W1A-002 Learning strategies-0.txt
THE CONCEPT OF HUMAN LEARNING

The term 'learning' is a scientific construction based on observations of behaviour in repeated situations. The Oxford dictionary defines learning as "getting knowledge of, or skill in, by study and/or experience", whilst the Encyclopedia Brittanica defines the term as "the alteration of an individual's behaviour as the result of experience".

Borger and Seaborne (1996) define learning as "any more or less permanent change of behaviour which is the result of experience", as they contend that "to consider learning is to consider how the interaction between an individual and his environment brings about changes in the way in which he tends to behave". Piaget (1969) explains learning as "involving adaptation to the environment and organisation of experience by means of action, memory, perceptions and other kinds of mental activities", whilst Gagn&/e (1967) defines learning as "a change in human disposition of capability which can be retained and which is not simply ascribable to the process of growth". He qualifies his definition by explaining that the kind of change called learning exhibits itself as a change in behaviour, and the inference of learning is made by comparing what behaviour was possible before the individual was placed in a "learning situation" and what behaviour can be exhibited after such treatment. This change he contends, must have more than momentary permanence. It must be capable of being retained over some period of time and it must be distinguishable from the kind of change that is attributable to growth, such as a change in height or the development of muscles through exercise.

Hilgard and Atkinson (1975) also contend that as not all behavioural changes are caused by learning, any definition of learning must exclude such changes. Thus they define learning as "a relatively permanent change in human behaviour that occurs as the result of prior experience". They explain that the phrase "relatively permanent" excludes changes in behaviour that result from temporary or transient conditions such as fatigue or the influence of drugs. Also, by specifying that learning is the result of "experience", they too are excluding behavioural changes that are due to maturation, disease, or physical damage.

Boyd, Apps et al (1980) in their deliberations about the concept of learning draw a definite distinction between education and learning. They contend that the term "education" emphasises the educator, the agent of change who presents stimuli and reinforcement for learning and designs activities to induce change, whilst in contrast the term "learning" emphasises the person in whom the change occurs or is expected to occur. They define learning as "the act or process by which behavioural change, knowledge, skills, and attitudes are acquired".

On the other hand, Smith (1982) suggest that the term "learning" defies precise definition because it is put to multiple uses. This is because, he argues, that the term "learning" is used to refer to (1) the acquisition and mastery of what is already known about something, (2) the extension and clarification of meaning of one's experience, or (3) an organised, intentional process of testing ideas relevant to problems. In other words, the concept of learning is as he states, "used to describe a product, a process, or a function".

Thus although the problem of defining what the concept of learning is, has been the source of much discussion in the literature, it would appear that there exists agreement that the one basic requirement of learning is that some "change" must take place within the individual, with a learning skill being a way of organising and co-ordinating learning activity so that there is a retained change in the individual.

It would, however, be tempting to think that all one needed to do to turn people into skilled learners would be to identify the skills, ways, decisions and experiences needed and then tell the students about them. But that is not the way one learns a skill, for, as Downs and Perry (1984) state "being told about welding does not produce a skilled welder, as practice in welding with feedback is vital for the skill to develop." Similarily, if we want someone to improve their learning skills then they must practise and get feedback on their skills. This can only take place through continual learning and feedback and reflection on both what is learned and how it is learned. In addition, if as Borger and Seabourne (1966) state "to consider learning is to consider how the interaction between an individual and his environment brings about changes in the way in which he tends to behave," then it would appear important for the teacher to be aware of the previously experienced learning strategies to which his or her students have been accustomed, as their expectation of the learning event will be influenced by the way in which experience has made him or her capable to respond to a learning stimulus. Thus, later in this study, I would propose to examine if in relation to student nurses, an understanding of their expectations of the learning event by the nurse teacher, would enable him or her to shape the specific behaviour of such students, whose maturity, previously attained level of knowledge, and past experience of organising their interactions with the environment will influence their expectations of any learning situation.

THE CONCEPT OF ADULT LEARNING

The concept of adult learning, which Elsdon (1975) describes as "a movement from the familiar into the unfamiliar, a step in the dark which requires courage" is not a new phenomenon, since man has had to learn to adapt continually to changing environments in order to survive. However, as McCrea (1988) argues, the concept of the learning process which changes the adult's way of responding as a result of environmental experience has changed over time as new learning needs emerged and studies of adult learning provided new knowledge of the processes of adult learning.

Piaget (1969) stated that "the principal goal of education is to create men capable of doing new things, not simply repeating what other generations have done". Although, at the time Piaget was referring to the education of children, this quotation would be applicable to the adult learning situation, in so far as the object of adult education involves learning in the context of accumulated experience, skill, knowledge, opinions and prejudices, and building on these foundations, in addition to assisting mature people to change, accept new knowledge and learn to cope with a changing environment. For, although the adult student's learning experiences will be at least partly coloured by his or her school experience, there are differences between the adult student and the school pupil in relation to the learning situation. For example, the former will no longer accept imposed discipline as a child will and is therefore more likely to become vocal if the depths of poor learning circumstances are analysed.

