becky becomes close to both Gilbert and Arnie. While they are distracted during one of their talks, Arnie returns to the water tower that he is always trying to climb. Arnie is arrested after being rescued from the top of the tower, causing his mother—who has not left the house in over seven years—to become the object of pointing, laughing, and gawking from the townspeople as she goes to the police station, forcing Arnie's release.  Soon after, Arnie tries to run away from his bath and in his frustration, Gilbert finally snaps, hitting Arnie several times. Guilty and appalled at himself, Gilbert runs out and drives away in his truck without another word. Arnie also runs out and goes to Becky's, who takes care of him for the evening (and helping him overcome his aquaphobia) until he is picked up by his sisters. After some soul searching aided by Becky, Gilbert returns home during the birthday party to make amends to his family for running out and to be forgiven by Arnie which, with only the slightest hesitation, he is. He apologizes to his mother for his behavior and promises that he is not ashamed of her and that he will not let her be hurt anymore. She admits to Gilbert her knowledge of what a burden she has become to the family, and he forgives her. He introduces her to Becky — something he had been reluctant to do earlier.  Following Arnie's 18th birthday party, Bonnie climbs the stairs to her bedroom for the first time since her husband's suicide. Arnie later tries to wake her but discovers that she has died. The children, not willing to let their mother become the joke of the town by having her corpse lifted from the house by crane, empty their family home of possessions and set it on fire with her in it, burning her to ashes and the house down. A year later, Gilbert describes what happened to his family after his mother's death (Amy is managing a bakery while Ellen is looking forward to switching schools) as Gilbert and his brother Arnie wait by the side of a road for Becky, who arrives with her grandmother and picks them up.

Production.

"What's Eating Gilbert Grape" was shot in Texas, in various towns and cities; Austin and Pflugerville were primary locations, as well as Manor, where the water tower featured in the film was located.  "Film Review" quoted actor Leonardo DiCaprio:

Release.

The film had a limited release on December 17, 1993 and wide release on March 4, 1994. The wide release garnered $2,104,938 on its first weekend. It was considered a box office bomb, with the total domestic gross for the film being $10,032,765.

Critical reception.

The film received positive reviews, with many critics praising the performances by Depp & DiCaprio. The latter was singled out for his performances in the film, with many saying DiCaprio stole the film from the lead actor Depp. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film was given a 90% "Certified Fresh" score and an average rating of 7.3/10 based on 49 reviews. The site's consensus states that the film is "sentimental and somewhat predictable, but those are small complaints, given the tender atmosphere and moving performances at the heart of "What's Eating Gilbert Grape"." "The New York Times" film critic Janet Maslin praised DiCaprio's performance, writing "the film's real show-stopping turn comes from Mr. DiCaprio, who makes Arnie's many tics so startling and vivid that at first he is difficult to watch... The performance has a sharp, desperate intensity from beginning to end." Roger Ebert of "Chicago Sun-Times" described it as "... one of the most enchanting films of the year" and said that DiCaprio deserved to win the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for which he was nominated. Todd McCarthy of "Variety" found the film a "bemused view on life" and remarked that "Depp manages to command center screen with a greatly affable, appealing characterization." "The Washington Post"s Desson Howe thought the film was an earnest but highly predictable effort. "Film Review" praised Leonardo DiCaprio as the mentally handicapped brother, calling it "a performance of astonishing innocence and spontaneity", bringing "a touching credibility to a very difficult part".  The film was nominated for the prestigious Grand Prix of the Belgian Syndicate of Cinema Critics.

What's Eating Gilbert Grape is a 1993 American drama film directed by Lasse Hallström and starring Johnny Depp, Juliette Lewis, Darlene Cates, and Leonardo DiCaprio. The film follows 24-year-old Gilbert (Depp), a grocery store clerk caring for his morbidly obese mother (Cates) and his mentally impaired younger brother (DiCaprio) in a sleepy Midwestern town. Peter Hedges wrote the screenplay, based on his 1991 novel of the same name. The film was well-received; DiCaprio received his first Academy Award nomination for his role.


Design and development.

