Services.

RABDe 500 started commercial operation on 28 May 2000, with services from St. Gallen via Winterthur, Zürich and Biel/Bienne to Lausanne.  As of 2018 the RABDe 500 provide service on the following lines  The trainsets are used on other lines as well, as IC (Intercity) or IR (Interregio) trains.

Technical Information.

The RABDe 500 is an electrical multiple unit. The (body hung) motors as well as the transformers are located under the second class cars, which are the first two and the last two cars in each trainset. The first class cars and the restaurant car are non-motored, they carry pantograph and transformer. The centre car of each trainset has no traction equipment. Design of the driver's cab as well as the electrical equipment is based on the design of the SBB Re 460 locomotives, using more modern GTO circuits for the traction inverters. The design of the inverters was used for the large class of Italian locomotive FS Class E.464.  The RABDe 500 can operate at up to when under ETCS level 2 supervision, and if the line is equipped with conventional signalling, negotiating curves about 10% faster than non tilting trains. The train was not primarily designed for speed, but to reduce journey time on curvaceous lines such as Olten via Biel/Bienne to Lausanne/Geneva.  The 18 trainsets 500 000 – 500 017 were adapted for operation in the new Gotthard Base Tunnel in 2015/2016. Amongst other measures fire detection equipment was fitted. New non tilting trains RABDe 501 will be used on the Gotthard line in the future, the RABDe 500 are to be used on lines with more curves.  All 44 trainsets are being refurbished between 2012 and 2019, an overhaul taking 25 days per train.

Expo.02.

Train sets used for the Expo.02 national exposition in Switzerland carried a typewriter-font "permettre le futur" text on the outside of the train along with literary quotes from various prominent Swiss writers.

Naming.

All forty-four RABDe 500 trains are named after famous Swiss scholars, artists, writers, politicians, engineers, and architects. Each RABDe 500 bears the portrait of its namesake, painted by Bernese painter Martin Fivian, in the first class coach No 3; in addition, plaques with short biographical information can be found at every entrance.  List of names:

The RABDe 500 (often nicknamed ICN for Intercity-Neigezug, German for Intercity Tilting Train), is a Swiss high speed passenger train which was introduced in 2000, in time for Expo.02 held in western Switzerland in 2002. Its maximum speed is, which can be reached on the Mattstetten–Rothrist new line; the RABDe 500 uses the branch to Solothurn only; the ICNs reach 200 km/h in the new Gotthard Base Tunnel. The train sets were a joint development by Bombardier, Swiss Federal Railways and Alstom, with an aerodynamic body designed by Pininfarina, bogies and tilting mechanism designed by the then SIG, Schweizerische Industrie Gesellschaft.


Design.

Unlike client–server database management systems, the SQLite engine has no standalone processes with which the application program communicates. Instead, the SQLite library is linked in and thus becomes an integral part of the application program. Linking may be static or dynamic. The application program uses SQLite's functionality through simple function calls, which reduce latency in database access: function calls within a single process are more efficient than inter-process communication.  SQLite stores the entire database (definitions, tables, indices, and the data itself) as a single cross-platform file on a host machine. It implements this simple design by locking the entire database file during writing. SQLite read operations can be multitasked, though writes can only be performed sequentially.  Due to the server-less design, SQLite applications require less configuration than client-server databases. SQLite is called "zero-conf" because it does not require service management (such as startup scripts) or access control based on GRANT and passwords. Access control is handled by means of file system permissions given to the database file itself. Databases in client-server systems use file system permissions which give access to the database files only to the daemon process.  Another implication of the serverless design is that several processes may not be able to write to the database file. In server-based databases, several writers will all connect to the same daemon, which is able to handle its locks internally. SQLite on the other hand has to rely on file-system locks. It has less knowledge of the other processes that are accessing the database at the same time. Therefore, SQLite is not the preferred choice for write-intensive deployments. However, for simple queries with little concurrency, SQLite performance profits from avoiding the overhead of passing its data to another process.  SQLite uses PostgreSQL as a reference platform. "What would PostgreSQL do" is used to make sense of the SQL standard. One major deviation is that, with the exception of primary keys, SQLite does not enforce type checking; the type of a value is dynamic and not strictly constrained by the schema (although the schema will trigger a conversion when storing, if such a conversion is potentially reversible). SQLite strives to follow Postel's Rule.

History.

D. Richard Hipp designed SQLite in the spring of 2000 while working for General Dynamics on contract with the United States Navy. Hipp was designing software used for a damage-control system aboard guided missile destroyers, which originally used HP-UX with an IBM Informix database back-end. SQLite began as a Tcl extension.  The design goals of SQLite were to allow the program to be operated without installing a database management system or requiring a database administrator. Hipp based the syntax and semantics on those of PostgreSQL 6.5. In August 2000, version 1.0 of SQLite was released, with storage based on gdbm (GNU Database Manager). SQLite 2.0 replaced gdbm with a custom B-tree implementation, adding transaction capability. SQLite 3.0, partially funded by America Online, added internationalization, manifest typing, and other major improvements.  In 2011 Hipp announced his plans to add a NoSQL interface (managing documents expressed in JSON) to SQLite databases and to develop "UnQLite", an embeddable document-oriented database.  SQLite is one of four formats recommended for long term storage of datasets approved for use by the Library of Congress.

Features.

SQLite implements most of the SQL-92 standard for SQL but it lacks some features. For example, it partially provides triggers, and it cannot write to views (however it provides INSTEAD OF triggers that provide this functionality). While it provides complex queries, it still has limited ALTER TABLE function, as it cannot modify or delete columns.  SQLite uses an unusual type system for a SQL-compatible DBMS; instead of assigning a type to a column as in most SQL database systems, types are assigned to individual values; in language terms it is "dynamically typed". Moreover, it is "weakly typed" in some of the same ways that Perl is: one can insert a string into an integer column (although SQLite will try to convert the string to an integer first, if the column's preferred type is integer). This adds flexibility to columns, especially when bound to a dynamically typed scripting language. However, the technique is not portable to other SQL products. A common criticism is that SQLite's type system lacks the data integrity mechanism provided by statically typed columns in other products. The SQLite web site describes a "strict affinity" mode, but this feature has not yet been added. However, it can be implemented with constraints like codice_1.  Tables normally include a hidden "rowid" index column which gives faster access. If a database includes an Integer Primary Key column SQLite will typically optimize it by treating it as an alias for "rowid", causing the contents to be stored as a strictly typed 64-bit signed integer and changing its behavior to be somewhat like an auto-incrementing column. Future versions of SQLite may include a command to introspect whether a column has behavior like that of "rowid" to differentiate these columns from weakly-typed, non-autoincrementing Integer Primary Keys.  SQLite with full Unicode function is optional.  Several computer processes or threads may access the same database concurrently. Several read accesses can be satisfied in parallel. A write access can only be satisfied if no other accesses are currently being serviced. Otherwise, the write access fails with an error code (or can automatically be retried until a configurable timeout expires). This concurrent access situation would change when dealing with temporary tables. This restriction is relaxed in version 3.7 when write-ahead logging (WAL) is turned on enabling concurrent reads and writes.  SQLite version 3.7.4 first saw the addition of the FTS4 (full text search) module, which features enhancements over the older FTS3 module. FTS4 allows users to perform full text searches on documents similar to how search engines search webpages. Version 3.8.2 added support for creating tables without rowid, which may provide space and performance improvements. Common table expressions support was added to SQLite in version 3.8.3.  In 2015, with the "json1 extension" and new subtype interfaces, SQLite version 3.9 introduced JSON content managing.

Development and distribution.

SQLite's code is hosted with Fossil, a distributed version control system that is itself built upon an SQLite database.  A standalone command-line program is provided in SQLite's distribution. It can be used to create a database, define tables, insert and change rows, run queries and manage an SQLite database file. It also serves as an example for writing applications that use the SQLite library.  SQLite uses automated regression testing prior to each release. Over 2 million tests are run as part of a release's verification. Starting with the August 10, 2009 release of SQLite 3.6.17, SQLite releases have 100% branch test coverage, one of the components of code coverage. The tests and test harnesses are partially public domain and partially proprietary.

Notable uses.

Operating systems.

SQLite is included by default in:

Programming language support.

Language bindings to SQLite for a large number of programming languages exist, including:

SQLite (, ) is a relational database management system (RDBMS) contained in a C library. In contrast to many other database management systems, SQLite is not a client–server database engine. Rather, it is embedded into the end program.


Hereditary base-"n" notation.

Goodstein sequences are defined in terms of a concept called "hereditary base-"n" notation". This notation is very similar to usual base-"n" positional notation, but the usual notation does not suffice for the purposes of Goodstein's theorem.  In ordinary base-"n" notation, where "n" is a natural number greater than 1, an arbitrary natural number "m" is written as a sum of multiples of powers of "n": where each coefficient "a" satisfies, and. For example, in base 2, Thus the base-2 representation of 35 is 100011, which means. Similarly, 100 represented in base 3 is 10201: Note that the exponents themselves are not written in base-"n" notation. For example, the expressions above include 2 and 3, and 5>2, 4>3.  To convert a base-"n" representation to hereditary base-"n" notation, first rewrite all of the exponents in base-"n" notation. Then rewrite any exponents inside the exponents, and continue in this way until every number appearing in the expression has been converted to base-"n" notation.  For example, while 35 in ordinary base-2 notation is, it is written in hereditary base-2 notation as using the fact that Similarly, 100 in hereditary base-3 notation is

Goodstein sequences.

The Goodstein sequence "G"("m") of a number "m" is a sequence of natural numbers. The first element in the sequence "G"("m") is "m" itself. To get the second, "G"("m")(2), write "m" in hereditary base-2 notation, change all the 2s to 3s, and then subtract 1 from the result. In general, the term of the Goodstein sequence of "m" is as follows:  Early Goodstein sequences terminate quickly. For example, "G"(3) terminates at the 6th step:  Later Goodstein sequences increase for a very large number of steps. For example, "G"(4) starts as follows:  Elements of "G"(4) continue to increase for a while, but at base formula_6, they reach the maximum of formula_7, stay there for the next formula_6 steps, and then begin their first and final descent.  The value 0 is reached at base formula_9. (Curiously, this is a Woodall number: formula_10. This is also the case with all other final bases for starting values greater than 4.)  However, even "G"(4) doesn't give a good idea of just "how" quickly the elements of a Goodstein sequence can increase. "G"(19) increases much more rapidly and starts as follows:  In spite of this rapid growth, Goodstein's theorem states that every Goodstein sequence eventually terminates at 0, no matter what the starting value is.

Proof of Goodstein's theorem.

