Early life and education.

Pappé was born in Haifa, Israel, to German Jewish parents who fled Nazi persecution in the 1930s. At the age of 18, he was drafted into the Israel Defense Forces, serving in the Golan Heights during the 1973 Yom Kippur War. He graduated from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 1978, and in 1984 obtained his PhD in history from the University of Oxford, under the guidance of Albert Hourani and Roger Owen. His doctoral thesis became his first book, "Britain and the Arab-Israeli Conflict".

Academic career.

Pappé was a senior lecturer at the Middle Eastern History Department and the Political Science Department of the University of Haifa between 1984 and 2006. He was the Academic Director of the Research Institute for Peace at Givat Haviva from 1993 to 2000, and chair of the Emil Touma Institute for Palestinian Studies.  Pappé left Israel in 2007 to take up his appointment in Exeter, after his endorsement of the boycott of Israeli universities led the president of the University of Haifa to call for his resignation. Pappé said that he found it "increasingly difficult to live in Israel" with his "unwelcome views and convictions." In a Qatari newspaper interview explaining his decision, he said: "I was boycotted in my university and there had been attempts to expel me from my job. I am getting threatening calls from people every day. I am not being viewed as a threat to the Israeli society but my people think that I am either insane or my views are irrelevant. Many Israelis also believe that I am working as a mercenary for the Arabs."

Katz controversy.

Pappé publicly supported an M.A. thesis by Haifa University student Teddy Katz, which was approved with highest honors, that claimed Israel had committed a massacre in the Palestinian village of Tantura during the war in 1948, based upon interviews with Arab residents of the village and with an Israeli veteran of the operation. Neither Israeli nor Palestinian historians had previously recorded any such incident, which Meyrav Wurmser described as a "made-up massacre", but, according to Pappé, "the story of Tantura had already been told before, as early as 1950... It appears in the memoirs of a Haifa notable, Muhammad Nimr al-Khatib, who, a few days after the battle, recorded the testimony of a Palestinian." In December 2000, Katz was sued for libel by veterans of the Alexandroni Brigade and after the testimony was heard, he retracted his allegations about the massacre. Twelve hours later, he retracted his retraction. During the trial, lawyers for the veterans pointed to what they said were discrepancies between the taped interviews Katz conducted and descriptions in Katz's thesis.  Katz revised his thesis, and, following the trial, the university appointed a committee to examine it. After reviewing the taped interviews and finding discrepancies between them and what was written in the thesis, Katz was allowed to submit a revised thesis. According to Counterpunch, the assessment of the revised thesis was highly mixed, but overall it failed. Pappé continues to defend both Katz and his thesis. Tom Segev and others argued that there is merit or some truth in what Katz described. According to the Israeli New Historian Benny Morris: "There is no unequivocal proof of a large-scale massacre at Tantura, but war crimes were perpetrated there."

Political activism.

In 1999, Pappé ran in the Knesset elections as seventh on the Communist Party-led Hadash list.  After years of political activism, Pappé supports economic and political boycotts of Israel, including an academic boycott. He believes boycotts are justified because "the Israeli occupation is a dynamic process and it becomes worse with each passing day. The AUT can choose to stand by and do nothing, or to be part of a historical movement similar to the anti-apartheid campaign against the white supremacist regime in South Africa. By choosing the latter, it can move us forward along the only remaining viable and non-violent road to saving both Palestinians and Israelis from an impending catastrophe."  As a result, then University of Haifa President Aaron Ben-Ze'ev called on Pappé to resign, saying: "it is fitting for someone who calls for a boycott of his university to apply the boycott himself." He said that Pappé would not be ostracized, since that would undermine academic freedom, but he should leave voluntarily. In the same year, Pappé initiated the annual Israeli Right of return conferences, which called for the unconditional right of return of the Palestinian refugees who were expelled in 1948.  In August 2015, Pappé was a signatory to a letter criticising "The Jewish Chronicle"s reporting of Jeremy Corbyn's association with alleged antisemites.

Critical assessment.

Israeli scholar Emmanuel Sivan, reviewing Pappé's 2003 political biography of the al-Husayni family, praised the book's treatment of the development of Palestinian nationalism and that of Haj Amin's exile in Germany, but criticised the view taken on the mufti's visit to the German consul and the scant attention given to Faisal Husseini.  Those critical of his work include Benny Morris (who described some of Pappe's writing as "complete fabrication" and said he was "at best...one of the world's sloppiest historians; at worst, one of the most dishonest"), Efraim Karsh, and Herbert London as well as professors Daniel Gutwein and Yossi Ben-Artzi from Haifa University. Pappé has replied to this criticism, condemning Morris for holding "abominable racist views about the Arabs in general and the Palestinians in particular."

Ilan Pappé (, ; born 1954) is an expatriate Israeli historian and socialist activist. He is a professor with the College of Social Sciences and International Studies at the University of Exeter in the United Kingdom, director of the university's European Centre for Palestine Studies, and co-director of the Exeter Centre for Ethno-Political Studies.


Early years.

Trippe was born in Sea Bright, New Jersey, on June 27, 1899, the great-great-grandson of Lieutenant John Trippe, captain of the. Because he was named "Juan", he is widely assumed to have been of Hispanic descent, but his family was actually Northern European in ancestry and settled in Maryland in 1664. He was named after Juanita Terry, the Venezuelan wife of his great uncle. Trippe attended the Bovea School and graduated from The Hill School in 1917.  He enrolled at Yale University but left when the United States entered World War I to apply for flight training with the United States Navy. After completing training in June 1918, he was designated as a Naval Aviator and was commissioned as an Ensign in the United States Navy Reserve. However, the end of World War I precluded him from flying in combat. Demobilized from active duty, he returned to Yale, graduating in 1921. While there, he was a member of St. Anthony Hall and of the Skull and Bones society. Trippe was treasurer at the first meeting of the National Intercollegiate Flying Association in 1920.

Career.

After graduation from Yale, Trippe began working on Wall Street, but soon became bored. In 1922 he raised money from his old Yale classmates, selling them stock in his new airline, an air-taxi service for the rich and powerful called Long Island Airways. Once again tapping his wealthy friends from Yale, Trippe invested in an airline named Colonial Air Transport, which was awarded a new route and an airmail contract on October 7, 1925. Interested in operating to the Caribbean, Trippe created the Aviation Corporation of the Americas. Based in Florida, the company would evolve into the unofficial United States flag carrier, Pan American Airways, commonly known as Pan Am.  Pan Am's first flight took off on October 19, 1927, from Key West, Florida, to Havana, Cuba, in a hired Fairchild FC-2 floatplane being delivered to West Indian Aerial Express in the Dominican Republic. The return flight from Havana to Key West, in a Pan Am Fokker F.VII, took place October 29, being delayed from October 28 by rain.  Later, Trippe bought the China National Aviation Corporation (CNAC) to provide domestic air service in the Republic of China, and became a partner in Panagra. In the 1930s. Pan Am became the first airline to cross the Pacific Ocean with the famous "Clipper" flying boats.  Trippe served as the chairman of the board of directors of the airline for all but about two years between the founding of the company and World War II. "Sonny" Whitney, a stockholder, managed to seize this position. He later regretted his action and allowed Trippe to retake it. For a long time Trippe refused to pardon Whitney. At one point, he even agreed to meet Whitney for lunch for a reconciliation, but changed his mind and turned around shortly after departing from his office in the Chrysler Building. Pan Am continued to expand worldwide throughout World War II. Trippe is responsible for several innovations in the airline world. A firm believer in the idea of air travel for all, Trippe is credited as the father of the "tourist class" in the airline industry, and was the driving force behind Pan Am's formation of the InterContinental hotel group.  Trippe quickly recognized the opportunities presented by jet aircraft and ordered several Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8 airplanes. Pan Am's first scheduled jet flight was operated on October 26, 1958 by 707 "Clipper America" from Idlewild International Airport (now JFK) to Le Bourget Airport, Paris. The new jets allowed Pan Am to cut the flight time nearly in half, introduce lower fares, and fly more passengers in total.  In 1965, Trippe asked his friend Bill Allen at Boeing to produce an airplane much larger than the 707. The result was the Boeing 747, and Pan Am was the first customer. Originally, Trippe believed the 747 would ultimately be destined to haul cargo only and would be replaced by faster, supersonic aircraft which were then being developed. The supersonic airliners failed to materialize, with the exception of the Concorde and Tupolev Tu-144, and the 747 became the iconic image of international travel. In 1965, Trippe received the Tony Jannus Award for his distinguished contributions to commercial aviation.  Trippe gave up the presidency of the airline in 1968. He continued to attend meetings of the board of directors and maintained an office in the company's Park Avenue office building.

Personal life.

Trippe was a member of The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews in Scotland and president of the Maidstone Club in East Hampton, New York, from 1940 to 1944.  Trippe married Elizabeth "Betty" Stettinius Trippe (1904–1983), the sister of United States Secretary of State Edward R. Stettinius Jr., in 1928. They had four children, Elizabeth ("Betsy"), John Terry, Charles White, and Edward Stettinius Trippe, who now resides in Tucker's Town, Bermuda, where he is executive director of the Tucker's Point Club and serves on Bermuda International Airport's advisory board. The couple remained married until Trippe's death in 1981.

Death and legacy.

Trippe suffered a stroke in September 1980, which forced him to cut back on his workload; he died after suffering a second stroke at his New York City home on April 3, 1981, at the age of 81. He is buried in Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn.  In 1985, Trippe was posthumously awarded the Medal of Freedom by United States President Ronald Reagan. Trippe was inducted into the Junior Achievement U.S. Business Hall of Fame in 1990. An endowed chair at the Yale University School of Management is the "Juan Trippe Professor in the Practice of International Trade, Finance, and Business".  In 1982, Trippe was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.  Trippe is widely regarded as the last of the greatest aviation pioneers along with industry titans such as American Airlines' C. R. Smith, United Airlines' William A. "Pat" Patterson, Eastern Airlines' Eddie Rickenbacker, and Delta Air Lines' Collett E. Woolman. Under his control, Pan American World Airways became one of the premier international airlines in the world. He is also credited as playing an instrumental role in the development of an intercontinental version of the Boeing 707 and the Douglas DC-8 as Trippe's determination to get a jet that could cross the Atlantic was instrumental not only in Douglas developing a long-range DC-8, but also Boeing's famed 707 as they had to redesign it in order to stay competitive with Douglas.

