Description and characteristics.

Haworthias are small succulent plants, forming rosettes of leaves from to exceptionally in diameter, depending on the species. These rosettes are usually stemless but in some species stems reach up to. The inflorescences of some species may exceed in height. The plants can grow solitary or can be clump-forming. Many species have firm, tough, fleshy leaves, usually dark green in colour, whereas others are softer and contain leaf windows with translucent panels through which sunlight can reach internal photosynthetic tissues. Their flowers are small, and generally white. Though they are very similar between species, flowers from the species in hexangulares generally have green striations and those from other species often have brown lines in the flowers. However, their leaves show wide variations even within one species. Additionally, when the plants are stressed (e.g. deprived of water), their colours can change to reds and purples. Depriving them of nitrogen generally results in paler leaves.

Distribution.

Most species are endemic to South Africa, with the greatest species diversity occurring in the south-western Cape. Some species do however extend into neighbouring territories, in Swaziland, southern Namibia and southern Mozambique (Maputaland).

Naming and taxonomy.

Haworthia is a genus within the family Asphodelaceae, subfamily Asphodeloideae. The genus is named after the botanist Adrian Hardy Haworth. B. Bayer recognised approximately 60 species in a review of the genus in 2012, whereas other taxonomists are very much less conservative. Related genera are "Aloe", "Gasteria" and "Astroloba" and intergeneric hybrids are known.

Subdivisions.

The classification of the flowering plant subfamily Asphodeloideae is weak, and concepts of the genera are not well substantiated. "Haworthia" has been a similarly a weakly contrived genus. Because of their horticultural interest, its taxonomy has been dominated by amateur collectors, and the literature is rife with misunderstanding of what the taxa actually are or should be. Recent phylogenetic studies have demonstrated that the traditional divisions of the genus are actually relatively unrelated ("Hexangulares" was shown to be a sister-group of genus "Gasteria", "Robustipedunculares" more closely related to genus "Astroloba", and "Haworthia" as an out-group related to "Aloe"). In recognition of the polyphyletic nature of the genus, "Haworthiopsis" and "Tulista" have been split off.  Botanists had long noticed differences in the flowers the three subgenera, but had previously considered those differences to be inconsequential, although the differences between species in the same subgenus definitely are. The roots, leaves and rosettes do demonstrate some generic differences while wide variations occur even within one species.

Species.

Many species of "Haworthia" have been moved to "Haworthiopsis" and "Tulista", in particular since the last update of The Plant List (2013), which contains about 150 accepted species of "Haworthia". The actual number and identification of the species is not well established; many species are listed as "unresolved" for lack of sufficient information, and the full list reflects the difficulties of "Haworthia" taxonomy, including many varieties and synonyms. The World Checklist of Selected Plant Families has been updated to exclude the species now in "Haworthiopsis" and "Tulista". The species it accepts are listed below, excluding "Haworthia kingiana" and "Haworthia minor", placed in "Tulista" by other sources.

Cultivation.

There is widespread special collector interest, and some species such as "Haworthia cymbiformis" are fairly common house and garden plants.  Almost all "Haworthia" species are naturally adapted for semi-shade conditions (in habitat they tend to grow under bushes or rock overhangs) and they are therefore healthiest in shade or semi-shade. Some species like "Haworthia pumila" and "Haworthia truncata" can be adapted to tolerate full-sun however.  All "Haworthia" species favour extremely well-drained soil (in habitat they tend to grow in poor sands, in rocky areas). Watering depends on the species (winter or summer rainfall) but most of the common species are tolerant of a variety of watering routines. Over-watering can cause the roots to rot. Rarer species may have more specific requirements.  "Haworthia" species reproduce both through seed and through budding, or offsets. Certain species or clones may be more successful or rapid in offset production, and these pups are easily removed to yield new plants once a substantial root system has developed on the offshoot. Less reliably, the plants may also be propagated through leaf cuttings, and in some instances, through tissue culture.

Haworthia is a large genus of small succulent plants endemic to Southern Africa (Mozambique, Namibia, Lesotho, Swaziland and South Africa).


Design and development.

In 1968, the USAF started work on a series of prototype proposals, which would lead to both the AMST project and the Light Weight Fighter. The official Request for proposal (RFP) was issued in January 1972, asking for operations into a semi-prepared field with a payload and a mission radius. For comparison, the C-130 of that era required about for this load. Proposals were submitted by Bell, Boeing, Fairchild, McDonnell Douglas and the Lockheed/North American Rockwell team at this stage of the competition. On 10 November 1972, the two top bids (from Boeing and McDonnell Douglas) were selected. The companies were awarded development contracts for two prototypes each. McDonnell Douglas' prototype was designated YC-15.  McDonnell Douglas's design incorporated a supercritical wing, the result of NASA research carried out by the already famous Richard Whitcomb. This wing design dramatically lowers transonic wave drag by as much as 30% compared to more conventional profiles, while at the same time offering excellent low-speed lift. Most contemporary aircraft used swept wings to lower wave drag, but this led to poor low-speed handling, which made them unsuitable for STOL operations.  The design team also chose to use externally blown flaps to increase lift. This system uses double-slotted flaps to direct part of the jet exhaust downwards, while the rest of the exhaust passed through the flap and then followed the downward curve due to the Coandă effect. Although the effects had been studied for some time at NASA, along with similar concepts, until the introduction of the turbofan the hot and concentrated exhaust of existing engines made the system difficult to use. By the time of the AMST project, engines had changed dramatically and now provided larger volumes of less-concentrated and much cooler air. For the YC-15, four engines were used, versions of the Pratt & Whitney JT8D-17 widely used on the Boeing 727 and Douglas DC-9. The YC-15 borrowed components from other McDonnell Douglas aircraft, with its nose gear coming from the Douglas DC-8 and the nose section and cockpit being derived from the Douglas DC-10. Parts borrowed from other aircraft included the Universal Aerial Refueling Receptacle Slipway Installation (UARRSI), taken from a Fairchild A-10, anti-tipover stabilizer struts from the Lockheed C-141 Starlifter, pumps taken from the McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle, Lockheed C-5 Galaxy, DC-9 and C-141 and actuators taken from the C-5 Galaxy and DC-10. In addition, the environmental cooling system was composed of components taken from the DC-9, C-141 and Boeing KC-135.

Operational history.

Two YC-15s were built, one with a wingspan of (#72-1876) and one of (#72-1875). Both were long and powered by four Pratt & Whitney JT8D-17 engines, each with of thrust.  The first flight was on 26 August 1975. The second prototype followed in December. They were tested for some time at McDonnell Douglas as the Boeing entry was not ready until almost a year later. In November 1976, both designs were transferred to Edwards Air Force Base for head-to-head testing, including lifting heavy loads like tanks and artillery from dirt airfields at Graham Ranch, off the end of Runway 22.  In Phase II of the flight test program, a "refanned" Pratt & Whitney JT8D-209 was tested in No. 1 nacelle of 72–1876 and a CFM International CFM56 was tested in the No. 1 nacelle of 72–1875. In addition, a new wing with increased chord and span was flown on 72–1875.  The YC-15s completed a 600-hour flight test program in 1977. By this point, the seeds of the AMST program's demise had already been sown. In March 1976, the Air Force Chief of Staff, Gen. David C. Jones, asked the Air Force Systems Command to see if it was possible to use a single model of the AMST for both strategic and tactical airlift roles, or alternatively, if it was possible to develop non-STOL derivatives of the AMST for the strategic airlift role. This led to a series of studies that basically stated that such a modification was not easy, and would require major changes to either design to produce a much larger aircraft.  Both the YC-14 and YC-15 met or exceeded the AMST specifications under most conditions. However, the increasing importance of the strategic vs. tactical mission eventually led to the end of the AMST program in December 1979. Then, in November 1979, the C-X Task Force formed to develop the required strategic aircraft with tactical capability. The C-X program selected a proposal for an enlarged and upgraded YC-15 that was later developed into the C-17 Globemaster III. The Lockheed C-130 Hercules would be further improved into the C-130J and remains in service.  After the flight test program, the two aircraft were stored at the AMARC, located at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base. One aircraft (72-1875) was subsequently moved to the nearby Pima Air & Space Museum in 1981, but was returned to flying status by McDonnell Douglas in 1996; and was first reflown on 11 April 1997. On 16 April 1997, the aircraft was ferried to Long Beach, California to support the C-17 program. On 11 July 1998, the aircraft suffered a massive failure of the No. 1 engine during flight and made an emergency landing at Palmdale, California. On inspection, the aircraft was deemed too expensive to repair and was stored at Palmdale. In 2008, the aircraft was moved by road to Edwards AFB, where it is now on display at the Air Force Flight Test Center Museum's "Century Circle" display area, just outside the base's west gate. The other airframe (72–1876), which had remained on Celebrity Row at the AMARC for many years, was destroyed in place in April 2012.

The McDonnell Douglas YC-15 is a prototype four-engine short take-off and landing (STOL) tactical transport. It was McDonnell Douglas' entrant into the United States Air Force's Advanced Medium STOL Transport (AMST) competition to replace the Lockheed C-130 Hercules as the USAF's standard STOL tactical transport. In the end, neither the YC-15 nor the Boeing YC-14 was ordered into production, although the YC-15's basic design would be used to form the successful McDonnell Douglas (later Boeing) C-17 Globemaster III.


Prelude.