Goodstein's theorem can be proved (using techniques outside Peano arithmetic, see below) as follows: Given a Goodstein sequence "G"("m"), we construct a parallel sequence "P"("m") of ordinal numbers which is strictly decreasing and terminates. Then "G"("m") must terminate too, and it can terminate only when it goes to 0. A common misunderstanding of this proof is to believe that "G"("m") goes to 0 "because" it is dominated by "P"("m"). Actually, the fact that "P"("m") dominates "G"("m") plays no role at all. The important point is: "G"("m")("k") exists if and only if "P"("m")("k") exists (parallelism). Then if "P"("m") terminates, so does "G"("m"). And "G"("m") can terminate only when it comes to 0.  We define a function formula_11 which computes the hereditary base representation of and then replaces each occurrence of the base with the first infinite ordinal number ω. For example, formula_12.  Each term "P"("m")("n") of the sequence "P"("m") is then defined as "f"("G"("m")("n"),"n+1"). For example, and. Addition, multiplication and exponentiation of ordinal numbers are well defined.  We claim that formula_13:  Let formula_14 be "G"("m")("n") after applying the first, "base-changing" operation in generating the next element of the Goodstein sequence, but before the second "minus 1" operation in this generation. Observe that formula_15.  Then clearly, formula_16. Now we apply the "minus 1" operation, and formula_17, as formula_18. For example, formula_19 and formula_20, so formula_21 and formula_22, which is strictly smaller. Note that in order to calculate "f(G(m)(n),n+1)", we first need to write "G"("m")("n") in hereditary base notation, as for instance the expression formula_23 either makes no sense or is equal to formula_24.  Thus the sequence "P"("m") is strictly decreasing. As the standard order < on ordinals is well-founded, an infinite strictly decreasing sequence cannot exist, or equivalently, every strictly decreasing sequence of ordinals terminates (and cannot be infinite). But "P"("m")("n") is calculated directly from "G"("m")("n"). Hence the sequence "G"("m") must terminate as well, meaning that it must reach 0.  While this proof of Goodstein's theorem is fairly easy, the "Kirby–Paris theorem", which shows that Goodstein's theorem is not a theorem of Peano arithmetic, is technical and considerably more difficult. It makes use of countable nonstandard models of Peano arithmetic.

Extended Goodstein's theorem.

Suppose the definition Goodstein sequence is changed so that instead of replacing each occurrence of the base "b" with it replaces it with. Would the sequence still terminate? More generally, let "b", "b", "b",... be any sequences of integers. Then let the term of the extended Goodstein sequence of "m" be as follows: take the hereditary base "b" representation of "G"("m")("n"), and replace each occurrence of the base "b" with and then subtract one. The claim is that this sequence still terminates. The extended proof defines as follows: take the hereditary base "b" representation of "G"("m")("n"), and replace each occurrence of the base "b" with the first infinite ordinal number ω. The "base-changing" operation of the Goodstein sequence when going from "G"("m")("n") to still does not change the value of "f". For example, if and if, then formula_25, hence the ordinal formula_26 is strictly greater than the ordinal formula_27

Sequence length as a function of the starting value.

The Goodstein function, formula_28, is defined such that formula_29 is the length of the Goodstein sequence that starts with "n". (This is a total function since every Goodstein sequence terminates.) The extreme growth-rate of formula_30 can be calibrated by relating it to various standard ordinal-indexed hierarchies of functions, such as the functions formula_31 in the Hardy hierarchy, and the functions formula_32 in the fast-growing hierarchy of Löb and Wainer:  Some examples:

Application to computable functions.

Goodstein's theorem can be used to construct a total computable function that Peano arithmetic cannot prove to be total. The Goodstein sequence of a number can be effectively enumerated by a Turing machine; thus the function which maps "n" to the number of steps required for the Goodstein sequence of "n" to terminate is computable by a particular Turing machine. This machine merely enumerates the Goodstein sequence of "n" and, when the sequence reaches "0", returns the length of the sequence. Because every Goodstein sequence eventually terminates, this function is total. But because Peano arithmetic does not prove that every Goodstein sequence terminates, Peano arithmetic does not prove that this Turing machine computes a total function.

In mathematical logic, Goodstein's theorem is a statement about the natural numbers, proved by Reuben Goodstein in 1944, which states that every "Goodstein sequence" eventually terminates at 0. Kirby and Paris showed that it is unprovable in Peano arithmetic (but it can be proven in stronger systems, such as second-order arithmetic). This was the third example of a true statement that is unprovable in Peano arithmetic, after Gödel's incompleteness theorem and Gerhard Gentzen's 1943 direct proof of the unprovability of ε-induction in Peano arithmetic. The Paris–Harrington theorem was a later example.


Geography.

The Liancourt Rocks consist of two main islets and numerous surrounding rocks. The two main islets, called "Seodo" (, "Western Island") and "Dongdo" (, "Eastern Island") in Korean, and "Ojima" (, "Male Island") and "Mejima" (, "Female Island") in Japanese, are apart. The Western Island is the larger of the two, with a wider base and higher peak, while the Eastern Island offers more usable surface area.  Altogether, there are about 90 islets and reefs, volcanic rocks formed in the Cenozoic era, more specifically 4.6 to 2.5 million years ago. A total of 37 of these islets are recognized as permanent land.  The total area of the islets is about, with their highest point at on the West Islet. The western islet is about ; the eastern islet is about. The western islet consists of a single peak and features many caves along the coastline. The cliffs of the eastern islet are about high. There are two large caves giving access to the sea, as well as a crater.  In 2006, a geologist reported that the islets formed 4.5 million years ago and are quickly eroding.

Distances.

The Liancourt Rocks are located at about. The western islet is located at and the Eastern Islet is located at.  The Liancourt Rocks are situated at a distance of from the main island of Japan (Honshu) and from mainland South Korea. The nearest Japanese island, Oki Islands, is at a distance of., and the nearest Korean island, Ulleungdo, is,

Climate.

Owing to their location and small size, the Liancourt Rocks can have harsh weather. If the swell is greater than 3 to 5 metres, then landing is not possible so on average ferries can only dock about once in every forty days. Overall, the climate is warm and humid, and heavily influenced by warm sea currents. Precipitation is high throughout the year (annual average—), with occasional snowfall. Fog is common. In summer, southerly winds dominate. The water around the islets is about in early spring, when the water is coldest, warming to about in late summer.

Ecology.

The islets are volcanic rocks, with only a thin layer of soil and moss. About 49 plant species, 107 bird species, and 93 insect species have been found to inhabit the islets, in addition to local marine life with 160 algal and 368 invertebrate species identified. Although between 1,100 and 1,200 litres of fresh water flow daily, desalinization plants have been installed on the islets for human consumption because existing spring water suffers from guano contamination. Since the early 1970s trees and some types of flowers were planted. According to historical records, there used to be trees indigenous to Liancourt Rocks, which have supposedly been wiped out by overharvesting and fires caused by bombing drills over the islets. A recent investigation, however, identified ten spindle trees aged 100–120 years. Cetaceans such as Minke whales, orcas, and dolphins are known to migrate through these areas.

Pollution and environmental destruction.

Records of the human impact on the Liancourt Rocks before the late 20th century are scarce, although both Japanese and Koreans claim to have felled trees and killed Japanese sea lions there for many decades.  There is a serious concern for pollution in the seas surrounding the Liancourt Rocks. The sewage water treatment system established on the islets has malfunctioned and sewage water produced by inhabitants of the Liancourt Rocks such as South Korean Coast Guard and lighthouse staff is being dumped directly into the ocean. Significant water pollution has been observed; sea water has turned milky white, sea vegetation is progressively dying off, and calcification of coral reefs is spreading. The pollution is also causing loss of biodiversity in the surrounding seas. In November 2004, eight tons of malodorous sludge was being dumped into the ocean every day. Efforts have since been made by both public and private organizations to help curb the level of pollution surrounding the Rocks.

Demographics and economy.

As of February 2017, there were two civilian residents, two government officials, six lighthouse managers, and 40 members of the coast guard living on the islets. Since the South Korean coast guard was sent to the islets, civilian travel has been subject to South Korean government approval; they have stated that the reason for this is that the islet group is designated as a nature reserve.  In March 1965, Choi Jong-duk moved from the nearby Ulleungdo to the islets to make a living from fishing. He also helped install facilities from May 1968. In 1981, Choi Jong-duk changed his administrative address to the Liancourt Rocks, making himself the first person to officially live there. He died there in September 1987. His son-in-law, Cho Jun-ki, and his wife also resided there from 1985 until they moved out in 1992. Meanwhile, in 1991, Kim Sung-do and Kim Shin-yeol transferred to the islets as permanent residents, still continuing to live there. In October 2018, Kim Sung-do died, thus Kim Shin-yeol is the last civilian resident still living on the islands.  The South Korean government gave its approval to allow 1,597 visitors to visit the islets in 2004. Since March 2005, more tourists have received approval to visit. The South Korean government lets up to 70 tourists land at any one given time; one ferry provides rides to the islets every day. Tour companies charge around 350,000 Korean won per person (about US$310 ).

Construction.

South Korea has carried out construction work on the Liancourt Rocks, by 2009 the islands had a lighthouse and helicopter pad, and a police barracks. In 2007, two desalination plants were built capable of producing 28 tons of clean water every day. Both of the major South Korean telecommunications companies have installed cellular telephone towers on the islets.

History.

Whaling.

American and French whaleships cruised for right whales off the rocks between 1849 and 1892.

Sovereignty dispute.

Sovereignty over the islands has been an ongoing point of contention in Japan–South Korea relations. There are conflicting interpretations about the historical state of sovereignty over the islets.  South Korean claims are partly based on references to an island called "Usan-do" () in various medieval historical records, maps, and encyclopedia such as "Samguk Sagi", "Annals of Joseon Dynasty", "Dongguk Yeoji Seungnam", and "Dongguk munhon bigo". According to the South Korean view, these refer to today's Liancourt Rocks. Japanese researchers of these documents have claimed the various references to Usan-do refer at different times to Jukdo, its neighboring island Ulleungdo, or a non-existent island between Ulleungdo and Korea. The first printed usage of the name "Dokdo" was in a Japanese log book in 1904.  Other key points of the dispute involve the legal basis that Japan used to claim the islands in 1905, and the legal basis of South Korea's claim on the islands in 1952.  North Korea and South Korea agree that the islands are Korean territory and reject Japan's claim.

The Liancourt Rocks are a group of small islets in the Sea of Japan. While South Korea controls the islets, its sovereignty over them is contested by Japan.


Establishment and nature.