In popular culture.

A character based on Trippe was played by Pat O'Brien in Ray Enright's 1936 film "The China Clipper". Trippe was played by Alec Baldwin in Martin Scorsese's 2004 film "The Aviator".

Juan Terry Trippe (June 27, 1899 – April 3, 1981) was an American commercial aviation pioneer, entrepreneur and the founder of Pan American World Airways, one of the iconic airlines of the 20th century. He was instrumental in numerous revolutionary advances in airline history, including the development and production of the Boeing 314 Clipper, which opened trans-Pacific airline travel, the Boeing Stratoliner which helped to pioneer cabin pressurization, the Boeing 707 and the Boeing 747 which introduced the era of jumbo jets (evolved from Air Force bombers, tanker and transport design, respectively). Trippe's signing of the 747 contract coincided with the 50th anniversary of Boeing, and he gave a speech where he explained his belief that these jets would be a force that would help bring about world peace.


Description.

"Melaleuca alternifolia" is a small tree to about with a bushy crown and whitish, papery bark. The leaves are arranged alternately, sometimes scattered or whorled. The leaves are smooth, soft, linear in shape, long and wide. They are also rich in oil with the glands prominent. Flowers occur in white or cream-colored masses of spikes long over a short period, mostly spring to early summer, and give the tree an appearance of looking fluffy. The small woody, cup-shaped fruit, in diameter are scattered along the branches.

Taxonomy and naming.

"Melaleuca alternifolia" was first formally described in 1905 by Joseph Maiden and Ernst Betche as "Melaleuca linariifolia" var. "alternifolia". The description was published in "Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales" but was renamed "Melaleuca alternifolia" in 1925 by Edwin Cheel. The specific epithet ("alternifolia") is derived from the Latin "alternus" meaning "alternate" and "folium" meaning "leaf", referring to the leaf arrangement.

Distribution and habitat.

"Melaleuca alternifolia" is endemic to Australia and is found from the Grafton district in New South Wales as far inland as Stroud and north to Maryborough in Queensland. It grows along streams and in swampy places.

Uses.

Horticulture.

This species grows well in a wide range of soils and climates. It prefers well-drained but moist soils and to be grown in full sun.

Medicinal uses.

Tea tree has been used as an alternative medicinal treatment for almost a century in Australia. Indigenous Australians of eastern inland areas use "tea trees" as a traditional medicine by inhaling the oils from the crushed leaves to treat coughs and colds. They also sprinkle leaves on wounds, after which a poultice is applied. In addition, tea tree leaves are soaked to make an infusion to treat sore throats or skin ailments.  Characteristic of the myrtle family Myrtaceae, it is used to distill essential oil. It is the primary species for commercial production of tea tree oil (melaleuca oil), a topical antibacterial. Tea tree oil is commonly used as a topical antiseptic agent because of its antimicrobial properties, especially in the treatment of acne. It is also known to reduce inflammation and may be effective in the treatment of fungal infections such as Athlete's foot.  Tea tree oil should not be ingested in large amounts due to its toxicity and may cause skin irritation if used topically in high concentrations. No deaths have been reported in medical literature.

Melaleuca alternifolia, commonly known as tea tree, is a species of tree or tall shrub in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae. Endemic to Australia, it occurs in southeast Queensland and the north coast and adjacent ranges of New South Wales where it grows along streams and on swampy flats, and is often the dominant species where it occurs.


Extent and neighbouring ranges.

The outline of the Tennen range is formed:

Summit.

The highest mountains in the Tennen are Raucheck () in the west and Bleikogel () in the east. The highest points all rise on the southern edge of the plateau, which falls away to the north. The most important peaks are:

Geology.

The Tennen is a heavily karstified massif, composed mainly of Dachstein limestone lying on a foundation of Ramsau dolomite.  Its southern foothills, along the line Lungötz–Werfenweng–Werfen, belong to an imbricate zone ("Schuppenzone"). This zone, made of Werfen Formation from the Lower Triassic and middle triadic dolomites (Anisian, Ladinian), is called the "Werfen-St.-Martin Schuppen Zone".

Caves.

There are numerous caves in the Tennen Mountains..  The Tennen Mountains are a preferred research region for the State Cave Research Association in Salzburg, which collects and publishes results of its research. New caves are continually being found, but even old, well-known caves sometimes reveal new secrets.  Knowledge of the caves, and the routes that water takes through them, is important, particularly in terms of future water supply for the population and the protection of water resources.

Walking and climbing.

Being a high plateau, the Tennen has numerous trails for the Alpine hiker. However, walkers need to be aware of the lack of water in the karst terrain and the dangers of getting lost in mist or fog. Alpine experience and a good level of fitness are basic pre-requisites, even though there are many mountain huts available. The precipices on the edge of the plateau offer the climber a wide scope of climbing options. The faces on the southern edge of the range, especially around the Werfener Hut and above Dr. Heinrich Hackel Hut are very popular due to their easy accessibility. In winter there are various ski touring routes, mainly crossing the plateau, but also extreme ski routes in some places.

Long distance trails.

The "European long-distance trail" E4/"North Alpine Way" 01/"Via Alpina" ("Violet Trail" Stage A34/35) runs through the southern Tennen, from Lungötz to Werfen via the Dr. Heinrich Hackel Hut.  In addition Salzburg's "Arno Way" runs along the west of the group (Section 6 "Kalkberge Ost", Stage 52 Annaberg Laufener Hut and 53 to Abtenau).

The Tennen Mountains () is a small, but rugged, mountain range in the Northern Limestone Alps, which lies in front of the Eastern Alps for its entire length. It is a very heavily karstified high plateau, about 60 km2 in area, with many caves. The range is located in Austria in the district of Salzburg near Bischofshofen.


Playing career.

Růžička started his career with Czechoslovak side Litvínov, making his first appearance at the age of 16 and scoring after just 10 seconds in his first game, against Dukla Jihlava. Růžička was selected by the Toronto Maple Leafs 73rd overall in the 1982 NHL Entry Draft. Despite this, he was barred from leaving Czechoslovakia by the Communist authorities. He continued to play internationally for Czechoslovakia before finally making his NHL debut in 1989. Růžička had a short career in the NHL, playing a total of five seasons for the Edmonton Oilers, Boston Bruins and Ottawa Senators. His best season statistically came in 1991–92 when he recorded 75 points (39 goals, 36 assists) with Boston, and led the team in scoring. He has a Stanley Cup ring and is on the 1990 Edmonton Oilers Stanley Cup team picture. However, Růžička only played 25 regular season games and did not appear in the playoffs that season. Thus, his name was not engraved on the Stanley Cup. Růžička finished his NHL career with 233 games, scoring 82 goals and 85 assists.  Růžička played 200 games for his national team, scoring 112 goals in the process. In 1985, he won a gold medal with Czechoslovakia at the 1985 World Ice Hockey Championships. He captained the gold medal winning Czech Republic team at the 1998 Winter Olympics, going on to retire from the international team after the tournament.

Coaching career.

After retiring as a player in 2000 he started working as a coach in HC Slavia Praha and in 2002–03 and 2007–08 seasons his team won the Czech Extraliga. Between 2002–2004 he was also an assistant coach of the Czech national ice hockey team. Shortly after he left the team, the head coach Ivan Hlinka died and Růžička took over the position, leading the Czech Republic team to the Vienna World Championship gold medal in 2005. Růžička has coached the Czech national ice hockey team to two gold medals.

Vladimír Růžička (; born 6 June 1963) is a Czech ice hockey coach and former professional player. Růžička was twice named the top player in the Czechoslovak Elite League, and was on the gold medal team in the Ice Hockey World Championship in 1985 and 1998 Olympic Games. He also played 233 games in the National Hockey League (NHL). Since 2008, Růžička has been the head coach of both HC Slavia Praha and the Czech national ice hockey team.


Early life through World War II.

The son of Judge Willis Augustus Lee and Susan Arnold, he was known as "Mose" Lee to family and friends.  He entered the U.S. Naval Academy in 1904. While at the Naval academy, his Chinese-sounding last name, compounded by his fondness for the Far East earned him the nickname "Ching" Lee.  Following graduation, Lee joined the academy's rifle team twice. He was assigned to the battleship from October 1908 to May 1909, before returning to the naval academy and re-joining the rifle team. From November 1909 until May 1910, Lee served aboard the protected cruiser, and then transferred to the gunboat. Upon being detached back to the United States, Lee re-joined the Academy shooting team a third time. In July 1913, Lee re-joined "Idaho", and in April 1914 he transferred to the battleship to participate in the occupation of Veracruz.  During World War I, Lee served on the destroyers and.

1920 Olympics.

Lee participated in 14 events at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp. He won 7 medals (5 gold, 1 silver, and 1 bronze), all in team events. His teammates for the various events were Dennis Fenton, Lawrence Nuesslein, Arthur Rothrock, Oliver Schriver, Morris Fisher, Carl Osburn, Lloyd Spooner, and Joseph Jackson.  Lee and Spooner ended the 1920 Olympics with 7 medals each, the most anyone had ever received in a single games. Boris Shakhlin was the next person to reach 7, in 1960. It would not be until Alexander Dityatin in the 1980 games that anyone would beat the record.

Interwar years.

Lee attended the Naval War College in the late 1920s, and was promoted to the rank of captain in 1936.  During the 1930s and early 1940s, Lee was several times assigned to the Fleet Training Division, commanded the light cruiser, and served on the staff of Commander, Cruisers, Battle Force. In early 1942, following his promotion to the rank of rear admiral, Lee became Assistant Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief, U.S. Fleet.

World War II.

