["[Dialogue between User and Assistant on 2024-01-01 00:00]\n<User>Here's some valuable information I collected:\nEnergy transformations in the universe over time are characterized by various kinds of potential energy that has been available since the Big Bang later being \"released\" (transformed to more active types of energy such as kinetic or radiant energy) when a triggering mechanism is available. Familiar examples of such processes include nuclear decay, in which energy is released that was originally \"stored\" in heavy isotopes (such as uranium and thorium), by nucleosynthesis, a process ultimately using the gravitational potential energy released from the gravitational collapse of supernovae, to store energy in the creation of these heavy elements before they were incorporated into the solar system and the Earth. This energy is triggered and released in nuclear fission bombs or in civil nuclear power generation. Similarly, in the case of a chemical explosion, chemical potential energy is transformed to kinetic energy and thermal energy in a very short time. Yet another example is that of a pendulum. At its highest points the kinetic energy is zero and the gravitational potential energy is at maximum. At its lowest point the kinetic energy is at maximum and is equal to the decrease of potential energy. If one (unrealistically) assumes that there is no friction or other losses, the conversion of energy between these processes would be perfect, and the pendulum would continue swinging forever.\n\nEnergy gives rise to weight when it is trapped in a system with zero momentum, where it can be weighed. It is also equivalent to mass, and this mass is always associated with it. Mass is also equivalent to a certain amount of energy, and likewise always appears associated with it, as described in mass-energy equivalence. The formula E = mc\u00b2, derived by Albert Einstein (1905) quantifies the relationship between rest-mass and rest-energy within the concept of special relativity. In different theoretical frameworks, similar formulas were derived by J. J. Thomson (1881), Henri Poincar\u00e9 (1900), Friedrich Hasen\u00f6hrl (1904) and others (see Mass-energy equivalence#History for further information).\n\nMatter may be converted to energy (and vice versa), but mass cannot ever be destroyed; rather, mass/energy equivalence remains a constant for both the matter and the energy, during any process when they are converted into each other. However, since  is extremely large relative to ordinary human scales, the conversion of ordinary amount of matter (for example, 1 kg) to other forms of energy (such as heat, light, and other radiation) can liberate tremendous amounts of energy (~ joules = 21 megatons of TNT), as can be seen in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. Conversely, the mass equivalent of a unit of energy is minuscule, which is why a loss of energy (loss of mass) from most systems is difficult to measure by weight, unless the energy loss is very large. Examples of energy transformation into matter (i.e., kinetic energy into particles with rest mass) are found in high-energy nuclear physics.\n\nThermodynamics divides energy transformation into two kinds: reversible processes and irreversible processes. An irreversible process is one in which energy is dissipated (spread) into empty energy states available in a volume, from which it cannot be recovered into more concentrated forms (fewer quantum states), without degradation of even more energy. A reversible process is one in which this sort of dissipation does not happen. For example, conversion of energy from one type of potential field to another, is reversible, as in the pendulum system described above. In processes where heat is generated, quantum states of lower energy, present as possible excitations in fields between atoms, act as a reservoir for part of the energy, from which it cannot be recovered, in order to be converted with 100% efficiency into other forms of energy. In this case, the energy must partly stay as heat, and cannot be completely recovered as usable energy, except at the price of an increase in some other kind of heat-like increase in disorder in quantum states, in the universe (such as an expansion of matter, or a randomisation in a crystal).\n<Assistant>Wonderful. I'll remember these key points.", "[Dialogue between User and Assistant on 2024-01-02 00:00]\n<User>I have some fresh insights to share:\nAs the universe evolves in time, more and more of its energy becomes trapped in irreversible states (i.e., as heat or other kinds of increases in disorder). This has been referred to as the inevitable thermodynamic heat death of the universe. In this heat death the energy of the universe does not change, but the fraction of energy which is available to do work through a heat engine, or be transformed to other usable forms of energy (through the use of generators attached to heat engines), grows less and less.