In 1959, Cardinal Silvio Oddi proposed a permanent consultative body of priests drawn from many parts of the world to discuss major concerns of the Church. The same year Cardinal Bernardus Johannes Alfrink proposed a permanent council of specialized bishops to legislate for the Church in union with the Pope and the cardinals. In 1963, during the third session of the Second Vatican Council, Patriarch Maximos IV proposed that the church should be governed by the Pope and the bishops as successors of Peter and the apostles respectively, not by the Pope and the "Roman clergy", that is, the College of Cardinals. Maximos proposed that the Council establish a rotating body of bishops in continuous residence in Rome to assist the Pope.  On 15 September 1965, as the Council was drawing to a close, Pope Paul VI established the Synod of Bishops, noting that "the Ecumenical Council... gave Us the idea of permanently establishing a special Council of bishops, with the aim of providing for a continuance after the Council of the great abundance of benefits that We have been so happy to see flow to the Christian people during the time of the Council as a result of Our close collaboration with the bishops." The Pope sought "to make ever greater use of the bishops' assistance in providing for the good of the universal Church" and to enjoy "the consolation of their presence, the help of their wisdom and experience, the support of their counsel, and the voice of their authority." This preempted action by the Council and made the Synod "immediately and directly" subject to papal authority, ensuring that it would be strictly an advisory body. The Synod of the Bishops does not constitute collegial governance of the Church, but represents a collaboration with the Pope: it discusses topics proposed to it and makes recommendations, but does not settle questions or issue decrees, unless the Pope grants it deliberative power in certain cases.

Under Francis.

From the beginning of his papacy, Pope Francis expressed his desire to strengthen the collegial aspects of the Church's governance, and he argued for more recognition of charismatic gifts in the Church. He has held major synods on the topics of the family (2014), on youth (2018), and on the Church in the Pan-Amazon region (2019). On September 15, 2018, Francis approved the new apostolic constitution (Episcopal Communion). The constitution states that the Synod's final document, if approved by the members with "moral unanimity" and expressly approved by the Pope, becomes part of the Ordinary Magisterium of Catholic teaching. The new constitution also provides for the laity to send their contributions directly to the synod's secretary general. Some analysts surmise that the greatest achievement of Francis' papacy may be his creation of a more synodal Catholic church, where synods serve as a platform for open and energetic debate.

Secretariat and Council.

The Synod of the Bishops has its own permanent general secretariat, composed of the General Secretary and a fifteen-member council, twelve of whom are elected by each general assembly and three are appointed by the Pope. The secretariat assists in preparing the apostolic exhortation which the Pope publishes on the basis of the recommendations of each general assembly, and it prepares the next assembly. Their function ceases with the start of a new general assembly. A similar function is performed by specific special councils elected by the special assemblies.

Powers of the pope.

The pope convokes the Synod of Bishops; ratifies the election of participants; determines the topic of discussion; distributes the material for discussion; sets the agenda; and presides either personally or through delegates.  The pope may also appoint participants of his own choosing, their number limited to 15% of the other delegates who participate either "ex officio" or as elected representatives of episcopal conferences or the Union of Superiors General.

Assemblies.

The procedures followed at assemblies of the Synod of the Bishops are indicated in the "Order of the Synod of Bishops", originally issued in 1969, the latest revision of which was published on 29 September 2006.

Ordinary general assemblies.

In preparation for each ordinary general assembly, episcopal conferences are asked to suggest up to three themes for discussion. After the secretariat has studied those proposals, the Pope, generally on the basis of the secretariat's recommendation, establishes the topic and agenda of the assembly. Criteria for the choice of the topic are: 1) that it be of universal, not merely regional, interest; 2) that it be pastoral in character with a firm doctrinal base; 3) that it be contemporary and urgent enough to stir up "new energies and movements in the church towards growth"; 4) that it can be addressed within the allotted time.  Most participants in the assembly, called "Synodal fathers", are elected by the bishops' conferences: one in the case of a conference with no more than 25 members, two if a conference has up to 50 members, three from a conference with up to 100 members, and four from a larger conference. Other representative participants include heads of Eastern Catholic Churches, ten members of religious institutes elected by the Union of Superiors General, and the cardinals who head the Roman Congregations and some other departments of the Roman Curia. Dozens more participate by virtue of synodal functions assigned by the Holy See or as papal appointees, mostly cardinals and other curiate or diocesan prelates.  Fraternal delegates from several Orthodox and Protestant churches (7 each in 2015) have observer status.  The secretariat, which includes various other clerical and lay experts, prepares a preliminary outline document ("Lineamenta") which is distributed to all concerned for comment. Based on this feedback, a working document ("instrumentum laboris") is prepared and distributed to all churches. This document is the basis for discussions at the synod. The assembly examines proposals ("propositiones") put forward by its members and passes to the Pope those that receive the assembly's approval. The Pope uses these as the basis for a papal post-synodal apostolic exhortation.  The first general assemblies attempted to draw up their own concluding documents, but found that the time available was insufficient for doing so properly.

Extraordinary general assemblies.

In view of the greater urgency that justify their convocation, the preparation of extraordinary general assemblies of the Synod of the Bishops is shorter. The participants also are fewer, consisting of the heads of Eastern Catholic Churches, the presidents (only) of episcopal conferences, three members (not ten) of religious institutes and the cardinals who head dicasteries of the Roman Curia. , there have been three such assemblies, in 1969, 1985, and 2014.

Special assemblies.

Special assemblies of the Synod of the Bishops are limited to a certain geographical area, a country, region, or continent. Their participants, chosen in line with the rules for extraordinary general assemblies, are limited to those directly involved in that geographical area.  Special assemblies have been held for Africa (twice), America, Asia, Europe (twice), Oceania, the Middle East, Lebanon, and the Netherlands. Another is planned for the Amazon region.

Chronology.

The Synod of the Bishops has held the following assemblies:

In the Roman Catholic Church, the Synod of Bishops is an advisory body for the Pope. It is described in the Code of Canon Law (CIC) as "a group of bishops who have been chosen from different regions of the world and meet together at fixed times to foster closer unity between the Roman Pontiff and bishops, to assist the Roman Pontiff with their counsel in the preservation and growth of faith and morals and in the observance and strengthening of ecclesiastical discipline, and to consider questions pertaining to the activity of the Church in the world."


Biography.

Education.

František Kupka was born in Opočno (eastern Bohemia) in Austria-Hungary in 1871. From 1889 to 1892, he studied at the Academy of Fine Arts in Prague. At this time, he painted historical and patriotic themes. Kupka enrolled at the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna, where he concentrated on symbolic and allegorical subjects. He was influenced by the painter and social reformer Karl Wilhelm Diefenbach (1851–1913) and his naturistic life-style. Kupka exhibited at the Kunstverein, Vienna, in 1894. His involvement with theosophy and Eastern philosophy dates from this period. By spring 1894, Kupka had settled in Paris; there he attended the Académie Julian briefly and then studied with Jean-Pierre Laurens at the École des Beaux-Arts.

World War I.

Kupka served as a volunteer in the First World War, and is mentioned in "La Main coupée" by Blaise Cendrars. Cendrars describes him as a "proud soldier, calm, placid, strong"... but really too old to be a soldier, being at least 25 years older than the rest. When the regiment set out from Paris for the front in Picardy (they marched all the way on foot) Mme Kupka met the column as they arrived at the La Défense roundabout, near where they lived. She marched with them, carrying her husband's bag and his rifle. She would have marched all the way to the front, but at the end of the first day the colonel had her arrested and sent back to Paris. She later made her way to the front lines to spend time with her husband. Kupka himself left the front due to frostbite in the foot, caused by nights in the trenches waist-deep in freezing water.

Career.

Kupka worked as an illustrator of books and posters and, during his early years in Paris, became known for his satirical drawings for newspapers and magazines. In 1906, he settled in Puteaux, a suburb of Paris, and that same year exhibited for the first time at the Salon d'Automne. Kupka was deeply impressed by the first Futurist Manifesto, published in 1909 in Le Figaro. Kupka's 1909 painting "Piano Keyboard/Lake" marked a break in his representational style. His work became increasingly abstract around 1910–11, reflecting his theories of motion, color, and the relationship between music and painting (orphism). In 1911, he attended meetings of the Puteaux Group (Section d'Or). In 1912, he exhibited his "Amorpha. Fugue à deux couleurs", at the Salon des Indépendants in the Cubist room, although he did not wish to be identified with any movement. "Creation in the Plastic Arts", a book Kupka completed in 1913, was published in Prague in 1923. In 1931, he was a founding member of Abstraction-Création. In 1936, his work was included in the exhibition "Cubism and Abstract Art" at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, and in an important show with another Czech painter, Alphonse Mucha, at the Jeu de Paume in Paris. A retrospective of his work took place at the Galerie Mánes in Prague in 1946. The same year, Kupka participated in the Salon des Réalités Nouvelles, where he continued to exhibit regularly until his death. During the early 1950s, he gained general recognition and had several solo shows in New York.  Between 1919 and 1938 Kupka was financially supported by his good friend, art collector and industrialist Jindřich Waldes who accumulated a substantial collection of his art. Kupka died in 1957 in Puteaux, France.

Work.

Kupka had a strong interest in color theory and freeing colors from descriptive associations (which is thought to have possibly influenced other artists like Robert Delaunay). Margit Rowell described his painting "The Yellow Scale" (c. 1907) as "Kupka's first attempt to come to terms with color theory in which the result is both personal and successful". Although a self-portrait, the subject of the painting was the color yellow. Around 1910 he began developing his own color wheels, adapting a format previously explored by Sir Isaac Newton and Hermann von Helmholtz. This work in turn led Kupka to execute a series of paintings he called "Discs of Newton" (1911–12).  Works in Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice, Italy:  Other works include "The Cathedral (Katedrála)".

František Kupka (23 September 1871 – 24 June 1957), also known as "Frank Kupka" or "François Kupka," was a Czech painter and graphic artist. He was a pioneer and co-founder of the early phases of the abstract art movement and Orphic Cubism (Orphism). Kupka's abstract works arose from a base of realism, but later evolved into pure abstract art.


Overview.