Lee's specialty in life was gunnery. At the age of 19 in 1907 "he became the only American to win both the US National High Power Rifle and Pistol championships in the same year." In 1914 during the Veracruz campaign in Mexico he drew the fire of three enemy snipers, thereby exposing their positions and then shot them at long range. He understood the powerful guns of a battleship as an extension of the law of ballistics and adapted his expertise to the new age of technology. When Admiral Lee engaged the Japanese Vice Admiral Nobutake Kondō's battleship on the evening of 14 November 1942 in the waters off Guadalcanal, he became naval history's first battleship commander to conduct a "gunfight" primarily by radar remote control.

Naval Battle of Guadalcanal.

In August 1942, Rear Admiral Lee was sent to the Pacific to command Battleship Division Six, consisting of the battleships and. Flying his flag in "Washington", Lee engaged an Imperial Japanese Navy surface fleet under the command of Vice Admiral Kondō during the second night of the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal on the night of 14–15 November 1942. While riding in the battleship "Washington", which served as his flagship during this sea-fight, Lee's battleship decisively gunned the battleship "Kirishima" into a wreck, resulting in her scuttling shortly afterwards. With 300 Imperial sailors still entombed within her hull, she slid into Ironbottom Sound, leaving Admiral Lee's flagship "Washington" the only American battleship during World War II to sink an enemy battleship in a "one on one" gunfight.  Lee, who "knew more about radar than the radar operators", used the SG radar installed aboard "Washington" to skillfully maneuver his ships during the night.

After Guadalcanal.

Lee was awarded the Navy Cross for his actions at the battle, promoted to vice admiral in 1944 and placed in charge of the Pacific Fleet's fast battleships, as Commander, Battleships, Pacific Fleet (ComBatPac).  In May 1945, he was sent to the Atlantic to command a special unit researching defenses against the threat of Japanese kamikaze aircraft, the Composite Task Force, U.S. Atlantic Fleet. While serving in that position on 25 August 1945, Vice Admiral Willis A. Lee died suddenly after suffering a heart attack, ten days after the Surrender of Japan. He collapsed and died in a motor launch that was ferrying him out to his flagship in the harbor at Portland, Maine.

Family.

Willis Lee Jr. was a distant relative of Confederate General Robert E. Lee and the third Attorney General of the United States, Charles Lee. He married Mabelle Allen Elspeth (1894–1949) on July 14, 1919. They had no children. Willis' father, Judge Willis Augustus Lee Sr., was one of fourteen children of Nathaniel Wiley Lee (aka Nat Lee, founder of Natlee) and Frances Abbott, of Owen County, Kentucky. While in the Pacific theater, Lee unofficially adopted two Korean children in Vietnam after the children's family requested that Lee take the children to the United States. While the children were never adopted under United States law due to Lee's heart attack, the adoption was consummated under Korean custom at the time. Both children took Lee's name - Barry Lee and Willis H. Lee - and were permitted to enter the United States with their biological parents. Barry was adopted by a family in Long Island, New York while Willis and his family relocated to Scarsdale, New York. Both now reside in Saratoga Springs.  His great-grandparents were early Kentucky settlers, Joseph R. Lee and Mary Wiley. His grandfather Nathaniel W. Lee operated a distillery at his namesake village of Natlee. In 1893, Nat Lee's sour mash whiskey was taken to the Chicago World's Fair where it won the Gold Medal over 5000 other entries.

Namesakes.

The was named for him.

Awards and decorations.

Here is the ribbon bar of Vice admiral Willis Augustus Lee:

Willis Augustus "Ching" Lee Jr. (May 11, 1888 – August 25, 1945) was a vice admiral of the United States Navy during World War II. Lee commanded the American ships during the second night of the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal (November 14–15, 1942) and turned back a Japanese invasion force headed for the island. The victory ended Japanese attempts to reinforce their troops on Guadalcanal, and thus marked a turning point in both the Guadalcanal Campaign and the Pacific War itself.


Title.

The Latin title of an encyclical is taken from its first few words. This encyclical begins with a quotation from the Vulgate, First Epistle of John, translated from the original Greek, ("Ho Theos agape estin"). The Douai Bible translates this into English as, while in most contemporary English translations it reads "God is love" (since the word "charity" is derived from ). The Latin version of the First Epistle of John uses the same formulation, "Deus caritas est", at the end of translating. This second biblical reference is not mentioned in the encyclical.

Summary.

In this encyclical, Benedict reflects on the concepts of "eros", "agape", and "philia", and their relationship with the teachings of Jesus. "Eros" and "agape" are two of the various Greek words for love, each of which has a slightly different shade of meaning: "agape" is descending, oblative love in which one gives of oneself to another; "eros" is ascending, possessive love which seeks to receive from another; "philia" is the mutual love between friends.  The document explains that "eros" and "agape" are both inherently good, but that "eros" risks being downgraded to mere sex if it is not balanced by an element of spiritual Christianity. The opinion that "eros" is inherently good follows a school of thought in the Catholic Church known as the ""Caritas" tradition", and contrasts with the view expressed, for example, by Anders Nygren, a Lutheran bishop, in his mid-20th century book "Eros and Agape", that "agape" is the only truly Christian kind of love, and that "eros" is an expression of the individual's desires and turns us away from God. These two positions have been an ongoing cause for debate in both Catholic and Protestant theology. The continuity of these two forms of love follows the traditional Catholic understanding, which is influenced by the philosophy of Plato, Augustine, Bonaventure and ancient Jewish tradition. The Nygren position was favoured by the Reformed theologian Karl Barth while the Caritas position was supported by the liberal Protestant theologian Paul Tillich.  The first half of the encyclical is more philosophical, tracing the meaning of the Greek words for "love". In considering "eros", Benedict refers to a line from Virgil's "Eclogues", Book X, line 69, "Omnia vincit amor, et nos cedamus amori" ("Love conquers all, let us also yield to love"), and the opinion of Friedrich Nietzsche that Christianity has poisoned "eros", turning it into a vice. He refers to the conjugal love exhibited in the "Song of Songs", and analyzes passages from the First Letter of St. John which inspired the title. The encyclical argues that "eros" and "agape" are not distinct kinds of love, but are separate halves of complete love, unified as both a giving and receiving. The second half, based on a report prepared by the Pontifical Council "Cor Unum", is less abstract, considering the charitable activities of the Church as an expression of love which draws its power from contemplative union with God. The second half also refers to the Church's threefold responsibility: proclaiming the word of God ("kerygma-martyria"), celebrating the sacraments ("leitourgia"), and exercising the ministry of charity ("diakonia").  The encyclical says that social justice is the primary responsibility of politics and the laity; the church itself should inform the debate on social justice with reason guided by faith, but its main social activity should be directed towards charity. Charity workers should have a deep prayer life, and be uninfluenced by party and ideology. Benedict rejects both Marxist arguments that the poor "do not need charity but justice", and the merger of church and state functions (theocracy); rather, he encourages "cooperation" between the church, the state, and other Christian charitable organizations.  Paragraph 39 appears to be inspired by Dante Alighieri's "Divine Comedy", reflecting in particular the last canto of "Paradise", which ends before "the everlasting Light that is God himself, before that Light which at the same time is the love which moves the sun and the other stars". The three concluding paragraphs consider the example of the saints, ending with a prayer to the Virgin Mary. The text mentions the name of Mother Teresa four times, the last as a "saint" (despite the fact that she was not yet canonised) in such company as Francis of Assisi, Ignatius of Loyola, John of God, Camillus of Lellis, Vincent de Paul, Louise de Marillac, Giuseppe B. Cottolengo, John Bosco, and Luigi Orione.  "Deus caritas est", like the encyclicals of many previous popes, including Pope John Paul II, uses the Royal we in the official Latin text (""cupimus loqui de amore""). This is the text that appears promulgated in the Vatican's official gazette of record, "Acta Apostolicae Sedis". However, in accordance with a practice initiated in the pontificate of John Paul II, the unofficial versions prepared by the Vatican in 7 other languages use the singular (""I wish to speak of love"").

Other events.

At an audience on 18 January 2006, Pope Benedict said that "Deus caritas est" would discuss the concept of love "in its various dimensions, from the love between man and woman to the love that the Catholic Church has for others in its expression of charity". The Vatican, through the Pontifical Council "Cor Unum", sponsored a conference in Rome to discuss the themes of the encyclical on 23 January and 24 January 2006, involving Liliana Cavani (director of films including "The Night Porter" and "Ripley's Game") and James Wolfensohn (former head of the World Bank).  The encyclical was published on the feast of the Conversion of Saint Paul and on the last day of the Week of Prayer for Christian Unity. Pope Benedict led an ecumenical prayer service at the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls, a traditional site for such celebrations, on the evening after the encyclical was published. Presiding at vespers, he said in his homily: "God is love. On this solid rock the entire faith of the church is based."

Deus caritas est (), subtitled "De Christiano Amore" ("Of Christian Love"), is a 2005 encyclical, the first written by Pope Benedict XVI, in large part derived from writings by his late predecessor, Pope John Paul II. Its subject is love, as seen from a Christian perspective, and God's place within all love. Charity is one of the three theological virtues; and the other two (hope and faith) were treated in two successive encyclicals, one signed by Benedict ("Spe Salvi") and one written substantially by him but signed by his successor Pope Francis ("Lumen fidei"). This text begins with a reflection on the forms of love known in Greek philosophy—"eros" (possessive, often sexual, love), "agape" (unconditional, self-sacrificing love), "philia" (friendship)—and their relationship with the teachings of Jesus.


Frequency.

The popularity of shared parenting is increasing. The frequency of shared parenting versus sole custody varies across countries, being most common in Scandinavia.  In a comparative survey of 34 western countries conducted in 2005/06, the proportion of 11-15 year old children living in a shared parenting arrangement versus sole custody was highest in Sweden (17%), followed by Iceland (11%), Belgium (11%), Denmark (10%), Italy (9%) and Norway (9%). Ukraine, Poland, Croatia, Turkey, the Netherlands and Romania all had 2% or less. Among the English speaking countries, Canada and the United Kingdom had 7% while the United States and Ireland had 5%.  Shared parenting is increasing in popularity and it is particularly common in Scandinavia. By 2016/17, the percentage in Sweden had increased to 28%; with 26% for children age 0-5 years, 34% among the 6-12 year old age group, and 23% among the oldest children ages 13-18.

