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CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Introduction
The Collins English dictionary defines communication as 'the imparting or exchange of information, ideas, or feelings' by'speech, gesture, telecommunication systems, publishing and broadcast media'." The words imparting or exchanging indicate that communication is not always a two-way process. It is important, therefore, to distinguish between two types of communication, reciprocal or non-reciprocal. Face to face interaction is the typical example of reciprocal 2 or collaborative discourse. In this type of discourse, the role of speaker and interlocutor can change, and meaning can be clarified by indicating non-understanding or by asking questions. Cook says, 'the receiver can influence the development of what is being said'."
Mass Communication, such as the television news broadcast, is an example of non-reciprocal communication. The listener, viewer or reader are one of many who have very little opportunity to contribute (unless it is to make comments to the television which does not talk back!), or ask for clarification (and if they do, there is usually a time lapse, for example, radio phone-ins or letters to the editor). Yet, the people on television seem to talk to the viewers sitting at home in their armchairs, or when two people are seen having a conversation in a bar during the course of a soap opera, the viewer feels like a third party who is present. For this reason, many of the non-verbal cues which are important in interactive discourse (such as those which facilitate turn-taking) will still be relevant in a discussion of mass communication.

There are many terms in circulation for describing the non-verbal elements of a communicative situation. 'Non-verbal' and 'non-linguistic' appear to be used interchangeably by Rost and Abercrombie. Abercrombie reserves 'paralanguage' for those non-verbal elements which interact with the spoken language to produce a message. Not all non-verbal communication is paralinguistic according to him. However, Crystal limits the use of 'paralanguage' to vocal effects such as whispered speech which alters the tone of voice and subsequently the meaning of what has been said. Allan divides non-verbal communication into vocal (accent, intonation and stress) and visual (gestures, proximity, appearance, setting, etc.). She also mentions that as appearance and setting are not part of interaction, they are often referred to as 'extralinguistic'. To avoid confusion, extralinguistic will henceforth be used to refer to setting, and appearance, etc., while non-verbal or non-linguistic will include gestures, proximity and extralinguistic elements.

2.1 Non-verbal communication

The types of non-verbal cues which shall be considered here are included in the field of semiotics. This is described by Crystal as follows: "This field investigates the structure of all possible sign systems, and the role these play in the way we create and perceive patters (or 'meanings') in sociocultural behaviour. The subject is all-inclusive, therefore, dealing with patterned human communication in all its modes (sound, sight, touch, smell and taste) and in all contexts (e.g. dance, film, politics, eating and clothing)." Sandor Hervey points to the controversy between linguistics and semiotics. One theory advocates that linguistics is the parent discipline of semiotics which applies linguistic notions to communication outside natural languages. The other theory considers linguistic notions as specialised semiotic notions developed for describing natural languages. Birdwhistell too refers to this conflict saying that in our culture devoted to literacy, we are tempted to think that words alone carry meaning and form the 'natural centre of the communicative universe and that all other modes of communication are to be studied as subsystems subordinate to it'." Whether one mode of communication is superior to another is not the issue here. What is relevant, however, is that words are not only means by which we communicate.

Birdwhistell's work concerns research carried to try to develop a systematic classification of body motion in communication. Edward Hall's seminal book on non-verbal communication, The Silent Language, illustrates the kinds of communication problems that can occur across cultures as a result of different interpretations of non-verbal phenomena. Laver and Hutcheson discuss, among other issues, how non-verbal factors such as gesture and proximity are used in interaction strategies. According to Nancy Henley our culture 'places great emphasis on verbal communication' and that 'non-verbal communication is learned informally as a matter of survival, just as language is learned before we enter school to study it'." She examines the role of non-verbal communication as an expression of power in interpersonal relationships and in society as a whole. At this point, let us examine the different kinds of non-verbal communication which are possible.

2.2 Types of non-verbal communication

When we talk to somebody face to face, information is not exchanged by words alone, but also by our body movements and details of the situation in which we find ourselves. For example, it can be difficult to know exactly what a person means by the words 'what a day!' If the person utters this while heading for the nearest armchair, and then slumps down and proceeds to relax all his or her muscles, then we may take this to mean that it was a tiring or perhaps, stressful day. If, on the other hand, the person is uttering this while standing at the window with hands on hips and looking our at the cloudless blue sky, then we may assume that the person is referring to the beautiful weather that day.

However, sometimes the non-verbal cues and the verbal message may be in conflict. For example, your friend tells you that she is not annoyed with you, but several factors in the situation lead you to believe otherwise; the toss of her head, her facial expression, her tone of voice and the fact that her favourite Waterford crystal glass, that you have just accidentally broken, is lying in pieces on the table, having first spilled a fine wine on her pristine white Irish linen table cloth! In a situation such as this, the non-verbal cues'speak more loudly' than the verbal ones. (Or as Freud said of words, they hid more than they revealed).