During 1945, Matra ("Mécanique Aviation TRAction") was established, immediately beginning development of an ambition twin-engine aircraft intended to be the fastest propeller-driven plane in the world. In 1951, the sound barrier was broken in horizontal flight for the first time in Europe by an aircraft using a Matra-built engine. During 1961, Matra became involved in the early European space programme, having been appointed as the first prime contractor for satellites.  During 1963, French businessman Jean-Luc Lagardere was appointed CEO of Matra; he would be a key figure at the company for the following three decades. At the time of Lagardere's appointment, the firm had a workforce of 1,450. During 1964, Matra became the owner of car manufacturer Automobiles René Bonnet. For a time, Matra was largely centered around its vehicle division, "Matra Automobiles". However, within a decade, Matra had been sold its road car division to American-owned car manufacturer Chrysler Europe, having shifted focus onto its other growing business activities.  During the 1970s, Lagardère pursued an overall strategy of merging Matra with various other companies, or acquiring them outright, to build up a sizable group around the Matra brand. Throughout the 1970s, the company strengthened and grew its position within the aerospace sector, which has been viewed as a core business of Matra. one such company was the electrical equipment manufacturer "Electronique Moderne de l’Oise", which became "Matra Électronique" following its acquisition during 1975. That same year, National Centre for Space Studies (CNES) and the European Space Agency (ESA) awarded a contract to Mantra for the loading bay of the new Ariane expendable launch system.  Over several decades, Matra eventually diversified into media, weaponry, aeronautics, automobiles, music distribution, and various other state of the art technologies. During 1981, Matra diversified into media activities via the purchase of the Hachette publishing company. Matra invested in several fields of transportation during the 1980s and 1990s. It produced a fiberglass 14 ft sailing dinghy with an innovative double bottom, self-bailing hull, called "Capricorne". Though several hundred were sold and a class association briefly existed, it was unable to gain much market share against the better established International 420. During 1983, Matra launched an automatic (driverless) light rubber-tyred metro, the Véhicule Automatique Léger. It later attempted to produce a personal rapid transit system, which it named Aramis. Matra also manufactured a range of electric bicycles and electric scooters. Matra i-step Runner, Tourer and Force as well as Matra i-flow in Romorantin. Matra developed and released a personal computer, the Alice.  During 1988, Matra was privatised, at which point Lagardère acquired 6 per cent of the company's stock; by 1992, his stake in Mantra had risen to 25 per cent. That same year, the Lagardère Group was radically restructured; acquiring more shares in Matra from Floirat, Daimler Benz and GEC, and Hachette from Floirat, Crédit Lyonnais and Aberly. Lagardère merged Matra and Hachette to form Matra Hachette, of which Lagardère Group held 37.6 per cent. Following a share swap in 1994, Lagardère held 93.3 perc cent of Matra Hachette's stock. During 1996, Matra Hachette was formally merged into Lagardère Group.  During February 1999, the firm's defense wing, "Matra Hautes Technologies", was merged with French aerospace conglomerate Aérospatiale to form Aérospatiale-Matra. During 2003, following poor financial performance within the sector, "Matra Automobiles" became bankrupt and its assets were sold off once more by Matra. Instead, Matra decided to concentrate its resources on its remaining interests within the media and aerospace sectors.

Matra Automobiles.

Matra had been involved in car manufacturing since the acquisition of Automobiles René Bonnet in 1963. The first road car to be sold under the Matra marque was the Renault-powered Matra Djet (pronounced "jet"), which was an update of the Bonnet Jet; the Djet was subsequently replaced with the Matra 530, Bagheera, the Murena and the Rancho, an early type of sport utility vehicle (SUV). At its peak, Matra Automobiles was manufacturing 60,000 vehicles per year at its automobile plant in Romorantin-Lanthenay.  Lagardere, recognising the promotion value of the motorsport sector for garnering sales, decided that the company ought to be involved, leading to the creation of Equipe Matra Sports, which entered the French Formula 3 during 1965. Throughout the mid-1960s, Matra enjoyed considerable success in Formula 3 and Formula 2 racing with its MS5 monocoque-based car, winning both the French and European championships. Matra competed as a constructor in Formula One from to and as an engine supplier between to, winning the drivers' and constructors' championships in. Matra also competed in sports car racing from 1966 to 1974 winning the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 1972, 1973 and 1974 and the World Championship for Makes in 1973 and 1974.. However, at the end of the 1974 season, Matra announced that it had decided to withdraw from all motorsport involvement.  During the early 1970s, Matra sold its car division to American-owned car manufacturer Chrysler Europe. Matra Automobiles was subsequently sold by Chrysler Europe to French car company Peugeot; during 1983, Lagardere arranged to buy the division back. Shortly thereafter, a strategic partnership was formed between Matra and French vehicle company Renault, leading to the development of the Espace minivan.  During 1984, the Matra-built Espace was launched onto the market, this car proved to be a commercial success over multiple decades. Due to this success, this single vehicle type became extremely impactful to the fortunes of Matra Automobiles. Following on from the first generation of the Espace, Matra Automobiles went on to manufacture the next two generations as well; however, the fourth iteration was manufactured inhouse by Renault instead. The loss of the Espace business quickly proved detrimental to the firm's finances.  During 2001, production of the Renault Avantime, which was co-designed and built by Matra Automobiles, commenced; unfortunately, this vehicle only ever achieved low sales volumes and was widely regarded as a failure. By the early 2000s, Matra was reportedly keen to end its involvement with the automotive industry. Following the discontinuation of the Avantime, on 27 February 2003, Matra Automobiles announced its intention to close its Romorantin vehicle factory just one month later. The dismantling of the division was necessitated by Matra Automobiles having been declared bankrupt.  During September 2003, Pininfarina SpA acquired Matra Automobile's engineering, testing and prototype businesses; the company was subsequently named Matra Automobile Engineering. On 13 January 2009, Pininfarina sold its share in Matra Automobile Engineering to Segula Technologies.

Matra Hautes Technologies.

"Matra Hautes Technologies" ("MHT") was the defence arm of the firm. The division was involved in aerospace, defence and telecommunications.  During 1990, Matra Espace and the aerospace division of British electronics specialist GEC Marconi merged together, creating "Matra Marconi Space"; the company had claimed this entity to have been the leading aerospace company in the European market at the time. Six years later, Matra Défense and British missile manufacturer BAe Dynamics merged to form Matra BAe Dynamics, a leading weapons manufacturer in Europe as well as the third largest in the world at the time. During February 1999, MHT merged with French aerospace conglomerate Aérospatiale to form Aérospatiale-Matra. On 10 July 2000, Aérospatiale-Matra merged with Spanish aircraft company CASA and German aerospace firm DASA to become part of EADS, which subsequently became the Airbus Group.

Football.

Matra sponsored Racing Club de France in 1987~1989.

Mécanique Aviation Traction or Matra was a French conglomerate. During its years of operation, it was engaged a wide range of activities, primarily focused around automobiles, bicycles, aeronautics and weaponry.


Club career.

Blackburn Rovers.

Duff joined Blackburn Rovers as a trainee in 1996 after playing for Leicester Celtic, Lourdes Celtic and St. Kevin's Boys as a schoolboy in Dublin. He made his Blackburn debut at the age of 18 against Leicester City on the final day of the 1996–97 season for which he won the Man of the match award. In his first full season (1997–98) he scored four goals. Blackburn were relegated the following season.  Duff helped Blackburn achieve promotion back to the Premier League in 2001 and then win the League Cup in 2002, beating Tottenham Hotspur 2–1 at the Millennium Stadium. Following the 2002 World Cup, Duff signed a new four-year contract with Rovers. Despite injury problems in the 2002–03 season, he finished as Blackburn's top goalscorer with 11 goals, which helped his team finish sixth and qualify for the UEFA Cup.

Chelsea.

In the run up to the 2003–04 season, Chelsea made a series of bids for Duff, with a £17 million offer, eventually triggering a release clause in the player's contract. Duff chose to move to West London in July. Signed by manager Claudio Ranieri as part of the development of Chelsea financed by new owner Roman Abramovich, Duff made his debut in August 2003 in the Champions League against Slovakian side MŠK Žilina. Chelsea won 2–0 and Duff was described as the "star of the show". He scored his first Chelsea goal on 20 September 2003 in a 5–0 away win against Wolverhampton Wanderers. Duff scored the third Chelsea goal and was named as Man of the match. Duff played 23 games in all competitions for Chelsea in the 2003–04 season scoring five goals. He missed the Champions League semi-finals as Chelsea lost to AS Monaco but was instrumental in securing for Chelsea second place in the Premiership, the club's highest league finish for 49 years as well as being part of the Champions League run, but the season ultimately ended trophyless and with the sacking of manager Claudio Ranieri.  The arrival of Dutch winger Arjen Robben and new manager José Mourinho posed a threat to Duff's place in the starting line-up for the 2004–05 season, but an injury to Robben at the start of the season saw Duff as the only available winger. Mourinho, however, did not play Duff in the early part of the 2004–05 season, preferring a more narrow approach. Duff eventually got into the side after four games and, when Robben returned to the side, Duff's versatility saw him move to the right wing and form a wing partnership with Robben. The season proved to be successful for both Duff and Chelsea. He scored ten goals, including a crucial strike in a 4–2 win against Barcelona in the Champions League, while the team won the Premiership title by 12 points from second placed Arsenal, and the League Cup, in which Duff scored the winning goal in the semi-final against Manchester United. He scored three goals in 28 league appearances in the following season as the club retained their Premier League title.

Newcastle United.

In July 2006, Duff agreed terms over a £5 million move to Newcastle United, signing a five-year contract.<ref

Damien Anthony Duff (born 2 March 1979) is an Irish professional football coach and former player who played predominantly as a winger and is a former first team coach at Celtic.


Name.

The name "gemsbok" in English is derived from Afrikaans "gemsbok", which itself is derived from Dutch name of the male chamois, "gemsbok", and further from German "Gämse" ("chamois"). Although some superficial similarities in appearance (especially in the facial pattern) are noticed, the chamois and the oryx are not closely related. The usual pronunciation in English is.

Description.

Gemsbok are light brownish-grey to tan in colour, with lighter patches toward the bottom rear of the rump. Their tails are long and black in colour. A blackish stripe extends from the chin down the lower edge of the neck, through the juncture of the shoulder and leg along the lower flank of each side to the blackish section of the rear leg. They have muscular necks and shoulders, and their legs have white'socks' with a black patch on the front of both the front legs, and both genders have long, straight horns. Comparably, the East African oryx lacks a dark patch at the base of the tail, has less black on the legs (none on the hindlegs), and less black on the lower flanks. One very rare condition is the "Golden Oryx", in which the Gemsboks black markings are muted and now appear golden.  Gemsbok are the largest species in the genus "Oryx". They stand about at the shoulder. The body length can vary from and the tail measures. Male gemsbok can weigh between, while females weigh.

Horns.

Gemsbok are widely hunted for their spectacular horns that average in length. From a distance, the only outward difference between males and females is their horns, and many hunters mistake females for males each year. In males horns tend to be thicker with larger bases. Females have slightly longer, thinner horns.  Female gemsbok use their horns to defend themselves and their offspring from predators, while males primarily use their horns to defend their territories from other males.  Gemsbok are one of the few antelope species where female trophies are sometimes more desirable than male ones. A gemsbok horn can be fashioned into a natural trumpet and, according to some authorities, can be used as a "shofar".