Scientific research.

Epidemiological studies on the effect of shared parenting on children has been conducted using both cross-sectional and longitudinal study designs. Their conclusions are that children with a shared parenting arrangement have better physical, mental, social and academic outcomes compared to children in a primary parenting arrangement. These finding holds for all age groups, whether the parents have an amicable or high-conflict relationship, and after adjusting for socio-economic variables.  With its early adoption of shared parenting and excellent health data, the largest studies on shared parenting have been conducted in Sweden. In a large cross-sectional study comparing over 50,000 children, ages 12 and 15, living in either a shared or sole custody arrangement, Dr. Malin Bergström found that children with shared parenting had better outcomes for physical health, psychological well-being, moods and emotions, self-perception, autonomy, parental relations, material outcomes, peer relations, school satisfaction and social acceptance. Using data from the same cross-sectional survey, Bergström did a follow-up study focusing on psychosomatic problems of concentration, sleeping, headaches, stomach aches, tenseness, lack of appetite, sadness and dizziness. They found that both boys and girls did better living in a shared parenting versus sole custody arrangement. Both studies adjusted for selected socio-economic variables.  A review of 60 quantitative research studies found that in 34 of the studies, children in a shared parenting arrangement had better outcomes on all measured variables for well-being, most notably for their family relationships, physical health, adolescent behavior and mental health. In 14 studies, they had better or equal outcomes on all measures, in 6 studies that had equal outcomes on all measures, and in 6 studies that had worse outcomes on one measure and equal or better outcomes on the remaining measures. The results were similar for the subset of studies that adjusted for socio-economic variables and the level of conflict between parents. The variable with the smallest difference was academic achievement, for which only 3 out 10 studies showed an advantage for shared parenting. Studies indicate that children fare better in joint custody arrangements, or where they have good access to both parents, as compared to sole custody arrangements.

Parental benefits.

While the primary arguments for shared parenting is based on the child's best interest of having close contact with both parents in their daily life, there are also important advantages to the parents. Most parents enjoy spending time with their children, and with shared parenting, both parents have that joy in their life. Both parents also get child-free time to work or play without having to hire a baby sitter, which a sole custodial parent must do. Moreover, both parents get the same opportunity for career development and advancement. In fact, some argue that shared parenting is one critical component in the efforts to reduce the gender pay gap.

Criticism.

Early criticism of shared parenting was based upon the assumptions (i) that children need one single primary attachment figure to bond with, (ii) that child development suffer from frequent moves back and forth between two households, and (iii) that one should not disrupt the status quo. When scientific research showed those assumptions to be false, a second wave of criticism argued that shared parenting increases parental conflict and that shared parenting is only suitable for parents who get along well as co-parents. When research showed that second set of assumptions to be false, a third wave of criticism acknowledges that shared parenting could be an appropriate custodial arrangement but argued that there should be no presumptions in family law, with each custody decision made based upon a judge's assessment of the best interest of a child. Critics also suggest that shared parenting requires more logistical coordination.

Legislation.

Some legislatures have established a legal rebuttable presumption for "shared parenting" which favors shared parenting in most custody cases while allowing the court to order alternative arrangements based upon evidence that shared parenting would not be in the best interest of the children, such as in cases of parental child abuse or neglect. Bills promoting shared parenting have been introduced in Canada and the United States.

Italy.

In 2006, Italy passed a law that made joint custody the default arrangement for separating couples. A study of the effect of the law suggested that the joint custody presumption increased the duration and complexity of custody litigation, but that it did not find evidence that parents were making concessions on the division of assets to "buy back" custody from the other parent.

United States.

In 2018, Kentucky became the first jurisdiction to establish a legal presumption for shared parenting, after the house voted 81-2 and the senate voted 38-0 in favor, and after the bill was signed by governor Matt Bevin. Similar laws were passed by both chambers in Minnesota and Florida, but vetoed by the governors.  Some family lawyers and state bar associations have argued against a presumption of joint parenting. For example, concerns have been expressed that a presumption for joint custody might get in the way of negotiated custody outcomes that are better suited to the children, and joint custody might be inappropriately imposed upon couples who suffer unnecessary financial burdens or conflict as a result.

Advocacy.

The advocacy for shared parenting is a world-wide movement. It is unified in its belief that shared parenting is in the best interest of children, and that it is a children's right issue. The gender perspective varies greatly across nations though. In the Scandinavian countries, such as Iceland, it is commonly viewed as a gender equity issue with strong support from women's organizations. As a contrast, in North America, several organizations see it as a father's rights issue, and some women's organizations work against shared parenting, while other women are among the strongest advocates. As yet another contrast, in countries like Turkey and Iran, it is often seen as a women's right issue, as sole custody is commonly awarded to the father.  There are a number of organizations that advocate for shared parenting as being in the best interest of children:

Shared parenting, shared residence, joint residence, shared custody, and joint physical custody, all refers to a child custody arrangement after divorce or separation, in which both parents share the responsibility of raising their child(ren), with equal or close to equal parenting time. A regime of shared parenting is based on the idea that children have the right to and benefit from a close relationship with both their parents, and that no child should be separated from a parent.


Structure and bonding.

The compound is a dimer of triethylaluminium. One pair of ethyl groups bridge the two Al centers, and the other four groups are terminal ligands. The two bridging carbon centres are five-coordinate. The bonding is reminiscent of that of diborane, involving 3-centred, 2-electron bonds. As in trimethylaluminium, triethylaluminium is structurally fluctional resulting in rapid interchange of the terminal and bridging ethyl groups. At higher temperatures, the dimer cracks into monomeric AlEt.

Synthesis and reactions.

Triethylaluminium can be formed via several routes. The discovery of an efficient route was a significant technological achievement. The multistep process uses aluminium metal, hydrogen gas, and ethylene, summarized as follows: Because of this efficient synthesis, triethylaluminium is one of the most available organoaluminium compounds.  Triethylaluminium can also be generated from ethylaluminium sesquichloride (AlClEt), which arises by treating aluminium powder with chloroethane. Reduction of ethylaluminium sesquichloride with an alkali metal such as sodium gives triethylaluminium:

Reactivity.

The Al–C bonds of triethylaluminium are polarized to such an extent that the carbon is easily protonated, releasing ethane: For this reaction, even weak acids can be employed such as terminal acetylenes and alcohols.  The linkage between the pair of aluminium centres is relatively weak and can be cleaved by Lewis bases (L) to give adducts with the formula AlEtL:

Applications.

Precursors to fatty alcohols.

Triethylaluminium is used industrially as an intermediate in the production of fatty alcohols, which are converted to detergents. The first step involves the oligomerization of ethylene by the "Aufbau" reaction, which gives a mixture of trialkylaluminium compounds (simplified here as octyl groups): Subsequently, these trialkyl compounds are oxidized to aluminium alkoxides, which are then hydrolysed:

Co-catalysts in olefin polymerization.

Large amount of TEAL and related aluminium alkyls are used in Ziegler-Natta catalysis. They serve to activate the transition metal catalyst both as a reducing agent and an alkylating agent. TEAL also functions to scavenge water and oxygen.

Reagent in organic and organometallic chemistry.

Triethylaluminium has niche uses as a precursor to other organoaluminium compounds, such as diethylaluminium cyanide:

Triethylaluminium is an organoaluminium compound. It is actually a dimer, so despite its name, the formula for this compound is Al(CH), shortened to AlEt (Et, ethyl). This volatile, colorless liquid is highly pyrophoric, igniting immediately upon exposure to air. It is normally stored in stainless steel containers either as a pure liquid or as a solution in hydrocarbon solvents such as hexane, heptane, or toluene. Triethylaluminium is mainly used as a co-catalyst in the industrial production of polyethylene, polypropylene and for the production of medium chain alcohols.


Early life.

Alexander was born in Paisley, Renfrewshire, on 17 October 1821. He became an apprentice jeweller at the age of 14, lasting seven years. Gardner had a Church of Scotland upbringing and was influenced by the work of Robert Owen, Welsh socialist and father of the cooperative movement. By adulthood he desired to create a cooperative in the United States that would incorporate socialist values. In 1850, Gardner and others purchased land near Monona, Iowa, for this purpose, but Gardner never lived there, choosing to return to Scotland to raise more money. He stayed there until 1856, becoming owner and editor of the "Glasgow Sentinel" in 1851. Visiting The Great Exhibition in 1851 in Hyde Park, London, he saw the photography of American Mathew Brady, and thus began his interest in the subject.  In 1856, Alex and his family immigrated to the United States. Finding that many friends and family members at the cooperative he had helped to form were dead or dying of tuberculosis, he stayed in New York. He initiated contact with Brady and came to work for him that year, continuing until 1862. At first, Gardner specialized in making large photographic prints, called Imperial photographs, but as Brady’s eyesight began to fail, Gardner took on increasing responsibilities. In 1858, Brady put him in charge of his Washington, D.C. gallery.

Career.

Civil War photography.

