Design and development.

The MB.130 was developed in response to the August 1933 French Aviation Ministry request for a reconnaissance and tactical bomber. It was an all-metal, twin-engine, low-wing monoplane with retractable landing gear, and armed with three flexible machine guns, one each in the nose, dorsal turret, and ventral gondola. It first flew on 29 June 1934, and despite very ordinary performance, soon entered production, 40 machines being ordered in October 1935. An improved version, the MB.131 was first flown on 16 August 1936, but still needed more work to overcome its deficiencies. The radically revised second prototype which flew on 5 May 1937 eventually formed the basis for series production, with aircraft being manufactured by SNCASO, the nationalised company that had absorbed Bloch and Blériot. Total production (including prototypes) was 143.

MB.135.

A four-engined derivative of the MB.134, was developed powered by four Gnome-Rhône 14M 14 cylinder radial engines, with an essentially similar airframe. The sole example flew for the first time on 12 January 1939.

Operational history.

Entering service in June 1938, the MB.131 went on to equip seven reconnaissance "Groupes", six in metropolitan France and one in North Africa. Upon the outbreak of the war, the metropolitan "Groupes" suffered heavy losses in attempts at daylight reconnaissance of Germany's western borders. They were subsequently restricted to flying night missions, though they still suffered heavy losses even then. By May 1940, all metropolitan units had been converted to Potez 63.11 aircraft, with only the African groupe retaining them for front-line duty.  After the Battle of France, the planes left in Vichy possession were relegated to target towing duty. 21 planes were reported captured by the "Luftwaffe" in inoperable condition, but photographic evidence suggests at least a few flew for the Nazis.

The Bloch MB.130 and its derivatives were a series of French monoplane reconnaissance-bombers developed during the 1930s. They saw some limited action at the beginning of World War II but were obsolete by that time and suffered badly against the "Luftwaffe". After the fall of France, a few were pressed into "Luftwaffe" service.


Early life and education.

Fischer was born into a Jewish family in Mazabuka, Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia). When he was 13, his family moved to Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), where he became active in the Habonim Zionist youth movement. In 1960, he visited Israel as part of a winter program for youth leaders, and studied Hebrew at kibbutz Ma'agan Michael. He had originally planned to study at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, but went to the United Kingdom to study after receiving a scholarship from the London School of Economics, and obtained his B.Sc. and M.Sc. in economics from 1962–1966. Fischer then moved to the United States to study at MIT, and earned a Ph.D. in economics in 1969 with a thesis titled "Essays on assets and contingent commodities" written under the supervision of Franklin M. Fisher. He became an American citizen in 1976.

Academic career.

In the early 1970s, Fischer worked as an associate professor at the University of Chicago. He served as a professor at the MIT Department of Economics from 1977 to 1988.  In 1977, Fischer wrote the paper "Long-Term Contracts, Rational Expectations, and the Optimal Money Supply Rule" where he combined the idea of rational expectations argued by New classical economists like Robert Lucas with the idea that price stickiness still led to some degree of market shortcomings that an active monetary policy could help mitigate in times of economic downturns. The paper made Fischer a central figure in New Keynesian economics. Through this critique of new classical macroeconomics Fischer significantly contributed to clarifying the limits of the policy-ineffectiveness proposition.  He authored three popular economics textbooks, "Macroeconomics" (with Rüdiger Dornbusch and Richard Startz), "Lectures on Macroeconomics" (with Olivier Blanchard), and the introductory "Economics", with David Begg and Rüdiger Dornbusch. He was also Ben Bernanke's, Mario Draghi's and Greg Mankiw's Ph.D. thesis advisor.  In 2012, Fischer served as Humanitas Visiting Professor in Economic Thought at the University of Oxford.

Banking career.

From January 1988 to August 1990 he was Vice President, Development Economics and Chief Economist at the World Bank. He then became the First Deputy Managing Director of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), from September 1994 until the end of August 2001. By the end of 2001, Fischer had joined the influential Washington-based financial advisory body, the Group of Thirty. After leaving the IMF, he served as Vice Chairman of Citigroup, President of Citigroup International, and Head of the Public Sector Client Group. Fischer was an executive at Citigroup from February 2002 to April 2005, earning millions of dollars in salary and stock.

Central Banks.

Bank of Israel.

Fischer was appointed Governor of the Bank of Israel in January 2005 by the Israeli cabinet, after being recommended by Prime Minister Ariel Sharon and Finance Minister Benjamin Netanyahu. He took the position on May 1, 2005, replacing David Klein, who ended his term on January 16, 2005. Fischer became an Israeli citizen but did not renounce U.S. citizenship.  He had been involved in the past with the Bank of Israel, having served as an American government adviser to Israel's economic stabilization program in 1985. On May 2, 2010, Fischer was sworn in for a second term.  Under his management, in 2010, the Bank of Israel was ranked first among central banks for its efficient functioning, according to IMD's World Competitiveness Yearbook.  Fischer has earned plaudits across the board for his handling of the Israeli economy in the aftermath of the global financial crisis. In September 2009, the Bank of Israel was the first bank in the developed world to raise its interest rates.  In 2009, 2010, 2011 and 2012 Fischer received an "A" rating on the Central Banker Report Card published by "Global Finance" magazine.  In June 2011, Fischer applied for the post of IMF managing director to replace Dominique Strauss-Kahn, but was barred as the IMF stipulates that a new managing director must be no older than 65, and he was 67 at the time.  On June 30, 2013, Fischer stepped down as governor of the Bank of Israel midway through his second term, despite high popularity.

U.S. Federal Reserve.

American President Barack Obama nominated Fischer as vice chair of the Federal Reserve System, the United States' central bank, in January 2014. In nominating Fischer for the position, Obama stated he brought "decades of leadership and expertise from various roles, including serving at the International Monetary Fund and the Bank of Israel".  On May 21, 2014, the Senate confirmed Fischer's appointment to the Federal Reserve Board of Governors. In a separate vote on June 12, he was confirmed as the vice chair. Fischer succeeded Janet Yellen as vice chair; Yellen became chair of the Federal Reserve earlier in 2014. Fischer resigned for personal reasons in mid-October, 2017, 8 months before the June, 2018, expiry of his term as vice chair.

Recognition.

Fischer received an honorary doctorate from Hebrew University in 2006. In October 2010, Fischer was declared Central Bank Governor of the Year by "Euromoney" magazine.  He is a member of the Bilderberg Group and attended its conferences in 1996, 1998 and 1999. Apparently he also attended the Bilderberg conference in 2011 in St. Moritz, Switzerland. However, his name does not show up on the list of participants for the year 2011 as of March 2016. He is also a Distinguished Fellow in the Council on Foreign Relations (CFR). Fischer was named a Distinguished Fellow of the American Economic Association in 2013. He is also a member of the Inter-American Dialogue.

Personal life.

Fischer is married to Rhoda Fischer (née Keet), whom he met during his days in Habonim. The couple has three children. When they moved to Israel, Rhoda became honorary president of Aleh Negev, a rehabilitation village for the disabled.

Stanley Fischer (; born October 15, 1943) is an Israeli American economist and former vice chairman of the Federal Reserve. Born in Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia), he holds dual citizenship in Israel and the United States. He served as governor of the Bank of Israel from 2005 to 2013. He previously served as chief economist at the World Bank. On January 10, 2014, United States President Barack Obama nominated Fischer to be Vice-Chairman of the US Federal Reserve Board of Governors. On September 6, 2017, Stanley Fischer announced that he was resigning as Vice-Chairman for personal reasons effective October 13, 2017.


Life.

Sibylla was born in Bernburg in 1564. In 1577, her elder sister Anna Maria was relieved from her post as Imperial abbess of Gernrode and Frose in order to marry Joachim Frederick, eldest son and heir of the duke of Brieg; under pressure from her father, the Chapter elected Sibylla as her successor. Sibylla was confirmed in office by the emperor, Rudolph II. During her reign as abbess the only record of her activities comes from an abbey document in which she invests the widow of Stefan Molitor (the first Evangelical Superintendent of the abbey) with a piece of land.  In 1581, Sibylla was relieved of her post as abbess in order to marry Frederick, Count of Mömpelgard and heir apparent of the Duchy of Württemberg. The marriage was arranged by her stepmother, Eleonore of Württemberg. The wedding took place in Stuttgart on 22 May of that year. Her successor as abbess was her younger half-sister Agnes Hedwig (later the Duchess of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg).  Only sixteen years old at the time of her wedding, Sibylla bore her husband fifteen children during the first fifteen years of their marriage. However, she did not play a prominent role in court life or have any influence over her husband; marital fidelity was not compatible with his view of the prerogatives of an absolutist monarch. After the birth of their last child, the couple virtually lived apart. On his frequent travels to France, Italy, and England, Frederick did not take Sybilla with him. He succeeded his father's cousin Ludwig as Duke of Württemberg in 1593.  Sibylla was anxious to expand her knowledge of botany and chemistry. To veil her interest in the dubious discipline of alchemy, she explained her activity as gathering an herbal collection for the production of medicine for the poor. As scientific adviser, she appointed Helena Magenbuch, a daughter of Johann Magenbuch, the personal physician of Martin Luther and Emperor Charles V. Helena Magenbuch was awarded the title Pharmacist of the Württemberg court. From 1606/1607, Maria Andreae took over this post.  After the death of her husband in 1608, Sibylla withdrew to Leonberg, where she commissioned the architect Heinrich Schickhardt to develop Schloss Leonberg and create the famous "Pomeranzengarten" (Orange Garden) in Renaissance style. In 1609 Schickhardt built a lakeside house not far from Leonberg ("Seehaus Leonberg") that was used as a hunting lodge. Sibylla died in Leonberg 1614.

Sibylla of Anhalt (28 September 1564 – 26 October 1614) was an Ascanian princess of Anhalt who became Duchess of Württemberg by marriage to Duke Frederick I. She was the fourth (but third surviving) daughter of Joachim Ernest, Prince of Anhalt, by his first wife Agnes, daughter of Wolfgang I, Count of Barby-Mühlingen.


Early life.

Born at Redland near Bristol, Broughton was the eldest son of Sir Benjamin Hobhouse, 1st Baronet, and Charlotte, daughter of Samuel Cam. He was educated at Westminster School, and at Trinity College, Cambridge where he graduated in 1808. Broughton took the Hulsean prize in 1808 for his "Essay on the Origin and Intention of Sacrifices". At Cambridge he founded the "Whig Club," and the "Amicable Society".

Friendship with Lord Byron and mainland European journeys.