Ecology and biology.

Gemsbok live in herds of about 10–40 animals, which consist of a dominant male, a few nondominant males, and females. They are mainly desert-dwelling and do not depend on drinking water to supply their physiological needs. They can reach running speeds of up to.

Diet.

The gemsbok is generally a grazer but changes to browsing during the dry season or when grass is sparse. It may dig up to a meter deep to find roots and tubers, supplementing its water intake by eating wild tsama melons and cucumbers, which can provide all the water required (3 liters per 100 kg bodyweight and day).

Reproduction.

The gemsbok is polygynous, with one resident male mating with the receptive females in the herd. The male is known to secure exclusive mating access to the females by attempting to herd mixed or nursery herds onto his territory. The gemsbok has no specified breeding season, but the young in a given herd tend to be of a similar age due to reproductive synchrony between females. Pregnant females leave the herd before giving birth. The gestation period lasts 270 days and mothers give birth to 1-2 offspring. The calf remains hidden 6 weeks after birth, after which mother and calf rejoin the herd. The calf is weaned at 3.5 months, becomes independent at 4.5 month, and achieves sexual maturity at 1.5–2 years in both sexes.

Introduction to North America.

In 1969, the New Mexico State Department of Game and Fish decided to introduce gemsbok to the Tularosa Basin in the United States. Ninety-three were released from 1969 to 1977, with the current population estimated to be around 3,000 specimens. They thrive because their natural predators, including the lion, are not present.

The gemsbok, gemsbuck or South African oryx ("Oryx gazella") is a large antelope in the genus "Oryx". It is native to the arid regions of Southern Africa, such as the Kalahari Desert. Some authorities formerly included the East African oryx as a subspecies.


Discovery.

What later became known as the Whirlpool Galaxy was discovered on October 13, 1773, by Charles Messier while hunting for objects that could confuse comet hunters, and was designated in Messier's catalogue as M51. Its companion galaxy, NGC 5195, was discovered in 1781 by Pierre Méchain, although it was not known whether it was interacting or merely another galaxy passing at a distance. In 1845, William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse, employing a 72-inch (1.8 m) reflecting telescope at Birr Castle, Ireland, found that the Whirlpool possessed a spiral structure, the first "nebula" to be known to have one. These "spiral nebulae" were not recognized as galaxies until Edwin Hubble was able to observe Cepheid variables in some of these spiral nebulae, which provided evidence that they were so far away that they must be entirely separate galaxies even though they are seen close together  The advent of radio astronomy and subsequent radio images of M51 unequivocally demonstrated that the Whirlpool and its companion galaxy are indeed interacting. Sometimes the designation M51 is used to refer to the pair of galaxies, in which case the individual galaxies may be referred to as M51a (NGC 5194) and M51b (NGC 5195).

Visual appearance.

Located within the constellation Canes Venatici, M51 is found by following the easternmost star of the Big Dipper, Eta Ursae Majoris, and going 3.5° southwest. Its declination is +47°, making it a circumpolar for observers located above 43°N latitude; it reaches high altitudes throughout the northern hemisphere making it an accessible object from the early hours in winter through the end of spring season, after which observation is hindered in lower latitudes.  M51 is visible through binoculars under dark sky conditions, and it can be resolved in detail with modern amateur telescopes. When seen through a 100 mm telescope the basic outlines of M51 (limited to 5x6') and its companion are visible. Under dark skies, and with a moderate eyepiece through a 150 mm telescope, M51's intrinsic spiral structure can be detected. With larger (>300 mm) instruments under dark sky conditions, the various spiral bands are apparent with HII regions visible, and M51 can be seen to be attached to M51B.  As is usual for galaxies, the true extent of its structure can only be gathered from inspecting photographs; long exposures reveal a large nebula extending beyond the visible circular appearance. In 1984, thanks to the high-speed detector - the so-called image-photon-counting- IPCS - system - developed jointly by the CNRS Laboratoire d'Astronomie Spatiald (L.A.S.- CNRS) and the Observatoire de Haute Provence (O.H.P.) along with the particularly nice seeing offered by the Canada-France-Hawaii-Telescope (C.F.H.T.) 3.60m Cassegrain focus at Mauna Kea summit in Hawaii, Hua et al. detected the double component of the very nucleus of the Whirlpool galaxy (article in Astrophysical Letters and Communications, 1987, vol. 25, pp. 187-204).  In January 2005 the Hubble Heritage Project constructed a 11477 × 7965-pixel composite image (shown in the infobox above) of M51 using Hubble's ACS instrument. The image highlights the galaxy's spiral arms, and shows detail into some of the structures inside the arms.

Properties.

Whirlpool Galaxy lies 23 million light years from Earth and has an estimated diameter of 76,000 light years. Overall the galaxy is about 43% the size of the Milky Way. Its mass is estimated to be 160 billion solar masses. or around 10.3% of the mass of Milky Way Galaxy.  A black hole, once thought to be surrounded by a ring of dust, but now believed to be partially occluded by dust instead, exists at the heart of the spiral. A pair of ionization cones extend from the active galactic nucleus.

Spiral structure.

The pronounced spiral structure of the Whirlpool Galaxy is believed to be the result of the close interaction between it and its companion galaxy NGC 5195, which may have passed through the main disk of M51 about 500 to 600 million years ago. In this proposed scenario, NGC 5195 came from behind M51 through the disk towards the observer and made another disk crossing as recently as 50 to 100 million years ago until it is where we observe it to be now, slightly behind M51.

Star formation.

The central region of M51 appears to be undergoing a period of enhanced star formation. The present efficiency of star formation, defined as the ratio of mass of new stars to the mass of star-forming gas, is only ~1%, quite comparable to the global value for the Milky Way and other galaxies. It is estimated that the current high rate of star formation can last no more than another 100 million years or so.

Transient events.

Three supernovae have been observed in the Whirlpool Galaxy:  In 1994, SN 1994I was observed in the Whirlpool Galaxy. It was classified as type Ic, indicating that its progenitor star was very massive and had already shed much of its mass, and its brightness peaked at apparent magnitude 12.91.  In June 2005 the type II supernova SN 2005cs was observed in the Whirlpool Galaxy, peaking at apparent magnitude 14.  On 31 May 2011 a type II supernova was detected in the Whirlpool Galaxy, peaking at magnitude 12.1. This supernova, designated SN 2011dh, showed a spectrum much bluer than average, with P Cygni profiles, which indicate rapidly expanding material, in its hydrogen-Balmer lines. The progenitor was probably a yellow supergiant and not a red or blue supergiant, which are thought to be the most common supernova progenitors.  On 22 January 2019, a supernova impostor, designated AT2019abn, was discovered in Messier 51. The transient was later identified as a luminous red nova. The progenitor star was detected in archival Spitzer Space Telescope infrared images. No object could be seen at the position of the transient in archival Hubble images, indicating that the progenitor star was heavily obstructed by interstellar dust. 2019abn peaked at magnitude 17, reaching an intrinsic brightness of formula_1.

Companion.

NGC 5195 (also known as Messier 51b or M51b) is a dwarf galaxy that is interacting with the Whirlpool Galaxy (also known as M51a or NGC 5194). Both galaxies are located approximately 25 million light-years away in the constellation Canes Venatici. Together, the two galaxies are one of the most widely studied interacting galaxy pairs.

Galaxy group information.

The Whirlpool Galaxy is the brightest galaxy in the M51 Group, a small group of galaxies that also includes M63 (the Sunflower Galaxy), NGC 5023, and NGC 5229. This small group may actually be a subclump at the southeast end of a large, elongated group that includes the M101 Group and the NGC 5866 Group, although most group identification methods and catalogs identify the three groups as separate entities.

The Whirlpool Galaxy, also known as Messier 51a, M51a, and NGC 5194, is an interacting grand-design spiral galaxy with a Seyfert 2 active galactic nucleus. It lies in the constellation Canes Venatici, and was the first galaxy to be classified as a spiral galaxy. Its distance is estimated to be 23 million light-years away from Earth.


Overview.

The cat flea belongs to the insect order Siphonaptera which in its adult stage is an obligatory hematophage. Adults of both sexes range from 1–2 mm long and are usually a reddish-brown colour, although the abdomens of gravid females often swell with eggs causing them to appear banded in cream and dark brown. Like all fleas, the cat flea is compressed laterally allowing it to slip between the sometimes dense hairs of its host just above the top layer of the skin, resulting in an extremely thin insect that may be difficult to observe even if the host's coat is pure white.  The cat flea affects both the cat and the dog worldwide. The cat flea can also maintain its life cycle on other carnivores and on omnivores, but these are only chosen when more acceptable hosts become unavailable. Adult cat fleas do not willingly leave their hosts, and inter-animal transfer of "adult" fleas is rare except in animals that share sleeping quarters. A flea which becomes separated from its host will often die within hours from starvation.

Life cycle.

Fleas go through four life cycle stages of egg, larva, pupa, and imago (adult). Adult fleas must feed on blood before they can become capable of reproduction.  Flea populations are distributed with about 50% eggs, 35% larvae, 10% pupae, and 5% adults.

Eggs.

An adult gravid female flea that has consumed a full blood meal will begin to produce between 20 and 30 microscopic (0.5 mm) non-adhesive white ovoid eggs per day, laying them individually and continually at a rate of about one per hour until she dies (under ideal conditions it might be possible for her to produce between 2,000 and 8,000 eggs in her lifetime, though most only manage to produce around 100 before being consumed by their host during grooming activity). The eggs are dispersed freely into the environment. Within two to seven weeks a certain proportion will then hatch into larvae.

Larvae.

The larva of the cat flea has a grub-like appearance and is ~2 mm in length. The larvae are negatively phototaxic/phototropic, avoiding light and hiding in the substrate around them. The larvae require adequate ambient moisture and warmth, and will die at temperatures near freezing. While in this developmental stage the larvae will feed on a variety of organic substances, but the most important dietary item for them is the crumbs of dried blood that continually fall like snow out of the haircoat of the host after it has been excreted by the adult fleas as fecal material. Thus, the adult flea population continually feeds the larval population in the animal's environment.

Pupal stage.

Flea larvae metamorphose through four stages before spinning a cocoon and entering the pupal stage. The cocoon is adhesive, and quickly acquires a coat of camouflage from surrounding dirt and dust. Pupation depends heavily on temperature and moisture, and takes a week or more to complete, though a fully pupated adult can remain inside of its cocoon in a state of semi-dormancy (called the "pupal window") awaiting signs of the presence of a host.