Abraham Lincoln became the American President in the November 1860 election and along with his election came the threat of war. Gardner, being in Washington, was well-positioned for these events, and his popularity rose as a portrait photographer, capturing the visages of soldiers leaving for war.  Brady had the idea to photograph the Civil War. Gardner's relationship with Allan Pinkerton (who was head of an intelligence operation that would become the Secret Service) was the key to communicating Brady's ideas to Lincoln. Pinkerton recommended Gardner for the position of chief photographer under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Topographical Engineers. Following that short appointment, Gardner became a staff photographer under General George B. McClellan, commander of the Army of the Potomac. At this point, Gardner's management of Brady's gallery ended. The honorary rank of captain was bestowed upon Gardner, and he photographed the Battle of Antietam in September 1862, developing photos in his travelling darkroom.  Gardner has often had his work misattributed to Brady, and despite his considerable output, historians have tended to give Gardner less than full recognition for his documentation of the Civil War. Lincoln dismissed McClellan from command of the Army of the Potomac in November 1862, and Gardner’s role as chief army photographer diminished. About this time, Gardner ended his working relationship with Brady, probably in part because of Brady's practice of attributing his employees' work as "Photographed by Brady". That winter, Gardner followed General Ambrose Burnside, photographing the Battle of Fredericksburg. Next, he followed General Joseph Hooker. In May 1863, Gardner and his brother James opened their own studio in Washington, D.C, hiring many of Brady's former staff. Gardner photographed the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1863) and the Siege of Petersburg (June 1864–April 1865) during this time.  In 1866, Gardner published a two-volume work, "Gardner's Photographic Sketch Book of the Civil War". Each volume contained 50 hand-mounted original prints. The book did not sell well. Not all photographs were Gardner's; he credited the negative producer and the positive print printer. As the employer, Gardner owned the work produced, as with any modern-day studio. The sketchbook contained work by Timothy H. O'Sullivan, James F. Gibson, John Reekie, William Pywell, James Gardner (his brother), John Wood, George N. Barnard, David Knox and David Woodbury, among others. Among his photographs of Abraham Lincoln were some considered to be the last taken of the President, four days before his assassination, although later this claim was found to be incorrect, while the pictures were actually taken in February 1865, the last one being on the 5th of February. Gardner would photograph Lincoln on a total of seven occasions while Lincoln was alive. He also documented Lincoln's funeral, and photographed the conspirators involved (with John Wilkes Booth) in Lincoln's assassination. Gardner was the only photographer allowed at their execution by hanging, photographs of which would later be translated into woodcuts for publication in "Harper's Weekly".

Post-War.

After the war, Gardner was commissioned to photograph Native Americans who came to Washington to discuss treaties; and he surveyed the proposed route of the Kansas Pacific railroad to the Pacific Ocean. Many of his photos were stereoscopic. After 1871, Gardner gave up photography and helped to found an insurance company. Gardner stayed in Washington until his death. When asked about his work, he said, "It is designed to speak for itself. As mementos of the fearful struggle through which the country has just passed, it is confidently hoped that it will possess an enduring interest." He became sick in the late fall of 1882 and died shortly afterward on December 10, 1882, at his home in Washington, D.C. He was survived by his wife and two children. He was buried in local Glenwood Cemetery.  In 1893, photographer J. Watson Porter, who had worked for Gardner years before, tracked down hundreds of glass negatives made by Gardner, that had been left in an old house in Washington where Gardner had lived. The result was a story in the "Washington Post" and renewed interest in Gardner's photographs.

Controversy.

A century later, photographic analysis suggested that Gardner had manipulated the setting of at least one of his Civil War photos by moving a soldier's corpse and weapon into more dramatic positions. In 1961, Frederic Ray of the "Civil War Times" magazine compared several of Gardner's Gettysburg photos showing "two" dead Confederate snipers and realized that the same body had been photographed in two separate locations. One of his most famous images, "Home of a Rebel Sharpshooter", has been argued to be a fabrication. This argument, first put forth by William Frassanito in 1975, goes this way: Gardner and his assistants Timothy O'Sullivan and James Gibson had dragged the sniper's body into the more photogenic surroundings of the Devil's Den to create a better composition. Though Ray's analysis was that the same body was used in two photographs, Frassanito expanded on this analysis in his 1975 book "Gettysburg: A Journey in Time", and acknowledged that the manipulation of photographic settings in the early years of photography was not frowned upon.

Alexander Gardner (October 17, 1821 – December 10, 1882) was a Scottish photographer who immigrated to the United States in 1856, where he began to work full-time in that profession. He is best known for his photographs of the American Civil War, U.S. President Abraham Lincoln, and the execution of the conspirators to Lincoln's assassination.


History.

NuSTAR's predecessor, the High Energy Focusing Telescope (HEFT), was a balloon-borne version that carried telescopes and detectors constructed using similar technologies. In February 2003, NASA issued an Explorer Program Announcement of Opportunity. In response, NuSTAR was submitted to NASA in May, as one of 36 mission proposals vying to be the tenth and eleventh Small Explorer missions. In November, NASA selected NuSTAR and four other proposals for a five-month implementation feasibility study.  In January 2005, NASA selected NuSTAR for flight pending a one-year feasibility study. The program was cancelled in February 2006 as a result of cuts to science in NASA's 2007 budget. On 21 September 2007 it was announced that the program had been restarted, with an expected launch in August 2011, though this was later delayed to June 2012.  The principal investigator is Fiona A. Harrison of the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). Other major partners include the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), University of California at Berkeley, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Columbia University, Goddard Space Flight Center, Stanford University, University of California, Santa Cruz, Sonoma State University, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, and the Italian Space Agency (ASI). NuSTAR's major industrial partners include Orbital Sciences Corporation and ATK Space Components.

Launch.

NASA contracted with Orbital Sciences Corporation to launch NuSTAR (mass ) on a Pegasus XL rocket for 21 March 2012. It had earlier been planned for 15 August 2011, 3 February 2012, 16 March 2012, and 14 March 2012. After a launch meeting on 15 March 2012, the launch was pushed further back to allow time to review flight software used by the launch vehicle's flight computer. The launch was conducted successfully at 16:00:37 UTC on 13 June 2012 about 117 nautical miles south of Kwajalein Atoll. The Pegasus rocket was dropped from the L-1011 'Stargazer' aircraft.  On 22 June 2012 it was confirmed that the 10 m mast was fully deployed.

Optics.

Unlike visible light telescopes – which employ mirrors or lenses working with normal incidence – NuSTAR has to employ grazing incidence optics to be able to focus X-rays. For this two conical approximation Wolter telescope design optics with focal length are held at the end of a long deployable mast. A laser metrology system is used to determine the exact relative positions of the optics and the focal plane at all times, so that each detected photon can be mapped back to the correct point on the sky even if the optics and the focal plane move relative to one another during an exposure.  Each focusing optic consists of 133 concentric shells. One particular innovation enabling NuSTAR is that these shells are coated with depth-graded multilayers (alternating atomically thin layers of a high-density and low-density material); with NuSTAR's choice of Pt/SiC and W/Si multilayers, this enables reflectivity up to 79 keV (the platinum K-edge energy).  The optics were produced, at Goddard Space Flight Center, by heating thin (210 μm) sheets of flexible glass in an oven so that they slump over precision-polished cylindrical quartz mandrels of the appropriate radius. The coatings were applied by a group at the Danish Technical University.  The shells were then assembled, at the Nevis Laboratories of Columbia University, using graphite spacers machined to constrain the glass to the conical shape, and held together by epoxy. There are 4680 mirror segments in total (the 65 inner shells each comprise six segments and the 65 outer shells twelve; there are upper and lower segments to each shell, and there are two telescopes); there are five spacers per segment. Since the epoxy takes 24 hours to cure, one shell is assembled per day – it took four months to build up one optic.  The expected point spread function for the flight mirrors is 43 arc-seconds, giving a spot size of about two millimeters at the focal plane; this is unprecedentedly good resolution for focusing hard X-ray optics, though it is about one hundred times worse than the best resolution achieved at longer wavelengths by the Chandra X-ray Observatory.

Detectors.

Each focusing optic has its own focal plane module, consisting of a solid state cadmium zinc telluride (CdZnTe) pixel detector surrounded by a CsI anti-coincidence shield. One detector unit — or focal plane — comprises four (two-by-two) detectors, manufactured by eV Products. Each detector is a rectangular crystal of dimension 20mm x 20mm and thickness ~2mm that have been gridded into 32 × 32, 0.6 mm pixels (each pixel subtending 12.3 arc seconds) and provides a total of 12 arc minute field of view for each focal plane module.  CZT detectors are state-of-the-art room temperature semiconductors that are very efficient at turning high energy photons into electrons. The electrons are digitally recorded using custom Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs) designed by the NuSTAR Caltech Focal Plane Team. Each pixel has an independent discriminator and individual X-ray interactions trigger the readout process. On-board processors, one for each telescope, identify the row and column with the largest pulse height and read out pulse height information from this pixel as well as its eight neighbors. The event time is recorded to an accuracy of 2 μs relative to the on-board clock. The event location, energy, and depth of interaction in the detector are computed from the nine-pixel signals.  The focal planes are shielded by cesium iodide (CsI) crystals that surround the detector housings. The crystal shields, grown by Saint-Gobain, register high energy photons and cosmic rays which cross the focal plane from directions other than the along the NuSTAR optical axis. Such events are the primary background for NuSTAR and must be properly identified and subtracted in order to identify high energy photons from cosmic sources. The NuSTAR active shielding ensures that any CZT detector event coincident with an active shield event is ignored.

Major scientific results.

NuSTAR has proven itself to be a versatile instrument and has opened up new discoveries in wide and varied areas of astrophysical research since it launch.

Spin measurement of a supermassive black hole.

In February 2013, NASA revealed that NuSTAR, along with the XMM-Newton space observatory, has measured the spin rate of the supermassive black hole at the centre of the galaxy NGC 1365.

Tracing radioactivity in a supernova remnant.

One of NuSTAR's main goals is to characterize stars' explosions by mapping the radioactive material in a supernova remnant. The NuSTAR map of Cassiopeia A shows the titanium-44 isotope concentrated in clumps at the remnant's center and points to a possible solution to the mystery of how the star exploded. When researchers simulate supernova blasts with computers, as a massive star dies and collapses, the main shock wave often stalls and the star fails to shatter. The latest findings strongly suggest the exploding star literally sloshed around, re-energizing the stalled shock wave and allowing the star to finally blast off its outer layers.

Nearby supermassive black holes.

In January 2017, researchers from Durham University and the University of Southampton, leading a coalition of agencies using NuSTAR data, announced the discovery of supermassive black holes at the center of nearby galaxies NGC 1448 and IC 3639.

NuSTAR (Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array) is a space-based X-ray telescope that uses a conical approximation to a Wolter telescope to focus high energy X-rays from astrophysical sources, especially for nuclear spectroscopy, and operates in the range of 3 to 79 keV.


Early life.