As with much of the conflict between Rome and Gaul in the first century BCE, information about this battle comes principally from Julius Caesar's "Commentaries on the Gallic War". There are no surviving Gallic accounts.  Vercingetorix had earlier been expelled from Gergovia, the capital of the Arverni, by its government. In winter 53 BC, while Caesar was gathering his forces for a strike against the Gauls, Vercingetorix came back to Gergovia but was now supported by the Arverni, his people. Caesar states that he was left with a difficult decision. He could have kept his forces safe over the winter, but would have showed Roman weakness in defending its allies the Aedui and thus losing their support. However, he chose to bring Vercingetorix to open battle but risked running out of supplies.  Leaving two legions and all of his baggage train behind in Agedincum, Caesar led the remaining legions to Gergovia. His sieges of Vellaunodunum, Genabum, and Noviodunum en route caused Vercingetorix to march to meet Caesar in open battle at Noviodunum, which Caesar won. Caesar then besieged and captured Avaricum and resupplied there. After resting his forces at Avaricum, he sent his top legate, Titus Labienus, with four legions north; this to keep the northern Gauls from interfering with his campaign against the Arverni.  Caesar then set out in the direction of Gergovia, which Vercingetorix was probably able to guess easily once he had remarked his direction. The heights of Gergovia stand twelve hundred feet above the plain that they overlook. It is a plateau that is a mile and a half long by a third of a mile wide. It was an advantageous place to hold, as there was only one way in, and a small body of troops could hold the entrance to the place.  Vercingetorix therefore crossed the powerful river Elave (now Allier, a tributary to the Loire at Nevers), and started marching up and down the bank, mirroring Caesar's movements and destroying all the bridges to keep him from crossing, the purpose presumably being to destroy part of his force as he attempted to cross. Realizing Vercingetorix's plan, Caesar resolved to trick him and cross under his very nose.  Caesar one night camped near the town of Varennes-sur-Allier, where there had previously been a bridge before Vercingetorix had destroyed it. That night, he divided his force into two parts, one part being two thirds of the force, the other being one third of the force. He ordered the larger force to march in six corps as if it were really the full army of six legions. He then ordered it to continue its march south. Vercingetorix, duped, took the bait and followed this part of the force.  Caesar, with the two legions still at Varennes, speedily rebuilt the bridge that had been present there. He then sent for the other force, which the next day stole a march on Vercingetorix and completed a junction with the original force, and crossed the rebuilt bridge. Realizing that he had been duped, Vercingetorix set out south to beat Caesar to Gergovia.

Battle.

Five days later Caesar reached Gergovia, the first march being short because most of the troops were tired after marching up the river and back and the last march because the legions arrived at the town. Realizing that its mountainous location made a frontal assault risky, he decided to rely on his superior siege tactics. Upon arriving, Caesar discovered that there was a small hill that the Gauls held that was essential to their holding Gergovia itself. From there, they were able to provide water, grain, and forage.  Caesar took this in a night raid and swiftly stationed two legions there. He then linked it to his main camp by digging a double trench, twelve feet wide, with a parapet. The result was a barrier that kept the Gauls from their supplies, which they needed desperately. They were forced to subsist on the meager stream that supplied water to Gergovia itself.  The Aedui leaders during the course of the siege had been corrupted with both gold and misinformation by emissaries of Vercingetorix. Caesar had agreed with the Aedui that 10,000 men would protect his line of supplies. Vercingetorix convinced the chief, Convictolitavis, who had been made chief of the tribe by Caesar, to order the same men to join him upon their arrival at the oppidum. They attacked the Romans who were accompanying their supply train, leaving Caesar in an embarrassing position.  His rations threatened, Caesar took four legions from the siege, surrounded the Aedui army, and defeated it. The pro-Roman faction retook control of the Aedui leadership, and Caesar returned to Gergovia with 10,000 pro-Roman Aedui horsemen. The two legions that he had left to continue the siege had been hard-pressed to keep Vercingetorix's much larger force at bay.  Caesar realized that his siege would fail unless he could get Vercingetorix off the high ground. He used one legion as a decoy while the rest moved onto better ground, capturing three Gallic camps in the process. He then ordered a general retreat to lure Vercingetorix off the high ground. However, the order was not heard by most of Caesar's force. Instead, spurred on by the ease with which they captured the camps, they pressed on toward the town and mounted a direct assault on it. The Aedui arrived at that moment, but the Romans mistook them for enemies at first, and Caesar had to make order in his lines.  The noise of the assault alerted Vercingetorix, who arrived and saw the Roman and Aedui just beneath the walls of Gergovia. Vercingetorix then led a cavalry charge that crushed the Roman lines. Then the warriors left their horses and joined the infantry in their fight against the Romans, who soon had suffered heavy casualties.

Aftermath.

Given his losses, Caesar ordered a retreat. In the wake of the battle, Caesar lifted his siege and fled the Arverni lands northeastwards in the direction of Aedui territory. Vercingetorix pursued Caesar's army, intent on destroying it. Meanwhile, Labienus had finished his campaign in the north and marched south. After linking up with Labienus' corps, Caesar marched his united army south and the war continued.

The Battle of Gergovia took place in 52 BC in Gaul at Gergovia, the chief oppidum (fortified town) of the Arverni. The battle was fought between a Roman Republican army, led by proconsul Julius Caesar, and Gallic forces led by Vercingetorix, who was also the Arverni chieftain. The Gauls won the battle.


Early life.

He was born in Quiévy, Nord. His father was a craftsman. He studied drawing at the École des Beaux-Arts de Lille, from 1899 to 1901, when he settled in Paris.

Career.

The initial influence of Impressionism and Post-Impressionism visible in paintings that he sent to the Salon des Indépendants in 1906 gradually gave way to an involvement with Fauvism, and he exhibited at the Salon d'Automne in 1907. He started to experiment with Cubism after his move in 1909 to the Bateau-Lavoir studios, where he met Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, Otto Freundlich and Juan Gris; he was also encouraged by his friendship with the art collector and critic Wilhelm Uhde. His work was exhibited in the same room as that of Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes and Fernand Léger in the Salon des Indépendants of 1910. In 1914, at the outbreak of World War I, he was exempted from military service because of his short stature and was committed to work in an airplane factory near Paris.  After producing his first abstract paintings in 1917, Herbin came to the attention of Léonce Rosenberg who, after World War I, made him part of the group centred on his "" and exhibited his work there on several occasions in March 1918 and 1921. Herbin's radical reliefs of simple geometric forms in painted wood, such as "Colored Wood Relief" (1921; Paris, Musée National d'Art Moderne), challenged not only the status of the easel painting but also traditional figure–ground relationships. The incomprehension that greeted these reliefs and related furniture designs, even from those critics most favorably disposed towards Cubism, was such that until 1926 or 1927 he followed Rosenberg's advice to return to a representational style and produced paintings in the New Objectivity style. Herbin himself later disowned his landscapes, still lifes and genre scenes of this period, such as "Bowls Players" (1923; Paris, Musée National d'Art Moderne), in which the objects were depicted as schematized volumes. Under the influence of surrealism, he became increasingly critical of the rational forms employed by De Stijl. After 1927 Herbin becomes interested by microphotographs of crystals and plants and completely abandons figurative painting.  In the 1930s, he co-founded the group Abstraction-Création in Paris and served as publisher and author for the journal "Abstraction-Création. Art non figurativ". In the second issue of the journal he wrote against the rising Fascism and oppression of all kinds. As a member of the Communist Association des Écrivains et Artistes Révolutionnaires he signed a statement against the political indifference of artists. Critical of Stalinism, he left the Communist party in the 1940s.  Beginning in 1942, Herbin developed a language of form and color, his "alphabet plastique". Increasingly, his paintings consist only of colorful arrangements of triangles, circles and rectangles. In 1946 he was one of the founders of the Salon des Réalités Nouvelles, a successor of Abstraction-Création. He later served as the group's vice-president.

Late life and death.

After 1953 Herbin was paralyzed on the right side, forcing him to paint with the left hand. He died in Paris on 31 January 1960. One painting remained unfinished—the motif of the painting was constructed on the word "Fin".  During the 2000s an important series of original Herbin's signed rugs have been realised by Didier Marien from the Boccara Gallery with the agreement of the rights holders. Those rugs exhibited in France, but also in Moscow, London and New York played a key role in the worldwide rediscovery of Auguste Herbin's artistic creations.

Public collections.

Among the public collections holding works by Auguste Herbin are:

Auguste Herbin (29 April 1882 – 31 January 1960) was a French painter of modern art. He is best known for his Cubist and abstract paintings consisting of colorful geometric figures. He co-founded the groups Abstraction-Création and Salon des Réalités Nouvelles which promoted non-figurative abstract art.


Description.

The synagogue contains a forecourt and house of assembly with painted walls depicting people and animals, and a Torah shrine in the western wall facing Jerusalem.

Wall-paintings.

The paintings cover the walls of the main "Assembly Room", using three levels of pictures over a dado frieze of symbols in most places, reaching a height of about 7 metres.

Style and technique.

Stylistically they are provincial versions of contemporary Graeco-Roman style and technique; several different artists seem to have worked on them. Technically they are not fresco (paint fused into wet plaster) but tempera over plaster. Earlier parts of the building have decorative painting with no figures. Some of the paintings have figures whose eyes have been scratched out, especially those in Persian costume.

Iconography.

Scholars cannot agree on the subjects of some scenes, because of damage, or the lack of comparative examples.  The scenes depicted are drawn from the Hebrew Bible and include many narrative scenes, and some single figure "portraits"—58 scenes in total, probably representing about 60% of the original number. They include the "Sacrifice of Isaac" and other Genesis stories, Moses receiving the Tablets of the Law, Moses leading the Hebrews out of Egypt, the visions of Ezekiel, and many others. The Hand of God motif is used to represent divine intervention or approval in several paintings.  There have been scholarly debates questioning the wall paintings' influence over later Judeo-Christian iconography, which have been held due to the relevance of such early depictions of the biblical narrative.

Herod's Temple mural.

Located on the western wall of the synagogue, just left of the Torah niche, is a mural depicting the courtyard of Herod's Temple. In this particular work, Aaron is depicted standing just to the right of the temple door in the inner court of the temple surrounded by fellow priests (Jewish priests). He is denoted by the inscription (ΑΡΩΝ), which translates to Aaron in the English alphabet. Aaron's anachronistic appearance symbolises the Cohanim (Jewish priests) being passed down by his descendants.  To the bottom left, there is a young priest leading a heifer, a special sacrificial red cow. Based upon the trajectory of the priest and the geography of the city of Jerusalem, where Herod's temple was located, it is presumed that he is leading the heifer up the Mount of Olives in order to sacrifice it for the atonement of the sins of the people. The low masonry wall depicted in the mural allowed the priest in charge of the sacrifice to look into the temple itself, which was much taller, while performing the sacrifice itself.  Just above the temple door, we see what appears to be a star but is actually in fact the lamp of Queen Helene of Adiabene. The lamp caught and reflected the rays of the sun by way of its superior polish. The lamp shone so much that in Bar-Kokhba coins, which depicted the courtyard of the same temple, the lamp is depicted as a star. The rays reflected off of the lantern are depicted as lines radiating from the lamp on the three borders of the temple's pediment.  The two animals just to the left of Aaron, a bull and a ram, are atonement sacrifices for Aaron to be made on Yom Kippur.

Cultural context and purpose of the murals.