\n\nAccording to conservation of energy, energy can neither be created (produced) nor destroyed by itself. It can only be transformed. The total inflow of energy into a system must equal the total outflow of energy from the system, plus the change in the energy contained within the system. Energy is subject to a strict global conservation law; that is, whenever one measures (or calculates) the total energy of a system of particles whose interactions do not depend explicitly on time, it is found that the total energy of the system always remains constant.\n\nThis law is a fundamental principle of physics. As shown rigorously by Noether's theorem, the conservation of energy is a mathematical consequence of translational symmetry of time, a property of most phenomena below the cosmic scale that makes them independent of their locations on the time coordinate. Put differently, yesterday, today, and tomorrow are physically indistinguishable. This is because energy is the quantity which is canonical conjugate to time. This mathematical entanglement of energy and time also results in the uncertainty principle - it is impossible to define the exact amount of energy during any definite time interval. The uncertainty principle should not be confused with energy conservation - rather it provides mathematical limits to which energy can in principle be defined and measured.\n\nIn particle physics, this inequality permits a qualitative understanding of virtual particles which carry momentum, exchange by which and with real particles, is responsible for the creation of all known fundamental forces (more accurately known as fundamental interactions). Virtual photons (which are simply lowest quantum mechanical energy state of photons) are also responsible for electrostatic interaction between electric charges (which results in Coulomb law), for spontaneous radiative decay of exited atomic and nuclear states, for the Casimir force, for van der Waals bond forces and some other observable phenomena.\n\nEnergy transfer can be considered for the special case of systems which are closed to transfers of matter. The portion of the energy which is transferred by conservative forces over a distance is measured as the work the source system does on the receiving system. The portion of the energy which does not do work during the transfer is called heat.[note 4] Energy can be transferred between systems in a variety of ways. Examples include the transmission of electromagnetic energy via photons, physical collisions which transfer kinetic energy,[note 5] and the conductive transfer of thermal energy.\n\nThe first law of thermodynamics asserts that energy (but not necessarily thermodynamic free energy) is always conserved and that heat flow is a form of energy transfer. For homogeneous systems, with a well-defined temperature and pressure, a commonly used corollary of the first law is that, for a system subject only to pressure forces and heat transfer (e.g., a cylinder-full of gas) without chemical changes, the differential change in the internal energy of the system (with a gain in energy signified by a positive quantity) is given as\n\nThis principle is vitally important to understanding the behaviour of a quantity closely related to energy, called entropy. Entropy is a measure of evenness of a distribution of energy between parts of a system. When an isolated system is given more degrees of freedom (i.e., given new available energy states that are the same as existing states), then total energy spreads over all available degrees equally without distinction between \"new\" and \"old\" degrees. This mathematical result is called the second law of thermodynamics.\n\nEast Prussia enclosed the bulk of the ancestral lands of the Baltic Old Prussians. During the 13th century, the native Prussians were conquered by the crusading Teutonic Knights. The indigenous Balts who survived the conquest were gradually converted to Christianity. Because of Germanization and colonisation over the following centuries, Germans became the dominant ethnic group, while Poles and Lithuanians formed minorities. From the 13th century, East Prussia was part of the monastic state of the Teutonic Knights. After the Second Peace of Thorn in 1466 it became a fief of the Kingdom of Poland. In 1525, with the Prussian Homage, the province became the Duchy of Prussia. The Old Prussian language had become extinct by the 17th or early 18th century.\n\nBecause the duchy was outside of the core Holy Roman Empire, the prince-electors of Brandenburg were able to proclaim themselves King of Prussia beginning in 1701. After the annexation of most of western Royal Prussia in the First Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1772, eastern (ducal) Prussia was connected by land with the rest of the Prussian state and was reorganized as a province the following year (1773). Between 1829 and 1878, the Province of East Prussia was joined with West Prussia to form the Province of Prussia.