Stellar abundances of early-type galaxies
It is currently impossible to determine the abundances of stellar populations star-by-star in dense stellar systems more distant than a few megaparsecs. Therefore, methods to analyse the composite light of stellar systems are required. I review recent progress in determining the abundances and abundance ratios of early-type galaxies. I begin with `direct' abundance measurements: colour--magnitude diagrams of and planetary nebula in nearby early-type galaxies. I then give an overview of `indirect' abundance measurements: inferences from stellar population models, with an emphasis on cross-checks with `direct' methods. I explore the variations of early-type galaxy abundances as a function of mass, age, and environment in the local Universe. I conclude with a list of continuing difficulties in the modelling that complicate the interpretation of integrated spectra and I look ahead to new methods and new observations.