Developed from the Antonov An-8, the An-12 was a military version of the An-10 passenger transport. The first prototype An-12 flew in December 1957 and entered Soviet military service in 1959. Initially, the aircraft was produced at the State Aviation Factory in Irkutsk. From 1962, production was transferred to Tashkent, where 830 were built. Later, production moved to Voronezh and Kazan.  In military use, the An-12 has capacity for up to 100 fully equipped paratroopers or 20,000 kg (44,090 lb) of cargo, which is loaded through the rear loading ramp/door.  In terms of configuration, size, and capability, the aircraft is similar to the United States-built Lockheed C-130 Hercules. Soviet military and former-Soviet An-12s have a defensive tail gun turret.

Chinese production.

In the 1960s, China purchased several An-12 aircraft from the Soviet Union, along with a license to assemble the aircraft locally. Due to the Sino-Soviet split, the Soviet Union withdrew its technical assistance and the first flight of a Chinese-assembled An-12 was delayed until 1974. After USSR ceased production in 1973, the Xi'an Aircraft Company and Xi'an Aircraft Design Institute reverse-engineered the An-12 for local production.  In 1981, the Chinese version of the An-12, designated Y-8, entered production. Since then, the Y-8 has become one of China's most popular military and civilian transport/cargo aircraft, with many variants produced and exported. A Tu-16/H-6 bomber navigator cockpit design was chosen for the Y-8 instead of the original An-12 shorter navigator cockpit design, as the H-6 bomber had been in serial production for some time. Although the An-12 is no longer in use either in Russia or in Ukraine, the Y-8 is upgraded and produced in China. The latest Y8-F600 is a joint venture between the Shaanxi Aircraft Company, Antonov Aeronautical Scientific Technical Complex (ASTC), and Pratt & Whitney Canada. The Y8-F600 has a redesigned fuselage, western avionics, PW150B turboprop engines with an R-408 propeller system, and a two-crew glass cockpit.

Variants.

In addition to its basic cargo transport role, the An-12 was adapted as a platform for a wide variety of specialist tasks and some 30 different variants were produced. Upgrades included increased take-off weights and additional fuel capacity. The upgraded variant An-12BP became the standard tactical transport of the Soviet and other air forces. In 2019, it was announced at the military "Army-2019" Forum that Russia started working on an armed ground-attack and close air support variant of the An-12, similar to the AC-130.

Operational history.

Soviet Air Forces.

The Aircraft first took flight in 1957 and was produced in the USSR until 1973. It was used in a variety of roles from search and rescue operations to equipment transportation. Its most significant use was seen during the Soviet-Afghan War. Among Soviet Soldiers, it was infamously known that the plane would take off from Afghanistan to Tashkent with "Cargo 200" or coffins with the bodies of deceased soldiers. To this regard the aircraft was nicknamed "Black Tulip" (Russian: «Чёрный тюльпан»).

Operators.

Currently the An-12 is very popular with cargo operators, especially those in the CIS, Africa and the Indian subcontinent.

Civil operators.

On 12 January 2009, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) issued a temporary ban of the An-12 from flying over their airspace following runway incursions at Sharjah International Airport and the GCAA has advised operators to stop using the aircraft. The ban was made permanent in Feb 2010.

The Antonov An-12 (Russian: Антонов Ан-12; NATO reporting name: Cub) is a four-engined turboprop transport aircraft designed in the Soviet Union. It is the military version of the Antonov An-10 and has many variants. For more than three decades the An-12 was the standard medium-range cargo and paratroop transport aircraft of the Soviet air forces. A total of 1,234 were eventually built.


Early and personal life.