Charles was the second son of Charles III and his wife, Maria Amalia of Saxony. He was born in Naples (11 November 1748), while his father was King of Naples and Sicily. His elder brother, Don Felipe, was passed over for both thrones, due to his learning disabilities and epilepsy. In Naples and Sicily, Charles was referred to as the "Prince of Taranto". He was called "El Cazador" (meaning "the Hunter"), due to his preference for sport and hunting, rather than dealing with affairs of the state. Charles was considered by many to have been amiable, but simple-minded.

Reign.

In 1788, Charles III died and Charles IV succeeded to the throne. He intended to maintain the policies of his father, and retained his prime minister, the Count of Floridablanca, in office. Even though he had a profound belief in the sanctity of his office, and kept up the appearance of an absolute, powerful monarch, Charles never took more than a passive part in his own government. The affairs of government were left to his wife, Maria Luisa, and his prime minister, while he occupied himself with hunting.  In 1792, political and personal enemies ousted Floridablanca from office, replacing him with Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea, Count of Aranda. However, in the wake of the war against Republican France, the liberal-leaning Count of Aranda was himself replaced by Manuel de Godoy, a favourite of the Queen and widely believed to be her lover, who enjoyed the lasting favor of the King.  In 1799, he authorized Prussian aristocrat and scientist Alexander von Humboldt to travel freely in Spanish America, with royal officials encouraged to aid him in his investigation of key areas of Spain's empire. Humboldt's "Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain" was a key publication from his five-year travels.  Godoy continued Abarca de Bolea's policy of neutrality towards France, but after Spain protested the execution of Louis XVI of France, the deposed king, in 1793, France declared war on Spain. After the declaration, Portugal and Spain signed a treaty of mutual protection against France. In 1796 France forced Godoy to enter into an alliance, and declare war on the Kingdom of Great Britain. As a consequence, became one of the maritime empires to have been allied with Republican France in the French Revolutionary War, and for a considerable duration.  Spain remained an ally of France and supported the Continental Blockade until the British naval victory at Trafalgar, when Spain became allied with Britain. However, after Napoleon's victory over Prussia in 1807, Godoy again steered Spain back onto the French side. This switching of alliances devalued Charles' position as a trustworthy ally, increasing Godoy's unpopularity, and strengthening the "fernandistas" (supporters of Crown Prince Ferdinand), who favoured an alliance with the United Kingdom.  Economic troubles, rumours about a sexual relationship between the Queen and Godoy, and the King's ineptitude, caused the monarchy to decline in prestige among the population. Anxious to take over from his father, and jealous of the prime minister, Crown Prince Ferdinand attempted to overthrow the King in an aborted coup in 1807.

Abdications of Bayonne.

Riots, and a popular revolt at the winter palace Aranjuez, in 1808 forced the king to abdicate on 19 March, in favor of his son. Ferdinand took the throne as Ferdinand VII, but was mistrusted by Napoleon, who had 100,000 soldiers stationed in Spain by that time due to the ongoing War of the Third Coalition.  The ousted King, having appealed to Napoleon for help in regaining his throne, was summoned before Napoleon in Bayonne, along with his son, in April 1808. Napoleon forced both Charles and his son to abdicate, declared the Bourbon dynasty of Spain deposed, and installed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as King Joseph I of Spain, which began the Peninsular War.

Later life and death.

Following Napoleon's deposing of the Bourbon dynasty, the ex-King, his wife, and former Prime Minister Godoy were held captive in France first at the château de Compiègne and three years in Marseille (where a neighborhood was named after him). After the collapse of the regime installed by Napoleon, Ferdinand VII was restored to the throne. The former Charles IV drifted about Europe until 1812, when he finally settled in Rome, in the Palazzo Barberini. His wife died on 2 January 1819, followed shortly by Charles, who died on 20 January of the same year. Sir Francis Ronalds included a detailed description of the funeral in his travel journal.

Character.

Well-meaning and pious, Charles IV floundered in a series of international crises beyond his capacity to handle. He was painted by Francisco Goya in a number of official court portraits, which numerous art critics have seen as satires on the King's stout vacuity.

Marriage and children.

Charles IV married his first cousin Maria Louisa, the daughter of Philip, Duke of Parma, in 1765. The couple had fourteen children, six of whom survived into adulthood:

Charles IV (Carlos Antonio Pascual Francisco Javier Juan Nepomuceno José Januario Serafín Diego; 11 November 1748 – 20 January 1819) was King of Spain from 14 December 1788, until his abdication on 19 March 1808.


Early life.

Suzanne Collins was born on August 10, 1962, in Hartford, Connecticut to Jane Brady Collins (born 1932) and Lieutenant Colonel Michael John Collins (1931–2003), a U.S. Air Force officer who served in the Korean War and the Vietnam War, and was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross and Bronze Star. She is the youngest of four children, who include Kathryn (born 1957), Andrew (born 1958), and Joan (born 1960). As the daughter of a military officer, she and her family were constantly moving. She spent her childhood in the eastern United States.  Collins graduated from the Alabama School of Fine Arts in Birmingham in 1980 as a Theater Arts major. She completed her bachelor of arts degree from Indiana University Bloomington in 1985 with a double major in theater and telecommunications. In 1989, Collins earned her Master of Fine Arts in dramatic writing from the New York University Tisch School of the Arts.

Career.

Suzanne Collins began her career in 1991 as a writer for children's television shows. She worked on several shows for Nickelodeon, including "Clarissa Explains It All", "The Mystery Files of Shelby Woo", "Little Bear", and "Oswald". She did not write the children's book Little Bear, which is sometimes mistaken as her own book. She was also the head writer for Scholastic Entertainment's "Clifford's Puppy Days". She received a Writers Guild of America nomination in animation for co-writing the critically acclaimed Christmas special, "Santa, Baby!" After meeting children's author James Proimos while working on the Kids' WB show "Generation O!", Collins felt inspired to write children's books herself. Her inspiration for "Gregor the Overlander", the first book of "The New York Times" best-selling series "The Underland Chronicles", came from "Alice in Wonderland", when she was thinking about how one was more likely to fall down a manhole than a rabbit hole, and would find something other than a tea party. Between 2003 and 2007 she wrote the five books of the "Underland Chronicles": "Gregor the Overlander", "Gregor and the Prophecy of Bane", "Gregor and the Curse of the Warmbloods", "Gregor and the Marks of Secret", and "Gregor and the Code of Claw". During that time, Collins also wrote a rhyming picture book, "When Charlie McButton Lost Power" (2005), illustrated by Mike Lester.  In September 2008, Scholastic Press released "The Hunger Games", the first book of a trilogy by Collins. "The Hunger Games" was partly inspired by the Greek myth of Theseus and the Minotaur. Another inspiration was her father's career in the Air Force, which gave her insight to poverty, starvation, and the effects of war. The trilogy's second book, "Catching Fire", was released in September 2009, and its third book, "Mockingjay", was released on August 24, 2010. Within 14 months, 1.5 million copies of the first two "Hunger Games" books were printed in North America alone. "The Hunger Games" was on "The New York Times" Best Seller list for more than 60 weeks in a row. Lions Gate Entertainment acquired worldwide distribution rights to a film adaptation of "The Hunger Games", produced by Nina Jacobson's Color Force production company. Collins adapted the novel for film herself. Directed by Gary Ross, filming began in late spring 2011, with Jennifer Lawrence portraying main character Katniss Everdeen. Josh Hutcherson played Peeta Mellark and Liam Hemsworth played Gale Hawthorne. The subsequent two novels were adapted into films as well, with the latter book split into two cinematic installments, for a total of four films representing the three books. As a result of the popularity of "The Hunger Games" books, Collins was named one of "Time" magazine's most influential people of 2010. In March 2012, Amazon announced that she had become the best-selling Kindle author of all time. Amazon also revealed that Collins had written 29 of the 100 most highlighted passages in Kindle ebooks—and on a separate Amazon list of recently highlighted passages, she had written 17 of the top 20. On June 17, 2019, Collins announced that a prequel to "The Hunger Games" would be released on May 19, 2020. The premise is based on the failed rebellion 74 years before "The Hunger Games" trilogy. On October 4, 2019 the title was revealed to be "The Ballad of Songbirds and Snakes."

Personal life.

With her husband Charles, Suzanne Collins has two children, Charlie and Isabella.

Suzanne Collins (born August 10, 1962) is an American television writer and author. She is known as the author of "The New York Times" best-selling series "The Underland Chronicles" and "The Hunger Games".


Media.

Manga.

Written by Shungiku Nakamura, "Junjo Romantica: Pure Romance" began serialization in "Asuka Ciel" in 2002. The individual chapters have been compiled into fifteen "tankōbon" volumes by Kadokawa Shoten. The first volume was released on June 2, 2003; as of July 1, 2015, 19 volumes have been released.  The series was licensed for an English-language release in North America by Blu Manga, an imprint of Tokyopop, until Tokyopop's closure in May 2011. As of April 2011, 12 English volumes have been released. An attempt to gauge relative sales of manga titles by online vendors (based on publicly available "bestseller" listings) suggests that "Junjo Romantica" was the best-selling yaoi manga series of 2008 among online vendors. Volume 10 was #6 in the manga category of the New York Times "Graphic Books" weekly bestseller list for July 11, 2009, and volume 12 was #4 on the same list for September 10, 2010.  In 2017, Viz Media stated at Yaoi-Con that they received requests to re-license the series, but they decided against it due to the series being too long.

Anime.

Studio Deen produced an anime adaptation based around the manga series. Premiering in Japan on TV Hokkaido on April 10, 2008, the series' first season ran for twelve episodes until its conclusion on June 26, 2008. A second season premiered on the same channel on October 12, 2008, it also ended after twelve episodes. On March 28, 2012, a new anime adaptation of Junjo Romantica was announced to be in the works, which has been revealed as an OVA to be released with the limited edition Volume 16 on December 20, 2012. On August 29, 2013, it was announced that more anime for the series is in production. On July 30, 2014, it was confirmed that the series had been green-lit for a third season, which premiered on July 8, 2015.  The anime series is licensed for release in North America by Kadokawa Pictures USA; Season 1 was released on May 4, 2010. The series has not been dubbed for English audiences, but released in Japanese with English subtitles. Per their website, they may be releasing the series under the name "Romantica: Pure Love". Anime OVA in bundled with volume 16 is released on December 20, 2012. Nozomi Entertainment will re-release the series on Blu-ray on July 17, 2017.  On July 9, 2015 at 1:05 am in Japan, the third season of the show was released and was credited as a sequel to the previous seasons.