While at Cambridge Broughton became good friends with Lord Byron, who accompanied him on a tour in Spain, Greece and Turkey in 1809. Hobhouse was present at the Battle of Dresden in August 1813, and, following the Coalition armies into France, he saw Louis XVIII enter Paris in May 1814.  In 1815 Broughton was again in Paris after the return of Napoleon Bonaparte from Elba (see "Hundred Days"), and showed his dislike of the Bourbons and his sympathy with Bonaparte by writing in 1816 a pamphlet entitled "The substance of some letters written by an Englishman resident in Paris during the last reign of the emperor Napoleon". This caused some offence in England and more in France, and the French translation was seized by the government and both translator and printer were imprisoned.  A further period of travel with Byron followed, and at this time Hobhouse wrote some notes to the fourth canto of "Childe Harold". This canto was afterwards dedicated to him, and a revised edition of a part of his notes entitled "Historical illustrations of the fourth canto of "Childe Harold" containing dissertations on the ruins of Rome and an essay on Italian literature", was published in 1818. He shared Byron's enthusiasm for the liberation of Greece; after the poet's death in 1824 he proved his will, and superintended the arrangements for his funeral.

Parliament.

In February 1819 Hobhouse was the Radical candidate at a by-election for the representation of the City of Westminster, but he failed to secure election. He had already gained some popularity by writing in favour of reform, and in 1819 spoke the following words: "I am a man chosen for the people, by the people; and, if elected, I will do no other business than that of the people". In the same year (1819) he issued "A defence of the People in reply to Lord Erskine's "Two Defences of the Whigs,"" followed by "A trifling mistake in Thomas, Lord Erskine's recent preface". The House of Commons declared this latter pamphlet a breach of privilege; its author was arrested on 14 December 1819, and in spite of an appeal to the court of king's bench he remained in imprisoned in Newgate until the end of the following February. However this proceeding only increased his popularity, and at the general election of 1820 he was returned for Westminster.  In parliament Hobhouse proved a valuable recruit to the Reform party, and is credited with the invention of the phrase "His Majesty's (Loyal) Opposition" made in 1826 during a speech in the House of Commons.  Having succeeded his father as 2nd baronet in 1831, Hobhouse was appointed secretary at war in the Whig administration of Lord Grey in February 1832, and was made a Privy Councillor. He effected some reforms and economies during his tenure of this office (He was responsible for the passing of the Vestry Act 1831), but, unable to carry out all his wishes.  Hobhouse became Chief Secretary for Ireland in March 1833. He had only held this post for a few weeks when, in consequence of his refusal to vote with the government against the abolition of the Doors and Windows Tax, he resigned both his office and his seat in parliament. At the subsequent election he was defeated.  Hobhouse joined the cabinet as First Commissioner of Woods and Forests when Lord Melbourne became Prime Minister in July 1834, and about the same time Hobhouse was returned at a by-election as one of the members for Nottingham. In Melbourne's government of 1835 he was President of the Board of Control, in which position he strongly supported the Indian policy of Lord Auckland. He returned to the same office in July 1846 as a member of Lord John Russell's cabinet.  In February 1851 Hobhouse went to the House of Lords as Baron Broughton, of Broughton-de-Gyfford in the County of Wiltshire. He left office when Russell resigned in February 1852.

Later life.

In 1852 Hobhouse was also made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB), and took little part in political life, being mainly occupied in literary pursuits and in correspondence. Lord Broughton was a partner in Whitbread's brewery, a fellow of the Royal Society, and one of the founders of the Royal Geographical Society. In the opinion of the author of his biography in the Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911) he was a good classical scholar, and although not eloquent, an able debater.

Family.

Lord Broughton married Lady Julia, daughter of George Hay, 7th Marquess of Tweeddale, in 1828. They had three daughters. Lady Julia died of tuberculosis in April 1835.  Hobhouse died in London on 3 June 1869, and being without heir male the barony lapsed on his death, the baronetcy passing to his nephew, Charles Parry Hobhouse.

Works.

Hobhouse edited and published:  Hobhouse wrote and published:  For private circulation, and he left (in manuscript) Diaries, Correspondence, and Memoranda, etc., not to be opened till 1900, extracts from which were published by his daughter, Lady Dorchester, also under the title of.  A collection of Hobhouse's diaries, correspondence and memoranda is in the British Museum.

References.

Attribution:

John Cam Hobhouse, 1st Baron Broughton, (27 June 1786 – 3 June 1869), known as Sir John Hobhouse, Bt, from 1831 to 1851, was an English politician and diarist.


Overview.

A video projector, also known as a digital projector, may project onto a traditional reflective projection screen, or it may be built into a cabinet with a translucent rear-projection screen to form a single unified display device.  Common display resolutions include SVGA (800×600 pixels), XGA (1024×768 pixels), SXGA+ (1400x1050 pixels), 720p (1280×720 pixels), and 1080p (1920×1080 pixels), 4K UHD (3840x2160), as well as 16:10 aspect ratio resolutions including WXGA+ (1280x800 pixels) and WUXGA (1920x1200 pixels)  The cost of a projector is typically driven by its base technology, features, resolution, and light output. A projector with a higher light output (measured in lumens, “lm”) is required for a larger screen or for a room with a larger amount of ambient light. For example, a light output of approximately 1500 to 2500 ANSI lumens is suitable for small screens viewed in rooms with low ambient light; approximately 2500 to 4000 lm is suitable for medium-sized screens with some ambient light; over 4000 lm is needed for very large screens or for use in rooms with no lighting control such as conference rooms. High brightness large-venue models are increasingly common in Boardrooms, Auditoriums and other high profile spaces, and models up to 30,000 lm are used in large staging applications such as concerts, keynote addresses and displays projected on buildings.  A few camcorders have a built-in projector suitable to make a small projection; a few more powerful "pico projectors" are pocket-sized, and many projectors are portable.

Do-it-yourself video projectors.

Some hobbyists build a do-it-yourself (DIY) projector for low cost. They build their projectors from kits, sourced components, or from scratch, using a television set as a light source. Through the internet, they obtain plans to construct them for domestic and classroom use.

A video projector is an image projector that receives a video signal and projects the corresponding image on a projection screen using a lens system. Video projectors use a very bright ultra high pressure mercury lamp, Xenon arc lamp, LED or solid state blue, RB, RGB or remote fiber optic RGB lasers to provide the illumination required to project the image, and most modern ones can correct any curves, blurriness, and other inconsistencies through manual settings. If a blue laser is used, a phosphor wheel is used to turn blue light into white light, which is also the case with white LEDs. (White LEDs do not use lasers.) A wheel is used in order to prolong the lifespan of the phosphor, as it is degraded by the heat generated by the laser diode. Remote fiber optic RGB laser racks can be placed far away from the projector, and several racks can be housed in a single, central room. Each projector can use up to 2 racks, and several monochrome lasers are mounted on each rack, the light of which is mixed and transmitted to the projector booth using optical fibers. Projectors using RB lasers use a blue laser with a phosphor wheel in conjuntion with a conventional solid state red laser.


Concentration camp career.

In the autumn of 1941, Krebsbach became Standortarzt (garrison doctor) of Mauthausen concentration camp, tasked with supervising medical care and all medical personnel of the camp. He was responsible for initiating mass killing by lethal injection to the heart on handicapped and sick prisoners. Under his supervision approximately 900 Russian, Polish and Czech prisoners were murdered by lethal injections of gasoline. Because of this inmates nicknamed him 'Dr Spritzbach' (Dr Injection). Krebsbach was also responsible for the construction of a gas chamber in the basement of the hospital in the Mauthausen camp.  Krebsbach often inspected the prisoners and conducted selections for execution. A former inmate recalled Krebsbach's actions during such an inspection: "As the senior SS doctor in the camp, Dr Krebsbach sometimes came to block 5 and had the still surviving Jews paraded before him. He then asked if any of them were doctors. If there were, he would say: 'You Jewish pig, you’re just an abortionist.' The next day they were done away with by the kapos. If a Jewish inmate was lying on the floor with a broken limb - a not uncommon occurrence at work - he was usually thrown over a wall by a kapo. If Dr Krebsbach were passing, he would say ironically: 'Yes, this broken foot is a hopeless case.'"  Josef Herzler, former Mauthausen inmate (AMM V/3/22).  Krebsbach was transferred to the Kaiserwald concentration camp in Latvia during the autumn of 1943, as it is believed he shot Josef Breitenfellner in his home. Breitenfellner was a German soldier from Langenstein on vacation when he and his friends awoke Krebsbach from his sleep on 22 May 1943. Here he conducted selections by forcing the prisoners to perform physical exercises to check their strength and then identifying the two thousand weakest to be killed.  Following the camp's closure, Krebsbach resumed a career as “Epidemic Inspector for Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania”. Soon after he transferred to the regular army as a senior staff doctor, serving until late 1944. However this was short lived and at the end of 1944 he left the army and worked once again as a company doctor in a spinning mill in Kassel.

Dachau War Crime Trial.

Following the end of World War II he was arrested and given the death penalty during the Dachau trials conducted by the US military on 13 May 1946 and was executed by hanging on 28 May 1947 at Landsberg Prison in Landsberg am Lech.  The following is from the court record of the Dachau trials (quoted in Hans Maršálek, "Die Geschichte des Konzentrationslagers Mauthausen", p. 174):

Eduard Krebsbach (8 August 1894 – 28 May 1947) was a former German physician and SS doctor in the Nazi concentration camp in Mauthausen from July 1941 to August 1943. He was executed for crimes against humanity committed at the Mauthausen camp.


History.

Service.

SMS "Novara" was a frigate that circumnavigated the earth in the course of the Austrian Imperial expedition of 1857–1859, during the reign of ("Kaiser") Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria. It was a sailing ship with three masts of sails and six decks, outfitted with 42 cannons, and had a water displacement of nearly 2,107 tons.  Between 1843 and 1899 SMS "Novara" had several different names and configurations: originally named "Minerva" when the lengthy construction started in Venice during 1843, the partially completed frigate was renamed "Italia" by Venetian revolutionaries in 1848, finally launched with the name "Novara" in 1850, and converted to a steam cruiser during 1861–1865.  The name "Novara" originated with the Battle of Novara in March 1849: following the Austrians' retaking of Venice in August 1849, Field Marshal Radetzky visited the shipyard there, and the officers petitioned him to have the nearly-completed "Italia" renamed in honour of his victory over King Charles Albert at the Italian town of Novara. The ship was subsequently christened "Novara" in 1849, and construction restarted in earnest under Austrian supervision. The hull left the slipway the following year, in November 1850.  The circumnavigation of the earth from April 1857 through August 1859 by "Novara" was one of the most important journeys for what became the "Naturhistorisches Museum" in Vienna. A number of eminent natural scientists joined the voyage, including Georg Ritter von Frauenfeld, curator in the invertebrate department of the Imperial museums. The material collected during the expedition was voluminous and prominent scientists continue to examine and write it to the present day; (see details below).

