Orientation to Learning and Previous Learning Experiences: Are they Factors that Affect Learning in the Distance Mode?

Hemamala Ratwatte

Abstract

This paper is an attempt to investigate whether the outcome of learning advanced language skills through the distance mode is affected by students' orientation to learning and by their previous learning experiences.

Motivation or orientation to learning is a factor often used to explain variation in student performance. Motivation is of fundamental importance particularly to Open University students since a) they have chosen to engage in post-compulsory education and, b) because the nature of distance education requires the student to be responsible for steering and maintaining her own learning. Orientation to learning, following Morgan (1993) is broadly categorised as 'vocational', 'academic' or 'personal' and used in conjunction with motivation in language learning defined as 'instrumental' or 'integrative' (Gardner and Lambert 1972). Prior learning was established on the basis of formal education/examinations taken before enrolling at the Open University.

A small scale study was carried out using the students registered for the Advanced Certificate in English in 98/99, conducted by the Open University of Sri Lanka, as subjects. A questionnaire was administered at the first day-school to find out the learners' motives for enrolling for the programme and their previous exposure to formal education. The data gathered was correlated with the marks obtained by these students in the continuous assessment assignments for two of the courses in the programme, viz. Advanced Reading and Advanced Writing. The findings reveal that those who are driven to learning for personal enrichment i.e. 'personal' orientation are likely to be better performers in both courses than those who are either academically or vocationally motivated. The study also suggests that although those who have had subject related formal education previously have an advantage initially, they do not outperform others towards the end of the programme.

Introduction

An open learning institution by its very definition, admits mature students to its programmes with either no formal qualifications or with diverse qualifications unlike conventional universities which admit students within a particular age group on the basis of a specific formal qualification, (which, in the case of Sri Lanka is the Advanced Level Examination). However, despite the uniformity in prior learning at enrolment found in conventional universities, it has been noted that

"In cases where students are admitted to college on the basis of A-level performance (or equivalent examination),.. there is a low correlation between A-level grades and final degree results." (Morgan 1993: 27)

Thus, even a homogeneous group of students (at least in terms of qualification and age) exposed to the same input vary greatly in terms of performance. Morgan's (op.cit.) statement therefore implies that factors other than previous learning experiences may cause this disparity in performance.

Apart from the effects of previous learning experiences, hard work and above average intelligence, educationists have posited motivation or orientation to learning as a factor which leads to disparity in the outcome of learning.

"students' orientation (to learning);;  have a crucial impact on how they actually go about their studies". (Morgan 1993: 48)

Motivation or orientation to education has been defined as all those attitudes, aims and purposes which express a student's relationship with a course and with the university (Taylor, Morgan and Gibbs 1981). At an intuitive level too a desire to learn (and the attendant degree of hard work and application) would seem to be necessary for success in university or any other type of education. However, as teachers and course designers it is necessary to know more about how the aims and aspirations of students affect their learning.

All students who choose to pursue higher studies at tertiary level, unlike students at primary or secondary levels, are not compelled to do so by the state or by any other body. Therefore it can be assumed that those who enter a university have chosen to do so and, by implication, are motivated to engage in post-compulsory education and training.

Motivation plays a more vital role in a distance education institution than in any conventional university since distance education engenders a learning context where the learner is separated from the teacher as well as from other learners and, the process of learning takes place in a physical setting e.g. the learners home, which is not geared to learning. Further, it has been said that the distance learning context, in which the motivating, steering and maintaining forces are not controlled by teachers, places a greater demand on the distance learner than the conventional learner (Cropley & Kahl 1983). Thus, the very nature of distance learning requires on the part of the learner a high degree of self-reliance and the ability to be a self-starter and initiator of the learning process (Premaratne, Ratwatte & Perera 1990) and therefore, unlike her conventional counterpart, the learner must take on herself the entire responsibility of learning.

As such, all students who join an Open University, in this case the Open University of Sri Lanka (OUSL), can be assumed to be motivated to study. However, they may have different reasons for pursuing higher studies. Students in different research studies exploring students' views on why they are studying have given a variety of reasons for pursuing higher studies. Wanting to prove their abilities to themselves, finding that they need to achieve something before life passes by, to broaden one's outlook, the desire for qualifications to get a better job, relevance to work or as the next stage in the educational ladder are some of the reasons given for registering in an OU course. (Taylor, Morgan an Gibbs 1981, Taylor 1983, Gibbs, Morgan and Taylor, 1984, Holly and Morgan 1993, Strang, 1987). Although it can be observed from these reactions that students have diverse aims and purposes in taking a course of study we cannot, on the basis of these reasons, say that a certain set of students are either more motivated or less motivated. We can however assume that there is some motivating factor that leads them to engage in post compulsory education. Morgan says that "by exploring students' perspectives for becoming engaged in further education and training, we shall be in a better frame of mind to understand the variations in their performance." (1993:28)

However, Morgan also goes on to say that in distance education research, motivation or orientation to learning is a poorly defined concept and that it is difficult to measure. Further, that "Attempts to develop measures of motivation and to correlate them with performance have not shown any clear patterns." (Morgan 1993:27)

Motivation or orientation to learning has been described as an analytical concept by many (Goodyear 1975, Sagar and Strang 1985). For the purpose of this study we shall adopt a classification of motivation set out by Gibbs, Morgan and Taylor (1984:170) who, after conducting a large number of student interviews summarise the variation in motivation as follows.