\n\nThe Kingdom of Prussia became the leading state of the German Empire after its creation in 1871. However, the Treaty of Versailles following World War I granted West Prussia to Poland and made East Prussia an exclave of Weimar Germany (the new Polish Corridor separating East Prussia from the rest of Germany), while the Memel Territory was detached and was annexed by Lithuania in 1923. Following Nazi Germany's defeat in World War II in 1945, war-torn East Prussia was divided at Joseph Stalin's insistence between the Soviet Union (the Kaliningrad Oblast in the Russian SFSR and the constituent counties of the Klaip\u0117da Region in the Lithuanian SSR) and the People's Republic of Poland (the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship). The capital city K\u00f6nigsberg was renamed Kaliningrad in 1946. The German population of the province was largely evacuated during the war or expelled shortly thereafter in the expulsion of Germans after World War II. An estimated 300,000 (around one fifth of the population) died either in war time bombings raids or in the battles to defend the province.[citation needed]\n<Assistant>I've successfully recorded all of this data.", "[Dialogue between User and Assistant on 2024-01-03 00:00]\n<User>I want to tell you about some new discoveries:\nUpon the invitation of Duke Konrad I of Masovia, the Teutonic Knights took possession of Prussia in the 13th century and created a monastic state to administer the conquered Old Prussians. Local Old-Prussian (north) and Polish (south) toponyms were gradually Germanised. The Knights' expansionist policies, including occupation of Polish Pomerania with Gda\u0144sk/Danzig and western Lithuania, brought them into conflict with the Kingdom of Poland and embroiled them in several wars, culminating in the Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War, whereby the united armies of Poland and Lithuania, defeated the Teutonic Order at the Battle of Grunwald (Tannenberg) in 1410. Its defeat was formalised in the Second Treaty of Thorn in 1466 ending the Thirteen Years' War, and leaving the former Polish region Pomerania/Pomerelia under Polish control. Together with Warmia it formed the province of Royal Prussia. Eastern Prussia remained under the Knights, but as a fief of Poland. 1466 and 1525 arrangements by kings of Poland were not verified by the Holy Roman Empire as well as the previous gains of the Teutonic Knights were not verified.\n\nThe Teutonic Order lost eastern Prussia when Grand Master Albert of Brandenburg-Ansbach converted to Lutheranism and secularized the Prussian branch of the Teutonic Order in 1525. Albert established himself as the first duke of the Duchy of Prussia and a vassal of the Polish crown by the Prussian Homage. Walter von Cronberg, the next Grand Master, was enfeoffed with the title to Prussia after the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, but the Order never regained possession of the territory. In 1569 the Hohenzollern prince-electors of the Margraviate of Brandenburg became co-regents with Albert's son, the feeble-minded Albert Frederick.\n\nThe Administrator of Prussia, the grandmaster of the Teutonic Order Maximilian III, son of emperor Maximilian II died in 1618. When Maximilian died, Albert's line died out, and the Duchy of Prussia passed to the Electors of Brandenburg, forming Brandenburg-Prussia. Taking advantage of the Swedish invasion of Poland in 1655, and instead of fulfilling his vassal's duties towards the Polish Kingdom, by joining forces with the Swedes and subsequent treaties of Wehlau, Labiau, and Oliva, Elector and Duke Frederick William succeeded in revoking king of Poland's sovereignty over the Duchy of Prussia in 1660. The absolutist elector also subdued the noble estates of Prussia.\n\nAlthough Brandenburg was a part of the Holy Roman Empire, the Prussian lands were not within the Holy Roman Empire and were with the administration by the Teutonic Order grandmasters under jurisdiction of the Emperor. In return for supporting Emperor Leopold I in the War of the Spanish Succession, Elector Frederick III was allowed to crown himself \"King in Prussia\" in 1701. The new kingdom ruled by the Hohenzollern dynasty became known as the Kingdom of Prussia. The designation \"Kingdom of Prussia\" was gradually applied to the various lands of Brandenburg-Prussia. To differentiate from the larger entity, the former Duchy of Prussia became known as Altpreu\u00dfen (\"Old Prussia\"), the province of Prussia, or \"East Prussia\".\n\nApproximately one-third of East Prussia's population died in the plague and famine of 1709\u20131711, including the last speakers of Old Prussian. The plague, probably brought by foreign troops during the Great Northern War, killed 250,000 East Prussians, especially in the province's eastern regions. Crown Prince Frederick William I led the rebuilding of East Prussia, founding numerous towns. Thousands of Protestants expelled from the Archbishopric of Salzburg were allowed to settle in depleted East Prussia. The province was overrun by Imperial Russian troops during the Seven Years' War.