Adult.

Newly emerged fleas use variations in light and shadow along with increases in warmth and CO to detect the presence of a potential host, and will jump to a new host within seconds of emerging from the cocoon. The new flea begins feeding on host blood within minutes.

Effects on the hosts.

A few fleas on adult dogs or cats cause little harm unless the host becomes allergic to substances in the flea's saliva. The disease that results is called flea allergy dermatitis. Small animals with large infestations can lose enough bodily fluid to fleas feeding that dehydration may result. Cat fleas also may be responsible for disease transmission through humans, and have been suspected as transmission agents of plague. Severe flea infestations can result in anemia due to blood loss.

Disease transmission.

Cat fleas can transmit other parasites and infections to dogs and cats and also to humans. The most prominent of these are "Bartonella", murine typhus, and apedermatitis. The tapeworm "Dipylidium caninum" can be transmitted when an immature flea is swallowed by pets or humans. In addition, cat fleas have been found to carry "Borrelia burgdorferi", the etiologic agent of Lyme disease, but their ability to transmit the disease is unclear.

Treatment.

Since more than three-quarters of a flea's life is spent somewhere other than on the host animal, it is not adequate to treat only the host; it is important also to treat the host's environment. Thorough vacuuming, washing linens in hot water, and treating all hosts in the immediate environment (the entire household, for example) is essential for successful eradication. These steps should be performed on a regular basis.  <br

The cat flea (scientific name Ctenocephalides felis) is an extremely common parasitic insect whose principal host is the domestic cat, although a high proportion of the fleas found on dogs also belong to this species. This is despite the widespread existence of a separate and well-established "dog" flea, "Ctenocephalides canis".


Plot.

The tasks of the Cobra 11 team consist primarily in solving crimes and catching the perpetrators. Typical elements of the action genre are mixed, so that there are regular car crashes, shootouts, explosions and fistfights. These action scenes are elaborately produced in most cases, and appropriately presented in a spectacular way. The high number of unrealistic scenes is a common criticism of the series; for example, large explosions often happen after small collisions while people emerge unharmed out of cars which have sustained catastrophic damage.

Preamble.

"Ihr Revier ist die Autobahn" (Their precinct is the autobahn)
 "Ihr Tempo ist mörderisch" (They work at break-neck speed)
 "Ihre Gegner: Autoschieber, Mörder und Erpresser" (They're up against car thieves, killers, and extortionists)
 "Einsatz rund um die Uhr für die Männer von Cobra 11" (They're on call around the clock: the men of Cobra 11)
 "Unsere Sicherheit ist ihr Job" (Our safety is their job).  "Ihr Revier ist die Autobahn" (Their precinct is the autobahn)
 "Ihr Einsatz heißt: volles Tempo" (Their mission: full speed)
 "Ihre Gegner von heute: extrem schnell und gefährlich" (Their enemies today: extremely fast and dangerous)
 "Verbrechen ohne Limit – Jeder Einsatz volles Risiko" (Crimes without limit – every job at full risk)
 "für die Männer von Cobra 11" (for the men of Cobra 11).  "Ihr Revier ist die Autobahn." (Their precinct is the autobahn) "Ihre Gegner: extrem schnell und gefährlich." (Their enemies: Extremely quick and dangerous) "Verbrechen ohne Limit." (Crimes without limit) "Jeder Einsatz - volles Risiko" (Every job: at full risk) "für die Männer von Cobra 11." (for the men of Cobra 11)  "Ihr Revier ist die Autobahn." (Their precinct is the autobahn) "Ihre Gegner: extrem schnell und gefährlich." (Their enemies: Extremely quick and dangerous) "Volles Risiko" (Extremely risky) "für die Männer von Cobra 11." (for the men of Cobra 11)

Stunts.

The series is known for its extremely well performed stuntwork, which features the destruction of various vehicles in every episode. Almost every episode has a distinct structure, with at least one daring action sequence and the pre-title sequence usually consisting of the main event (i.e. a devastating crash on the Autobahn). The stuntwork is often so spectacular that it would not look out of place in a full-fledged movie, with cars commonly reaching implausible heights as they vault through the air.

Vehicles.

Main team vehicles.

The list below is put in the order of the detectives by the time they joined the police squad of Cobra 11; the cars are listed in the order they were used, as well as their license plate codes. Most of the cars were used by Semir.  Frank Stolte: Audi 100 C3 (TG-A 257, BRB-E 283, BRB-A 404) BMW 325tds E36 (BRB-E 283)  Ingo Fischer: Ford Sierra (SL-K 689, BRB-A 404)  Semir Gerkhan: BMW 323i/328i E36 (HVL-S 199 [black], B-PV 185 [switched to silver], NE-DR 8231); BMW 523i E39 (B-UL 473, B-PW 185); BMW 330i E46 (NE-/:DR 8231); BMW 330i/320si E90 (NE:DR 8231, D:BM 3308); BMW 320d/328i F30 (D:BM 3308)  Andre Fux: BMW 328i E36 (B-DW 8271); Mercedes-Benz C180/C200 W202 (B-DW 8271); Mercedes-Benz CLK 320 C208 (B-DV 8271, NE-LK 3470)  Dieter Bonrath, Hotte Herzberger, and Jenny Dorn: Porsche 996 Carrera (AP-7639, NRW:4-171); Porsche Cayenne Turbo (NRW:4-180); Land Rover Range Rover Sport (NRW:4-180, NRW:4 455); Porsche Cayenne Turbo S (NRW:4 392, NRW:4 418); Porsche 991 Carrera 4S (NRW:4 335); BMW 120d F20 (D:MJ 4495, K:XT 9125)  Tom Kranich: Mercedes-Benz CLK 320 C208 (NE-LK 3470); Mercedes-Benz CLK 320 C209 (NE:LK 3470)  Jan Richter: Mercedes-Benz CLK 320 W208 (NE-LK 3470); Mercedes-Benz CLK 320 W209 (NE:LK 3470)  Chris Ritter: Mercedes-Benz CLK 320 W209 (NE:LK 3470, D:BD 2408 in 'Infarkt'); Mercedes-Benz C350 W204 (D:BD 2408)  Ben Jäger: Mercedes-Benz C350 W204 (D:BD 2408); Mercedes-Benz E500 C207 (D:BD 2408)  Alex Brandt: Mercedes-Benz CLA 250 C117 (D:CL 3508)  Paul Renner: Mercedes-Benz C220d W205 (D:BD 3508)

Backup work vehicles.

Frank Stolte: BMW 835i E31 (P-RT 241); Saab 99 (BRB-E 283)  Ingo Fischer: N/A  Semir Gerkhan: BMW 325i E36 (UB-E 438); Volkswagen Passat B2 (K:TS 1966) BMW X5 E53 (NE-FL 208, NE:TL 3737); BMW X3 E83 (NE:TL 3737); BMW 330i E90 (NE:TL 3737); Mercedes CLK 320 W209 (D:AA 119); Skoda Octavia Type 1Z (D:AM 391); BMW X6 E71 (D:HB 1711); BMW X1 E84 (K:CM 296, K:ES 453); Mercedes-Benz ML 350 W164 (D:AA 119); BMW X3 F25 (K:QK 789, K:MN 774, K:OI 189); BMW X5 E70 (D:CE 925); BMW 328i F30 (D:EH 304); BMW 528i F10 (D:BM 3308); BMW X4 F26 (D:GC 7646); BMW 535d F10 (D:BH 153); BMW 540i G30 (D:BH 153); BMW 530d G30 (D:BH 153); BMW X5 G05 (D:AN 8596)  Andre Fux: BMW 528i E39 (NE-KH 6321)  Dieter Bonrath, Hotte Herzberger, and Jenny Dorn: Skoda Octavia Type 1U (K:MR 1212, DA:X 9783, K:EA 3245); Lexus RX 300 (K:PR 995); Skoda Octavia Type 1Z (D:AX 9382, DA:X 5879); Mercedes-Benz E350 W211 (NRW:4-180, NRW:4-110); BMW 1 F20 (D:MJ 4495); BMW X1 E84 (NRW:4 372); Kia Cee'd Sportswagon (K:KM 431)  Tom Kranich: Mercedes-Benz SLK 200 R170 (NE:AE 2831)  Jan Richter: Volkswagen Passat B2 (K:PE 4129); Volkswagen Passat Variant B3 (NE:MH 8990)  Chris Ritter: Ford Mondeo Mk I (NE:R 231, K:CC 549); Audi A4 B5 (D:HD 1007)  Ben Jäger: Mercedes-Benz C320 W204 (D:CE 936); BMW 318i E90 (K:ES 476); BMW 320d F30 (D:JE 5127); Mercedes-Benz GL 500 X164 (D:JE 5127); BMW 328i GT F34 (D:CE 928)  Alex Brandt: Mercedes-Benz C180 W205 (K:JM 401)  Paul Renner: Mercedes-Benz GLA 180 X156 (D:BB 343); Mercedes-Benz C300 C205 (D:AF 279)

Production locations.

From 1996 to 1998, the series was produced jointly by Polyphon Film- und Fernsehgesellschaft GmbH (responsible for all other production aspects such as filming/postproduction/location scouting etc.) and ActionConcept (stunts). Those episodes were shot in Berlin, notably in the site of the former Checkpoint Bravo and in the surrounding state of Brandenburg. In 1998, Action Concept took over as the sole production company and shifted all filming/production work to its headquarters in Hürth just south of Cologne. Since then, episodes have been shot in and around Cologne and Düsseldorf as well as on several major Autobahnen (A540/A44 and now mainly on the Filmautobahn Aldenhoven near Düren – ) between Cologne and Düsseldorf in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW).

Legacy.

Game adaptations.

The series has also spawned numerous game releases in Europe, primarily for PC, but they have generally met with mixed receptions. The latest title is "." "Crash Time" was also dubbed into English and sold in many other markets worldwide.

Spin-off.

In 2002, a spin-off named "" ("Alarm for Cobra 11 – Mission for Team 2") was started. Because of its limited success, only two seasons were produced.

Alarm für Cobra 11 – Die Autobahnpolizei (; ) is a long-running, popular German television series about a two-man team of highway police (Autobahnpolizei), originally set in Berlin and since 1999 in the area of Cologne in North Rhine-Westphalia. The series has been broadcast in 120 countries worldwide.


Life.