Reception.

"Junjo Romantica" became the first yaoi (boys' love) title to enter the New York Times Manga Best Seller list when it debuted in week 28. According to Oricon and DVD sales data from Animesuki, the first DVD for the "Junjō Romantica" anime adaptation was released on July 25, 2008 and it became a hit, selling 8,406 copies in its first week. It is currently the fourth best selling debut DVD for an anime series of 2008, just after Gundam 00, Macross Frontier and Aria the Origination. It continued to dwell on the Oricon anime DVD charts for the second week charting on the top 5 with total sales for the first DVD at 10,986 copies. With those sales, it is currently ranked at number 1 for the shōjo category on DVD sales for the year 2008. According to Oricon sales for the past 5 years, it is the best selling BL (Boys Love) anime so far and has performed the best on the charts.  The second season's DVD sales have performed extremely well as well, selling an average of 7,000 to 8,000 copies, which makes it one of the most profitable anime series of the year. It is constantly ranked very high on Amazon Japan for the DVD category as well. Fan reviews and the responses were positive.

Shungiku Nakamura has written a second series based on "Junjou Romantica" titled "Sekai-ichi Hatsukoi" (lit. "The World's Greatest First Love") focusing on a shōjo manga editor and his first love, which was also animated by Studio Deen in 2011.


Severity.

Contemporary observers recorded barometric readings as low as 973 millibars (measured by William Derham in south Essex), but it has been suggested that the storm deepened to 950 millibars over the Midlands.  Retrospective analysis conjectures that the storm was consistent with a Category 2 hurricane.

Damage.

In London alone, approximately 2,000 massive chimney stacks were blown down. The lead roofing was blown off Westminster Abbey and Queen Anne had to shelter in a cellar at St James's Palace to avoid collapsing chimneys and part of the roof. On the Thames, some 700 ships were heaped together in the Pool of London, the section downstream from London Bridge. HMS "Vanguard" was wrecked at Chatham. Admiral Sir Cloudesley Shovell's HMS "Association" was blown from Harwich to Gothenburg in Sweden before way could be made back to England. Pinnacles were blown from the top of King's College Chapel, in Cambridge.  There was extensive and prolonged flooding in the West Country, particularly around Bristol. Hundreds of people drowned in flooding on the Somerset Levels, along with thousands of sheep and cattle, and one ship was found inland. Approximately 400 windmills were destroyed, with the wind driving their wooden gears so fast that some burst into flames. At Wells, Bishop Richard Kidder and his wife were killed when two chimneystacks in the palace fell on them, asleep in bed. This same storm blew in part of the great west window in Wells Cathedral. Major damage occurred to the southwest tower of Llandaff Cathedral at Cardiff in Wales.  At sea, many ships were wrecked, some of which were returning from helping Archduke Charles, the claimed King of Spain, fight the French in the War of the Spanish Succession. These ships included HMS "Stirling Castle", HMS "Northumberland", HMS "Mary" and HMS "Restoration", with about 1,500 seamen killed particularly on the Goodwin Sands. Between 8,000 and 15,000 lives were lost overall. The first Eddystone Lighthouse off Plymouth was destroyed on 27 November 1703 (Old Style), killing six occupants, including its builder Henry Winstanley. (John Rudyard was later contracted to build the second lighthouse on the site.) A ship torn from its moorings in the Helford River in Cornwall was blown for before grounding eight hours later on the Isle of Wight. The number of oak trees lost in the New Forest alone was 4,000.  The storm of 1703 caught a convoy of 130 merchant ships sheltering at Milford Haven, along with their man of war escorts "Dolphin", "Cumberland", "Coventry", "Looe", "Hastings" and "Hector". By 3:00pm the next afternoon, losses included 30 vessels.

Reaction.

The storm was unprecedented in ferocity and duration and was generally reckoned by witnesses to represent the anger of God, in recognition of the "crying sins of this nation". The government declared 19 January 1704 a day of fasting, saying that it "loudly calls for the deepest and most solemn humiliation of our people". It remained a frequent topic of moralising in sermons well into the 19th century.

Literary.

The Great Storm also coincided with the increase in English journalism, and was the first weather event to be a news story on a national scale. Special issue broadsheets were produced detailing damage to property and stories of people who had been killed.  Daniel Defoe produced his full-length book "The Storm" (July 1704) in response to the calamity, calling it "the tempest that destroyed woods and forests all over England". He wrote: "No pen could describe it, nor tongue express it, nor thought conceive it unless by one in the extremity of it." Coastal towns such as Portsmouth "looked as if the enemy had sackt them and were most miserably torn to pieces". Winds of up to destroyed more than 400 windmills. Defoe reported that the sails in some turned so fast that the friction caused the wooden wheels to overheat and catch fire. He thought that the destruction of the sovereign fleet was a punishment for their poor performance against the Catholic armies of France and Spain during the first year of the War of the Spanish Succession.

Naval losses.

In the English Channel, fierce winds and high seas swamped some vessels outright and drove others onto the Goodwin Sands, an extensive sand bank off the southeast coast of England and the traditional anchorage for ships waiting either for passage up the Thames Estuary to London or for favourable winds to take them out into the Channel and the Atlantic Ocean. The Royal Navy was badly affected, losing thirteen ships including the entire Channel Squadron, and upwards of 1,500 seamen drowned.  Lamb (1991) claimed 10,000 seamen were lost in one night, a far higher figure, about one third of the seamen in the Royal Navy. Daniel Defoe's book "The Storm" suggests that the Royal Navy lost one fifth of its ships which would however indicate a much lower proportion of seamen were lost, as some wrecked sailors survived. narrowly escaped a similar fate. More than 40 merchant ships were also lost.

The Great Storm of 1703 was a destructive extratropical cyclone that struck central and southern England on 26 November 1703 (7 December 1703 in the Gregorian calendar in use today). High winds caused 2,000 chimney stacks to collapse in London and damaged the New Forest, which lost 4,000 oaks. Ships were blown hundreds of miles off-course, and over 1,000 seamen died on the Goodwin Sands alone. News bulletins of casualties and damage were sold all over England – a novelty at that time. The Church of England declared that the storm was God's vengeance for the sins of the nation. Daniel Defoe thought it was a divine punishment for poor performance against Catholic armies in the War of the Spanish Succession.


History.

Formation and early years (2000–2005).

The band was originally formed in 2000 and built up a cult following with the release of their first demos, several of which were released on their official website via download. However, in late 2002, the band split up, with former members joining Repugnant and SubVision. Vocalist Dave Lepard then reformed the band with members from the current lineup, guitar player Martin Sweet and bassist Peter London were announced on the band's website on Christmas Day along with a call for drummers. In April 2003 Eric Young was announced as the band's new drummer. In 2003 Crashdiet released their first self-titled EP, and in 2004 they were signed to Universal Records.

"Rest in Sleaze" and Lepard's suicide (2005–2006).

In 2005, the band released their debut album, "Rest in Sleaze", and they embarked on a Swedish tour in the fall of 2005 to support the album. The album did well overall (debuted at No. 12 on the Swedish album chart) although they were not especially famous outside of Sweden. The band also played at Download Festival in the United Kingdom in 2005, to support the album. The album debuted at No. 12 on the Swedish album chart and Four singles were produced from that album, including "Riot in Everyone", "Breakin' the Chainz", "Knokk 'Em Down" and "It's a Miracle".  On January 20, 2006, vocalist Dave Lepard committed suicide at the age of 25, after a bout of depression during which he hid from family and friends. After the death of Lepard, the band decided to end the band and said in an official statement that:  Several months later, on April 2, they decided to start the band up again after getting support from the Lepard family and fans all over the world, they announced the following statement via their website:

New singer and "The Unattractive Revolution" (2007–2008).

On January 22, 2007 the band announced the addition of a new vocalist, H. Olliver Twisted from Finland (also playing in the band Reckless Love). They officially released their entire debut live performance (on the Rest in Sleaze Festival in February) with Olliver via their website as a free download. Later in the year the band also announced plans for the album "The Unattractive Revolution", and a single, "In The Raw", to be released on September 5, 2007, in Sweden.The album was released on October 3, 2007 and debuted at No. 11 on the Swedish album chart.  In November–December 2007, and February–April 2008 Crashdiet toured as opening act for Hardcore Superstar and on February 23, the band announced via their official website that the second single from their new album would be "Falling Rain" On July 13, 2008 it was announced via the band's official website that H. Olliver Twisted had come to an agreement with the band to go their separate ways. In 2009 the band announced their new lead singer, Simon Cruz and played their first show with him on the Sweden Rock Cruise in October.

"Generation Wild" and recent events (2010–2017).

On April 14, 2010, the band released "Generation Wild", their first album with their new singer, Simon Cruz, and it debuted at No. 3 on the Swedish Album Chart. The title track was released as the first single on February 28, 2010, and its music video was banned by MTV due to obscene images. In September they were the opening act for Ozzy Osbourne in Globen, Sweden, and in October, the band played in front of 50,000 people at the SWU Festival in Brazil.  Chemical, the second single from "Generation Wild", was released on September 19. On March 24, 2011, Crashdiet launched the European "Dark Decadence Tour" with Hardcore Superstar and the 69 Eyes that ended on April. 16 Only a couple days later, they played a UK tour with Houston as co-headliners. On June 4, the band announced on their website that they will film their Sweden Rock Festival show on June 8 for an upcoming DVD.  "Generation Wild" was released on vinyl on November 2. This version also featured a bonus track called "Hollywood Teaze".  The band released their fourth album, "The Savage Playground", on January 22, 2013. The first single, "Cocaine Cowboys," was released on December 14, 2012. Singer Simon Cruz left the band in the middle of their 2015 Japan tour.  On December 6th 2017 Crashdïet announced Gabriel Keyes as the new lead singer with the single "We Are Legion" to follow December 31st 2017 And Also Released Reptile On January 1st 2019

2019 RUST.

Crashdiet released their new full length studio record, RUST, with new singer, Gabriel Keyes, on 13th September 2019 via Frontiers music srl and also released the third single from the album, In The Maze, on Aug 5, 2019.