He was born in Bindal as a son of farmer Ulrik Frederik Suhm Sverdrup (1833–1914) and his wife Petra Neumann Knoph (1831–1885). He was a great-grandnephew of Georg Sverdrup and Jacob Liv Borch Sverdrup, first cousin twice removed of Harald Ulrik and Johan Sverdrup, second cousin once removed of Jakob, Georg and Edvard Sverdrup, third cousin of Georg Johan, Jakob, Mimi, Leif and Harald Ulrik Sverdrup. He was a brother-in-law of Johan Vaaler, and Otto himself married his own first cousin, Gretha Andrea Engelschiøn (1866–1937), in October 1891 in Kristiania. Their daughter Audhild Sverdrup (1893–1932) married Carl Johan Sverdrup Marstrander.  His father was born on Buøy in Kolvereid municipality. As oldest son Otto was heir to the Sverdrup properties at Buøy. However, he left it all to his younger brothers and went to Åbygda in Bindal, to the farm named Hårstad, where Otto Sverdrup was born. In 1872, at the age of 17, Otto Sverdrup returned to Nærøy, to Ottersøy where his uncle Søren worked in transportation with his own vessels. Here Sverdrup started his career as a seaman and after a while he was sailing abroad. In 1875, he passed his mate's examination, and some years later the shipmaster's examination.  In 1877 Sverdrup's parents moved from Bindal to the farm Trana outside Steinkjer. At this time O. T. Olsen, a teacher and employee in the bank at Kolvereid and a relative of his mother, had purchased the steamboat "TRIO". Sverdrup was employed as captain. Around this time Sverdrup also met the lawyer Alexander Nansen who lived in Namsos. He was the brother of Fridtjof Nansen and through him Sverdrup and Fridtjof Nansen learned to know each other.

Career and expeditions.

Sverdrup joined Fridtjof Nansen's expedition of 1888 across Greenland. In 1892 he was an advisor to Fridtjof Nansen when the ship "Fram" was built. In 1893 Sverdrup was given command of the ship, and in 1895 he was left in charge of it while Nansen attempted to reach the North Pole. Sverdrup managed to free the ship from the ice near Svalbard in August 1896 and sailed to Skjervøy, arriving just 4 days after Nansen had reached Norway.  In the summer of 1897 Sverdrup worked as the shipmaster of "Lofoten", a passenger ship to and from Svalbard. In 1898 he embarked on another expedition with "Fram". Sverdrup attempted to circumnavigate Greenland via Baffin Bay but failed to make it through the Nares Strait. Forced to overwinter on Ellesmere Island, he and his crew explored and named many uncharted fjords and peninsulas on the western shores of the island, explaining the Norwegian names, such as Hoved Island ("main island") and Prince Gustav Adolf Sea (after the Swedish king Gustav VI Adolf) in the Canadian Arctic.  Between 1899 and 1902, he overwintered three more times on Ellesmere Island in the Canadian Arctic with the "Fram", continuing to explore and map, culminating in the discovery of the islands to the west of Ellesmere Island, namely Axel Heiberg, Amund Ringnes and Ellef Ringnes, collectively known as the Sverdrup Islands. In adopting Inuit methods, Sverdrup and his crew were able to chart a total of 260,000 square kilometers - more than any other polar exploration. The area was famously mapped by his topographer, Gunnar Isachsen, and 35 academic publications were penned as a result of the expedition. Upon Sverdrup's return in Norway, he was treated as a national hero. However, he remains relatively unknown in North America, and relatively unknown for his Canadian exploration in Norway. Sverdrup officially claimed all three islands he discovered for Norway in 1902, setting off a sovereignty dispute with Canada, which claimed sovereignty over all land, discovered or undiscovered in what is now the Canadian Arctic. The dispute was not settled until 1930 when Norway ceded the islands to Canada. In that year Sverdrup signed a deal with the Canadian Government, who would buy the records of Sverdrup's expeditions for $67,000 Canadian dollars. Sverdrup died just two weeks after the deal was signed, but the money secured the future of his family. The records were archived in the National Archives of Canada, but was later returned to the National Library of Norway.  One of Sverdrup's lesser known exploits was a search-and-rescue expedition aboard ship "Eklips" in the Kara Sea in 1914-1915. His aim was to search for two missing Arctic expeditions, that of Captain Georgy Brusilov on the "St. Anna" and that of Vladimir Rusanov on the "Gerkules". Sverdrup's fourth and last expedition in Arctic Siberian waters was in 1921, when, from the bridge of the Soviet Icebreaker Lenin, he commanded a convoy of five cargo ships on an experimental run through the Kara Sea to the mouths of the Ob and Yenisei. The ships reached their destinations and returned safely. This was considered an important step in the development of the Kara Sea sector of the Northern Sea Route. Sverdrup also has an unsuccessful business venture in Cuba, a plantation project in the Oriente Province in 1904.