Because of the paintings adorning the walls, the synagogue was at first mistaken for a Greek temple, though this was quickly corrected by the vice-director of excavations Robert du Mesnil du Buisson in "Les peintures de la synagogue de Doura-Europos" (Rome, 1939). Mesnil also made detailed comparisons of the friezes from the Dura synagogue with those of the mithraeum, the Christian baptistery, and the temple of the Palmyrene gods.  Scholars think the paintings were used as an instructional display to educate and teach the history and laws of the religion. Some think that this synagogue was painted in order to compete with the many other religions practiced in Dura Europos; the new (and considerably smaller) Christian Dura-Europos church appears to have opened shortly before the surviving paintings were begun in the synagogue. The large-scale pictorial art in the synagogue came as a surprise to scholars, although they already suspected that there was a tradition of Jewish narrative religious art at this period, which at the time of the discovery were thought to have all been lost, leaving only traces in later Christian art. The discovery of the synagogue helps to dispel narrow interpretations of Judaism's historical prohibition of visual images.

Relationship to early Christian art and late Jewish art.

The synagogue of Dura-Europos offers negligible influence on later Christian and Jewish artwork. The time that the Dura-Europos synagogue was active was not long as it was buried as part of the Roman defense against Sasanian troops in 256 A.D. The Dura-Europos Synagogue remains the earliest example of Judeo-Christian artwork available for study. It contains not only Hellenistic and Roman influences, but Sasanian as well.  The layout of the paintings suggest that they were inspired by a copybook with examples and formulae. While there are similarities to other works of antiquity, the differences between each work bear too much difference in order for one to be considered influential. There have been attempts to link these works, but they have proven largely unsuccessful.  The Leon Bible, as an example, which was written ca. 960, had in common with Dura-Europos the scene of the sacrifice of Isaac. However, the León Bible showed key differences. Their position in the León Bible shows them facing the viewer, whereas Dura Europos they are not. In the León Bible, the Hand of God bestows the "benedictio latina", whereas in Dura-Europos it makes an appearance with no such manuscript. The Dura painting shows Abraham's hand free of Isaac's hair, whereas in the León miniature, it is grasping it. Finally, in the Dura painting Abraham is using a knife as opposed to the sword he uses in the León Bible.

The Dura-Europos synagogue (or "Dura Europas", "Dura Europos" etc.) was an ancient synagogue uncovered at Dura-Europos, Syria, in 1932. The last phase of construction was dated by an Aramaic inscription to 244 CE, making it one of the oldest synagogues in the world. It was unique among the many ancient synagogues that have emerged from archaeological digs as the structure was preserved virtually intact, and it had extensive figurative wall-paintings, which came as a considerable surprise to scholars. These paintings are now displayed in the National Museum of Damascus.


History.

Establishment.

At least since German king Otto I had conquered the former Lombard kingdom of Italy in 961 and had himself crowned Holy Roman Emperor in Rome, the principal passes of the Eastern Alps had become an important transit area. The German monarchs regularly travelled across Brenner or Reschen Pass on their Italian expeditions aiming at papal coronation or the consolidation of Imperial rule.  In 1004 King Henry II of Germany separated the estates of Trent from the North Italian March of Verona and vested the Bishops of Trent with comital rights. In 1027 Henry's Salian successor, Emperor Conrad II, granted the Trent bishops further estates around Bozen and in the Vinschgau region; at the same time, he vested the Bishop of Brixen with the suzerainty in the Etschtal and Inntal, part of the German stem duchy of Bavaria under the rule of Conrad's son Henry III. Especially the Brixen bishops remained loyal supporters of the Salian rulers in the Investiture Controversy and in 1091 also received the Puster Valley from the hands of Emperor Henry IV.  Documented from about 1140 onwards, the comital dynasty residing in Tyrol Castle near Meran held the office of "Vogts" (bailiffs) in the Trent diocese. They extended their territory over much of the region and came to surpass the power of the bishops, who were nominally their feudal lords. After the deposition of the Welf duke Henry X of Bavaria in 1138, the Counts of Tyrol strengthened their independence. When Henry the Lion was again enfeoffed with the Bavarian duchy by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa at the 1154 Imperial Diet in Goslar, his possessions no longer comprised the Tyrolean lands. The Counts maintained that independence under the rising Bavarian Wittelsbach dynasty. In 1210, Count Albert IV of Tyrol also took over the "Vogt" office in the Bishopric of Brixen, prevailing against the rivalling Counts of Andechs.

Gorizia-Tyrol.

In 1253 Count Meinhard of Gorizia "(Görz)" inherited the Tyrolean lands by his marriage to Adelheid, daughter of the last Count Albert IV of Tyrol. When their sons divided their estate in 1271, the elder Meinhard II took Tyrol, for which he was recognized as an immediate lordship. He supported the German king Rudolph of Habsburg against his rival King Ottokar II of Bohemia. In reward, he received the Duchy of Carinthia with the Carniolan march in 1286.  In 1307 Meinhard's son Henry was elected King of Bohemia, After his death, he had one surviving daughter, Margaret Maultasch, who could gain the rule only over Tyrol. In 1342 she married Louis V of Wittelsbach, then Margrave of Brandenburg. The red eagle in Tyrol's coat of arms may derive from the Brandenburg eagle at the time when she and her husband ruled Tyrol and Brandenburg in personal union, though the Tyrolean eagle had already appeared in the 13th century.  Louis V died in 1361, followed by Margaret's son Meinhard III two years later. Lacking any descendants to succeed her, she bequeathed the county to Rudolph IV of Habsburg, Duke of Austria in 1363. He was recognized by the House of Wittelsbach in 1369. From that time onward, Tyrol was ruled by various lines of the Austrian Habsburg dynasty, who held the title of Count.

Austria.

After the Habsburg hereditary lands had been divided by the 1379 Treaty of Neuberg, Tyrol was ruled by the descendants of Duke Leopold III of Austria. After a second division within the Leopoldinian line in 1406, Duke Frederick IV of the Empty Pockets ruled them. In 1420 he made Innsbruck the Tyrolean residence. In 1490 his son and heir Sigismund renounced Tyrol and Further Austria in favour of his cousin German king Maximilian I of Habsburg. By then Maximilian I had re-united all Habsburg lands under his rule. In 1500 he also acquired the remaining Gorizia ("Görz") territories around Lienz and the Puster Valley.  When Emperor Ferdinand I of Habsburg died in 1564, he bequeathed the rule over Tyrol and Further Austria to his second son Archduke Ferdinand II. Both territories thereafter fell to the younger sons of the Habsburg Emperors: Archduke Matthias in 1608 and Maximilian III in 1612. After the death of Archduke Sigismund Francis in 1665, all Habsburg lands were again under the united rule of the Emperor Leopold I.  From the time of Maria Theresa of Austria (1740−1780) onward, Tyrol was governed by the central government of the Habsburg Monarchy at Vienna in all matters of major importance. In 1803 the lands of the Bishoprics of Trent and Brixen were secularised and incorporated into the county.

Napoleonic Wars.

Following defeat by Napoleon in 1805, Austria was forced to cede Tyrol to the Kingdom of Bavaria in the Peace of Pressburg. Tyrol as a part of Bavaria became a member of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806. The Tyroleans rose up against the Bavarian authority and succeeded three times in defeating Bavarian and French troops trying to retake the country.  Austria lost the war of the Fifth Coalition against France, and got harsh terms in the Treaty of Schönbrunn in 1809. Glorified as Tyrol's national hero, Andreas Hofer, the leader of the uprising, was executed in 1810 in Mantua. His forces had lost a third and final battle against the French and Bavarian forces. Tyrol remained under Bavaria and the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy for another four years.  In 1814, by decisions of the Congress of Vienna, Tyrol was reunified and returned to Austria. It was integrated into the Austrian Empire. From 1867 onwards, it was a "Kronland" (Crown Land) of Cisleithania.

End of the County.

After World War I, the victors settled border changes. The Treaty of Saint-Germain of 1919 ruled according to the 1915 London Pact, that the southern part of the Austrian crown land of Tyrol had to be ceded to the Kingdom of Italy, including the territory of the former Trent bishopric, roughly corresponding to the modern-day Trentino, as well as the south of the medieval Tyrol county, the present-day province of South Tyrol. Italy thus took control of the strategically important Alpine water divide at the Brenner Pass and over the south of Tyrol proper with its large German-speaking majority. Since 1949 both parts form the autonomous Italian Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol region. The northern part of Tyrol retained by the First Austrian Republic today forms the Austrian State of Tyrol with its East Tyrol exclave.  In 1945 following World War II, Austrian attempts and South Tyrolean petitions to reunite South Tyrol with Austria were not successful. Italy kept control. From 1972 onwards, the Italian Republic has granted further autonomy to the Trentino - Alto Adige/Südtirol province.  Male line extinct.

Counts of Tyrol.

House of Meinhardin.

County bequeathed to Albert's son-in-law: Male line extinct, Countess Margaret, daughter of Henry II, married to: divorced, secondly to: Line extinct.

House of Habsburg.

County bequeathed to Line extinct, Habsburg lands re-unified under  Habsburg regents of Tyrol and Further Austria: Line extinct, Habsburg lands re-unified under

The (Princely) County of Tyrol was an estate of the Holy Roman Empire established about 1140. Originally a jurisdiction under the sovereignty of the Counts of Tyrol, it was inherited by the Counts of Gorizia in 1253 and finally fell to the Austrian House of Habsburg in 1363. In 1804 the Princely County of Tyrol, unified with the secularised prince-bishoprics of Trent and Brixen, became a crown land of the Austrian Empire in 1804 and from 1867 a Cisleithanian crown land of Austria-Hungary.


Geography.

The Margraviate lay east of Bohemia proper, with an area about half that region's size. In the north, the Sudeten Mountains, which extend to the Moravian Gate, formed the border with the Polish Duchy of Silesia, incorporated as a Bohemian crown land upon the 1335 Treaty of Trentschin. In the east and southeast, the western Carpathian Mountains separated it from present-day Slovakia. In the south, the winding Thaya River marked the border with the Duchy of Austria.  Moravians, usually considered a Czech people that speak Moravian dialects, made up the main part of the population. According to a 1910 Cisleithanian census, 27.6% identified themselves as German Moravians. These ethnic Germans would later be expelled after the Second World War. Other ethnic minority groups included Poles, Roma and Slovaks.

History.