In addition, in contrast to the child who is bound by law to go to school, the adult's motivation for learning will be varied. Consequently, in the adult learning environment, a teacher faced with a class of mixed standards and interests may have little time for a depth analysis of motivation. However, Jones (1969) contends that in the concept of adult learning, what is much more important than a depth-analysis of motivation is the student's self concept in the class. He, therefore, argues that the teacher should be aware of the picture that the student has in his own mind of what he is doing there, what he expects of the teacher, of the subject and of the other students, and how he relates his attendance at class with all his other concerns and responsibilities.

That students have the ability to learn has never been denied, although it has been said that learning is mainly undertaken in childhood and that the ability to learn, and therefore intelligence, decline as the adult ages. But as research has shown in recent years the age limit on learning performance may not occur before 75 years (Cross 1979). New concerns in the concept of lifelong learning have emerged as research on adult learning and development have become more well-known. These findings have relevance for the learning potential of student nurses. Research has shown, for example, Cross (1981), that adult learning and the methods by which adults learn are quite distinct from those that have been developed to date for the education of children but which have also been used in the education of adults.

Consequently, the art and science of helping adults to learn, termed Andragogy, and which Birchenhall (1985) informs one is defined by Meizrow (1983) as "an organised and sustained effort to assist adults to learn in a way that enhances their capability to function as self directed learners", is a topic which has received in recent years considerable scientific investigation. I would now like to comment upon this in relation to its relevance regarding the concept of adult learning.

THE THEORY OF ANDRAGOGY

McCrea (1988) reminds one that the term andragogy first appeared in the literature in 1833 and was used to refer to the normal natural process of lifelong learning for adults. Unfortunately, however, it was not until the late 1950's that writers on adult learning (Kidd 1959: Millar 1964: Knowles 1970) began to look critically at adult learning and to develop a theory of andragogy.

Knowles (1970), who defined andragogy as the art and science of helping adults to learn, cited four major characteristics relevant to andragogy, namely, self concept, experience, readiness to learn and orientation to learning. Tibbles (1977) highlights how an examination of these four characteristics in adult learners would indicate that they are qualitatively different from those in child learners on which traditional pedagogy is based.

The first characteristic is the difference in self concept. In contrast to children who tend to see themselves as dependent persons, adults perceive themselves as responsible self-directing individuals. As Knowles (1970) states "adulthood is the point at which an individual comes to see himself as being essentially self-directing". Thus, an adult who views him or herself as being self-directing, and has, a need to be treated with respect, make his or her own decisions, and as Tibbles (1977) states, "be seen as an important and unique individual". Self-concept is therefore, concerned with the greater independence of adults. This implies that learning situations should ideally allow for as much participation by learners as possible and suggests that if adults are placed in learning situations that do not incorporate their learning needs, they may resist learning.

The second characteristic is experience. Knowles (1970) argues that as individuals mature they accumulate an expanding reservoir of experience that becomes an increasingly rich resource for learning and at the same time provides them with a broadening base to which to relate new learnings. Experience is therefore, particularly significant with regard to adult learners because of the amount and variety of previous experience gained. This implies, however, that transmission techniques of traditional teaching should be replaced by experiental techniques which tap the experience of learners and involve them in analysing their experiences (McCrea 1988). In addition, this experience can also contribute to the learning of others, a factor highlighted by Cooper (1972), who from her study of the adult nurse learners ascertained that "nurses need to learn to respect each other's knowledge and skills so that they can take advantage of this rich resource as they continue to learn".

The third characteristic is readiness. Readiness is concerned with the timing of learning, that is, adults are ready to learn material relevant to their life situation. In contrast to children whose readiness to learn is related to both biological development and social pressures, adults develop their readiness to learn as a result of the requirements of their various social roles. Consequently, adult learners will display a variety of stages and demonstrate a diversity of readiness, depending on the relationship between their past experiences and new ideas, or what Cooper (1972) describes as their "points of contact". It is therefore crucial that a particular learning experience meets the adult learner's needs if his or her readiness to learn is to be maximised. To achieve this, the use of past experiences in relation to new ideas could be a useful technique, whilst grouping learners so that common requirements can be worked on together is another consideration.

The fourth characteristic is orientation to learning. It is allied to two key factors, topic and time, by relating to a change in time perspective from one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application, resulting in an orientation towards learning shifting from subject centred to problem centred. In contrast to children, adults focus more on problems than on subject matter and desire immediacy of application rather than a reference to the future. It is, however, necessary to point out that according to Tibbles (1977) there is now evidence that this is not invariably the case. Nonetheless, it is still considered that this perspective of postponed application in children has created an orientation towards subject-centred learning, and in adults the time perspective of immediacy has produced a problem-centredness towards learning.