Zdislava was from a Moravian family, born in Křižanov, in what is now the Žďár nad Sázavou District of the Czech Republic. She was reportedly an unusually devout child, who at age seven ran away into the forest with the intention of living a hermit's life of prayer and solitude. She was forcibly returned by her family, and made to live a normal childhood from that point on. Later, her family arranged for her to marry Bohemian lord Havel of Markvartice (also known as Gallus of Lämberg or Havel of Lemberk) from prosperous Marquards family, founder of the towns of Jablonné () and Habelschwerdt (now Bystrzyca Kłodzka). Together they would have four children.  As a married woman, Zdislava continued to live a life of remarkable personal austerity, worked tirelessly in the care of the poor and dispossessed, and was, unusually for her era, a frequent recipient of the Eucharist. Tatar invasions of Central Europe (1240–42) were causing large numbers of people to leave their homes during this period, and a large number of refugees sought refuge at the Lemberk Castle in northern Bohemia, where Zdislava lived with her family and assisted these refugees as much as possible.  Her husband was concerned about what he considered the excessive degree of Zdislava's charity to these refugees. In one incident, he is reported to have gone to the bed Zdislava had given to a feverish beggar the night before, but to have found a figure of the crucified Jesus there instead. He is said to have been so impressed by this apparition that he would later allow her to found a Dominican convent in Turnov. Zdislava worked with this convent for the rest of her life, and was eventually buried there.  Several miracles have been attributed to her, including raising from the dead.

Veneration.

Shortly after her death Zdislava is reported to have appeared in an apparition to her husband. In 1907, Pope Pius X confirmed her veneration for her native country. She was canonized a saint in 1995 with John Sarkander in a ceremony in Olomouc, Czech Republic, by Pope John Paul II. In artwork, she is commonly depicted as a Dominican tertiary with a crucifix wound around with roses, or lying in the place of a sick person in bed. As a patron saint, she is asked for her intercession in difficult marriages and for people ridiculed for their piety.

Zdislava Berka T.O.S.D. (also, Zdislava of Lemberk; 1220–1252) was the wife of Havel of Markvartice, Duke of Lemberk, and is a Czech saint of the Roman Catholic Church. She was a particularly austere and generous woman who founded a convent.


Biography.

François Koenigstein was born in Saint-Chamond, Loire as the eldest child of a Dutch father (Jean Adam Koenigstein) and a French mother (Marie Ravachol). As an adult, he adopted his mother's maiden name as his surname, following years of struggle after his father abandoned the family when François was only eight years old. From that time on he had to support his mother, sister, and brother; he also looked after his nephew. He eventually found work as a dyer's assistant, a job which he later lost. He was very poor throughout his life. For additional income he played accordion at society balls on Sundays at Saint-Étienne.

The bombings.

Ravachol became politically active. He joined the anarchists as well as groups organizing to improve working conditions. Labor unrest resulted in fierce reprisals by police. On 1 May 1891, at Fourmies, a workers' demonstration took place for the eight-hour day; confrontations with the police followed. The police opened fire on the crowd, resulting in nine deaths amongst the demonstrators. The same day, at Clichy, serious incidents erupted in a procession in which anarchists were taking part. Three men were arrested and taken to the commissariat of police. There they were interrogated (and brutalised with beatings, resulting in injuries). A trial (the Clichy Affair) ensued, in which two of the three anarchists were sentenced to prison terms (despite their abuse in jail.) In addition to these events, authorities kept up repression of the communards, which had continued from the time of the insurrection of the Paris Commune of 1871.  Ravachol was aroused to take action in 1892 against members of the judiciary. He placed bombs in the living quarters of the Advocate General, Léon Bulot (executive of the Public Ministry), and Edmond Benoît, the councillor who had presided over the Assises Court during the Clichy Affair.  An informant told of his actions, and Ravachol was arrested on 30 March 1892 for his bombings at the "Restaurant Véry." The day before the trial, anarchists bombed the restaurant where the informant worked. Ravachol was tried at the Assises Court of Seine on 26 April. He was convicted and condemned to prison for life. On 23 June, Ravachol was condemned to death in a second trial at the Assises Court of Loire for three murders. His participation in two of them is disputed (he confessed only to the murder of the hermit of Montbrison, claiming it was due to his own poverty). On 11 July 1892, Ravachol was publicly guillotined.  On 9 December 1893, Auguste Vaillant threw a bomb into the French Chamber of Deputies to avenge Ravachol (the explosion injured one deputy).

The myth of Ravachol.

Ravachol became a somewhat romanticised symbol of desperate revolt and a number of French songs were composed in his honour, such as "la Ravachole", to the tune of "la Carmagnole".  Ravachol has also appeared as a minor character in Frank Chadwick's role-playing game "" as well as in several of his memoirs.  In 2011, the character of the anarchist "Claude Ravache" appeared in the movie "". He was clearly inspired by Ravachol.  The 2019 video game developed by ZA/UM, Disco Elysium, takes place in Martinaise, a district of the city of Revachol, a clear reference to Ravachol. Also mentioned in the game is a city known as Koeningsten.

François Claudius Koenigstein, also known as Ravachol (1859–1892), was a French anarchist. He was born on 14 October 1859, at Saint-Chamond, Loire and died by being guillotined on 11 July 1892, at Montbrison after being twice found guilty of complicity in bombings.


Club career.

Masopust's first club was lowly "ZSJ Uhlomost Most", but "ZSJ Technomat Teplice" (renamed to "ZSJ Vodotechna Teplice" in 1951) signed him as a 19-year-old left-half and gave him his top-flight debut. Then, in 1952, he joined a Czechoslovak Armed Forces football club under name of "ATK Praha" (renamed to "ÚDA Praha" in 1953 and to Dukla Prague in Winter 1956). Masopust won eight league championships and three national cups with Dukla. They also reached the semi-finals of the 1966–67 European Cup, losing to the eventual winners of the competition (Celtic).  When he eventually went abroad in 1968, he helped Crossing Molenbeek win promotion to the Belgian first division as player-coach. His coaching career continued at Dukla, however his only Czechoslovak league title as a coach came with Zbrojovka Brno in the 1977–78 season. Later, between 1984 and 1987, he led the Czechoslovakia national football team, overseeing a total of 27 matches. He subsequently had a spell in Indonesia where he coached their national Olympic football team with Milan Bokša between 1988 and 1991.

International career.

Masopust made his international debut in October 1954, in a friendly match against Hungary. He helped Czechoslovakia qualify for the 1958 FIFA World Cup, but the team were knocked out after a play-off match against Northern Ireland. Czechoslovakia finished in third place at the 1960 UEFA European Football Championship, losing to the Soviet Union in the semi-final and defeating France in the third place match.  In 1962, Masopust led the Czechoslovakia team that reached the 1962 FIFA World Cup Final, losing to Brazil. He scored the opening goal in the Final, but Brazil came back to win 3–1. Because of his performance at the World Cup Finals, he was named European Footballer of the Year in 1962.  Having represented the Rest of the World team against England in 1963, Masopust was invited to play for a European International XI in the farewell match for Stanley Matthews, when the 50-year-old Matthews retired from football in 1965. Czechoslovakia failed to qualify for the 1966 World Cup; Masopust had only played in one qualification match, a 1–0 defeat against Romania in May 1965. His last international appearance was in May 1966, in a friendly match against the Soviet Union. Overall, he was capped 63 times for his country, scoring ten goals.

Playing style.

Early in his career, Masopust played as a left half. By the time of the 1962 World Cup, he had moved to the centre half position.  Masopust was in a similar mould to that of the Hungarian József Bozsik; a workhorse of his team, who also created attacking opportunities. He had excellent ball control, which he utilised for both recovering the ball in defence and dribbling past opponents. Like Bozsik, Masopust was also an excellent passer of the ball. He was not great at tackling opponents, but he compensated for this by anticipating his opponents' actions and intercepting their passes.  Shackled by Czechoslovakia's 'no-risk' style philosophy, Masopust's natural inclination for attack was limited, yet he still managed 10 goals in 63 caps for his country. At club level he scored 79 times in 386 appearances for Dukla Prague. Many of his Dukla teammates also played for the national team, which gave them a greater understanding than some of their opponents.

Career statistics.

International goals.

"Scores and results list Czechoslovakia's goal tally first"

Legacy.

A statue of Masopust was built outside Dukla's Stadion Juliska and was unveiled in June 2011.

Death.

Masopust died on 29 June 2015 at his home in Prague at the age of 84. Although no cause of death was given, public Czech Television stated that he had been battling a lengthy serious illness.

Honours.

Club.

Dukla Prague

International.

Czechoslovakia

Josef Masopust (9 February 1931 – 29 June 2015) was a Czech football player and coach. He played as midfielder and was a key player for Czechoslovakia, helping them reach the 1962 FIFA World Cup Final. He was capped 63 times, scoring 10 goals for his country.


Life.

He was born at Neuhaus an der Elbe in the Kingdom of Hanover, the son of a Lutheran clergyman. Peters studied history and philosophy at the universities of Göttingen and Tübingen, and at the Humboldt University of Berlin as a student of Heinrich von Treitschke. During 1879 he was awarded a gold medal by the Frederick William University for his dissertation concerning the 1177 Treaty of Venice and habilitated with a treatise concerning Arthur Schopenhauer.

East Africa Company.

Instead of adopting the career of a teacher, Peters after his studies relocated to London where he resided in the house of his recently widowed maternal uncle Carl Engel on Addison Road. Engel was a distinguished composer and musical essayist, brother-in-law of the ophthalmologist Sir William Bowman, and lived the life of a gentleman. He introduced his nephew into the London society where Peters became acquainted with the British way of life as well as with principles of colonization and imperialism. When he returned to Berlin he initiated the Society for German Colonization "(Gesellschaft für Deutsche Kolonisation)" pressure group for the acquisition of colonies. During the autumn of 1884 he proceeded with two companions to East Africa, and concluded in the name of his society treaties with the chiefs of Useguha, Nguru, Ijsagara and Ukami. Returning to Europe early during 1885, he formed the German East Africa Company.  The German government of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, fearing the effect on relations with the British, was originally opposed to these plans, and had refused any funding when Peters began. Bismarck refused a second time when Peters returned to Germany during the last days of the Berlin Conference of 1884, demanding an imperial charter. Peters, however, threatened the Chancellor successfully by threatening to sell his acquisitions to King Leopold II of Belgium who was eager to expand his territory of Congo. As Bismarck's National Liberal Party allies in the Reichstag parliament were pro-colonial anyway, he finally agreed and the charter was granted. This constituted the necessary beginning for further expansion on the East African mainland during the years ensuing. During 1888 Peters achieved an agreement with Sultan Khalifah bin Said of Zanzibar who leased his coastal dominions in what was to be Tanganyika to the German East Africa Company.  During the same year Peters began an expedition from the east coast of Africa, avowedly for the relief of Emin Pasha, actually to extend the area of German influence in Uganda and Equatoria. This expedition was not sanctioned by the German government and was regarded by the British authorities as a filibuster (in the 19th century sense of the word). Reaching Uganda during early 1890, Peters concluded a treaty with Kabaka Mwanga II of Buganda in favour of Germany.  He had to leave Uganda hastily on the approach of an expedition commanded by Frederick Lugard, the representative of the Imperial British East Africa Company. On reaching Zanzibar he learned that his efforts were useless, as on 1 July 1890 the Heligoland–Zanzibar Treaty between Germany and the UK had been signed, whereby Uganda was left as an area of British influence and Peters' agreement with Mwanga became null and void. Meanwhile, the power of his company had ended when the coastal population rebelled in the Abushiri Revolt against the implementation of the lease agreement between the Sultan and the Germans. The German government had to intervene by sending troops commanded by Hermann Wissmann, ended the insurrection and assumed ownership of the company's possessions as a colony.  Nevertheless, on his return to Germany Peters was received with great honours, and during 1891 published an account of his expedition entitled "Die deutsche Emin Pasha Expedition", which was translated into English. He also endorsed the foundation of the "Alldeutscher Verband" in protest against the Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty.