According to this classification, motivation or orientation to learning has been broadly categorized as Personal, Vocational or Academic together with the aims and concerns of each type. 1 Goodyear (1975) draws a distinction between 'qualification' and 'compensation', where the former is 'for obtaining a specific qualification in order to achieve some promotion at work' and the latter is where students are'searching for something to compensate inadequacies in one's existing life'. These can be closely linked to the categories of vocational and personal orientation in the Gibbs et.al 1984 classification.

In the case of vocational orientation, students are said to be concerned about the training or qualification as a means of improving job opportunities or achieving promotion at work. In either case the qualification is seen as a means to an end.

Students with an academic orientation are those who are pursuing the next step on the educational ladder. Students who are oriented in this way according to Morgan (1993) tend to be concerned with success and be'syllabus-bound'. They are more interested in getting the grades than with scholarship and learning for its own sake.

Personally oriented students are considered to be concerned with the 'broadening' aspects of university education as well as a means of proving their abilities to themselves and to family and friends. These students too tend to be very concerned with grades as they see their studies as primarily of personal significance and measure of their abilities.

Motivation and Language Learning

Motivation is also a key factor in language learning.

"Motivation and attitudes are important factors in SLA (Second Language Acquisition), which help to determine the level of proficiency achieved by different learners" (Ellis 1990:118).

Gardner and Lambert (1972) after having carried out extensive research into the role of motivation in Second Language (L2) learning say that in language learning, the effects of motivation and attitude to learning appear to be separate from the effects of aptitude and that the most successful learners will be those who have both a talent and a high level of motivation for learning. Gardner and Lambert go on to draw a basic distinction between an integrative and an instrumental orientation to L2 learning. The former occurs when the learner wishes to identify with the culture of the second language while the latter occurs when the learner's goals for learning the second language are functional such as passing an examination, furthering career opportunities etc. Their findings indicate that in certain contexts where the L2 functions as a 'foreign language' (not used outside the classroom) an integrative motivation may be more powerful in facilitating successful learning while in contexts where the L2 is a'second language' (used as a means of wider communication outside the classroom) instrumental motivation may count for more.

Their findings reveal that the effects of motivation can be seen on the rate and success of SLA, rather than on the route of acquisition. 2 They also go on to say that the way in which motivation affects learning is not clear i.e. whether it is motivation that produces successful learning or whether successful learning enhances motivation.

If we try to relate the definitions of motivation as given by Taylor, Morgan and Gibbs (1981) with those found in second language learning, a clear similarity can be seen between Taylor et. al's vocational motivation and Gardner and Lambert's instrumental motivation. Both definitions recognize a utilitarian or practical goal. On the other hand the desire for personal development described as personal motivation (Taylor et. al.) shares some qualities with a language learners desire to become more proficient in the language and culture of the second language and thus broaden one's outlook. There is no parallel between academic motivation (Taylor et. al) and the classification suggested by Gardner and Lambert. However, both definitions have drawn a clear distinction between an orientation to learning for functional purposes and learning for personal development (broaden one's outlook).

Since motivation has been identified as a powerful factor in second language learning (Ellis 1990, Gardner and Lambert 1959, 1972, Gardner and Smythe 1975) as well as a means to understanding variation in adult learning, (Morgan 1993) this study is an attempt to investigate whether students enrolling for the Advanced Certificate in English at the Open University of Sri Lanka are motivated differently and if so, whether the type of motivation is a factor that affects the outcome of language learning through distance education.

This paper also hopes to examine the role of prior learning experiences on performance for although all students admitted to the Advanced Certificate programme have demonstrated their ability to meet the required academic criteria at entry by successful performance at an Entry Test, given the diversity in prior learning experiences students enrolling in an open university usually possess, it is unlikely that previous exposure to education would not exert some influence on students' performance. The study therefore was also an attempt to understand how prior learning experiences affect students' performance.

The Study

The course of study chosen for the purpose of this research, as mentioned earlier, was the Advanced Certificate in English programme offered by the Open University of Sri Lanka (OUSL) since 1998. The first batch of students who completed their studies in 1999 formed the sample.

The Advanced Certificate in English is of one years duration and is offered as a Level 3 course at the OUSL, that is, higher than the foundation level but lower than the diploma and degree level. It is a programme which bridges the gap between the foundation level courses – the Programmes in General English (offered at levels 0, 1 and 2) and the Diploma in English which constitutes the 1st and 2nd years of the Degree programme. The programmes in General English (the Certificate in Basic English (Level 0-1) and the Certificate in Professional English (Level 2)) focus on basic English grammar and take the students from simple reading and writing skills to an intermediate level.