"Novara" expedition.

The "Novara" expedition of 1857–1859 was the first large-scale scientific, around-the-world mission of the Austrian Imperial navy. Authorized by Archduke Maximillian, the journey lasted 2 years 3 months, from 30 April 1857 until 30 August 1859.  The expedition was accomplished by the frigate "Novara", under the command of Kommodore Bernhard von Wüllerstorf-Urbair, with 345 officers and crew, plus seven (7) scientists aboard. Preparation for the research journey was made by the "Imperial Academy of Sciences in Vienna" and by specialized scholars under direction of the geologist Ferdinand von Hochstetter and the zoologist Georg von Frauenfeld. The first coca plant (cocaine) investigations, in particular on St. Paul Island, the Nicobar Islands, and on New Zealand (first geological mapping by Hochstetter), created the bases for future geological research. The oceanographic research, in particular in the South Pacific, revolutionized oceanography and hydrography.  The collections of botanical, zoological (26,000 preparations), and cultural material brought back enriched the Austrian museums (especially the natural-history museum). They were also studied by Johann Natterer, a scientist who collected Vienna museum specimens during 18 years in South America. The geomagnetic observations made throughout the whole expedition significantly increased the scientific knowledge in this field. Finally, the expedition's introduction of coca plant leaves made it possible to isolate cocaine in its pure form for the first time in 1860.  The results of the research journey were compiled into a 21-binder report of the Viennese Academy of Sciences, titled ""Reise der österreichischen Fregatte Novara um die Erde (1861–1876)"" ("journey of the Austrian frigate Novara around the earth"). Also published were many woodcuts under the same title. An account of the voyage was also published in English, in 3 volumes, by Karl Scherzer. (See § Legacy.)  The Novara-Expedition report included a drawing of the frigate SMS "Novara" surrounded by an oval border with the names of locations visited: Gibraltar, Madeira, Rio de Janeiro, Cape Town, St. Paul island, Ceylon, Madras, Nicobar Islands, Singapore, Batavia, Manila, Hong Kong, Shanghai, Puynipet Island, Stewart Island or Stuart Island (16-17 October 1858), Sydney (5 November 1858), Auckland, Tahiti, Valparaíso, Gravosa, and Triest (returning on 26 August 1859).

Voyages with Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian.

In April 1864, SMS "Novara" had the important task of carrying Archduke Maximilian and his wife Charlotte to Veracruz, in the Americas, for their establishment as the new Emperor and Empress of Mexico during the Second Mexican Empire. "Novara" arrived at Veracruz, Mexico on 28 May 1864.  Over 3 years later, upon the capture and execution of Maximilian I of Mexico, by the constitutional Mexican government (of Benito Juárez), Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff was sent with "Novara" to bring Maximilian's body home to Austria, arriving in the port of Trieste on 16 January 1868.

Battle of Lissa.

SMS "Novara" saw active service during the Battle of Lissa which took place on 20 July 1866 in the Adriatic Sea near the island of Vis (Italian: Lissa). SMS "Novara" belonged to Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff's 2nd Division, commanded by Baron Anton von Petz, which consisted mainly of wooden steam warships. "'Novara"s commander, Erik af Klint, was killed in the engagement. The battle was a decisive victory for an outnumbered Austrian Empire force over a superior Italian force. It was the first major sea battle between ironclads and one of the last to involve deliberate ramming.

Legacy.

SMS "Novara" has left such a legacy behind that a depiction of her was selected for a commemorative coin: the 20 euro S.M.S. Novara coin minted on 16 June 2004. The obverse shows the frigate SMS "Novara" under sail during her circumnavigation of the globe in 1857-1859. "Novara" was the first Austrian ship in the Austro-Hungarian Navy to circumnavigate the world. In the background, there is a representation of the Chinese coast. Seagulls, showing the nearness to land, circle the ship.  Approximately 30,000 copies of Karl von Scherzer's book on the circumnavigation of the world of the frigate "Novara" were sold, a huge number in that era. It is considered the second most successful popular scientific work in the German language in the 19th century; second only to Alexander von Humboldt's 5-volume Cosmography. An English edition was published shortly after, printed by Saunders, Otley and Co. in London in three volumes 1861-1863, containing more than 1200 pages. The complete title of the book is: Karl von Scherzer: "Narrative of the Circumnavigation of the Globe by the Austrian Frigate "Novara" (B. von Wullersdorf-Urbair,) Undertaken by Order of the Imperial Government, Under the Immediate Auspices of His I. and R. Highness the Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, Commander in-Chief of the Austrian Navy."

SMS "Novara" was a sail frigate of the Austro-Hungarian Navy most noted for sailing the globe for the Novara Expedition of 1857–1859 and, later for carrying Archduke Maximilian and wife Carlota to Veracruz in May 1864 to become Emperor and Empress of Mexico.


Early life.

Gontier was born in Peterborough, Ontario, Canada on May 25, 1978. He was raised in Markham, Ontario. Shortly after his parents divorced, he moved back to the Peterborough area, where he initially attended Adam Scott Collegiate and Vocational Institute. In 1992, he moved to the Norwood area, and attended Norwood District High School, where he met and befriended Three Days Grace members Neil Sanderson and Brad Walst.

Notable works and collaborations.

Outside of Three Days Grace, Gontier has also written and collaborated with numerous writers, musicians and bands. Some of his collaborations include Daughtry, Ian Thornley, Max Martin, Shaun Morgan, Ben Burnley, Art of Dying, Before the Curtain, and fellow musician and long time friends Kevin Brown, Grainne Ryan, and Kim Brown.  He has also contributed to a number of other albums. He contributed vocals and musical arrangement on "I Don't Care" on Apocalyptica's album, "Worlds Collide" in 2007.  Gontier was also featured on the track "Raining" by fellow Canadian band Art of Dying on their album "Vices and Virtues". His cousin, Cale Gontier, is the bass player for Art of Dying.  In 2006, Gontier was a member of the rock supergroup Big Dirty Band along with Geddy Lee, Alex Lifeson, Jeff Burrows, Ian Thornley and Care Failure, covering "I Fought the Law", as part of the "Trailer Park Boys" movie soundtrack.  In 2009, Adam Gontier worked with Daughtry on their second studio album "Leave This Town". The song, "Back Again", did not make the final cut. The song was featured on the physical copy of Daughtry's "" EP.  In 2011, Gontier created the record label, Sludge Factory Records, and has signed three acts, one of which is fellow Peterborough band, Before the Curtain.  On January 9, 2013, Gontier resigned from Three Days Grace. He left as the band was about to embark on a co-headlining tour. Matt Walst from My Darkest Days, and brother of bassist Brad Walst, became the new official singer. , Gontier is working with Staind guitarist Mike Mushok on a supergroup called Saint Asonia. The band released their self-titled, debut album on July 31, 2015.

Solo career.

Gontier joined singer and songwriter Martin Sexton on the road during his 2012 "Fall Like Rain" tour, providing opening support as a solo artist. He also joined Citizen Cope for a few shows as a solo act.  Gontier continued to do shows and concerts as a solo artist. Several songs have been released, but not as singles, such as "It's All in Your Hands", "Take Me With You", "Too Drunk to Drive" (written by Casey Marshall), "Until the End", "No Regrets", "A Beast in Me (Over and Over It Turns on Me)", and "We Will Never Forget". Gontier had previously performed solo songs like "I Will Stay", "Try to Catch Up With the World", and "Lost Your Shot" in 2011 and 2012.  In early March 2013, Gontier publicly announced and launched his Adam Gontier Solo Live Tour.  On May 11, 2013, Gontier released an official acoustic version and video of the song "Give Me a Reason" from "Transit of Venus".

Awards.

Gontier has won two BMI pop awards as well as "Billboard"s "Rock Single of the Year". Michael Bell handed him the "Big Time Award", at the 2012 "Wire Awards".

Personal life.

Gontier married Naomi Faith Brewer in 2004. The couple divorced in 2013. He married Jeanie Marie Larsen in March 2015.  In 2005, he went into rehabilitation at the CAMH (Centre for Addiction and Mental Health) in Toronto, where he wrote many of the songs for "One-X", including "Never Too Late", which was co-written by Adam's ex-wife, Naomi Faith Brewer. Both Gontier and Brewer wrote the video for the song, and she also appears in the video. While in CAMH in Toronto, Gontier wrote "Pain", "Animal I Have Become", "Get Out Alive", "Over and Over", and "Gone Forever". A docu-drama about his addiction, "Behind the Pain", was released in 2007.

Discography.

with Three Days Grace  with Saint Asonia

Adam Wade Gontier (born May 25, 1978) is a Canadian singer, songwriter and musician. He is the lead singer, rhythm guitarist, and main songwriter for Saint Asonia, but is best known as the former lead singer and rhythm guitarist of the Canadian rock band Three Days Grace. Gontier left Three Days Grace on January 9, 2013. In addition to his work with Three Days Grace, he has been involved in collaborations with other bands including Art of Dying and Apocalyptica.


Synopsis.

Act I.

At dawn on the beach; Zizel has to be bribed to stop him arresting some of the fishermen. A few months before the action starts, Zéphoris, a young fisherman in Goa, had rescued a young woman from drowning, recovering the ring which she lost. Zéphoris recounts the story to his sister Zélide and his friend Piféar; when King Moussol and his court pass, Zéphoris recognises the beautiful woman as a princess in the retinue : Néméa. Prince Kadoor notices Zéphoris and forces him not to reveal to Néméa the secret of her ring and saviour. After Kadoor has convinced the king that he saved the princess (as she has sworn to wed the man who saved her - although she dislikes Kadoor), he demands that Zéphoris leave the village. Zéphoris is heartbroken, and lies down and dreams that he may become a king - rather than a poor fisherman - so that he could be worthy of marrying Néméa. The king, hearing this and seeing him asleep, decides to play a game, and has him carried off to the palace.

Act II.