Prosodic features such as intonation, pitch and stress are features produced in the vocal tract which are used to convey meaning. Their importance is acknowledged by the use of audio cassettes in the classroom to provide information that the written word alone can not provide. While acknowledging their importance, they shall not be considered further here because they are common to both radio and television programmes. Although smells and tastes (olfactory and gustatory signs) can give valuable information, their function in human communication, unlike animal communication, is limited and of course, neither can be appreciated (even though they may be imagined) through video!

2.2.1 Visual - Kinesics

This refers to the role of body movement in communication and includes, facial expressions, eye contact, gestures and body posture.

The face can indicate a wide range of emotions, either consciously or subconsciously, presumably this is the reason why card players try to maintain a wooden countenance, hence the term 'poker face'. The direction and length of a person's gaze can also convey information about emotions and attitudes. As discourse analysis has demonstrated, these elements are important in conversational strategies such as feedback and turn taking. We often associate looking a person in the eye with sincerity. (Many politicians and people in the public sphere employ this technique on television and most telepromters are situated so as to enable the eye to keep this middle distance). However, not all cultures interpret eye contact in the same way.

Gestures may be learned or idiosyncratic. Learned gestures are movements which have deliberate communicative functions, for example, waving may be used to gain someone's attention or to say good-bye. Nodding the head indicates affirmation (although apparently it is associated with negation in Bulgaria). Some examples of 'bad language' have an equivalent gesture which can either replace or reinforce the intended message. Idiosyncratic gestures are those which are often unconscious and although they may indicate a person's state of mind, they are not systematic.

Body posture, like facial expressions and eye contact can indicate states of mind such as interest or boredom. Body posture also functions in conversational strategies for the above reasons and for its use in turn taking, e.g. we may sit forward to indicate we want to take the next turn or sit back to let someone else have their turn.

2.2.2 Tactile - Proxemics

This refers to both bodily contact and distance between people.

Bodily contact may be used to communicate feelings such as affection, aggression, or sexual attraction. Bodily contact may occur when we greet or take leave of someone.

Distance between people can also communicate information about their social relationships, whether they are close friends or colleagues and their relative status. Invasion of 'body space' can cause feelings of embarrassment or suspicion. Each culture has its norms concerning the distance common between people and variations can be misinterpreted.

Although it is important to explore the nature of non-verbal cues used in interaction, a detailed analysis of how people interpret gaze direction and gestures etc., is not within the scope of this thesis. Such an analysis requires training and the average person does not have this. What is important is the fact that most people do make use of these albeit at a sub-conscious level and that is why it is so importance to see one's interlocutors when communicating.

2.2.3 Extralinguistic communication

There are also other elements in a communicative context which convey information, but which are not part of interaction in the way the others are. These are the extra linguistic elements of communication. An important point should be made here, and that is the difference between denotative and connotative meaning. Words and objects have literal meanings (denotative), but also they often have connotations, that is, they suggest other things. On television, the screen may contain a host of different objects, many of which have been chosen to create a particular setting. Masterman refers to the relationship between objects in a programme (that is the way they are combined) as its iconography and suggests that this relationship is a sign-system capable of being analysed just like non-verbal communication studies have done with people.

Certain assumptions are often made regarding people based on their appearance. Masterman describes people as 'complex communication networks' because clothes and hair style can reveal something about them. The importance of image and appearance is demonstrated most clearly by those in the public eye. When the unknown Diana Spencer became Princess Diana, her appearance changed too. Budding musicians and singers worry about the 'look' they are trying to get across. Politicians consult clothing consultants in order to suggest a positive image and gain more votes.

Dress may be used to convey information regarding people's nationality (the kilt), their religion (a nun's habit), their job (a business suit or a workman's overalls). Dress may also evoke a certain historical period. We associate different clothes with different activities; a bathrobe before or after a shower, pyjamas going to bed or getting up (or when the doctor visits!), sports gear. Masterman talks about the suits of the news readers which make them seem more credible and reliable.

Hairstyles are often used in conjunction with the above to indicate a time factor. For example, the elaborate, powdered wigs worn by men and women in earlier times, the 1920's bob, the 40's roll or the 1960's beehive hairdo.

We have certain expectations regarding the behaviour and language that will take place in certain settings, for instance, a court room, a class room, a shop, a sports field. Certain types of 'architecture' can suggest different countries, for example, the wooden slats and front porch of a clapboard house can be enough to suggest the United States and red brick terraced houses may suggest a British city. Sometimes, it may be that a single building found in one of the cities in the country is so instantly recognisable that it is used to represent not only the city, but the country too. Famous examples would be the Eiffel Tower (France), the leaning tower of Pisa (Italy), the Sydney opera house (Australia), and the Taj Mahal (India).