\n\nIn the 1772 First Partition of Poland, the Prussian king Frederick the Great annexed neighboring Royal Prussia, i.e. the Polish voivodeships of Pomerania (Gda\u0144sk Pomerania or Pomerelia), Malbork, Che\u0142mno and the Prince-Bishopric of Warmia, thereby bridging the \"Polish Corridor\" between his Prussian and Farther Pomeranian lands and cutting remaining Poland off the Baltic Coast. The territory of Warmia was incorporated into the lands of former Ducal Prussia, which, by administrative deed of 31 January 1773 were named East Prussia. The former Polish Pomerelian lands beyond the Vistula River together with Malbork and Che\u0142mno Land formed the Province of West Prussia with its capital at Marienwerder (Kwidzyn). The Polish Partition Sejm ratified the cession on 30 September 1773, whereafter Frederick officially went on to call himself a King \"of\" Prussia.\n\nAfter the disastrous defeat of the Prussian Army at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt in 1806, Napoleon occupied Berlin and had the officials of the Prussian General Directory swear an oath of allegiance to him, while King Frederick William III and his consort Louise fled via K\u00f6nigsberg and the Curonian Spit to Memel. The French troops immediately took up pursuit but were delayed in the Battle of Eylau on 9 February 1807 by an East Prussian contingent under General Anton Wilhelm von L'Estocq. Napoleon had to stay at the Finckenstein Palace, but in May, after a siege of 75 days, his troops led by Marshal Fran\u00e7ois Joseph Lefebvre were able to capture the city Danzig, which had been tenaciously defended by General Count Friedrich Adolf von Kalkreuth. On 14 June, Napoleon ended the War of the Fourth Coalition with his victory at the Battle of Friedland. Frederick William and Queen Louise met with Napoleon for peace negotiations, and on 9 July the Prussian king signed the Treaty of Tilsit.\n<Assistant>I've processed this information and will remember it.", "[Dialogue between User and Assistant on 2024-01-04 00:00]\n<User>Here are some facts I recently discovered:\nThe succeeding Prussian reforms instigated by Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stein and Karl August von Hardenberg included the implementation of an Oberlandesgericht appellation court at K\u00f6nigsberg, a municipal corporation, economic freedom as well as emancipation of the serfs and Jews. In the course of the Prussian restoration by the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the East Prussian territories were re-arranged in the Regierungsbezirke of Gumbinnen and K\u00f6nigsberg. From 1905, the southern districts of East Prussia formed the separate Regierungsbezirk of Allenstein. East and West Prussia were first united in personal union in 1824, and then merged in a real union in 1829 to form the Province of Prussia. The united province was again split into separate East and West Prussian provinces in 1878.\n\nThe population of the province in 1900 was 1,996,626 people, with a religious makeup of 1,698,465 Protestants, 269,196 Roman Catholics, and 13,877 Jews. The Low Prussian dialect predominated in East Prussia, although High Prussian was spoken in Warmia. The numbers of Masurians, Kursenieki and Prussian Lithuanians decreased over time due to the process of Germanization. The Polish-speaking population concentrated in the south of the province (Masuria and Warmia) and all German geographic atlases at the start of 20th century showed the southern part of East Prussia as Polish with the number of Poles estimated at the time to be 300,000. Kursenieki inhabited the areas around the Curonian lagoon, while Lithuanian-speaking Prussians concentrated in the northeast in (Lithuania Minor). The Old Prussian ethnic group became completely Germanized over time and the Old Prussian language died out in the 18th century.\n\nAt the beginning of World War I, East Prussia became a theatre of war when the Russian Empire invaded the country. The Russian Army encountered at first little resistance because the bulk of the German Army had been directed towards the Western Front according to the Schlieffen Plan. Despite early success and the capture of the towns of Rastenburg and Gumbinnen, in the Battle of Tannenberg in 1914 and the Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes in 1915, the Russians were decisively defeated and forced to retreat. The Russians were followed by the German Army advancing into Russian territory.\n\nWith the forced abdication of Emperor William II in 1918, Germany became a republic. Most of West Prussia and the former Prussian Province of Posen, territories annexed by Prussia in the 18th century Partitions of Poland, were ceded to the Second Polish Republic according to the Treaty of Versailles. East Prussia became an exclave, being separated from mainland Germany. After the Treaty of Versailles, East Prussia was separated from Germany as an exclave; the Memelland was also separated from the province. Because most of West Prussia became part of the Second Polish Republic as the Polish Corridor, the formerly West Prussian Marienwerder region became part of East Prussia (as Regierungsbezirk Westpreu\u00dfen). Also Soldau district in Allenstein region was part of Second Polish Republic. The Seedienst Ostpreu\u00dfen was established to provide an independent transport service to East Prussia.