Zéphoris awakens the next day in the throne room of the palace of Moussol in royal garments, and everyone treats him like a king. He enjoys the situation, convenes his court and passes laws to assist the fishermen. However, announcing his marriage to the princess Néméa goes too far, and the king gives a sleeping draught to Zéphoris and has him returned to his hut.

Act III.

In Tableau 1, Zéphoris, back in his poor fishing-hut, believes he must have dreamt everything. His sister Zélide tries to console him, but Néméa arrives to tell him that it was not a dream, and when Kadoor enters with assassins to rid himself of his rival she declares that she is in love with Zéphoris. The king and his court arrive on the scene and discover Kadoor’s treachery to conspire with the Portuguese warships off the coast. Tableau 2 is set in a square in the town of Goa; after victory over the Portuguese, the king agrees to the union of Néméa and Zéphoris.

Selected Recording.

"Si j'étais roi". Liliane Berton (Néméa), André Mallabrera (Zéphoris), René Bianco (Moussol), Henri Médus (Kadoor), Pierre Heral (Zizel), Bernard Alvi (Piféar), Andrée Gabriel (Zélide). Orchestre de la Société des Concerts du Conservatoire, conducted by Richard Blareau (1960). Universal Classics, France.

Si j'étais roi (English: "If I Were King") is an opéra comique in three acts by Adolphe Adam. The libretto was written by Adolphe d'Ennery and Jules-Henri Brésil. It was first performed in Paris at the Théâtre Lyrique (Théâtre-Historique, Boulevard du Temple) on 4 September 1852, opening with a dual cast to allow performance on successive evenings (it made up half of all performances at the Théâtre Lyrique in the last four months of the year and reached over 170 performances in its first ten years). The production was considered lavish, with expensive costumes and jewels being worn by the cast.


Design and development.

The Lockheed C-5 Galaxy was considered for the shuttle-carrier role by NASA, but rejected in favor of the 747. This was due to the 747's low-wing design in comparison to the C-5's high-wing design, and also because the U.S. Air Force would have retained ownership of the C-5, while NASA could own the 747s outright.  The first aircraft, a Boeing 747-123 registered N905NA, was originally manufactured for American Airlines. With the drop in air traffic and failure to fill the 747's, American Airlines sold them to NASA. Upon testing, they still wore the visible American cheatlines while testing "Enterprise" in the 1970s. It was acquired in 1974 and initially used for trailing wake vortex research as part of a broader study by NASA Dryden, as well as Shuttle tests involving an F-104 flying in close formation and simulating a release from the 747.  The aircraft was extensively modified for NASA by Boeing in 1976. While first-class seats were kept for NASA passengers, its main cabin and insulation were stripped, mounting struts were added, and the fuselage was strengthened. With the Shuttle riding on top, the center of gravity was altered. Vertical stabilizers were added to the tail to aid stability when the Orbiter was being carried. The avionics and engines were also upgraded.  An internal escape slide was added behind the flight deck in case of catastrophic failure mid-flight. In the event of a bail-out, explosives would be detonated to make an opening in the fuselage at the bottom of the slide, allowing the crew to exit through the slide and parachute to the ground. The slide system was removed following the Approach and Landing Tests because of concerns over the possibility of escaping crew members being ingested into an engine.  Flying with the additional drag and weight of the Orbiter imposed significant fuel and altitude penalties. The range was reduced to, compared to an unladen range of, requiring an SCA to stop several times to refuel on a transcontinental flight. Without the Orbiter, the SCA needed to carry ballast to balance out its center of gravity. The SCA had an altitude ceiling of and a maximum cruise speed of Mach 0.6 with the orbiter attached. A crew of 170 took a week to prepare the shuttle and SCA for flight.  Studies were conducted to equip the SCA with aerial refueling equipment, a modification already made to the U.S. Air Force E-4 (modified 747-200s) and 747 tanker transports for the IIAF. However, during formation flying with a tanker aircraft to test refueling approaches, minor cracks were spotted on the tailfin of N905NA. While these were not likely to have been caused by the test flights, it was felt that there was no sense taking unnecessary risks. Since there was no urgent need to provide an aerial refueling capacity, the tests were suspended. By 1983, SCA N905NA no longer carried the distinct American Airlines tricolor cheatline. NASA replaced it with its own livery, consisting of a white fuselage and a single blue cheatline. That year, this aircraft was also used to fly "Enterprise" on a tour in Europe, with refueling stops in Goose Bay, Canada; Keflavik, Iceland; England; and West Germany. It then went to the Paris Air Show.  In 1988, in the wake of the "Challenger" accident, NASA procured a surplus 747SR-46 from Japan Airlines. Registered N911NA, it entered service with NASA in 1990 after undergoing modifications similar to N905NA. It was first used in 1991 to ferry the new shuttle "Endeavour" from the manufacturers in Palmdale, California to Kennedy Space Center.  Based at the Dryden Flight Research Center within Edwards Air Force Base in California the two aircraft were functionally identical, although N911NA has five upper-deck windows on each side, while N905NA has only two. The rear mounting points on both aircraft were labeled with humorous instructions to "attach orbiter here" or "place orbiter here", clarified by the precautionary note "black side down".  Shuttle Carriers were capable of operating from alternative shuttle landing sites such as those in the United Kingdom, Spain, and France. Because Shuttle Carrier's range is reduced while mated to an orbiter, additional preparations such as removal of the payload from the orbiter may have been necessary to reduce its weight. Boeing transported its Phantom Ray unmanned combat aerial vehicle (UCAV) demonstrator from St. Louis, Missouri, to Edwards on a Shuttle Carrier on December 11, 2010.

Ferry flights.

Ferry flights generally transported the orbiters from Edwards Air Force Base, the shuttle's secondary landing site, to the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) at the Kennedy Space Center where the orbiter was processed. This was common in the early days of the Space Shuttle program when weather conditions at the SLF prevented the shuttle from landing there. Some flights started at the Dryden Flight Research Center following delivery of the orbiter from Rockwell International to NASA from the nearby facilities in Palmdale, California.  At the end of the Space Shuttle program the SCA was used to deliver the retired orbiters from the Kennedy Space Center to their museums. "Discovery" was delivered to the Udvar-Hazy Center of the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum in Chantilly, Virginia, near Washington, D.C. on April 19, 2012. On April 17, 2012, "Discovery" was flown atop a Shuttle Carrier Aircraft escorted by a NASA T-38 Talon chase aircraft in a final farewell flight. The 747 and "Discovery" flew over Washington, D.C. and the metropolitan area around 10 a.m. and arrived at Dulles around 11 a.m. The flyover and landing were widely covered on national news media.  The last ferry flight took "Endeavour" from Kennedy Space Center to Los Angeles between 19 and 21 September 2012 via Ellington Field and Edwards Air Force Base. After leaving Edwards the SCA with "Endeavour" performed low level flyovers above various landmarks across California, from Sacramento to the San Francisco Bay Area, and finally to Los Angeles. "Endeavour" was delivered to Los Angeles International Airport (LAX). From there the orbiter was transported through the streets of Los Angeles and Inglewood to its final destination in the California Science Center in Exposition Park.

Retirement.

Shuttle Carrier N911NA retired on February 8, 2012 after its final mission to the Dryden Flight Research Facility at Edwards Air Force Base in Palmdale, California, and was used as a source of parts for NASA's Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) aircraft, another modified Boeing 747. N911NA is now preserved and on display at the Joe Davies Heritage Airpark in Palmdale, California as part of a long-term loan to the city from NASA.  Shuttle Carrier N905NA was used to ferry the retired Space Shuttles to their respective museums. After delivering "Endeavour" to the Los Angeles International Airport in September 2012, the aircraft was flown to the Dryden Flight Research Facility, where NASA intended it to join N911NA as a source of spare parts for NASA's SOFIA aircraft, but when NASA engineers surveyed N905NA they determined that it had few parts usable for SOFIA. In 2013, a decision was made to preserve N905NA and display it at Space Center Houston with the mockup shuttle "Independence" mounted on its back. N905NA was flown to Ellington Field where it was carefully dismantled, ferried to the Johnson Space Center in seven major pieces (a process called The Big Move), reassembled, and finally mated with the replica shuttle in August 2014. The display, called Independence Plaza, opened to the public for the first time on January 23, 2016.

The Shuttle Carrier Aircraft (SCA) are two extensively modified Boeing 747 airliners that NASA used to transport Space Shuttle orbiters. One is a 747-100 model, while the other is a short range 747-100SR.


Formation and training.

Prior to Operation Barbarossa, the Bandera's OUN collaborated with Nazi Germany and in fact received its training there. According to the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and other sources, OUN-R leader Stepan Bandera held meetings with the heads of Germany's intelligence, regarding the formation of "Nachtigall" and "Roland" Battalions. February 25, 1941 head of the Abwehr Wilhelm Franz Canaris sanctioned the creation of the "Ukrainian Legion" under German command. The unit would have had 800 persons. Roman Shukhevych became a commander of the Legion from the OUN-R side. OUN expected that the unit would become the core of the future Ukrainian army. In the spring the OUN received 2.5 million marks for subversive activities against the USSR. In the spring of 1941 the Legion was reorganized into 2 units. One of the units became known as Nachtigall Battalion, a second became the Roland Battalion.  In May 1941, the German command decided to split a 700-strong Ukrainian Legion into two battalions: Nachtigall ("Nightingale") and Roland Battalion.  Training for Nachtigall took place in Neuhammer near Schlessig. On the Ukrainian side, the commander was Roman Shukhevych and on the German, Theodor Oberländer. (Oberländer was later to become Federal Minister for Displaced Persons, Refugees and War Victims in the Federal Republic of Germany.) Ex-Brandenburger Oberleutnant Dr. was placed in military command of the Battalion.  The Nachtigall unit was outfitted in the standard Wehrmacht uniforms. Before entering Lviv, they placed blue and yellow ribbons on their shoulders.

War with the Soviet Union.