Later life and legacy.

The last years of his life he lived in Sandvika, at the property Homewood on a hill overlooking the town. He died in November 1930. A statue of Sverdrup was erected in Steinkjer in 1957, and in 1999 a statue of Sverdrup was erected in Sandvika, in the square named after him, "Otto Sverdrups plass".  He was decorated with the Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav in 1902, was awarded gold medals from the Norwegian Geographical Society in 1889 and the Royal Geographical Society in 1903, and received an honorary degree at the University of St Andrews.  Sverdrup had also been awarded the Grand Cross of the Prussian Order of the Crown in 1902, but in an open letter to the German legation in Oslo on 25 October 1917 declared that he was returning the order in protest against the unrestricted warfare then being waged by the German U-boats in the First World War, causing the deaths of hundreds of Norwegian sailors. The day before Sverdrup's return of his order, fellow explorer Roald Amundsen had also returned his German awards.

Otto Neumann Knoph Sverdrup (31 October 1854, in Bindal, Helgeland – 26 November 1930) was a Norwegian sailor and Arctic explorer.


Early life.

He was born in Paris, the son of a distinguished surgeon in Napoleon's army, Jean-Joseph Sue, and has had the Empress Joséphine for godmother. Sue himself acted as surgeon both in the 1823 French campaign in Spain and at the Battle of Navarino in 1827. In 1829 his father's death put him in possession of a considerable fortune, and he settled in Paris.

Literary career.

His naval experiences supplied much of the materials of his first novels, "Kernock le pirate" (1830), "Atar-Gull" (1831), "La Salamandre" (2 vols., 1832), "La Coucaratcha" (4 vols., 1832–1834), and others, which were composed at the height of the Romantic movement of 1830. In the quasi-historical style he wrote "Jean Cavalier, ou Les Fanatiques des Cevennes" (4 vols., 1840) and "Latréaumont" (2 vols., 1837). His "Mathilde" (6 vols., 1841) contains the first known expression of the popular proverb ""La vengeance se mange très-bien froide"", translated in 1846 as ""Revenge is very good eaten cold"" by D.G. Osborne, also constituting the first known English usage of the proverb, and lately expressed in English as ""Revenge is a dish best served cold"".  He was strongly affected by the socialist ideas of the day, and these prompted his most famous works, the "anti-Catholic" novels: "The Mysteries of Paris" ("Les Mystères de Paris") (published in "Journal des débats" from 19 June 1842 until 15 October 1843) and "The Wandering Jew" ("Le Juif errant"; 10 vols., 1844–1845), which were among the most popular specimens of the serial novel. "The Wandering Jew" is a Gothic novel depicting the titular character in conflict with the villain, a murderous Jesuit named Rodin. These works depicted the intrigues of the nobility and the harsh life of the underclass to a wide public. "Les Mystères de Paris "spawned a class of imitations all over the world, the city mysteries. Sue's books caused controversy both because of their strongly violent scenes, and because of their socialist and anti-clerical subtexts.  He followed up with some singular books: "Les Sept pêchés capitaux" (16 vols., 1847–1849), which contained stories to illustrate each of the seven deadly sins. "Les Mystères du peuple" (1849–1856) was a long series of historical novels, which was suppressed by the censor in 1857, and several others, all on a very large scale, though the number of volumes gives an exaggerated idea of their length. "Les Mystères du peuple" is a lengthy series of novels and novellas dealing with French history. "Les Mystères du peuple" begins with a novel graphically depicting slavery in the Roman Empire, ("The Iron Collar"). Other "Les Mystères du peuple" novels dealt with Early Christianity ("The Silver Cross"), King Clovis I ("The Poniard's Hilt"), the creation of the Duchy of Normandy ("The Iron Arrow-Head"), the Crusades in Palestine ("The Pilgrim's Shell"), the Albigensian Crusade ("The Iron Pincers"), the Jacquerie ("The Iron Trevet"), Joan of Arc ("The Executioner's Knife") and the French Revolution ("Sword of Honor"). The novels were translated into English (as the "Mysteries of the People") and published in New York by Daniel De Leon and his son, Solon. Some of Sue's books, among them "The Wandering Jew" and "The Mysteries of Paris", were dramatized by himself, usually in collaboration with others. His period of greatest success and popularity coincided with that of Alexandre Dumas, with whom he has been compared.  According to Umberto Eco, parts of Sue's book "Les Mystères du peuple" served as a source for Maurice Joly in his "Dialogue in Hell Between Machiavelli and Montesquieu", a book attacking Napoleon III and his political ambitions. The two are depicted in Will Eisner's cartoon book "The Plot", co-authored with Eco.