After the early medieval Great Moravian realm had been finally defeated by the Árpád princes of Hungary in 907, what is now Slovakia was incorporated as "Upper Hungary" ("Felső-Magyarország"), while adjacent Moravia passed under the authority of the Duchy of Bohemia. King Otto I of Germany officially granted it to Duke Boleslaus I in turn for his support against the Hungarian forces in the 955 Battle of Lechfeld. Temporarily ruled by King Bolesław I Chrobry of Poland from 999 until 1019, Moravia was re-conquered by Duke Oldřich of Bohemia and ultimately became a land of the Crown of Saint Wenceslas held by the Přemyslid dynasty. In 1182, the Margraviate was created at the behest of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa by merger of the three Přemyslid appanage principalities of Brno, Olomouc and Znojmo, and given to Conrad II, the son of Prince Conrad of Znojmo. As heir apparent, the future King Ottokar II of Bohemia was appointed Moravian margave by his father Wenceslaus I in 1247. Along with Bohemia, Moravia was ruled by the House of Luxembourg from the extinction of the Přemyslid dynasty until 1437. Jobst, nephew of Emperor Charles IV inherited the Margraviate in 1375, ruled autonomously and was even elected King of the Romans in 1410. Shaken by the Hussite Wars, the Moravian nobles remained loyal supporters of the Luxembourg emperor Sigismund.  In 1469, Moravia was occupied by the Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus, who had allied with the Catholic nobility against the rule of George of Poděbrady and had himself elected rival king of Bohemia at Olomouc. The rivalry with King Vladislaus II was settled in the 1479 Peace of Olomouc, whereby Matthias renounced the royal title but retained the rule over the Moravian lands.  With the other "lands of the Bohemian Crown", the Margraviate was incorporated into the Habsburg Monarchy upon the death of King Louis II in the 1526 Battle of Mohács. Moravia was ruled as a crown land within the Austrian Empire from 1804 and within Cisleithanian Austria from 1867.  During the foundation of Czechoslovakia after World War I, the Margraviate was transformed into “Moravia Land”, later “Moravia-Silesia Land” in 1918. This autonomy was eliminated in 1949 by the communist government and has not been re-established since.

Government.

The margrave held ultimate authority in Moravia, throughout the history of the margraviate. This meant that as its margraves became more foreign, so too did governance of the margraviate.  Moravia possessed a legislature, known as the Moravian Diet. The assembly has its origins in 1288, with the "Colloquium generale", or "curia generalis". This was a meeting of the upper nobility, knights, the Bishop of Olomouc, abbots and ambassadors from royal cities. These meetings gradually evolved into the diet.  The power of this diet waxed and waned throughout history. By the end of the margraviate, the diet was almost powerless. The diet consisted of three estates of the realm: the estate of upper nobility, the estate of the lower nobility, and the estate of prelates and burghers. With the February Patent of 1861, the diet was reformed into a more egalitarian body. It still retained the same structure, but the members changed. It consisted of assembly seats for landowners, city-dwellers, and rural farmers. This was retained until the diet was abolished after the fall of the Dual Monarchy.

Moravian eagle.

The coat of arms of Moravia is charged with a crowned silver-red chequered eagle with golden claws and tongue. It first appeared in the seal of Margrave Přemysl (1209-1239), a younger son of King Ottokar I of Bohemia. After 1462 is Moravian eagle gold-red chequered, but never accepted by moravian assembly.

Administration.

Until 1848.

In the mid 14th century Emperor Charles IV, also King of Bohemia and Margrave of Moravia, established administrative divisions called "kraje". These subdivisions were named for their capitals, some of which were:

After 1848.

After the 1848 revolutions, the "kraje" were replaced by political districts (""), which were largely retained by the Czechoslovak administration after 1918:  united with Bohemia 1189-1197 directly held by King Rudolph I of Germany 1278-1283  Under the united rule of the Bohemian kings from 1611 (see List of rulers of Bohemia).

The Margraviate of Moravia (; ) was one of the lands of the Bohemian Crown existing from 1182 to 1918. It was officially administrated by a margrave in cooperation with a provincial diet. It was variously a "de facto" independent state, and also subject to the Duchy, later the Kingdom of Bohemia. It comprised the region called Moravia within the modern Czech Republic.


Life.

Władysław Grabski was born in 1874, in a family manor in Borów (a part of Gmina Bielawy) near Łowicz, Congress Poland, Russian Empire. He studied politics at the School of Political Science in Paris and history at the University of Sorbonne. While in Paris, Grabski's political views changed. He abandoned the socialist ideas and turned more towards the right. The years Władysław Grabski had spent in Paris became an impetus behind Grabski's desire for his involvement in the Polish government. Soon after Grabski's return from Paris, in 1905, he founded the Agricultural Society in Łowicz, in central Poland. The Society quickly won the support of many peasants, which in turn led to the creation of the National Labor Union. Due to the growing autonomy and strength of Grabski's Agricultural Society and the Union, in 1905, Władyslaw Grabski was arrested by the Russian authorities and imprisoned in Warsaw. Grabski's imprisonment, however, lasted less than a year. In 1905, Grabski was elected on behalf of National Democracy as a member of three successive sessions of the Duma, the legislative assembly of the Russian Empire. He was a deputy in Duma until 1912. It was at that time that he became involved in the work of the budgetary commission with the Russian Ministry of Agriculture. Grabski's involvement in the budgetary Commission became a reason for his later desire to become the finance minister in the Polish parliament. When World War I broke out, he organized the Central Citizens' Committee, which was responsible for restoring order into the life of a society devastated by the Polish partitions, and to represent the interests of Polish people before the Russian authorities. He also became a member of the Polish National Committee. In 1919 he entered the government of the newly restored Poland as Minister of Agriculture.  Grabski's influence on the Polish affairs increased when he became Treasury Minister and Prime Minister in 1920. However, his first cabinet lasted for only one month. In December 1923 he was again appointed Prime Minister and served as Treasury Minister in a specialist cabinet (appointed by but not necessarily composed of elected parliamentary representatives). Grabski managed to implement reforms which alleviated Poland's economic situation and managed to preserve his cabinet for twenty-three months, a relatively long period for a Polish cabinet in interwar Poland. Until the end of 1924, Grabski's government enjoyed great popularity.  Yet Grabski remained a controversial figure for the twenty-three months he remained in office. Stanisław Głąbiński, for example, argued that in the sphere of foreign relations, Grabski did not show the desired assertiveness. At the League of Nations conference, Grabski did not mention the League's unresponsiveness to the Polish-Soviet War of 1919–1921. According to the tenth article of the treaty of Versailles, “The Members of the League undertake to respect and preserve as against external aggression the territorial integrity and existing political independence of all Members of the League.” However, the League of Nations remained aloof and impassive in 1920. Grabski's decision not to raise the issue of the League's lack of action resulted in severe criticism from the Polish parliament. Głąbiński was not the only critic of Grabski's cabinet. Wincenty Witos criticized Grabski for his excessively optimistic attitude regarding the financial reforms and so did others; nevertheless, the reform stopped the hyperinflation in its tracks.  On 13 November 1925 Grabski was forced to resign following a disagreement with the President of the Bank of Poland, who refused to help him with the backing of the industrialist 'Lewiatan' organization.

Currency reform.

Grabski's (and the ministerial cabinet's) great achievement in those years was the foundation of the Bank of Poland and the creation of the new Polish currency – the gold-based złoty which replaced the Polish mark. The Act of 11 January 1924 on the improvement of the state's treasury and currency reform introduced a new monetary system and established the issuing bank. The Bank of Poland was founded as a joint stock company, which guaranteed its independence from the government and the state treasury. The Act also abolished the Polish National Savings Union which had acted as an issuing bank. Its functions were taken over by the Bank of Poland. Stanisław Karpiński became the first president of the Bank of Poland. On 14 January the organizing committee of the Bank of Poland was established, and on 26 January the sale of the bank's shares began. Payments could only be made in foreign currencies and in gold. On 15 April, during the first shareholders' meeting, the Bank of Poland Joint Stock Company was established.  Grabski went further than just establishing the Bank of Poland and the currency. He built a network of state banks and founded the Bank for National Economy. He also initiated far-going changes in the structure of Polish exports and industrial output. He also established the Border Defence Corps.  Nevertheless, criticism continued over aspects of Grabski's reforms. In 1925, Grabski himself commented that he was too optimistic about his economic reforms and that he should have realized that given the circumstances of depression and the recuperation from World War I), a complete recovery of Polish economy was virtually impossible. There were enormous price discrepancies between agricultural and manufactured goods. The Bank of Poland was faced with both a commercial deficit and an increasing national debt. The government made numerous unfavorable investments and in 1925, the Sejm approved a proposal for an excessively high budget, despite frequent warnings from Grabski's cabinet. On 29 July 1925, the value of the Polish złoty declined significantly. A tariff war broke out between Poland and Germany. Grabski resigned his post and from active politics in November of that year. He subsequently devoted himself to pedagogic and academic work at the Warsaw Agricultural University (SGGW). In 1926, he became its rector. In 1936 on his motion the Rural Sociology Institute was established, of which he remained the head until his death in 1938.  Władysław Grabski died from cancer on 1 March 1938 in Warsaw. The Holy Mass was led by Cardinal Aleksander Kakowski in the Saint John's Cathedral. His body was interred in the family grave at the Powązki Cemetery.

Legacy.

In 2004, Poland celebrated the 130th anniversary of Władyslaw Grabski's birthday and the 80th anniversary of the public finance reforms he introduced. In September 2003, the Sejm of the Republic of Poland passed a resolution proclaiming 2004 as Władyslaw Grabski's Year. In 2004 a statue was unveiled in his birthplace village of Borów. The Warsaw Agricultural University labelled him as a ""great Pole, great statesman, social activist and a man of great heart and mind, one of the brightest Poles of the interwar period"". In July 2006 the newly opened Main Library of the Warsaw Agricultural University was named after Grabski, and in front of the library, the statue of Grabski was placed. His grandson, Andrzej Feliks Grabski (1934–2000), became a historian.

Władysław Dominik Grabski (; 7 July 1874 – 1 March 1938) was a Polish National Democratic politician, economist and historian. He was the main author of the currency reform in the Second Polish Republic and served as Prime Minister of Poland in 1920 and from 1923 to 1925. He was the brother of Stanisław Grabski and Zofia Kirkor-Kiedroniowa.


Origin and composition.