Four days before the attack on the Soviet Union, the Battalion was moved to the border. On the night of June 23–24, 1941, the Battalion crossed the border near Przemyśl while traveling in the direction of Lviv. The Nachtigall Battalion traveled along with a Panzer-Jaeger Division and some tank units went along through Radymno-Lviv-Ternopil-Proskuriv-Vinnytsia path. As part of the 1st Brandenburg Battalion, the first soldiers of the Nachtigall Battalion entered Lviv on June 29. The battalion took up guard of strategic objects, the most important of which was the radio station on the Vysoky Zamok Hill in the centre of Lviv. From the radio station, the proclamation of the Act of Ukrainian Independence was made. The Nachtigall servicemen participated in and organized the Declaration of Ukrainian Independence proclaimed by Yaroslav Stetsko on June 30. Battalion chaplain Ivan Hrynokh made a speech after declaration meeting ended. The German administration did not support these activities but did not act harshly against organizers until mid-September 1941.  The first company of the Nachtigall Battalion left Lviv with the Brandenburgers on July 7 in the direction of Zolochiv. The remainder of the unit joined later during their eastward march towards Zolochiv, Ternopil and Vinnytsia. The unit participated in action against Stalin Line where some of its members were awarded by the Germans. During the march at three villages of the Vinnytsia region "all Jews which were met" were shot.  The German refusal to accept the OUN(b)'s June 30 proclamation of Ukrainian independence in L'viv led to a change of the Nachtigall battalion direction. As the result, the battalion was recalled to Cracow and disarmed on August 15. It was later transformed together with Roland battalion into the 201st Schutzmannschaft Battalion.

Assessment.

Russian historian V. Chuyev states that despite the ending, OUN achieved its ultimate goals – 600 members of their organization had received military training and had battle experience and these men took positions as instructors and commanders in the structure of the newly formed Ukrainian Insurgent Army.  S. Bandera wrote: "The end of OUN was such: the revolutionary columns were commanded by Roman Shukhevych with a small party of officers who had not only undergone military training, but had come to a clear understanding of military tactics. The most important, they brought with them - an understanding of organization, strategies and tactics of partisan fighting, and the German method of dealing with partisan groups. This knowledge was very useful in the formation and activities of the UIA and in its future conflicts.  During its short history the Nachtigall Battalion had 39 casualties and had 40 wounded soldiers.

Controversy.

Accusations have placed the Battalion in Lviv in July 1941 and claimed that the unit participated in the pogrom that took place. Some members of the unit did indeed participate in the pogrom, which implicates the unit as a whole.  World opinion: An international commission was set up at The Hague in the Netherlands in 1959 to carry out independent investigations. The members were four former anti-Hitler activists, Norwegian lawyer Hans Cappelen, former Danish foreign minister and president of the Danish parliament Ole Bjørn Kraft, Dutch socialist Karel van Staal, Belgian law professor Flor Peeters, and Swiss jurist and member of parliament Kurt Scoch. Following its interrogation of a number of Ukrainian witnesses between November 1959 and March 1960, the commission concluded: "After four months of inquiries and the evaluation of 232 statements by witnesses from all circles involved, it can be established that the accusations against the Battalion Nachtigall and against the then Lieutenant and currently Federal Minister Oberländer have no foundation in fact".  The Ukrainian side states that none of the allegations have been proven by any documents, and that the Battalion's main priority was securing the radio station, newspapers and proclaiming Ukrainian independence.  Canadian Investigation: Involvement of any members of the Nachtigall Battalion in the war crimes have not yet been established. The Canadian Commission on War Criminals in Canada (Deschênes Commission) that look into allegations of war criminals residing in Canada, has not named any of the members of the Nachtigall Battalion. Moreover, it concluded, that units collaborating with the Nazis should not be indicted as a group and that mere membership in such units was not sufficient to justify prosecution.  The Simon Wiesenthal Center contends that between June 30 and July 3, 1941, in the days that the Battalion was in Lviv the Nachtigall soldiers together with the German army and the local Ukrainians participated in the killings of Jews in the city. The pretext for the pogrom was a rumor that the Jews were responsible for the execution of prisoners by the Soviets before the 1941 Soviet withdrawal from Lviv. The Encyclopedia of the Holocaust states that some 4,000 Jews were kidnapped and killed at that time. It further states that the unit was removed from Lviv on July 7 and sent to the Eastern Front.  The Polish side contends that members of the Nazi-led Nachtigall battalion also participated in the massacres of Polish professors, including the ex-Polish Prime minister Kazimierz Bartel, Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński and others, in Lwów in 1941. See Massacre of Lviv professors.  The activities of the Nachtigall Battalion continue to remain controversial. A study of the massacre in Lviv based on documents of the time was made by de Zayas in his book "The Wehrmacht War Crimes Bureau, 1939-1945" University of Nebraska Press, Rockport, Maine, 2000 edition.

The Nachtigall Battalion (), also known as the Ukrainian Nightingale Battalion Group (), or officially as Special Group Nachtigall, was the subunit under command of the German Abwehr special operations unit Lehrregiment "Brandenburg" z.b.V. 800. Along with the Roland Battalion it was one of two military units formed February 25, 1941 by head of the Abwehr Wilhelm Franz Canaris, which sanctioned the creation of the "Ukrainian Legion" under German command. It was composed of volunteer "Ukrainian nationalists," Ukrainians operating under Stephan Bandera's OUN orders.


Travels.

Sophronius was born in Damascus around 560. He has been claimed to be of Byzantine Greek, as well as of Syriac descent. A teacher of rhetoric, Sophronius became an ascetic in Egypt about 580 and then entered the monastery of St. Theodosius near Bethlehem. Traveling to monastic centres in Asia Minor, Egypt, and Rome, he accompanied the Byzantine chronicler St. John Moschus, who dedicated to him his celebrated tract on the religious life, "Leimõn ho Leimõnon" (Greek: “The Spiritual Meadow”) (and whose feast day in the Byzantine Rite,, is shared with Sophronius'). On the death of Moschus in Rome in 619, Sophronius accompanied the body back to Jerusalem for monastic burial. He traveled to Alexandria, Egypt, and to Constantinople in the year 633 to persuade the respective patriarchs to renounce Monoenergism, a heterodox teaching that espoused a single, divine energy in Christ to the exclusion of a human capacity for choice. Lest his synodal letter for the Second Council of Constantinople, Sophronius' extensive writings on this question are all lost.

Elected Patriarch.

Although unsuccessful his mission to condemn Monoenergism, Sophronius was elected patriarch of Jerusalem in 634. Soon after his enthronement he forwarded his noted synodical letter to Pope Honorius I and to the Eastern patriarchs, explaining the orthodox belief in the two natures, human and divine, of Christ, as opposed to Monoenergism, which he viewed as a subtle form of heretical Monophysitism (which posited a single divine nature for Christ). Moreover, he composed a Florilegium (“Anthology”) of some 600 texts from the Early Church Fathers in favour of the Christian tenet of Dyothelitism (positing both human and divine wills in Christ). This document also is lost.

Teachings.

In his Christmas sermon of 634, Sophronius was more concerned with keeping the clergy in line with the Chalcedonian view of God, giving only the most conventional of warnings of the Saracen advance on Palestine, commenting that the Saracens already controlled Bethlehem. Sophronius, who viewed the Saracen control of Palestine as "unwitting representatives of God's inevitable chastisement of weak and wavering Christians", died soon after the fall of Jerusalem to the caliph Umar I in 637, but not before he had negotiated the recognition of civil and religious liberty for Christians in exchange for tribute - an agreement known as Umari Treaty. The caliph himself came to Jerusalem, and met with the patriarch at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Sophronius invited Umar to pray there, but Umar declined, fearing to endanger the Church's status as a Christian temple.  Beside polemics, Sophronius' writings included an encomium on the Alexandrian martyrs Cyrus and John in gratitude for an extraordinary cure of his failing vision. He also wrote 23 Anacreontic (classical metre) poems on such themes as the Muslim siege of Jerusalem and on various liturgical celebrations. His "Anacreontica" 19 and 20 seem to be an expression of the longing desire he had of the Holy City, possibly when he was absent from Jerusalem during one of his many journeys. The order of the two poems has to be inverted to establish a correct sequence of the diverse subjects. Arranged in this way, the two poems describe a complete circuit throughout the most important sanctuaries of Jerusalem at the end of the 6th century, described as the golden age of Christianity in the Holy Land. Themes of Anacreonticon 20 include the gates of Jerusalem (or Solyma), the Anastasis, the Rock of the Cross, the Constantinian Basilica, Mount Sion, the Praetorium, St. Mary at the Probatica, and Gethsemane. The Mount of Olives, Bethany, and Bethlehem come next in Anacreonticon 19. Sophronius also wrote down the Life of St. Mary of Egypt, which is read on the fifth Thursday of Lent in the Byzantine Rite.

Muslim views.

According to the Muslim apocryphal treaty Pact of Umar, caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab came to Jerusalem in 637 after the conquest of Jerusalem and toured the city with Sophronius. During the tour of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the time for prayer came, and despite Sophronius's offer to Umar to pray inside the Church, Umar chose to pray outside. According to Islamic tradition, the caliph's reason for declining to pray there was because in the future Muslims might say that Umar prayed here and use it as an excuse to build a mosque there. Therefore, Muslims are not allowed to build a mosque there. So appreciating the caliph's intelligence he gave the keys of the church to him. Unable to refuse it the caliph gave it to a family of Muslims from Medina and asked them to open the church and close it; the keys of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre still remain with the Muslim family.

Sophronius (c. 560 – March 11, 638; ) was the Patriarch of Jerusalem from 634 until his death. He is venerated as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic Churches. Before rising to the primacy of the see of Jerusalem, he was a monk and theologian who was the chief protagonist for orthodox teaching in the doctrinal controversy on the essential nature of Jesus and his volitional acts.


Gameplay.

Player characters interact in a 3D environment but are represented by 2D character sprites for front, back, side and diagonal facings. The major types of server-supported gameplay are Player vs Environment, Guild vs Guild, Player vs Player. Also supported by the game server are Group vs Group, Arena Combat, Player vs Monster, Player vs All, and various other specific scenarios at designated instance locations in the game world. Non-player character-run challenges and contests are also available with prizes, awards, and/or in a specific hall of fame listing.  Players can sign up for quests and submit them for rewards as well as access storage and teleport services for a small fee. Every town will have the usual stores and shops where players can purchase and sell their items. The stores differ from city to city because each city is affiliated with a different job that players can choose from; therefore, the goods each sell are relatively for that particular job that the city is affiliated with. Quests usually provide a unique reward such as learning a new skill or receiving a rare item.  The job system initially consisted of 13 classes, which has increased to over 50 via several updates. Each class specializes in certain skills corresponding to archetypes in a role-playing game. Additionally, numerous equipment are exclusive to particular classes. The greatness of the equipment depends on the character attribute status.  Once a player reaches player level 99 and job level 50, they can'rebirth' their character (not applicable to expansion classes and Super Novices). Rebirthing brings a character back to level 1 for both player level and job level. Reborn characters generally work the same as regular characters up until the second class. Instead of a second class, characters that are born can transcend to a new second job, different from those of a character that hasn't been reborn. These transcended job types have more skills and a larger number of'stat points' to allocate to characters compared to second classes. The experience curve for transcendent jobs is significantly higher. Players are given the option to advance onto their third classes which provide an additional set of skills as well as allowing with player to break through the traditional level cap of 99.