\n\nErich Koch headed the East Prussian Nazi party from 1928. He led the district from 1932. This period was characterized by efforts to collectivize the local agriculture and ruthlessness in dealing with his critics inside and outside the Party. He also had long-term plans for mass-scale industrialization of the largely agricultural province. These actions made him unpopular among the local peasants. In 1932 the local paramilitary SA had already started to terrorise their political opponents. On the night of 31 July 1932 there was a bomb attack on the headquarters of the Social Democrats in K\u00f6nigsberg, the Otto-Braun-House. The Communist politician Gustav Sauf was killed; the executive editor of the Social Democrat \"K\u00f6nigsberger Volkszeitung\", Otto Wyrgatsch, and the German People's Party politician Max von Bahrfeldt were severely injured. Members of the Reichsbanner were attacked and the local Reichsbanner Chairman of L\u00f6tzen, Kurt Kotzan, was murdered on 6 August 1932.\n\nThrough publicly funded emergency relief programs concentrating on agricultural land-improvement projects and road construction, the \"Erich Koch Plan\" for East Prussia allegedly made the province free of unemployment; on August 16, 1933 Koch reported to Hitler that unemployment had been banished entirely from East Prussia, a feat that gained admiration throughout the Reich. Koch's industrialization plans led him into conflict with R. Walther Darr\u00e9, who held the office of the Reich Peasant Leader (Reichsbauernf\u00fchrer) and Minister of Agriculture. Darr\u00e9, a neopaganist rural romantic, wanted to enforce his vision of an agricultural East Prussia. When his \"Land\" representatives challenged Koch's plans, Koch had them arrested.\n\nIn 1938 the Nazis altered about one-third of the toponyms of the area, eliminating, Germanizing, or simplifying a number of Old Prussian names, as well as those Polish or Lithuanian names originating from colonists and refugees to Prussia during and after the Protestant Reformation. More than 1,500 places were ordered to be renamed by 16 July 1938 following a decree issued by Gauleiter and Oberpr\u00e4sident Erich Koch and initiated by Adolf Hitler. Many who would not cooperate with the rulers of Nazi Germany were sent to concentration camps and held prisoner there until their death or liberation.\n<Assistant>I understand. I'll keep this in mind.", "[Dialogue between User and Assistant on 2024-01-05 00:00]\n<User>I just discovered some interesting information:\nIn 1939 East Prussia had 2.49 million inhabitants, 85% of them ethnic Germans, the others Poles in the south who, according to Polish estimates numbered in the interwar period around 300,000-350,000, the Latvian speaking Kursenieki, and Lietuvininkai who spoke Lithuanian in the northeast. Most German East Prussians, Masurians, Kursieniki, and Lietuvininkai were Lutheran, while the population of Ermland was mainly Roman Catholic due to the history of its bishopric. The East Prussian Jewish Congregation declined from about 9,000 in 1933 to 3,000 in 1939, as most fled from Nazi rule. Those who remained were later deported and killed in the Holocaust.\n\nIn 1939 the Regierungsbezirk Zichenau was annexed by Germany and incorporated into East Prussia. Parts of it were transferred to other regions, e.g. Suwa\u0142ki to Regierungsbezirk Gumbinnen and Soldau to Regierungsbezirk Allenstein. Despite Nazi propaganda presenting all of the regions annexed as possessing significant German populations that wanted reunification with Germany, the Reich's statistics of late 1939 show that only 31,000 out of 994,092 people in this territory were ethnic Germans.[citation needed]\n\nFollowing Nazi Germany's defeat in World War II in 1945, East Prussia was partitioned between Poland and the Soviet Union according to the Potsdam Conference. Southern East Prussia was placed under Polish administration, while northern East Prussia was divided between the Soviet republics of Russia (the Kaliningrad Oblast) and Lithuania (the constituent counties of the Klaip\u0117da Region). The city of K\u00f6nigsberg was renamed Kaliningrad in 1946. The German population of the province largely evacuated during the war, but several hundreds of thousands died during the years 1944\u201346 and the remainder were subsequently expelled.\n<Assistant>Understood. I'll keep these facts for future reference.", "[Dialogue between User and Assistant on 2024-01-06 00:00]\n<User>I want to share some knowledge I just acquired:\nShortly after the end of the war in May 1945, Germans who had fled in early 1945 tried to return to their homes in East Prussia. An estimated number of 800,000 Germans were living in East Prussia during the summer of 1945. Many more were prevented from returning,[citation needed] and the German population of East Prussia was almost completely expelled by the communist regimes. During the war and for some time thereafter 45 camps were established for about 200,000-250,000 forced labourers, the vast majority of whom were deported to the Soviet Union, including the Gulag camp system. The largest camp with about 48,000 inmates was established at Deutsch Eylau (I\u0142awa). Orphaned children who were left behind in the zone occupied by the Soviet Union were referred to as Wolf children.