319 variations of cave mineral deposits have been identified. The vast majority of speleothems are calcareous, composed of calcium carbonate in the form of calcite or aragonite, or calcium sulfate in the form of gypsum. Calcareous speleothems form via carbonate dissolution reactions. Rainwater in the soil zone reacts with soil CO to create weakly acidic water via the reaction:  As the lower pH water travels through the calcium carbonate bedrock from the surface to the cave ceiling, it dissolves the bedrock via the reaction:  When the solution reaches a cave, degassing due to lower cave pCO drives precipitation of CaCO:  Over time the accumulation of these precipitates form stalagmites, stalactites, and flowstones, which compose the major categories of speleothems.  Calthemites which occur on concrete structures, are created by completely different chemistry to speleothems.

Types and categories.

Speleothems take various forms, depending on whether the water drips, seeps, condenses, flows, or ponds. Many speleothems are named for their resemblance to man-made or natural objects. Types of speleothems include:  Speleothems made of sulfates, carbonates, mirabilite or opal occur in some lava tubes. Although sometimes similar in appearance to speleothems in caves formed by dissolution, lava stalactites are formed by the cooling of residual lava within the lava tube.  Speleothems formed from salt, sulfur and other minerals are also known.  Speleothems made of pure calcium carbonate are a translucent white color, but often speleothems are colored by chemicals such as iron oxide, copper or manganese oxide, or may be brown because of mud and silt particulate inclusions.

Chemistry.

Many factors impact the shape and color of speleothem formations including the rate and direction of water seepage, the amount of acid in the water, the temperature and humidity content of a cave, air currents, the above ground climate, the amount of annual rainfall and the density of the plant cover. Most cave chemistry revolves around calcium carbonate (CaCO), the primary mineral in limestone and dolomite. It is a slightly soluble mineral whose solubility increases with the introduction of carbon dioxide (CO). It is paradoxical in that its solubility decreases as the temperature increases, unlike the vast majority of dissolved solids. This decrease is due to interactions with the carbon dioxide, whose solubility is diminished by elevated temperatures; as the carbon dioxide is released, the calcium carbonate is precipitated.  Most other solution caves that are not composed of limestone or dolomite are composed of gypsum (calcium sulfate), the solubility of which is positively correlated with temperature.

As climate proxies.

Speleothems are studied as climate proxies because their location within cave environments and patterns of growth allow them to be used as archives for several climate variables. The principal proxies measured are oxygen and carbon isotopes and trace cations. These indicators, alone and in conjunction with other climate proxy records, can provide clues to past precipitation, temperature, and vegetation changes over the last ~ 500,000 years.  A particular strength of speleothems in this regard is their unique ability to be accurately dated over much of the late Quaternary period using the uranium-thorium dating technique. Stable isotopes of oxygen (δO) and carbon (δC) are recorded well in speleothems, giving high-resolution data that can show annual variation in temperature (oxygen isotopes primarily reflect rainfall temperature) and precipitation (carbon isotopes primarily reflect C3/C4 plant composition and plant productivity, but the interpretation is often complicated). By sampling along a dated transect of a speleothem, these isotope values and speleothem growth rates provide a paleoclimate records similar to those from ice cores. Variations in precipitation alter the width of new ring formation, where close ring formation shows little rainfall, and wider spacing for heavier rainfall.  The geometrical way in which stalagmites grow is also used in paleoclimate applications, which varies based on the height the water is falling from, and the rate of flow. Weaker flows and short travel distances form more narrow stalagmites, while heavier flow and a greater fall distance tends to form more broad ones. Additionally, drip rate counting and trace element analysis on the water drops themselves have been shown to record shorter-term variations in the climate at high resolution, such as drought conditions attributed to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) climate events.  A recent technique is the use of CT-scanning on intact specimens to analyze density, where more dense speleothem development indicates higher moisture availability.

Absolute dating.

Another dating method using electron spin resonance (ESR) – also known as electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) – is based on the measurement of electron-hole centers accumulated with time in the crystal lattice of CaCO exposed to natural radiations. In principle, in the more favorable cases, and assuming some simplifying hypotheses, the age of a speleothem could be derived from the total radiation dose cumulated by the sample and the annual dose rate to which it was exposed. Unfortunately, not all the samples are suited for ESR dating: indeed, the presence of cationic impurities such as Mn, Fe, or Fe, humic acids (organic matter), can mask the signal of interest, or interfere with it. Moreover, the radiation centers must be stable on geologic time, i.e., to have a very large lifetime, to make dating possible. Many other artifacts, such as, e.g., surface defects induced by the grinding of the sample can also preclude a correct dating. Only a few percents of the samples tested are in fact suitable for dating. This makes the technique often disappointing for the experimentalists. One of the main challenge of the technique is the correct identification of the radiation-induced centers and their great variety related to the nature and the variable concentration of the impurities present in the crystal lattice of the sample. ESR dating can be tricky and must be applied with discernment. It can never be used alone: ""One date only is No date"", or in other words, ""multiple lines of evidence and multiple lines of reasoning are necessary in absolute dating"". However, ""good samples"" might be found if all the selection criteria are met.

Calthemites: secondary deposits not formed in caves.

Secondary deposits derived from concrete, lime, mortar or calcareous material as found on man-made structures "outside the cave environment" or in artificial caves (e.g. mines and tunnels), can mimic the shapes and forms of speleothems, but are classed as calthemites. The occurrence of calthemites is often associated with concrete degradation, but could also be linked to leaching of lime, mortar or other calcareous material (e.g. limestone and dolomite). Despite similar appearances, "calthemites" (created outside the cave environment) are not considered to be "speleothems" (created inside the cave environment), and vice versa, as per their definitions.

Speleothems (; Ancient Greek: "cave deposit"), commonly known as cave formations, are secondary mineral deposits formed in a cave. Speleothems typically form in limestone or dolomite solutional caves. The term "speleothem," as first introduced by Moore (1952), is derived from the Greek words "spēlaion" "cave" + "théma" "deposit". The definition of "speleothem," in most publications, specifically excludes secondary mineral deposits in mines, tunnels, and other man-made structures. Hill and Forti more concisely defined "secondary minerals" which create speleothems in caves: A "secondary" mineral is one which is derived by a physicochemical reaction from a primary mineral in bedrock or detritus, and/or deposited because of a unique set of conditions in a cave; i.e., the cave environment has influenced the mineral's deposition.


History.

Early history.

The town was known as Hotča during medieval times. It was then known as a trading centre on route between Ragusa (now Dubrovnik) and Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey). Alongside the rest of Gornje Podrinje, Foča was part of the Serbian Empire until 1376, when it was attached to the Kingdom of Bosnia under King Tvrtko. After Tvrtko's death, the town was ruled by the dukes of Hum, most notably was Herzog Stjepan. Foča was the seat of the Ottoman Sanjak of Herzegovina established in 1470, and served as such until 1572, when the seat was moved to Pljevlja.

World War II.

In 1941, the Ustaše killed the leading Serbs in Foča. Between December 1941 and January 1942 over two thousand Bosnian Muslims were killed in Foča by the Chetniks as act of vengeance for repression over Serbs by Muslims in ranks of Ustaše. Additionally Chetniks attacked Ustaše and in Foča in August 1942.  On 13 February 1943, Pavle Đurišić reported to Draža Mihailović the actions undertaken by the Chetniks in the Foča, Pljevlja, and Čajniče districts: "All Muslim villages in the three mentioned districts were totally burned so that not a single home remained in one piece. All property was destroyed except cattle, corn, and senna."  In the operation Chetnik losses "were 22 dead, of which 2 through accidents, and 32 wounded. Among the Muslims, around 1,200 fighters and up to couple of thousands of civilian victims of both nationalitys." Đurišić said what remained of the Muslim population fled and that actions were taken to prevent their return. The municipality is also the site of the legendary Battle of Sutjeska between the Tito's Yugoslav Partisans and the German army. A monument to the Partisans killed in the battle was erected in the village of Tjentište.

Bosnian War.

In 1992, at the onset of the Bosnian War, the city fell under the control of the Army of Republika Srpska. From 7 April 1992 to January 1994, Serb military, police and paramilitary forces enacted a campaign of ethnic cleansing in the area of Foča against Bosniak civilians. By one estimate, around 21,000 non-Serbs left Foča after July 1992. Most of them settled in the town of Rožaje in Montenegro until the war ended. Only about 10 Muslims remained at the end of the conflict. Thirteen mosques including the Aladža Mosque were destroyed and the 22,500 Muslims who made up the majority of inhabitants fled. The Tribunal Judges determined beyond a reasonable doubt that the purpose of the Serb campaign in Foča was, among others, "to cleanse the Foča area of Muslims" and concluded that "to that end the campaign was successful.  In numerous verdicts, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) ruled that the ethnic cleansing, killings, mass rapes, and the deliberate destruction of Bosniak property and cultural sites constituted crimes against humanity. According to the Research and Documentation Center (IDC), 2,707 people were killed or went missing in the Foča municipality during the war. Among them were 1,513 Bosniak civilians and 155 Serb civilians. Additionally, Bosnian Serb authorities set up rape camps in which hundreds of women were raped. Numerous Serb officers, soldiers and other participants in the Foča massacres were accused and convicted of war crimes by the ICTY.

Post-war period.

In 1995 the Dayton Agreement created a territorial corridor linking the once-besieged city of Goražde to the Federation entity; as a consequence, the northern part of Foča was separated to create the municipality of Foča-Ustikolina. The ethnically-cleansed town was renamed "Srbinje" (), "place of the Serbs". In 2004, the Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina declared the name change unconstitutional, and reverted it back to Foča.  Since the war around 4,000 Bosniaks have returned to their homes in Foča, and several mosques have been re-built. This has taken place largely due to the administration of Zdravko Krsmanović, who was mayor from 2004 to 2012. In the 2012 elections, however, Krsmanović was defeated and a new mayor, Radisav Mašić, was elected with support of parties SDS and SNSD.  The Aladža Mosque was rebuilt from 2014 and reopened in May 2019.  In October 2004, members of the Association of Women Victims of War ("Udruzenje Žene-Žrtve Rata") attempted to lay a plaque in front of the "Partizan" sports hall (used in 1992 also as a rape camp) to commemorate the terrible crimes that occurred there. Around 300 Bosnian Serbs, including members of the RS Association of the Prisoners of War, prevented the plaque from being affixed.  The "Partizan" sport hall was reconstructed by UNDP, with EU funding, following a selection by the Foča municipal council, also with the participation of elected representatives of local returnees.  In 2018 and 2019, the association of war victims have been commemorating rape as a weapon of war by congregating in front of Karama's House in Miljevina and of the "Partizan" sport hall in Foca on the International Day for the Elimination of Sexual Violence in Conflict (19 June).