Political career.

After the French Revolution of 1848, he was elected to the Legislative Assembly from the Paris-Seine constituency in April 1850. He was exiled from Paris in consequence of his protest against the French coup d'état of 1851. This exile stimulated his literary production. Sue died in Annecy-le-Vieux, Savoy on August 3, 1857 and was buried at the Cimetière de Loverchy (Annecy) in the Non-Catholic's Carré des "Dissidents".

Marie-Joseph "Eugène" Sue (; 26 January 18043 August 1857) was a French novelist. He was one of several authors who popularized the genre of the serial novel in France with his very popular and widely imitated "The Mysteries of Paris", which was published in a newspaper from 1842 to 1843.


Etymology.

Historical usage.

Historically there are different meanings:  1. The older Hungarian term "Felső-Magyarország" (literally: "Upper Hungary"; ; ; ; ) formally referred to what is today Slovakia in the 16th-18th centuries and informally to all the northern parts of the Kingdom of Hungary in the 19th century.  2. There are some 16th-century sources which refer to the Slovak-inhabited territory of the Kingdom of Hungary as "Sclavonia" or "Slováky", names that distinguish the region ethnically as well as geographically.  3. The Hungarian "Felvidék" (literally: "Upper Country", "Upland", "Highland," or perhaps more accurately "Upper Landscape" or "Upper Countryside"; ; ; ) has had several informal meanings:

Modern usage.

After World War I, the meaning of "Felvidék" in the Hungarian language ("Felső-Magyarország" was not used anymore) was restricted to the Slovakian and Carpathian Ruthenian parts of Czechoslovakia. Today the term "Felvidék" is sometimes used in Hungary when speaking about Slovakia, and it is exclusively (and anachronistically) used in Hungarian historical literature when speaking about the Middle Ages, i.e., before the name actually came into existence. The three counties of the region that remained in Hungary after World War I, however, are never called Upper Hungary today, only Northern Hungary ("Észak-Magyarország"). Any use of the word "Felvidék" to denote all of modern Slovakia is considered offensive by Slovaks, and inappropriate by some Hungarians, but it is now commonly used by the sizeable Hungarian minority in the southern border-zone of Slovakia to identify the Hungarian-majority areas where they live. Some of them call themselves "felvidéki magyarok", i.e. the "Upland Hungarians." The word "felvidék" is also used as a component of the toponym "Balaton-felvidék," describing the hilly area north of Lake Balaton, with no connection to the historical Upper Hungary.

History.

Middle Ages.

The term "Upper Hungary" often occurs in publications on history as a somewhat-anachronistic translation of other, earlier (then Latin) designations denoting approximately the same territory. Some of the other terms were "Partes Danubii septentrionales" (Territories to the north of the Danube) or "Partes regni superiores" (Upper parts of the Kingdom). The actual name "Upper Hungary" arose later from the latter phrase.  In the 15th century, the "Somorja (Šamorín), Nagyszombat (Trnava), Galgóc (Hlohovec), Nyitra (Nitra), Léva (Levice), Losonc (Lučenec), Rimaszombat (Rimavská Sobota), Rozsnyó (Rožňava), Jászó (Jasov), Kassa (Košice), Gálszécs (Sečovce), Nagymihály (Michalovce)" line was the northern "boundary" of the Hungarian ethnic area.