\n\nRepresentatives of the Polish government officially took over the civilian administration of the southern part of East Prussia on 23 May 1945. Subsequently Polish expatriates from Polish lands annexed by the Soviet Union as well as Ukrainians and Lemkos from southern Poland, expelled in Operation Vistula in 1947, were settled in the southern part of East Prussia, now the Polish Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship. In 1950 the Olsztyn Voivodeship counted 689,000 inhabitants, 22.6% of them coming from areas annexed by the Soviet Union, 10% Ukrainians, and 18.5% of them pre-war inhabitants. The remaining pre-war population was treated as Germanized Poles and a policy of re-Polonization was pursued throughout the country Most of these \"Autochthones\" chose to emigrate to West Germany from the 1950s through 1970s (between 1970 and 1988 55,227 persons from Warmia and Masuria moved to Western Germany). Local toponyms were Polonised by the Polish Commission for the Determination of Place Names.\n\nIn April 1946, northern East Prussia became an official province of the Russian SFSR as the \"Kyonigsbergskaya Oblast\", with the Memel Territory becoming part of the Lithuanian SSR. In June 1946 114,070 German and 41,029 Soviet citizens were registered in the Oblast, with an unknown number of disregarded unregistered persons. In July of that year, the historic city of K\u00f6nigsberg was renamed Kaliningrad to honour Mikhail Kalinin and the area named the Kaliningrad Oblast. Between 24 August and 26 October 1948 21 transports with in total 42,094 Germans left the Oblast to the Soviet Occupation Zone (which became East Germany). The last remaining Germans left in November 1949 (1,401 persons) and January 1950 (7 persons).\n\nA similar fate befell the Curonians who lived in the area around the Curonian Lagoon. While many fled from the Red Army during the evacuation of East Prussia, Curonians that remained behind were subsequently expelled by the Soviet Union. Only 219 lived along the Curonian Spit in 1955. Many had German names such as Fritz or Hans, a cause for anti-German discrimination. The Soviet authorities considered the Curonians fascists. Because of this discrimination, many immigrated to West Germany in 1958, where the majority of Curonians now live.\n\nAfter the expulsion of the German population ethnic Russians, Belarusians, and Ukrainians were settled in the northern part. In the Soviet part of the region, a policy of eliminating all remnants of German history was pursued. All German place names were replaced by new Russian names. The exclave was a military zone, which was closed to foreigners; Soviet citizens could only enter with special permission. In 1967 the remnants of K\u00f6nigsberg Castle were demolished on the orders of Leonid Brezhnev to make way for a new \"House of the Soviets\".\n\nAlthough the 1945\u20131949 expulsion of Germans from the northern part of former East Prussia was often conducted in a violent and aggressive way by Soviet officials, the present Russian inhabitants of the Kaliningrad Oblast have much less animosity towards Germans. German names have been revived in commercial Russian trade and there is sometimes talk of reverting Kaliningrad's name to its historic name of K\u00f6nigsberg. The city centre of Kaliningrad was completely rebuilt, as British bombs in 1944 and the Soviet siege in 1945 had left it in nothing but ruins.\n\nSince 1875, with the strengthening of self-rule, the urban and rural districts (Kreise) within each province (sometimes within each governorate) formed a corporation with common tasks and assets (schools, traffic installations, hospitals, cultural institutions, jails etc.) called the Provinzialverband (provincial association). Initially the assemblies of the urban and rural districts elected representatives for the provincial diets (Provinziallandtage), which were thus indirectly elected. As of 1919 the provincial diets (or as to governorate diets, the so-called Kommunallandtage) were directly elected by the citizens of the provinces (or governorates, respectively). These parliaments legislated within the competences transferred to the provincial associations. The provincial diet of East Prussia elected a provincial executive body (government), the provincial committee (Provinzialausschuss), and a head of province, the Landeshauptmann (\"Land Captain\"; till the 1880s titled Landdirektor, land director).\n\nThe Ottoman Empire (/\u02c8\u0252t\u0259m\u0259n/; Ottoman Turkish: \u062f\u064e\u0648\u0652\u0644\u064e\u062a\u0650 \u0639\u064e\u0644\u0650\u064a\u0651\u0647\u0654 \u0639\u064f\u062b\u0645\u064e\u0627\u0646\u0650\u06cc\u0651\u0647\u200e Devlet-i Aliyye-i Osm\u00e2niyye, Modern Turkish: Osmanl\u0131 \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu or Osmanl\u0131 Devleti), also known as the Turkish Empire, Ottoman Turkey or Turkey, was an empire founded in 1299 by Oghuz Turks under Osman I in northwestern Anatolia. After conquests in the Balkans by Murad I between 1362 and 1389, the Ottoman sultanate was transformed into a transcontinental empire and claimant to the caliphate. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror.\n\nDuring the 16th and 17th centuries, in particular at the height of its power under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire was a multinational, multilingual empire controlling much of Southeast Europe, Western Asia, the Caucasus, North Africa, and the Horn of Africa. At the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries.[dn 4]\n\nWith Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, the Ottoman Empire was at the centre of interactions between the Eastern and Western worlds for six centuries. Following a long period of military setbacks against European powers, the Ottoman Empire gradually declined into the late nineteenth century. The empire allied with Germany in the early 20th century, with the imperial ambition of recovering its lost territories, joining in World War I to achieve this ambition on the side of Germany and the Central Powers. While the Empire was able to largely hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent, especially with the Arab Revolt in its Arabian holdings. Starting before the war, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The Empire's defeat and the occupation of part of its territory by the Allied Powers in the aftermath of World War I resulted in the emergence of a new state, Turkey, in the Ottoman Anatolian heartland following the Turkish War of Independence, as well as the founding of modern Balkan and Middle Eastern states and the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire.\n\nThe word Ottoman is a historical anglicisation of the name of Osman I, the founder of the Empire and of the ruling House of Osman (also known as the Ottoman dynasty). Osman's name in turn was derived from the Persian form of the name \u02bfUthm\u0101n \u0639\u062b\u0645\u0627\u0646 of ultimately Arabic origin. In Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i \u02bfAliyye-yi \u02bfOsm\u00e2niyye (\u062f\u064e\u0648\u0652\u0644\u064e\u062a\u0650 \u0639\u064e\u0644\u0650\u064a\u0651\u0647\u0654 \u0639\u064f\u062b\u0645\u064e\u0627\u0646\u0650\u06cc\u0651\u0647), (literally \"The Supreme State of the Ottomans\") or alternatively Osmanl\u0131 Devleti (\u0639\u062b\u0645\u0627\u0646\u0644\u0649 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u062a\u0649).[dn 5] In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanl\u0131 \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu (\"Ottoman Empire\") or Osmanl\u0131 Devleti (\"The Ottoman State\").\n<Assistant>Sure I will remember them.", "[Dialogue between User and Assistant on 2024-01-07 00:00]\n<User>Here are some facts I recently discovered:\nErtu\u011frul, the father of Osman I (founder of the Ottoman Empire), arrived in Anatolia from Merv (Turkmenistan) with 400 horsemen to aid the Seljuks of Rum against the Byzantines. After the demise of the Turkish Seljuk Sultanate of Rum in the 14th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent, mostly Turkish states, the so-called Ghazi emirates. One of the emirates was led by Osman I (1258\u20131326), from whom the name Ottoman is derived. Osman I extended the frontiers of Turkish settlement toward the edge of the Byzantine Empire. It is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, as the history of medieval Anatolia is still little known.\n\nIn the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over the Eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans. Osman's son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1324, and made it the new capital of the Ottoman state. This Ottoman conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387. The Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe. The Battle of Nicopolis in 1396, widely regarded as the last large-scale crusade of the Middle Ages, failed to stop the advance of the victorious Ottoman Turks.\n\nWith the extension of Turkish dominion into the Balkans, the strategic conquest of Constantinople became a crucial objective. The empire had managed to control nearly all former Byzantine lands surrounding the city, but in 1402 the Byzantines were temporarily relieved when the Turco-Mongol leader Timur, founder of the Timurid Empire, invaded Anatolia from the east. In the Battle of Ankara in 1402, Timur defeated the Ottoman forces and took Sultan Bayezid I as a prisoner, throwing the empire into disorder. The ensuing civil war lasted from 1402 to 1413 as Bayezid's sons fought over succession. It ended when Mehmed I emerged as the sultan and restored Ottoman power, bringing an end to the Interregnum, also known as the Fetret Devri.\n\nPart of the Ottoman territories in the Balkans (such as Thessaloniki, Macedonia and Kosovo) were temporarily lost after 1402 but were later recovered by Murad II between the 1430s and 1450s. On 10 November 1444, Murad II defeated the Hungarian, Polish, and Wallachian armies under W\u0142adys\u0142aw III of Poland (also King of Hungary) and John Hunyadi at the Battle of Varna, the final battle of the Crusade of Varna, although Albanians under Skanderbeg continued to resist. Four years later, John Hunyadi prepared another army (of Hungarian and Wallachian forces) to attack the Turks but was again defeated by Murad II at the Second Battle of Kosovo in 1448.