Settlements.

Aside from the town of Foča, the municipality includes the following settlements:

Economy.

The following table gives a preview of total number of registered people employed in legal entities per their core activity (as of 2018):

Twin towns - sister cities.

Foča is twinned with:

Foča (, ) is a town and a municipality located in eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina, on the banks of Drina river. As of 2013, the town has a population of 12,234 inhabitants, while the municipality has 18,288 inhabitants.


Biography.

Early life.

Born at "Florica", his father's estate in Ștefănești, Argeș County, he completed his secondary education at the Saint Sava National College in Bucharest (1882). He then volunteered for the Romanian Army's artillery, serving for six months before becoming a Second lieutenant. During his military service, Brătianu studied engineering. He left for Paris in 1883, and attended the Collège Sainte-Barbe, then took classes (without being a registered student) at the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées (1884–1889). Brătianu received an engineer's diploma, but not a licence to practice.  In 1889, he returned to the country and was assigned orders by the Army, being promoted to Lieutenant. Later in that year, he joined the Romanian Railways as an engineer, working under the leadership of Anghel Saligny.

Early politics.

He became a member of the PNL in 1895, the same year he ran in elections and was elected to the Parliament of Romania by the Ist College (of the landed gentry) in Gorj County. In early 1899, he was in the majority that voted in favor of the entry of former members of the Romanian Social-Democratic Workers' Party into the PNL. He served as Minister of Public Works (March 31, 1897-March 30, 1899; February 14, 1901-July 18, 1902) and Minister of the Interior (March 12, 1907-December 27, 1908) - the latter assignment was prompted by the effects of the 1907 Peasants' Revolt. In 1909, he was elected head of the National Liberals, a position he was to hold until his death; he first became Prime Minister in January 1909, and kept the office until December 28, 1910.  Brătianu's policies moved the PNL towards an acceptance of land reform, but deliberations over the project continued until after World War I, with Brătianu himself showing reserves over projects that aimed to replace the 1866 Constitution of Romania with a fully democratic one. In 1913, he convinced his party to accept a moderate version of land reform, as well as the creation of a single electoral college - a measure which would have given more accurate representation to the peasant majority. Over the following months, these policies were approved on principle by King Carol I, and even by the Conservative Party.

World War I.

The outbreak of the world conflict in 1914 brought a major polemic in Romanian society. The Conservatives oscillated between a neutral stance and participation alongside the Central Powers (to which Romania had committed itself); instead, the PNL called for an alignment with the Entente Forces. Despite the fact that Brătianu was again Prime Minister from January 16, 1914 to February 9, 1918, his policies in this respect were procrastinated. Initially, a decision on the matter was blocked by King Carol, until his death in September 1914. Afterwards, with the ascension of Ferdinand I (who was to remain a political ally of Brătianu for the rest of his life), the government started secret negotiations with the Entente, meant to condition Romania's participation with the granting of Austro-Hungarian lands with a majority Romanian population. In August 1916, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.  Minor advances into Transylvania were met with a Central Powers counter-offensive that swept through Oltenia and Wallachia, occupied Bucharest, and forced all governmental structures to take refuge in Iaşi. While Moldavia remained the only region under Romanian administration and the country increased its reliance on Imperial Russia - and then on the Russian Provisional Government, the Romanian Army was able to block further Central Powers' offensives in the battles of Mărășești, Mărăști, and Oituz. This situation was ended by the October Revolution in Russia and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk between the Bolshevik government and the Central Powers: Romania saw itself without reinforcements, agreed to an armistice, and then signed the Treaty of Bucharest in May 1918.  In the meantime, Brătianu's had been replaced with the crisis government of General Alexandru Averescu, and this was soon followed by Alexandru Marghiloman's (chosen to negotiate the peace, as the German Empire was thought to be friendly towards Marghiloman). Nonetheless, Romania never did ratify the signed treaty, and denounced it in October 1918, immediately re-entering the conflict on the Entente's side. In November, the Compiègne armistice with Germany removed all legal value of the Bucharest Treaty.

Third cabinet and support for Averescu.

The spectre of socialist agitation, which had led to incidents such as a major strike action in Bucharest in December 1918, brought about the fall of the Constantin Coandă cabinet, and Brătianu again occupied the position. He led the Romanian delegation to the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, where he was a vocal supporter of the union with Transylvania and Bukovina. Although ultimately Romania received most territories it claimed, he resigned in 1919 since he would not accept a compromise on the disputed territories in Banat that had become part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. However, Romania had registered other successes - notably, Russia's exit from the war had led to the union with Bessarabia (the Moldavian Democratic Republic).  Soon, the PNL found itself threatened by the political realities of a Greater Romania. The policy of alliances of the Romanian National Party (a mainly Transylvanian group) had brought the rapid formation of the cabinet of Alexandru Vaida-Voevod in December 1919; this cabinet, and especially its Peasants' Party group, supported a radical version of the land reform, leading to endless debates in parliament. At the same time, the People's Party, a new and strong populist movement under General Averescu, had begun a campaign for both an urgent land reform and for bringing about the prosecution of PNL politicians as agents of the economic hardships. Faced with a choice, Brătianu approached Averescu and offered PNL support for a People's Party cabinet in return for moderation.

Fourth and fifth cabinet.

The PNL retreated its backing after finding a more convenient option in a Take Ionescu-led cabinet, and Brătianu became Prime Minister again from January 17, 1922 to March 30, 1926. The fourth Brătianu cabinet adopted the Constitution of 1923, a document which confirmed universal male suffrage and minority rights as first defined by the laws of 1918; because of the highly centralised model it favored, it drew suspicion from the Transylvanian politicians that it served the goal of a National Liberal-dominated Old Kingdom (especially after the constitution was approved of through a simple vote in Parliament). At the same time, the PNL cabinet began carrying out a national-level land reform.  As the elections of 1926 confirmed the rise of the National Peasants' Party (created as the union of the Romanian National and Peasants' parties), King Ferdinand again called on Averescu to form the government. By that moment, the general was thought by the PNL to be a convenient agent of its own policies, but Averescu's negotiations for a return of the disinherited Prince Carol after his father's imminent death made Brătianu switch his support to a broad coalition government under Barbu Ştirbey.  On June 21, 1927, Brătianu returned with his fifth and final cabinet. He died in Bucharest, from complications of laryngitis, and was replaced as Prime Minister by his brother Vintilă Brătianu until the calling of elections.

Ion I. C. Brătianu (, also known as Ionel Brătianu; 20 August 1864 – 24 November 1927) was a Romanian politician, leader of the National Liberal Party (PNL), Prime Minister of Romania for five terms, and Foreign Minister on several occasions; he was the eldest son of statesman and PNL leader Ion Brătianu, the brother of Vintilă and Dinu Brătianu, and the father of Gheorghe I. Brătianu. Ion I. C. Brătianu's political activities after World War I, including part of his third and fourth term, saw the unification of the Old Romanian Kingdom with Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia ("see: Greater Romania"). In 1923, he was elected an honorary member of the Romanian Academy.


Terminology.

The term "Ethiopic Catholic Church", which was synonymous with "Ethiopian Catholic Church" until January 2015, when the Eritrean Catholic Church was established, can be applied to either church or to both jointly, since their liturgy is celebrated in the Ethiopic or Ge'ez language.

History.

The Portuguese voyages of discovery opened the way for direct contacts between the Catholic Church and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. In the 14th century, Catholic missionaries arrived in Ethiopia. On August 28, 1439, Pope Eugene IV sent a message of unity with the Catholic Church to Ethiopian Emperor Constantine I but this effort was unsuccessful.  With Islamic attacks up to 1531 threatening Christian Ethiopia, an appeal from the Emperor to the Portuguese brought support to defeat the Adal Sultanate in the Ethiopian–Adal War. Jesuit missionaries came with the Portuguese to Ethiopia. These missionaries focused their conversion activities with the country's governing class including the Emperor to have the Ethiopian Orthodox Church unite with the Catholic Church. The Emperor Susenyos was converted primarily by Father Pedro Páez. In 1622, Susenyos made Catholicism the state religion. The next year, Pope Gregory XV named Afonso Mendes, a Portuguese Jesuit, Patriarch of the Ethiopian Church. A formal union in 1626 was declared when Patriarch Mendes came to the country. With Mendes trying to Latinize the Ethiopian church, Susenyos used force to impose the latinization. Public backlash resulted. In 1632, Susenyos died. His successor Fasilides in 1636 removed Mendes from the country, ended the union with Rome and removed or killed the remaining missionaries. For the next 200 years, Ethiopia was closed to Catholic Missions.  In 1839, Italian Lazarists and Capuchins resumed, albeit within certain limitations imposed due to strong public opposition. That same year, Justin de Jacobis was appointed first Prefect Apostolic of Abyssinia and entrusted with the foundation of Catholic missions in that country. After laboring with great success in Abyssinia for eight years, he was appointed titular Bishop of Nilopolis in 1847, and shortly afterwards Vicar Apostolic of Abyssinia, but he refused the episcopal dignity until it was finally forced upon him in 1849.  In 1919, the Pontifical Ethiopian College was founded within the Vatican walls by Pope Benedict XV with St. Stephen's Church, behind St. Peter's Basilica, as the designated church for the College.  The Latin Church had become established in the south of Ethiopia in areas that had not been Christian and that were incorporated into the modern country only at the end of the 19th century. The Italian occupation of Ethiopia in 1936 gave rise to an increase in the number of Latin-Church jurisdictions, but the expulsion of foreign missionaries at the end of the Second World War meant that the Ethiopic Rite clergy had to take responsibility for areas thus denuded of Catholic clergy. Accordingly, in 1951, the Ethiopic Rite Apostolic Exarchate of Addis Ababa was established, and the ordinariate for Eritrea was elevated to the rank of exarchate. Ten years later, on February 20, 1961, an Ethiopic ecclesiastical province was established, with Addis Ababa as the Metropolitan See and Asmara (in Eritrea) and Adigrat (in Ethiopia) as suffragan eparchies. In 1995, two new eparchies, Barentu and Keren, were established in Eritrea, and the Latin-Church apostolic vicariate was abolished. Eritrea thus became the only country where all Catholics, whatever Church of their canonical ascription, belong to an Eastern Catholic jurisdiction. In 2003, one more eparchy was created in Endibir in the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples' Region of Ethiopia.  In January 2015 Pope Francis established the Eritrean Catholic Church as a "sui iuris" Eastern Catholic Church, thus granting it autonomy from the Ethiopian Catholic Church.  There are also Latin Church jurisdictions in the south of Ethiopia, none of them raised to the rank of diocese. Eight are apostolic vicariates and one is an apostolic prefecture.