Setting.

"Ragnarok Online" is divided into a series of maps on two major continents, each of which has its own terrain and native monsters, though many monsters are present in multiple regions. Transportation between maps requires loading the new map and monsters are unable to travel from one map to another unless directly associated with the player such as a pet, mount, or hireling. Areas from Norse mythology are included.

Development.

The official "Ragnarok Online" servers underwent massive game system changes in 2010, which has been titled "Renewal". Renewal revamped game mechanics, changed the behavior and interaction of stats, gears, and modifiers in the stat system, changed the way and amount of character experience, and introduced the 3rd Job Classes. There are various other changes that come with Renewal, including interface and hotkey alterations, as well as skill changes.

"Ragnarok Mobile".

Gravity Co. Ltd. released eight separate games for the mobile phone allowing players to experience the game on the road. Each version focuses on the main aspect of certain classes based on the version of the game they have. Though not placed in the server, players control their character and complete a series of quests or tasks. As players earn zeny (the in-game currency) they are able to send the zeny to their real accounts. Also, a ranking is present where characters are ranked by the amount of zeny the character has.

Ragnarok Online (spelled Ragnarök in the logo;, alternatively subtitled The Final Destiny of the Gods) is a massive multiplayer online role-playing game created by Gravity based on the manhwa "Ragnarok" by Lee Myung-jin. It was released in South Korea on 31 August 2002 for Microsoft Windows. The game has spawned an animated series, "Ragnarok the Animation", and a sequel game, "". Player characters exist in a world with a player environment that gradually changes with the passage of time. Major changes in the features and history of the world take place as episodes in the RO timeline.


History.

The company was founded by Prof. Georg Nemetschek in 1963 and went by the name of "Ingenieurbüro für das Bauwesen" (engineering firm for the construction industry), focusing on structural design. The engineering firm was one of the first companies in the industry to use computers and developed software for engineers, initially for its own requirements. In 1977 Nemetschek started distributing its "program system Statik 97/77" for civil engineering.  At the Hanover Fair in 1980, Nemetschek presented a software package for the integrated calculation and design of standard components for solid construction. This was the first time that it was possible to use Computer-aided engineering (CAE) on microcomputers, and the product remained unique on the market for many years.  In 1981 "Nemetschek Programmsystem GmbH" was founded and was responsible for software distribution; Georg Nemetschek’s engineering firm continued to be in charge of program development. The main product, Allplan – a CAD system for architects and engineers, was launched in 1984. This allowed designers to model buildings in three dimensions. Nemetschek began to expand internationally in the 80s: in 1996 the company had subsidiaries in eight European countries and distribution partners in nine countries in Europe, and since 1992 has also had an additional development site in Bratislava, Slovakia. The first acquisitions were made at the end of the 90s, e.g. the structural design program vendor "Friedrich + Lochner".  The company, operating as Nemetschek AG since 1994, went public in 1999 and has been listed in the Prime Standard market segment in Frankfurt ever since. A series of company takeovers were to follow, the largest acquisitions including the American Diehl Graphsoft (now Vectorworks) and MAXON Computer GmbH with its Cinema 4D software for visualization and animation. The next takeovers occurred in 2006 with the purchases of the Hungarian "Graphisoft" and the Belgian "SCIA International".  In November 2013 Nemetschek acquired the MEP solutions provider "Data Design System" (DDS). On 31 October 2014 the acquisition of Bluebeam Software, Inc. was concluded. At the end of 2015 "Solibri" was acquired. "dRofus" became a member of the Nemetschek Group at the beginning of 2017.  Among others, Nemetschek is a member of the "BuildingSMART e.V." and the "Deutsche Gesellschaft für Nachhaltiges Bauen" (DGNB) (German Sustainable Building Council).

Business units.

Since 2008 Nemetschek AG has been acting as a holding company with four business units: Design (Architecture and Civil Engineering), Building, Management and Multimedia. The holding company maintains 16 product brands.

Main subsidiaries.

Allplan: Headquartered in Munich, Allplan was founded on January 1, 2008. It develops and distributes the Allplan product family. The company has 400 employees (2017). Allplan is a platform software for architects, civil engineers, contractors and facility managers for designing and managing buildings, and is used throughout Europe.  Bluebeam, Inc.: Since 2002, Bluebeam has made desktop, mobile and cloud-based solutions for architects, engineers and construction professionals worldwide. Over 1 million users use Bluebeam software for project collaboration and digital construction document processing. The company has offices in California, Texas, Illinois, New Hampshire, Denmark, Germany, England and Sweden. (2018)  Graphisoft: Graphisoft is an international vendor of architecture software "ArchiCad"" The company was founded in 1982 and now has more than 230 employees. The company is headquartered in Budapest and has international subsidiaries in the USA, Great Britain, Spain, Japan and Singapore. According to the company, ArchiCAD architecture software is used in more than 80 countries.  Vectorworks: Headquartered in Columbia, Maryland and employing around 160 people as of 2016, has been developing and distributing design software for more than 20 years. The Vectorworks product line offers professional design solutions for architecture, interior construction, the entertainment industry, landscaping, landscape architecture and mechanical engineering. According to the manufacturer, Vectorworks is used in 85 countries worldwide.  Data Design System: Data Design System AS (DDS) is one of Europe's largest vendors of "Open BIM" design and documentation tools for MEP (Mechanical, Electrical & Plumbing) professionals. DDS was founded in Norway in 1984.  Scia: Scia (whose name is an acronym for Scientific Applications) was founded in 1974 and has its headquarters in Herk-de-Stad, Belgium. It develops and distributes software for structural calculation, structural design and structural construction, focusing on "Building information modeling". Scia is a 100%-owned subsidiary of Nemetschek SE and claims to employ a staff of more than 100 at ten sites worldwide.  Maxon: Headquartered in Friedrichsdorf, Germany, MAXON Computer is a developer of "Cinema 4D", a software for visualization and animation.professional 3D modeling, painting, animation and rendering solutions. MAXON has offices in Germany, USA, United Kingdom, Canada, France, Japan and Singapore.

Nemetschek Group is a vendor of software for architects, engineers and the construction industry. The company develops and distributes solutions for designing, building and managing buildings and real estate as well as multimedia.


Career under Maurice.

Little is known about Philippicus's early years. He was married to Gordia, sister of Emperor Maurice (reigned 582–602), probably in 583, and was at some point raised to the high rank of "patricius". At about the same time, he was appointed "comes excubitorum" (Commander of the Excubitors, the imperial bodyguard), and in 584, he replaced John Mystacon as "magister militum" for the East, thus becoming responsible for the conduct of the ongoing war against the Sassanid Persians.  He commanded numerous raids into Persian territory in 584–585, ravaging the plains near Nisibis, and making inroads in the regions of Arzanene and eastern Mesopotamia. During the same period, he actively tried to improve the discipline and efficiency of his troops.  Philippicus spent the winter of 585-586 in Constantinople, and returned to his headquarters in Amida in the spring. After Persian peace proposals were rejected, he advanced his troops to the frontier, where he defeated a superior Persian force under Kardarigan at the Battle of Solachon. He then proceeded to invade and plunder Arzanene and laid siege to the fortress of Chlomaron. However, the approach of a Persian relief army panicked the Romans, who fled in disorder back into Roman territory. There, possibly due to illness, he handed over command of his army to his "hypostrategos" (lieutenant general) Heraclius, the father of the future emperor Heraclius (r. 610–641). In spring 587, he was again ill, and unable to campaign in person. He assigned two thirds of his army to Heraclius and the remainder to generals Theodore and Andreas, and sent them to raid Persian territory. He did not campaign himself that year, and in the winter, he set off towards Constantinople. On his way, he learned that he had been replaced by Priscus.  When Priscus arrived in the East, however, the soldiers refused to obey him, and elected the "dux" of Phoenice Libanensis, Germanus, as their leader in his stead. Philippicus, who was soon re-appointed as commander of the East, could only assume his command after the mutiny was quelled through the intervention of the Patriarch of Antioch. After a public reconciliation with his troops, in the summer of 589 he campaigned against the city of Martyropolis, which had recently fallen to the Persians through the treacherous defection of a Roman officer named Sittas. Philippicus failed to retake it and was defeated by a Persian relief force led by Mahbodh and Aphrarat, after which he was replaced by Comentiolus.  Except for a diplomatic mission in 590 to the recently deposed Persian ruler Khosrau II (r. 590–628), who had taken refuge in Roman territory, Philippicus disappears from the scene for several years. In 598, he was briefly appointed general in the ongoing war in the Balkans, and is credited by some sources with a victory over the Avars in Thrace, although this is most likely due to a confusion with general Priscus.

Career under Phocas and Heraclius.

At some point in 602, suspicions fell upon him of plotting against Emperor Maurice, since a prophecy stated that the name of Maurice's successor would begin with a "Φ" (Phi). Indeed, soon after, Maurice was deposed and killed by a revolt in the Balkan army led by Phocas. As a close associate of Maurice, Philippicus was tonsured and forced to enter a monastery in Chrysopolis. He was still at the monastery when Heraclius overthrew Phocas in 610. The new emperor recalled him and sent him to negotiate with Phocas's brother, Comentiolus, who commanded the eastern army. Comentiolus imprisoned him and intended to execute him, but Philippicus was saved when Comentiolus himself was murdered.  In 612, he was again appointed by Heraclius as "magister militum per Orientem" succeeding the disgraced Priscus, and campaigned against the Persians in Armenia. In 614, as a Persian army under Shahin invaded Asia Minor and reached the shores of the Bosporus at Chalcedon, Philippicus invaded Persian territory in turn, hoping to cause Shahin to withdraw.  Philippicus died shortly after, and was buried in a church he had built at Chrysopolis.

Possible authorship of the "Strategikon".

As one of the leading generals of his day, and with both the time and opportunity to write it sometime after 603, during the years he spent in a monastery, Philippicus is one of the possible authors of the military treatise known as the "Strategikon" and traditionally attributed to Maurice.

Philippicus or Philippikos (, fl. 580s–610s) was an East Roman general, "comes excubitorum", and brother-in-law of Emperor Maurice (r. 582–602). His successful career as a general spanned three decades, chiefly against the Sassanid Persians.


Military service and desertion.