Reichskommissar.

During 1891 he went out again to East Africa as Reichskommissar (Imperial High Commissioner) for the Kilimanjaro Region in Moshi, however subordinate to Wissmann, and during 1892 was one of the commissioners for delimiting the Anglo-German boundary with the British East Africa Company in that region. During the same time Peters by his brutal behaviour against the local population provoked a rebellion which was to cost him his office. He used local girls as concubines and, when he discovered that his lover Jagodja had an affair with his man-servant Mabruk, he had both of them sentenced for theft and treason and hanged by a court-martial and their home villages destroyed. The incident, at first not reported by Peters, provoked resistance by the local Chaga people and again necessitated costly military action.  Peters was recalled to Berlin and employed in the Imperial Colonial Office from 1893 to 1895, while official accusations were brought against him of excesses in regard to his treatment of the native population. In a session of the Reichstag on 13 March 1896 August Bebel, chairman of the Social Democratic Party, finally made the killings public, citing from a self-exculpatory letter by Peters to Bishop Alfred Tucker. Peters denied the authenticity of the letter but had to admit the executions. After three investigations he was, during 1897, dishonorably deprived of his commission for misuse of official power, losing all his pension benefits.  He evaded the final sentence and further criminal prosecution by relocating to London, where he occupied himself with schemes for exploiting parts of Rhodesia and Portuguese East Africa. In the interests of a gold mining company he formed, Peters explored the Fura district and Macombes country on the Zambezi river, where during 1899 he discovered ruins of cities and deserted gold mines of the medieval Kingdom of Mutapa, which he identified as the legendary ancient lands of Ophir. He returned during 1901 and gave an account of his explorations in "Im Goldland des Altertums" (The Eldorado of the Ancients) (1902). During 1905 he again visited the region between the rivers Zambezi and Save.

Legacy.

Besides the books already mentioned and some smaller treatises Peters published a philosophical work entitled "Willenswelt und Weltwille" (1883), and a disquisition on early gold production entitled "Das goldene Ophir Salomo's" (1895), translated into English during 1898.  Among colonial minded people he was feted as a national hero. During 1914 he was able to return to Germany, after Emperor Wilhelm II by personal decree had bestowed upon him the right to use the title of an Imperial Commissioner again and had given him a pension from his personal budget, while the sentence by the disciplinary court remained in effect. Peters was rehabilitated officially by personal decree of Adolf Hitler 20 years after his death. A propaganda movie "Carl Peters" by Herbert Selpin was released during 1941, featuring Hans Albers.  A number of towns in Germany had streets named after Peters but during recent years some of them received different names after debate concerning his legacy. For example, "Petersallee" in the Afrikanisches Viertel in Berlin was originally named after Carl Peters, but was rededicated during 1986 to Hans Peters, a member of the anti-Nazi resistance.  Critics among Social Democrats, Catholic and Free-minded politicians considered Peters a national shame. The Austrian Africanist Oscar Baumann referred to him as "half crazy". One of his nicknames in the German critical press was "Hänge-Peters" ("Hangman-Peters").

Carl Peters (27 September 1856 – 10 September 1918), was a German colonial ruler, explorer, politician and author and a major promoter of the establishment of the German colony of East Africa (part of the modern republic Tanzania). A proponent of Social Darwinism and the "Völkisch" philosophy, his attitude towards the indigenous population made him one of the most controversial colonizers even during his lifetime.


History.

The cat's original name is unknown. The name "Oscar" was given by the crew of the British destroyer HMS "Cossack" that rescued him from the sea following the sinking of the German battleship "Bismarck". "Oscar" was derived from the International Code of Signals for the letter 'O', which is code for "Man Overboard" (the German spelling, "Oskar", was sometimes used since he was a German cat).

"Bismarck".

The black and white patched cat was supposedly owned by an unknown crewman of the German battleship "Bismarck" and was on board the ship on 18 May 1941 when she set sail on Operation "Rheinübung" (German for Rhine Exercise), "Bismarck"s only mission. "Bismarck" was sunk after a fierce sea-battle on 27 May, from which only 115 from her crew of over 2,100 survived. Hours later, Oscar was found floating on a board and picked from the water by the British destroyer HMS "Cossack". Unaware of what his name had been on "Bismarck", the crew of "Cossack" named their new mascot "Oscar".

HMS "Cossack".

The cat served on board "Cossack" for the next few months as the ship carried out convoy escort duties in the Mediterranean Sea and north Atlantic Ocean. On 24 October 1941, "Cossack" was escorting a convoy from Gibraltar to Great Britain when she was severely damaged by a torpedo fired by the. Crew were transferred to the destroyer, and an attempt was made to tow the badly listing "Cossack" back to Gibraltar. However, worsening weather conditions meant the task became impossible and had to be abandoned. On 27 October, a day after the tow was slipped, "Cossack" sank to the west of Gibraltar. The initial explosion had blown off one third of the forward section of the ship, killing 159 of the crew, but Oscar survived this too and was brought to the shore establishment in Gibraltar.

HMS "Ark Royal".

Now nicknamed "Unsinkable Sam", the cat was soon transferred to the aircraft carrier, which coincidentally had been instrumental in the destruction of "Bismarck" (along with "Cossack"). However, Sam was to find no more luck there, and when returning from Malta on 14 November 1941 this ship too was torpedoed, this time by. Attempts were also made to tow "Ark Royal" to Gibraltar, but the unstoppable inflow of water made the task futile. The carrier rolled over and sank 30 miles from Gibraltar. The slow rate at which the ship sank meant that all but one of the crew could be saved. The survivors, including Sam, who had been found clinging to a floating plank by a Motor Launch and described as "angry but quite unharmed", were transferred to HMS "Lightning" and the same HMS "Legion" which had rescued the crew of "Cossack". "Legion" would itself be sunk in 1942, and "Lightning" in 1943.  The loss of "Ark Royal" proved the end of Sam's shipborne career. He was transferred first to the offices of the Governor of Gibraltar and then sent back to the United Kingdom, where he saw out the remainder of the war living in a seaman's home in Belfast called the "Home for Sailors". Sam died in 1955. A pastel portrait of Sam (titled "Oscar, the Bismarck's Cat") by the artist Georgina Shaw-Baker is in the possession of the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich.

Historicity.

Some authorities question whether Oskar/Sam's biography might be a "sea story", because – for example – there are pictures of two different cats identified as Oskar/Sam. The sinking of "Bismarck" and rescue of a limited number of survivors took place in desperate conditions; British ships were ordered not to stop as there was believed to be a U-boat in the area, and many survivors were left to die of exposure. Pointedly, there is no mention of this incident in Ludovic Kennedy's detailed account of the sinking, suggesting that information later gleaned from sailors regarding the cat's true service were apocryphal.

Unsinkable Sam (also known as Oskar or Oscar) is the apocryphal nickname of a ship's cat who purportedly served during World War II with both the Kriegsmarine and the Royal Navy and survived the sinking of three ships.


Club career.

Born in Eisenstadt, Ivanschitz began his football career as a youth in his town's local team called ASK Baumgarten, where he spent nine years. Soon, Rapid Wien scouts found out about his talent and in 1998, he signed his first professional contract with the Austrian champions. He was only 16 years old when he wore his team's shirt during an Austrian Cup match against Ranshofen on 26 October 1999. His first official League match was in 2000 against Wüstenrot Salzburg. In 177 games for Rapid Wien, Ivanschitz scored 27 times, winning the Austrian Championship title in 2004–05. In 2003, he was elected "Austrian Footballer of the Year."  In January 2006, Ivanschitz transferred to Red Bull Salzburg and then to Greek Super League club Panathinaikos in August 2006 on a two-year loan. On 20 June 2008, Ivanschitz agreed on a permanent deal with Panathinaikos.  After three years in Greece with Panathinaikos he agreed on 18 July 2009 on a two-year loan with 1. FSV Mainz 05 with the view to a two-year permanent contract in the summer of 2011. Mainz took advantage of this contract option prematurely, and signed Ivanschitz permanently in January 2011.  On 10 June 2013, Ivanschitz left Mainz for Levante UD. He scored his first goal in La Liga on 31 August, the winner with the last kick of a 2–1 home win over Rayo Vallecano. He finished his first season in Spain with three goals from 29 games, the last being in a 2–0 win over city rivals Valencia CF on 10 May.  On 4 August 2015, he signed with Seattle Sounders FC in Major League Soccer. After suffering from an injury his debut was postponed to 13 September where he assisted a late Obafemi Martins goal to tie up the game against San Jose Earthquakes. Ivanschitz converted Seattle's second kick from the spot in the 2016 MLS Cup penalty shootout, which the Sounders eventually won after six rounds, securing their first MLS Cup Title.

International career.

Ivanschitz made his debut for Austria in a February 2003 friendly match against Greece, coming on as a substitute for Markus Weissenberger. He was also a participant at the UEFA Euro 2008. He has earned 69 caps for Austria and has scored 12 goals.

Honours.

Club.

Rapid Wien  Seattle Sounders

Personal life.

Ivanschitz comes from a musical family and plays various musical instruments in his spare time. He is a part of the Burgenland Croat community.

Andreas Ivanschitz (; born 15 October 1983) is an Austrian retired footballer who played as an attacking midfielder. During the career, Ivanschitz played for Rapid Wien, Red Bull Salzburg, 1.FSV Mainz 05, Levante, Seattle Sounders FC and Viktoria Plzen.