Crashdïet (often stylised as CRASHDÏET) are a Swedish sleaze metal band from Stockholm. They have released five albums: 2005's "Rest in Sleaze", 2007's "The Unattractive Revolution", 2010s "Generation Wild", 2013's "The Savage Playground" and 2019's "Rust"


Position on Tibet.

The territory of Tibet is administered by the People's Republic of China, a situation that the Central Tibetan Administration considers an illegitimate military occupation. The position of the CTA is that Tibet is a distinct nation with a long history of independence. The position of the People's Republic of China holds that China is multi-ethnic and that Tibetans are among the recognised nations, that the central government of China (throughout its incarnations) has continuously exercised sovereignty over Tibet for over 700 years, that Tibet has not been independent but its "de facto" independence between 1912 and 1951 was "nothing but a fiction of the imperialists who committed aggression against China in modern history".

Funding.

The funding of the CTA comes mostly from private donations collected with the help of organizations like the Tibet Fund, revenue from the Green Book (the "Tibetan in exile passport") and aid from governments like India and the US.  The annual revenue of the Central Tibetan Administration is officially 22 million (measured in US dollars), with the biggest shares going to political activity ($7 million), and administration ($4.5 million). However, according to Michael Backman, these sums are "remarkably low" for what the organisation claims to do, and it probably receives millions more in donations. The CTA does not acknowledge such donations or their sources.  The United States have funded the CTA as well in some periods. According to a Chinese source, between 1964 and 1968, the U.S. provided 1.735 million dollars each year.  In 2012, the Tibetan Policy Act of 2002 was passed in the U.S. to subsidize the CTA. In 2016, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) awarded a grant of US$23 million to CTA. In 2017, U.S. President Donald Trump proposed to stop aid to the CTA in 2018. Trump's proposal was criticized heavily by members of the Democratic Party like Nancy Pelosi and co-chair of the bipartisan Tom Lantos Human Rights Commission Jim McGovern.

Headquarters.

The CTA is headquartered in McLeod Ganj, Dharamshala, India. It claims to represent the people of the entire Tibet Autonomous Region and Qinghai province, as well as two Tibetan Autonomous Prefectures and one Tibetan Autonomous County in Sichuan Province, one Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture and one Tibetan Autonomous County in Gansu Province and one Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in Yunnan Province – all of which is termed "Historic Tibet" by the CTA.  The CTA attends to the welfare of the Tibetan exile community in India, who number around 100,000. It runs schools, health services, cultural activities and economic development projects for the Tibetan community. More than 1,000 refugees still arrive each year from China, usually via Nepal.

Green Book.

Tibetans living outside Tibet can apply at the CTA office in their country of residence for a personal document called the "Green Book", which serves as a receipt book for the person's "voluntary contributions" to the CTA and the evidence of their claims for "Tibetan citizenship".  For this purpose, CTA defines a Tibetan as "any person born in Tibet, or any person with one parent who was born in Tibet." As Tibetan refugees often lack documents attesting to their place of birth, the eligibility is usually established by an interview.

Blue Book.

The Blue Book or Tibetan Solidarity Partnership is a project by Central Tibetan Administration, in which the Tibetan Government in exile issues any supporter of Tibet who is of age 18 years or more a Blue Book. This initiative enables supporters of Tibet worldwide to make financial contributions to help the administration in supporting educational, cultural, developmental and humanitarian activities related to Tibetan children and refugees. The book is issued at various Tibet offices worldwide.

Internal structure.

The CTA operates under the "Charter of the Tibetans In-Exile", adopted in 1991. Executive authority is vested in the Sikyong (also known as the President) an office currently held by Lobsang Sangay, who was elected in 2011. The Sikyong is supported by a cabinet of ministers responsible for specific portfolios. Legislative authority is vested in the Parliament of the Central Tibetan Administration.  The Central Tibetan Administration's Department of Finance is made of seven departments and several special offices. Until 2003, it operated 24 businesses, including publishing, hotels, and handicrafts distribution companies. At the time of its founding, the Dalai Lama was head of the Central Tibetan Administration. Over the ensuing decades, a gradual transition to democratic governance was effected. The first elections for an exile parliament took place on 2 September 1960. The position of Sikyong was later empowered to share executive authority with the Dalai Lama. The Sikyong was initially appointed by the Dalai Lama, but, beginning in 2001, this position was democratically elected by the Tibetan exile voters. The first elected Sikyong was a 62-year-old Buddhist monk, Lobsang Tenzin (better known as Samdhong Rinpoche), to the position of Prime Minister of the CTA. On 10 March 2011, the Dalai Lama proposed changes to the exile charter which would remove his position of authority within the organisation. These changes were ratified on 29 May 2011, resulting in the Sikyong becoming the highest-ranking office holder.

Cabinet.

Notable past members of the Cabinet include Gyalo Thondup, the Dalai Lama's eldest brother, who served as Chairman of the Cabinet and as Minister of Security, and Jetsun Pema, the Dalai Lama's younger sister, who served variously as Minister of Health and of Education. Lobsang Nyandak Zayul who served as a representative of the 14th Dalai Lama in the Americas and a multiple cabinet member. He currently serves as president of The Tibet Fund.

Politics.

Lynn Pulman, in her 1983 text on Tibetans living in India, argues that the broad goals of the CTA are to develop an intense cultural and political nationalism among Tibetans, to expand the charisma and structure of the Dalai Lama, and to establish and maintain "social, political, and economic boundaries" between the Tibetan diaspora and their host countries. To increase nationalism, the CTA has created the Tibetan Uprising Day holiday, and a Tibetan National Anthem which is sung daily in CTA-run schools. The CTA controls much of the Tibetan-language media which, according to Pulman, promote the idea that the Chinese are endeavouring to "eradicate the Tibetan race" and how it is the duty of the refugees to "maintain the greatness and vitality of Tibetan race and national culture." However, Lynn Pulman's findings are not the product of systematic research, for which Pulman had insufficient time, but of information gained from informal conversations with Tibetans and observations Pulman made, supplemented with the little published material available at the time.

Activities with other organisations.

The CTA is not recognised as a sovereign government by any country, but it receives financial aid from governments and international organisations for its welfare work among the Tibetan exile community in India. In October 1998 the Dalai Lama's administration acknowledged that it received US$1.7 million a year in the 1960s from the US Government through the Central Intelligence Agency, which had also trained a guerrilla force at Camp Hale in Colorado. On 11 February 1991 the CTA became a founding member of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization at a ceremony held at the Peace Palace in The Hague, Netherlands.

The Central Tibetan Administration (,, literally Exile Tibetan People's Organisation) or CTA is an organisation based in India. The CTA is also referred to as the Tibetan Government in Exile which has never been recognized by China. Its internal structure is government-like; it has stated that it is "not designed to take power in Tibet"; rather, it will be dissolved "as soon as freedom is restored in Tibet" in favor of a government formed by Tibetans inside Tibet. In addition to political advocacy, it administers a network of schools and other cultural activities for Tibetans in India. On 11 February 1991, the CTA became a founding member of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO) at a ceremony held at the Peace Palace in The Hague, Netherlands.


Biography.

Nachum Syrkin was born in Mogilev, Russian Empire (now Belarus). He was influenced by Hovevei Zion and socialism in his youth and dedicated himself to synthesizing the two concepts. In this task he was joined by Ber Borochov. Syrkin's daughter Marie was a noted writer, educator and American Zionist activist.

Zionist career.

Syrkin was one of the leaders of the socialist Zionist faction at the First Zionist Congress in 1897 and was an early proponent of the Jewish National Fund. He was also the first person to propose that olim to Palestine form collective settlements.  Unlike other socialist thinkers of the time, Syrkin was comfortable with his Jewish heritage and, although he does not spell it out explicitly in his essay "The Jewish Question and the Jewish Socialist State" (1898), it is clear that he had in mind the biblical emphasis on strict social justice, irrespective of wealth, power or privilege. However, he saw Zionism as a replacement for traditional Judaism: The new, Zionist Judaism stands in complete contrast to the Judaism of exile... Zionism uproots religious Judaism in a stronger way than Reform or assimilation, by creating new standards of 'Judaism' which will constitute a new ideology that can be elevated to the status of a religion.  Syrkin worked to establish socialist Zionist groups throughout Central Europe. After studying and working in Germany and France and after being banned from Germany in 1904, Syrkin returned to Russia after the Russian Revolution of 1905. He took part at the 1905 Basle Seventh Zionist Congress as a delegate of the new Zionist Socialist Workers Party. Syrkin was not always convinced the Jewish state had to be located in Palestine: for a few years after the Seventh Zionist Congress (1905) Syrkin quit the Zionist Organization and headed the Russian socialist wing of the Territorialist movement, which regarded Palestine as only one of several possible sites for Jewish settlement and autonomy. In 1907 he moved to the United States. By 1909, he had returned to the Palestine-oriented Zionist mainstream by joining Poale Zion ("Po‘alei Tziyon", “Workers of Zion”) in America, the strongest socialist-Zionist tendency within the Zionist movement, and became one of its leaders.  In 1919, Syrkin was a member of the American Jewish delegation to the Versailles Peace Conference. He was also a leading figure in the World Poale Zion conference that year and was given the task of visiting Palestine to develop a plan for kibbutz settlement. He intended to relocate to Palestine, but died of a heart attack in 1924 in New York City.

Legacy.

In 1951 his mortal remains were buried in the Kibbutz Kinneret beside the other founders of Labour Zionism. Kfar Sirkin, founded in 1933 close to Petach Tikva, is named for him.

Nachman Syrkin (or "Nahman Syrkin" or "Nahum Syrkin"; ; 11 February 1868 – 6 September 1924) was a political theorist, founder of Labour Zionism and a prolific writer in the Hebrew, Yiddish, Russian, German and English languages.