Jenkins was born in 1940 in Rich Square, North Carolina. He joined the Army National Guard in 1955, aged 15, below the minimum enlistment age. He joined the Regular Army in 1958 and was assigned to the 1st Cavalry Division. He served in South Korea from 1960 to 1961, in West Germany from 1962 to 1964, and in South Korea again.  In South Korea, Jenkins was assigned to night patrols. He subsequently crossed into North Korea and surrendered to forces there, in the hope of being sent to the Soviet Union and then, through prisoner exchange, eventually returned to the United States. Shortly thereafter, North Korean propaganda declared that a U.S. sergeant had defected, and broadcast statements allegedly made by the defector, reportedly in stilted English. The U.S. Army claimed Jenkins wrote four letters stating his intention to defect (an allegation Jenkins denied); however, the original letters are reportedly lost. His relatives maintained throughout his absence that he was abducted.

Life in North Korea.

Information about Jenkins' status was unavailable outside North Korea for many years. Jenkins said he almost immediately regretted his desertion. He said that for seven years, until 1972, he and three other U.S. servicemen—Larry Abshier, Jerry Parrish, and James Dresnok—were quarantined in a one-room house with no running water, where they were made to study the "Juche" philosophy of Kim Il-sung daily. They were forced to memorize large passages of Kim's writings in Korean, and beaten frequently by their guards.  He said that at one point in 1966, he found his way to the Soviet embassy in Pyongyang and requested asylum, which was denied. Eventually, Jenkins was placed in separate housing and began teaching English at the Pyongyang University of Foreign Studies.  In 1980, 40-year-old Jenkins was introduced to 21-year-old Hitomi Soga, a Japanese nursing student who had been abducted by North Korean agents in 1978, along with her mother, during a search for Japanese citizens who could train future spies in Japanese language and culture. Soga's mother was never heard from again, and Soga was "given to" Jenkins. Thirty-eight days after meeting, they were married. They had two daughters, Roberta Mika Jenkins (born 1983) and Brinda Carol Jenkins (born 1985). In 1982, Jenkins appeared in the North Korean film "Unsung Heroes", which provided the first evidence to the Western world that he was alive. The U.S. government did not publicly reveal this information until 1996.

Confirmation and return.

Jenkins drew international interest again in 2002, when North Korean leader Kim Jong-il confirmed that North Korea had abducted Japanese citizens. In an effort at "détente", surviving abductees were allowed to travel to Japan, including Jenkins' wife. The visit was intended to last for a week, but the Japanese government chose not to return them on schedule and instead negotiated for their families to join them in Japan. Most of the families did ultimately travel to Japan, but Jenkins and his daughters stayed behind out of fear that the North Korean government was testing his loyalty.  After assurances of protection from the Japanese government, he traveled with his daughters to Japan by way of Indonesia for medical treatment, arriving in Japan in July 2004. Japan formally requested a pardon for Jenkins, which the U.S. declined to grant. After expressing a desire to put his conscience at rest, Jenkins reported on September 11, 2004, to Camp Zama in Japan. He reported in respectful military form, saluting the receiving military police officer.  On November 3, Jenkins pleaded guilty to charges of desertion and aiding the enemy, but denied making disloyal or seditious statements – the latter charges were dropped. He was sentenced to 30 days' confinement, received a dishonorable discharge, forfeiture of all pay and benefits and was reduced in rank to E-1 private (the lowest rank in the US Army). He was released six days early, on November 27, 2004, for good behavior.  Jenkins and his family settled on Sado Island in Japan, which is Soga's home. On June 14, 2005, Jenkins, his wife, and two daughters traveled to the United States to visit his 91-year-old mother in North Carolina, returning later in the month. He found work as a greeter at a shop in Japan.  There were three other U.S. deserters who remained in North Korea as well: James Joseph Dresnok (who was interviewed for a 2006 British documentary "Crossing the Line"), Private Larry Allen Abshier, and Specialist Jerry Wayne Parrish. The former two defected in 1962, while the latter defected in 1963. Dresnok continued to live in North Korea until his death in 2016. According to North Korean official reports, Abshier and Parrish died of natural causes while living in that country.  On July 15, 2008, Jenkins obtained permanent residency status in Japan, a month after he applied for the status. Jenkins commented that he wanted to stay in Japan for the rest of his life, and would also like to obtain Japanese citizenship. He died at age 77 on December 11, 2017.

Memoirs.

Jenkins published a book in Japanese in October 2005, titled "To Tell the Truth" (; Romaji: kokuhaku; ), about his experiences in North Korea. A Korean-language edition was also released in June 2006 by Mulpure Publishing of South Korea. (Korean: 고백, "gobaek", )  An English-language version, titled "The Reluctant Communist: My Desertion, Court-Martial, and Forty-Year Imprisonment in North Korea", co-authored with journalist Jim Frederick (), was published by the University of California Press on March 1, 2008.

Charles Robert Jenkins (February 18, 1940 – December 11, 2017) was a United States Army soldier who lived in North Korea from 1965 to 2004 after deserting his unit and crossing the Korean Demilitarized Zone.


Battle.

On August 7, 1819, after Bolívar secured a narrow victory at Vargas Swamp Battle, both armies headed towards Bogotá, which was lightly defended. The capture of the capital in the hands of the Patriot Army would effectively cut off the advance of the republican army and give the strategic initiative to its opponents. At 6:00 a.m., the Spanish forces (Newgranadians-Venezuelan loyalist soldiers) departed from Motavita towards Casa de Teja, a distance of only 25 km which the Spaniards completed in 7 hours 30 minutes, at an average pace of 18 minutes per kilometer. At 10:00 a.m. General Santander's forces departed from Tunja toward Casa de Piedra and the road to Bogota. The Patriot forces completed the 16 km in 4 hours (at an average pace of 15 minutes per kilometer).  The Republican forces split in two: the vanguard reached Casa de Teja at 1:30 p.m., while the rearguard stopped a kilometer and a half behind to get some rest. Shortly before 2:00 p.m., Capitan Andres Ibarra and his forces spotted Casa de Teja and the vanguard of the Republican Army. The Spaniards spotted him too, and Coronel Sebastian Dias, chief of the vanguard of the Spanish army ordered to follow and engage what he believed was only a small observation force. They returned and General Santander ordered Lieutenant Coronel Paris to attack the Republican forces.  The Spanish vanguard crossed a strategic bridge over the Teatinos River and took attack positions there. Meanwhile, the full force of the Patriot army under Santander had reached Casa de Piedra. The Spanish rearguard was still several kilometers behind, so General Anzoátegui ordered to block the way between the vanguard and the rearguard of the Spanish forces. The rearguard, outnumbered, retreated to a small hill close to Casa de Piedra.  Simón Bolívar's forces arrived from Paipa, after the Vargas Swamp battle. He ordered a flank attack on the Spanish rearguard: battalions Barcelona and Bravos de Paez were to attack on the right side while the Legion Britanica and Rifles Battalion attacked on the left. The enemy assumed battle positions: in the center were three artillery pieces surrounded by royal battalions 12 and 22, and on the wings, cavalry units. Arthur Sandes commander of Rifles Battalion charges the royalist artillery. Outnumbered, the Spanish rear guard began to retreat without any clear direction. Therefore, Bolívar ordered lancers units to attack the center of the Republican infantry, while a full cavalry squadron ran away from the battle via the road towards Samaca. Bareiro attempted to break the blockage of the Patriot forces and rendezvous with the Spanish vanguard but heavy enemy fire forced him and his forces to surrender.  Meanwhile, one kilometer and a half behind Casa de Piedra, the Patriot vanguard managed to ford the river and was approaching the rear of the Republican vanguard force. Once it reached them, the vanguard forces engaged in battle, while the rearguard attempted to cross the river by force, using bayonets. The Spanish forces fled, leaving on the bridge their leader, Coronel Juan Taira. As the assembly of enemy prisoners began, the battle was over shortly after 4:00 p.m.  At least 1,600 troops and several of the Spanish commanders, including Barreiro himself, were captured at the end of the battle. New Granada's liberation was assured by this victory, which left the road to Bogotá and the city itself practically undefended, as the survivors headed towards other locations. After the battle, Santander and Anzoátegui were promoted to Divisional General. On the orders of Santander, Colonel Barreiro and 38 more were executed in Bogotá on October 11, 1819, because of the Decree of War to the Death.  The bridge in question, el Puente de Boyacá, is no longer in use but it has been maintained as a symbol of the Independence of South America.

Historical consequences and legacy.

Viceroy Juan de Samano was informed of the defeat and managed to escape, which brought to an end the reign of the Spanish Empire in northern Latin America. In commemoration of this battle, August 7 is a national holiday in Colombia. On this date every 4 years the elected President of Colombia is proclaimed in the Casa de Nariño.  Bogotá starts the usual celebrations one day in advance in commemoration of the foundation of the city, on August 6, 1538.

The Battle of Boyacá (1819), was the decisive battle that ensured the success of Bolívar's campaign to liberate New Granada. The battle of Boyaca is considered the beginning of the independence of the North of South America, and is considered important because it led to the victories of the battle of Carabobo in Venezuela, Pichincha in Ecuador, and Junín and Ayacucho in Peru.


Plot.