Eparchies.

There are four eparchies (bishoprics) in the country:

Differences between the Catholic and Orthodox Ethiopian Churches.

Doctrinal distinctions between the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and the Catholic Ethiopian Churches include recognition of the fifth-century Council of Chalcedon. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church has a broader canon of Scripture than the Catholic Church. The order of the diaconate is reserved for adult men in the Catholic Church, but boys are commonly ordained as deacons in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Ethiopian Catholic clergy also tend to dress in the Roman cassock and collar, distinct from the Ethiopian Orthodox custom.

The Ethiopian Catholic Church is a Metropolitan "sui iuris" Eastern particular church within the Catholic Church, established in 1930 in Ethiopia.


Biography.

Sadeh was born as Izaak Landoberg to a Polish Jewish family in Lublin, in the Russian Partition of the Russian Empire (now in Poland). His mother, Rebecca, was the daughter of rabbi Shneur Zalman Fradkin. In his youth, he studied with rabbi Hillel Zeitlin. Sadeh was married three times. His third wife, Margot Meier-Sadeh, died of cancer a year before him. He had two daughters, Daphne and Rivka, and a son, Yoram.  Sadeh died in Tel Aviv in August 1952. By then, he had become a charismatic and colorful figure, whose nickname in the Palmach was "HaZaken" (The Old Man). He is buried at Kibbutz Givat Brenner.

Military career.

When World War I broke out, he joined the Imperial Russian Army. He saw action and was decorated for bravery. In 1917, he met Joseph Trumpeldor, and between 1917 and 1919, assisted him in the founding of HeHalutz ("The Pioneer") movement. In 1920, Sadeh made "aliyah" to Eretz Israel, where he became one of founders and leaders of Gdud HaAvoda ("The Work Battalion").  In 1921, Sadeh was a Haganah (Defense) commander in Jerusalem. During the 1929 riots he took part in the battle defending Haifa. When the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine began, Sadeh established the Nodedet ("Wandering Troop" or "Patrol Unit") in Jerusalem, that confronted the Arabs in their villages and bases. He demanded that his troops "leave the defences" and initiate military operations.  In the summer of 1937, as commander of the Jewish Settlement Police, he founded the FOSH (Hebrew abbreviation, FO'SH, for "Plugot Sadeh", lit. Field Companies), the commando arm of the Haganah. It was an elite Jewish strike force, whose members were hand-picked by Sadeh.  Sadeh commanded the establishment of Kibbutz Hanita on an isolated hill on the southern border of Lebanon. In 1941, he was instrumental in the founding of the Palmach (acronym for "Plugot Mahatz", lit. Striking Companies), the Haganah's enlisted military forces of volunteers). The purpose of this clandestine elite unit was to prepare to undertake a guerilla war in the event of the Axis forces entering Palestine. During the 200 days of dread, Sadeh worked on the Carmel Plan, which was a detailed strategy to withdraw the entire Jewish community in Palestine to Mount Carmel, forming a large enclave to withstand the invaders.  He was Commander of the Palmach until 1945, when he was appointed as the Haganah's Chief of the General Staff and, among other activities, was in charge of the movement's operations against the British Forces during the British Mandate of Palestine and in operations that brought clandestine Jewish immigrants to Israel. He was also instrumental in founding the Gadna in 1941, and became the program's first unofficial commander.

War of Independence.

At the beginning of 1948, Yitzhak Sadeh was in commanded of Haganah training camp at Mishmar HaEmek. In early April he successfully defended the kibbutz against a full-scale attack by the Arab Liberation Army. In the counter-attack that followed his troops conquered a large section of the Jezreel Valley. At the end of April he commanded two Brigades in a series of attacks on strategic areas in and around Jerusalem, Operation Yevusi.  During the truce in June he was responsible for the establishing the first armored brigade of the IDF. In July this Brigade played an important part in Operation Danny, capturing Lod airport, and in October, Operation Yoav, the taking of the Iraq Suwaydan fortress blocking the road to the Negev. In December 1948 he participated in Operation Horev in the Negev, when the forces under his command crossed the Egyptian border and threatened El-Arish as well as the Egyptian army in the Gaza Strip.

Literary career.

When the War of Independence ended and the Palmach was dismantled in 1949, Sadeh left military service. He wrote essays, stories and plays. The book "Misaviv Lamedura" (Around the Bonfire) includes a collection of articles he wrote under the pen name Y. Noded (Y. Wanderer).

Sports activism.

Sadeh was a promoter and educator in the field of Jewish sport. When in Russia, he participated in wrestling meets and became the wrestling champion of St. Petersburg. As an active sportsperson, he recognized physical education as having important cultural and educational values. As a member of the Hapoel (The Worker) board, he set policies and established guidelines and created the Hapoel motto, "Alafim lo Alufim" (Thousands not Champions). Today, thousands of sports people and soldiers take part in the Mount Tavor Race, devoted to the Sadeh's ideals.

Yitzhak Sadeh (, born Izaak Landoberg, August 10, 1890 – August 20, 1952), was the commander of the Palmach and one of the founders of the Israel Defense Forces at the time of the establishment of the State of Israel.


Participation.

The event was open to all members of the World Organization of the Scout Movement (WOSM) who were between the ages of 14 and 17 at the start of the Jamboree on July 27, 2007. Members of the World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts (WAGGGS) may have participated if the respective national WOSM member organization agreed. People who wished to attend must have been selected by their respective Scouting associations.  Adults were able to participate in support roles as members of the International Service Team, National Contingent Support Teams, Troop Leaders, National Representatives, Off-Site Program Workers, or members of the Build Team.  Day visitors of all ages were also welcomed to the event. However, the dates and the areas on which day visitors were able to visit were restricted to maintain park capacity limits.  The event was the second largest ever Jamboree held with 38,074 participants and IST attending, but with more countries than ever before., and more than 42,000 day visitors. The 3rd 'Coming of Age' Jamboree in 1929 was the largest held, with 50,000 participants.

Theme.

Each Jamboree has a theme, and the 2007 Jamboree's is ""One World, One Promise"". This motto is incorporated on the Centenary badge and is available in the local language of all Scouting organisations who are members of the World Organization of the Scout Movement. This motto is also included in the lyrics of the Jambo Song

Attractions.

Key attractions, events and facilitions included:

Subcamps.

Each hub contained four subcamps each consisting of 2,000 Scouts with its own programme of activities. Within the subcamps each troop had 36 participants. The four hubs were:  The adult-only hub for IST members and other adults not affiliated with a Sub-camp or participant unit and has own programme of activities at first time:

Preparations.

Preparations for the event have included a smaller scale Jamboree, EuroJam 2005, where 12,000 Scouts, from across Europe, camped in the same location. This dry run allowed the planners of the Jamboree to test a number of aspects of the event, including the control of the massive influx of the contingents into the area. The food and supplies for the EuroJam event also set a world record for the largest single internet order to a supermarket, with deliveries being made in large articulated trucks.  Scouts Shops Ltd, responsible for sourcing much of the equipment for the 21st World Jamboree, reported that the cost of steel on the world market increased as a result of the Jamboree placing its order.

International Service Team.

The International Service Team (IST) were Scouts aged 18 and above who help to build large-scale Scouting events, the most notable being World Scout Jamborees. They arrived one week before the beginning of the actual event for preparation.  There were over 8,600 members of the IST at the 21st World Scout Jamboree, and they helped to build, run, take down and maintain the events, activities and services on the Jamboree site. The IST were split into two main sections, with four sub-sections, depending on their interests and qualifications:  Including water, gas and electricity, the IST built and maintained the fifth largest city in Essex from a park in under a month.

UK Contingent Pre-Event Party.

The entire UK contingent arrived one day before the rest of the world, and had a party on the Tropical Hub stage with performances from Liberty X and Lemar, along with Radio 1 DJ Jason King and CBBC TV presenter Anne Foy. Peter Duncan, UK Chief Scout, was also on the stage.

Controversy.

After the Jamboree closed, it was revealed that thirteen Scouts had been reported missing to the British Police. All the organisations involved maintain there has been no crime committed, as all the Scouts had visas, and were only concerned for the Scouts' safety.  Concerns were raised by local people in Chelmsford after Hylands Park hosted the Jamboree and V Festival 2007 just a week apart, causing disruption to local roads and exacerbating the negative effects on the park found after hosting the annual music festival.

The 21st World Scout Jamboree was held in July and August 2007, and formed a part of the Scouting 2007 Centenary celebrations of the world Scout Movement. The event was hosted by the United Kingdom, as 2007 marked the 100th anniversary of the founding of Scouting on Brownsea Island.


Development.

The "Cleveland"-class was a development of the preceding. The ships were designed with the goal of increased cruising range, anti-aircraft armament, torpedo protection, etc., compared with earlier U.S. cruisers.  After the London Naval Treaty of 1930 passed, the US Navy took up a renewed interest in the 6" gun armed light cruiser, partially due to the fleet complaining bitterly about the 8" gun's slow rate of fire, at 3 rounds per minute compared to the 10 rounds per minute achieved by 6" guns. At this time, the US Navy began to deploy drones to use as targets for anti-aircraft targets, which could simulate both dive and torpedo bombers. The results were dismaying to the fleet, as the simulations showed that without fire control directors and computers, the ships of the fleet would be almost helpless against the density of aircraft attack they envisioned the future war bringing. The mechanical computers alone could weigh up to 10 tons and had to be housed below decks for both weight and protection measures. As World War II was to prove, the assumptions made pre-war were optimistic. Eventually, every anti-aircraft gun platform above 20mm would end up moving to remote power and aiming with associated fire control and radar. As designed the "Cleveland" class was already a tight design but requests to widen the ship were turned down because it would affect production rates. In order to fit the new heavier fire control and radar systems within the allotted tonnage for a cruiser, the No. 3 gun turret was omitted. This also gave room for the enlargement of the bridge spaces to accommodate the new combat information center and the necessary radars, along with enough tonnage to fit an additional pair of 5"/38 twin mounts, which were located fore and aft of the superstructure, granting wider arcs of fire. Despite the loss of three 6-inch guns compared to the proceeding "Brooklyn" and "St. Louis"-class cruisers, the new, more advanced fire control gave the "Cleveland"-class ships a firepower advantage in practical use. However, the increase of light anti-aircraft artillery made the class top-heavy towards the end of World War II. To compensate for the weight increase, some ships had one catapult removed, along with the rangefinders from the No. 1 turret. The top weight issues would plague the class with every addition of equipment having to be carefully weighed against what would have to be removed. Fighter control radar installation required the removal of 20mm clipping rooms for instance.