Affiliation to Hungary.

The Principality of Nitra emerged in the 8th century and developed into an independent Slavic state; although the polity may have lost its independence when it was still at the stage of development. In the early 9th century, the polity was situated on the north-western territories of present-day Slovakia.

16th - 17th centuries.

The term emerged approximately after the conquest of today's Hungary by the Ottomans in the 16th century when "Felső-Magyarország" (German: "Oberungarn;" Slovak: "Horné Uhorsko") referred to present-day eastern Slovakia and the adjacent territories of today's Hungary and Ukraine that were not occupied by the Ottoman Empire. That territory formed a separate military district (the "Captaincy of Upper Hungary" (1564–1686) headquartered in Kassa/Kaschau/Košice) within Royal Hungary. At that time, present-day western Slovakia, and sometimes also the remaining territories of Royal Hungary to the south of it, were called Lower Hungary (Hungarian: "Alsó-Magyarország;" German: "Niederungarn;" Slovak: "Dolné Uhorsko").  It was briefly a separate vassal state of the Ottoman Empire under Imre Thököly in the 1680s.  This usage occurs in many texts up to around 1800 – for example, the renowned mining school of Schemnitz/Selmecbánya/Banská Štiavnica in present-day central Slovakia was founded in "Lower" Hungary (not in "Upper" Hungary) in the 18th century and Pozsony (today's Bratislava) was also referred to as being in "Lower" Hungary in the late 18th century.

18th century - early 20th century.

From the 18th century (in many texts however only after around 1800) until 1920, the territory of the Kingdom of Hungary north of the Tisza and the Danube, which comprised present-day Slovakia, Carpathian Ruthenia, and approximately the counties of Nógrád, Heves, and Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén, was informally called either "Upper Hungary" or "Upland" ("Felső-Magyarország" or "Felvidék"). Although not strictly defined, the name "Felvidék" became commonplace to the point that at least one publication concerning the area used it as its title. Other nations used the terms "Upper Hungary" (for the northern part of the Kingdom), "Slovakia" (only for the territory predominantly inhabited by the Slovaks), and "Ruthenia" (the territory predominantly inhabited by the Ruthenians) in parallel. The Slovaks themselves called the territories of the Kingdom of Hungary to the south of Slovakia "Dolná zem" ("Lower Land").  In the course of the creation of Czechoslovakia at the end of World War I, Czechoslovakia originally demanded that all of the so-called Upper Hungary be added to Czechoslovak territory (i.e. including the territory between the Tisza River and present-day Slovakia). The claim for its acquisition, however, was not based on the whole area having a single common name, "Upper Hungary", but on the presence of a Slovak minority in the region.

Demographics.

Population in the 18th century.

In 1720 of the 63 largest towns on the territory of present-day Slovakia with at least 100 taxpaying households 40 had Slovak majority, 14 German and 9 Hungarian majority.

Population in the 19th century.

The first ethnic data of whole Hungarian Kingdom by county was published in 1842. According to this survey the total population of the counties in Upper Hungary exceeded 2.4 million, with the following ethnic distribution: 59.5% Slovaks, 22% Magyars, 8.3% Ruthenians, 6.7% Germans and 3.6% Jews.

Population in the 20th century.

Upper Hungary included the counties of Pozsony, Nyitra, Bars, Hont, Trencsén, Turóc, Árva, Liptó, Zólyom, Gömör és Kis-Hont, Szespes, Abaúj-Torna, Sáros and Zemplén. In the last census of 1910 in the Kingdom of Hungary, which was based on native language, Slovak language users were a majority in many of these counties.

Upper Hungary is the usual English translation of Felvidék (lit.: "Upland"), the Hungarian term for the area that was historically the northern part of the Kingdom of Hungary, now mostly present-day Slovakia. The region has also been called "Felső-Magyarország" (lit: "Upper Hungary", ).