Eric O'Neill is a young FBI employee assigned to work undercover as a clerk to Robert Hanssen, a senior agent he is told is suspected of being a sexual deviant. Hanssen has been recalled from a detail post at the State Department to FBI headquarters ostensibly to head up a new division specializing in Information Assurance.  Initially, Hanssen insists on a strict formality between the two men. He frequently rails against the bureaucracy of the FBI and complains that only those who regularly "shoot guns" are considered for senior positions instead of those, like himself, who are involved in vital national security matters. He calls the bureau's information technology systems antiquated and laments the lack of coordination and information exchange with other intelligence agencies.  Eventually, Hanssen becomes a friend and mentor to O'Neill and takes a personal interest in him and his wife Juliana, who is suspicious of Hanssen and resents his intrusions. A devout Catholic who is also a member of Opus Dei, Hanssen urges O'Neill, a lapsed Catholic, and his secular East German-born wife to become active churchgoers.  O'Neill finds no evidence of Hanssen leading a secret double life and develops a growing respect for his boss, so he confronts his handler in the undercover assignment, Kate Burroughs, and she admits that the sexual deviance allegations are only a secondary consideration. Hanssen is suspected of spying for the Soviet Union and Russia for years and being responsible for the deaths of agents working for the United States. The entire Information Assurance Division that Hanssen now heads was created specifically to lure him away from his previous job as liaison to the State Department, and his office was specially constructed with hidden surveillance equipment. The investigation already includes fifty agents, and is personally overseen by FBI Director Louis Freeh, who has been reading O'Neill's reports on Hanssen.  Although the FBI already has enough evidence to arrest Hanssen, director Freeh wants to catch Hanssen in the act of making a drop so that their case against him will be airtight, ensuring that he will cooperate once arrested and not retaliate by exposing more undercover agents and informants. O'Neill is ordered to obtain data from Hanssen's Palm Pilot and keep him occupied while FBI agents search his car and plant covert listening devices in it.  The tracking devices in Hanssen's car cause interference with the radio, which makes Hanssen suspicious. He also wonders why he was placed in an isolated position in the FBI only a few months before he is scheduled to retire. He tells O'Neill he believes he is being watched by Russian agents. The FBI intercepts a message he sends to his Russian handlers saying he will not provide any more information. O'Neill persuades Hanssen that he is not being trailed by the Russians or by him on behalf of the FBI. With his confidence restored, Hanssen makes one last dead drop of stolen information and the FBI catches him in the act.  Although he is assured promotion, O'Neill is discouraged with the toll the case has taken on his marriage and opts to leave the agency. When O'Neill leaves his office with his belongings, he unexpectedly encounters Hanssen in an elevator being escorted by arresting officers. A tearful Hanssen asks O'Neill to pray on his behalf, and O'Neill promises he will.

Critical reception.

The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported 84% of critics gave the film positive reviews, based on 177 reviews. Metacritic reported the film had an average score of 74 out of 100, based on 36 reviews.  Manohla Dargis of "The New York Times" said, "One of the strengths of "Breach", a thriller that manages to excite and unnerve despite our knowing the ending, is how well it captures the utter banality of this man and his world."  Peter Travers of "Rolling Stone" rated the film 31⁄2 out of four stars, calling it a "steadily gripping hothouse of a thriller." He added, "Director and co-writer Billy Ray, who detailed the misconduct of journalist Stephen Glass at "The New Republic" in 2003's "Shattered Glass"... proves himself a filmmaker of uncommon talent and ambition."  Ruthe Stein of the "San Francisco Chronicle" commented, ""Breach" suffers from lavishing so much attention on a relatively minor figure... O'Neill, at least the way he's presented, isn't a particularly compelling character, and he is made less so by Phillippe's lackluster performance... [The film] expends too much energy on a minor functionary, but it is still worth seeing for its fleeting looks into a heart of darkness."  Peter Rainer of "The Christian Science Monitor" named "Breach" the best film of the year. Richard Schickel of "Time" ranked it #6 and called Chris Cooper's performance "brilliant". Stephen Hunter of "The Washington Post" named it the ninth best film of 2007.

Box office.

The film opened on 1,489 theaters screens in the US and earned $10,504,990 on its opening weekend, ranking #6 among all films in release. It eventually grossed $33,231,264 domestically and $7,722,671 in foreign markets for a total worldwide box office of $40,953,935.

Accuracy.

The filmmakers fictionalized much of Eric O'Neill's story, as mentioned in the end credits. Among the major changes made for the film:

Related Content.

O'Neill's memoir about the Hanssen case, "", was published by Penguin Random House in Spring 2019.

Breach is a 2007 American spy thriller film directed by Billy Ray, who wrote the screenplay with Adam Mazer and William Rotko. The film is based on the true story of Robert Hanssen, an FBI agent convicted of spying for the Soviet Union and later Russia for more than two decades. It stars Chris Cooper as Hanssen and Ryan Phillippe as Eric O'Neill, the FBI agent who helped bring about his downfall. The film received generally positive reviews and grossed $41 million on a $23 million budget.


History and features.

Street View had its inception in 2001 with the Stanford CityBlock Project, a Google-sponsored Stanford University research project. The project ended in June 2006, and its technology was folded into StreetView.

Implementation.

Street View is available as a component of Google Maps, as a web application, and as a mobile application for Android and iOS. Originally, Google Maps used Adobe Flash for Street View. Google overhauled Google Maps in 2013. The newer version uses JavaScript extensively and provides a JavaScript application programming interface. At the time of their release, the new Google Maps and Street View are measured slower than the old version in various setups. A user can switch to the old version of Google Maps, which is especially useful when Google Maps is more sluggish than usual.  The drag-and-drop Pegman icon is the primary user interface element used by Google to connect Maps to Street View. Its name comes from its resemblance to a clothespeg. When not in use, Pegman sits atop the Google Maps zoom controls. Occasionally Pegman "dresses up" for special events or is joined by peg friends in Google Maps. When dragged into Street View near Area 51, he becomes a flying saucer. When viewing older views, the Pegman in the minimap changes to Doc Brown from "Back to the Future".

Coverage.

Google announced in May 2017 that it had captured more than of Street View imagery across 83 countries. Maps also include panoramic views taken underwater such as in West Nusa Tenggara underwater coral, in the Grand Canyon, inside museums, and Liwa Desert in United Arab Emirates which are viewed from camelback. In a ten-day trek with Apa Sherpa, Google documented Khumbu, Nepal with its Mount Everest, Sherpa communities, monasteries and schools.  Google also added landmarks in Egypt, including the Pyramids of Giza, Cairo Citadel, Saqqara, Monastery of Saint Mina, and the Citadel of Qaitbay in the 9 September 2014 release.  Many places still have limited or no coverage, including:

Privacy concerns.

Google Street View will blur houses for any user who makes a request, in addition to the automatic blurring of faces and licence plates. Privacy advocates have objected to the Google Street View, pointing to views found to show men leaving strip clubs, protesters at an abortion clinic, sunbathers in bikinis, and people engaging in activities visible from public property in which they do not wish to be seen publicly. Another concern is the height of the cameras, and in at least two countries, Japan and Switzerland, Google has had to lower the height of its cameras so as to not peer over fences and hedges. The service also allows users to flag inappropriate or sensitive imagery for Google to review and remove.  Police Scotland received an apology for wasting police time in 2014 from a local business owner in Edinburgh who in 2012 had staged a fake murder for the Google camera car by lying in the road "while his colleague stood over him with a pickaxe handle". In May 2010, it was revealed that Google had collected and stored payload data from unencrypted Wi-Fi connections as part of Street View.  The concerns have led to Google not providing or suspending the service in countries around the world.

Third-party use of images.

Fine-art photographers have selected images for use in their own work. Although the images may be pixelated, the colours muddy, and the perspective warped, the photographs have been published in book form and exhibited in art galleries, such as the work of Jon Rafman at the Saatchi Gallery, London. In his personal appreciation of Street View material, Rafman sees images which evoke the "gritty urban life" depicted in American street photography and the images commissioned by the Farm Security Administration. He also invokes the "decisive moment" esthetic of Henri Cartier-Bresson "as if I were a photojournalist responding instantaneously to an emerging event".  Michael Wolf won an honourable mention in Daily Life in the 2011 World Press Photo competition for some of his work using Google Street View.  Mishka Henner was short-listed for the 2013 Deutsche Börse Photography Prize in November 2012 for his series 'No Man's Land', which depicts sex workers at rural roadside locations.  Swedish programmer Anton Wallén developed a game called GeoGuessr, which places players into a Google Street View and has them guess its location.  Canadian artist, Sylvia Grace Borda, worked in conjunction with John M. Lynch between 2013-14 to insert the first staged tableaux into the Google Street View engine. Their efforts won them the Lumen Prize in 2016. Borda has continued independently to author in the Google Street View engine and in 2017 created the tableaux series, the "Kissing Project".

Google Street View is a technology featured in Google Maps and Google Earth that provides interactive panoramas from positions along many streets in the world. It was launched in 2007 in several cities in the United States, and has since expanded to include cities and rural areas worldwide. Streets with Street View imagery available are shown as blue lines on Google Maps.


Concepts.

A UNESCO definition of "global geopark" is a unified area with a geological heritage of international significance. Geoparks use that heritage to promote awareness of key issues facing society in the context of our dynamic planet. Many geoparks promote awareness of geological hazards, including volcanoes, earthquakes and tsunamis and many help prepare disaster mitigation strategies with local communities. Geoparks embody records of past climate changes and are indicators of current climate changes as well as demonstrating a "best practise" approach to using renewable energy and employing the best standards of "green tourism". Tourism industry promotion in geoparks, as a geographically sustainable and applicable tourism model, aims to sustain, and even enhance, the geographical character of a place.  Geoparks also inform about the sustainable use and need for natural resources, whether they are mined, quarried or harnessed from the surrounding environment while at the same time promoting respect for the environment and the integrity of the landscape. Geoparks are not a legislative designation though the key heritage sites within a geopark are often protected under local, regional or national legislation. The multidisciplinary nature of the concept of geopark and tourism promotion in geoparks differentiates itself from other models of sustainable tourism. In fact, sustainable tourism promotion within geoparks encompasses many of the features of sustainable tourism including geo-tourism (geo-site tourism: as a basic factor), community-based tourism and integrated rural tourism (as a vital need), ecotourism, and cultural heritage tourism.

Global Network and UNESCO.

The Global Geoparks Network (GGN) is supported by United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Many national geoparks and other local geoparks projects also exist which are not included in the Global Geoparks Network.  The geoparks initiative was launched by UNESCO in response to the perceived need for an international initiative that recognizes sites representing an earth science interest. Global Geoparks Network aims at enhancing the value of such sites while at the same time creating employment and promoting regional economic development. The 195 Member States of UNESCO ratified the creation of a new label, the UNESCO Global Geoparks, on 17 November 2015. This expressed governmental recognition of the importance of managing outstanding geological sites and landscapes in a holistic manner. This new designation formalized UNESCO's relationship with the Global Geoparks Network. The Global Geoparks Network works in synergy with UNESCO's World Heritage Centre and Man and the Biosphere (MAB) World Network of Biosphere Reserves.

Qualification.

The Global Geoparks Network (GGN) was established in 1998 and received "ad hoc" support from UNESCO from 2001 until 2015, when the relationship and designation was formalized. Since 2015, members are officially designated by UNESCO, as UNESCO Global Geoparks. According to the Statutes and Operational Guidelines of the UNESCO Global Geoparks, for a geopark to apply to be included in the GGN, it needs to:

Members of the GGN.

See UNESCO Global Geoparks.

A geopark is a unified area that advances the protection and use of geological heritage in a sustainable way, and promotes the economic well-being of the people who live there. There are global geoparks and national geoparks.