Subclasses.

Fifty-two ships of this class were originally planned, but nine of them were completed as the light aircraft carriers of the, and two of them were completed to a somewhat different design, with more compact superstructures and just a single stack. These two were called the. Of the 27 "Cleveland"-class cruisers that were commissioned, one () was completed as a guided missile cruiser and five were later modified as and guided missile cruisers. Two of each of the guided missile cruiser-classes had enlarged superstructures to serve as flagships. Following the naming convention at the time, all the ships completed as cruisers were named for US cities and towns.

Service.

The "Cleveland"-class cruisers served mainly in the Pacific Fleet during World War II, especially in the Fast Carrier Task Force, but some of them served off the coasts of Europe and Africa in the U.S. Atlantic Fleet. All of these warships, though worked heavily and damaged in some cases, survived the war. All of this class were initially decommissioned by 1950, except for, which remained in service until 1956, but six were later finished or converted to guided missile cruisers, and these served into the 1970s. The "Cleveland"s suffered from increasing stability problems as anti-aircraft armament and additional radar was added during the war. None were recommissioned for the Korean War, as they required a crew almost as large as the ships, and those ships were reactivated instead. All non-converted ships were sold off from the reserve fleet for scrapping beginning in 1959. The six that were completed as or converted into guided missile cruisers were reactivated during the 1950s and then served into the 1970s. All, particularly the Talos-armed ships, suffered from greater stability problems than the original design due to the extra radar equipment and top weight. This problem was particularly severe in "Galveston", leading to its premature decommissioning in 1970. and had to have a large amount of ballast and internal rearrangement to allow continued service into the 1970s. The last of these missile ships in service, "Oklahoma City", was decommissioned in December 1979.

Preserved ships.

Only one "Cleveland"-class ship remains. The, refit in 1960 and re-designated as "Galveston"-class guided missile light cruiser CLG-4 (later CG-4), is now a museum ship at the Buffalo and Erie County Naval & Military Park in Buffalo, New York, alongside the, and the,.

The "Cleveland" class was a group of light cruisers built for the U.S. Navy during World War II, and were the most numerous class of light cruisers ever built.


Etymology.

The name "balisong" is derived from barangay (village) Balisong, part of the municipality of Taal, Batangas province, which along with the neighboring barangay Pandayan, were the original manufacturing centers of the knives in the Philippines. The two barangays were home to a blacksmith industry that also produced other bladed implements such as bolo knives. It is also claimed that the meaning of the term "balisong" is derived from the Tagalog words "baling sungay" (literally, "broken/folding horn") as the hilt of the blade were traditionally made from carved carabao and deer horn, as well as bones. The traditional balisong is also known as "veinte y nueve," or "twenty-nine," in the Philippines, because they are long when opened. Other names for the knives in English include "fan knives" and "butterfly knives" from the motion, and "click clacks" from the sound they make when they are opened and closed.

History.

The origin of the knives is unclear. Oral histories claim that the knives were first created in the Philippines in 800 AD. However, there is no documentation or archeological evidence to back this. Balisong mass production in the Philippines can only be attested to the early 1900s. Another claim is that balisong were originally an adaptation of a French measuring tool called the "pied du roi" ("foot of the king"), invented between the 1500s to the late 1700s. However, how it was introduced to the Philippines is unknown. There are theories that it may have been introduced by sailors in the Spanish Empire, which was then allied to France.  Regardless of the origin, the modern balisong was perfected in the Philippines, where it became much larger and were predominantly used as a weapon and not just a tool. The quick opening techniques ("flipping") were also developed in the Philippines. In contrast, the French "pied du roi" was primarily a folding ruler, with the knife only included in some specimens as a novelty. They were cumbersome to open and unlikely to be used for self-defense, especially since they also commonly included a metal tang at a right angle from the end of the handle to aid in measuring. There were also very similar designs to the balisong produced in England in the late 19th century, presumably also derived from the "pied du roi". But like the latter they were primarily utilitarian tools.

Construction.

There are two main types of balisong construction: "sandwich construction" and "channel construction".  Sandwich constructed balisong knives are assembled in layers that are generally pinned or screwed together though may sometimes use a ball-bearing system. They allow the pivot pins to be adjusted more tightly without binding. When the knife is closed, the blade rests between the layers.  For a channel constructed balisong, the main part of each handle is formed from one piece of material. In this handle, a groove is created (either by folding, milling, or being integrally cast) in which the blade rests when the knife is closed. This style is regarded as being stronger than sandwich construction.  Some of the blades of traditional butterfly knives in the Philippines were made from steel taken from railroad tracks thus giving them a decent amount of durability and hardness, while others are made from the recycled leaf springs of vehicles.  Some balisongs, such as the Benchmade 51, do not use Tang Pins. Instead, it uses "Zen Pins", which are two small pins embedded in the handles of the balisong which make contact with the bottom of the blade. A balisong with zen pins negates the problem of having the tang pin fall out (as with some cheaper models).

Legal status.

The balisong has been outlawed in several countries.  Balisong trainers feature a special blunt and unsharpened "blade" and are legal in some areas where balisongs are not.

A balisong, also known as a fan knife, butterfly knife or Batangas knife, is a folding pocketknife from the Philippines. Its distinct features are two handles counter-rotating around the tang such that, when closed, the blade is concealed within grooves in the handles. A balisong typically has the latch on the handle facing the cutting edge, and is commonly called the "bite handle".


Early life.

Chawla was born on March 17, 1962, in Karnal, Haryana, India, but her official date of birth was altered to July 1, 1961, to allow her to become eligible for the matriculation exam. As a child, Kalpana was fascinated by aeroplanes and flying. She went to local flying clubs and watched planes with her father. Chawla said "Every once in a while we'd ask my dad if we could get a ride in one of these planes. And, he did take us to the flying club and we had a joyride in the Pushpak and a glider that the flying club had."  In 1976, Chawla graduated from the Tagore School, where she was a high-performing student. After getting a Bachelor of Engineering degree in Aeronautical Engineering from Punjab Engineering College, India, she moved to the United States in 1982 and obtained a Master of Science degree in Aerospace Engineering from the University of Texas at Arlington in 1984. Chawla went on to earn a second Masters in 1986 and a PhD in aerospace engineering in 1988 from the University of Colorado Boulder.

Career.

In 1988, she began working at NASA Ames Research Center, where she did computational fluid dynamics (CFD) research on vertical and/or short take-off and landing (V/STOL) concepts. Much of Chawla's research is included in technical journals and conference papers. In 1993, she joined Overset Methods, Inc. as Vice President and Research Scientist specializing in simulation of moving multiple body problems. Chawla held a Certificated Flight Instructor rating for airplanes, gliders and Commercial Pilot licenses for single and multi-engine airplanes, seaplanes and gliders. After becoming a naturalized U.S. citizen in April 1991, Chawla applied for the NASA Astronaut Corps. She joined the corps in March 1995 and was selected for her first flight in 1996.

First space mission.

Her first space mission began on November 19, 1997, as part of the six-astronaut crew that flew the Space Shuttle "Columbia" flight STS-87. Chawla was the first Indian woman to fly in space. She spoke the following words while traveling in the weightlessness of space, "You are just your intelligence." On her first mission, Chawla traveled over 10.4 million miles (16737177.6 km) in 252 orbits of the earth, logging more than 372 hours (15 days and 12 hours) in space. During STS-87, she was responsible for deploying the Spartan satellite which malfunctioned, necessitating a spacewalk by Winston Scott and Takao Doi to capture the satellite. A five-month NASA investigation fully exonerated Chawla by identifying errors in software interfaces and the defined procedures of flight crew and ground control. After the completion of STS-87 post-flight activities, Chawla was assigned to technical positions in the astronaut office to work on the space station.

Second space mission.

In 2001, Chawla was selected for her second flight as part of the crew of STS-107. This mission was repeatedly delayed due to scheduling conflicts and technical problems such as the July 2002 discovery of cracks in the shuttle engine flow liners. On January 16, 2003, Chawla finally returned to space aboard Space Shuttle "Columbia" on the ill-fated STS-107 mission. The crew performed nearly 80 experiments studying Earth and space science, advanced technology development, and astronaut health and safety. During the launch of STS-107, "Columbia"s 28th mission, a piece of foam insulation broke off from the Space Shuttle external tank and struck the left wing of the orbiter. Previous shuttle launches had seen minor damage from foam shedding, but some engineers suspected that the damage to "Columbia" was more serious. NASA managers limited the investigation, reasoning that the crew could not have fixed the problem if it had been confirmed. When "Columbia" re-entered the atmosphere of Earth, the damage allowed hot atmospheric gases to penetrate and destroy the internal wing structure, which caused the spacecraft to become unstable and break apart. After the disaster, Space Shuttle flight operations were suspended for more than two years, similar to the aftermath of the "Challenger" disaster. Construction of the International Space Station (ISS) was put on hold; the station relied entirely on the Russian Roscosmos State Corporation for resupply for 29 months until Shuttle flights resumed with STS-114 and 41 months for crew rotation.

Death.

Chawla died on February 1, 2003, in the Space Shuttle "Columbia" disaster, along with the other six crew members, when the "Columbia" disintegrated over Texas during re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere, shortly before it was scheduled to conclude its 28th mission, STS-107. Chawla's remains were identified along with those of the rest of the crew members and were cremated and scattered at Zion National Park in Utah in accordance with her wishes.

Personal life.

Chawla is survived by her husband.

Kalpana Chawla (March 17, 1962 – February 1, 2003) was an American astronaut, engineer, and the first woman of Indian origin to go to space. She first flew on Space Shuttle "Columbia" in 1997 as a mission specialist and primary robotic arm operator. In 2003, Chawla was one of the seven crew members who died in the Space Shuttle "Columbia" disaster when the spacecraft disintegrated during its re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere. Chawla was posthumously awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor, and several streets, universities and institutions have been named in her honor. She is regarded as a national hero in India.