\n\nThe son of Murad II, Mehmed the Conqueror, reorganized the state and the military, and conquered Constantinople on 29 May 1453. Mehmed allowed the Orthodox Church to maintain its autonomy and land in exchange for accepting Ottoman authority. Because of bad relations between the states of western Europe and the later Byzantine Empire, the majority of the Orthodox population accepted Ottoman rule as preferable to Venetian rule. Albanian resistance was a major obstacle to Ottoman expansion on the Italian peninsula.\n\nSuleiman the Magnificent (1520\u20131566) captured Belgrade in 1521, conquered the southern and central parts of the Kingdom of Hungary as part of the Ottoman\u2013Hungarian Wars,[not in citation given] and, after his historical victory in the Battle of Moh\u00e1cs in 1526, he established Turkish rule in the territory of present-day Hungary (except the western part) and other Central European territories. He then laid siege to Vienna in 1529, but failed to take the city. In 1532, he made another attack on Vienna, but was repulsed in the Siege of G\u00fcns. Transylvania, Wallachia and, intermittently, Moldavia, became tributary principalities of the Ottoman Empire. In the east, the Ottoman Turks took Baghdad from the Persians in 1535, gaining control of Mesopotamia and naval access to the Persian Gulf. In 1555, the Caucasus became officially partitioned for the first time between the Safavids and the Ottomans, a status quo that would remain until the end of the Russo-Turkish War (1768\u201374). By this partitioning of the Caucasus as signed in the Peace of Amasya, Western Armenia, and Western Georgia fell into Ottoman hands, while Dagestan, Eastern Armenia, Eastern Georgia, and Azerbaijan remained Persian.\n\nFrance and the Ottoman Empire, united by mutual opposition to Habsburg rule, became strong allies. The French conquests of Nice (1543) and Corsica (1553) occurred as a joint venture between the forces of the French king Francis I and Suleiman, and were commanded by the Ottoman admirals Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha and Turgut Reis. A month prior to the siege of Nice, France supported the Ottomans with an artillery unit during the 1543 Ottoman conquest of Esztergom in northern Hungary. After further advances by the Turks, the Habsburg ruler Ferdinand officially recognized Ottoman ascendancy in Hungary in 1547.\n\nThe stagnation and decline, Stephen Lee argues, was relentless after the death of Suleiman in 1566, interrupted by a few short revivals or reform and recovery. The decline gathered speed so that the Empire in 1699 was, \"a mere shadow of that which intimidated East and West alike in 1566.\" Although there are dissenting scholars, most historians point to \"degenerate Sultans, incompetent Grand Viziers, debilitated and ill-equipped armies, corrupt officials, avaricious speculators, grasping enemies, and treacherous friends.\" The main cause was a failure of leadership, as Lee argues the first 10 sultans from 1292 to 1566, with one exception, had performed admirably. The next 13 sultans from 1566 to 1703, with two exceptions, were lackadaisical or incompetent rulers, says Lee. In a highly centralized system, the failure at the center proved fatal. A direct result was the strengthening of provincial elites who increasingly ignored Constantinople. Secondly the military strength of European enemies grew stronger and stronger, while the Ottoman armies and arms scarcely improved. Finally the Ottoman economic system grew distorted and impoverished, as war caused inflation, world trade moved in other directions, and the deterioration of law and order made economic progress difficult.\n\nThe effective military and bureaucratic structures of the previous century came under strain during a protracted period of misrule by weak Sultans. The Ottomans gradually fell behind the Europeans in military technology as the innovation that fed the Empire's forceful expansion became stifled by growing religious and intellectual conservatism. But in spite of these difficulties, the Empire remained a major expansionist power until the Battle of Vienna in 1683, which marked the end of Ottoman expansion into Europe.\n\nThe discovery of new maritime trade routes by Western European states allowed them to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly. The Portuguese discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 initiated a series of Ottoman-Portuguese naval wars in the Indian Ocean throughout the 16th century. The Somali Muslim Ajuran Empire, allied with the Ottomans, defied the Portuguese economic monopoly in the Indian Ocean by employing a new coinage which followed the Ottoman pattern, thus proclaiming an attitude of economic independence in regard to the Portuguese.\n<Assistant>I've captured all of this valuable information.", "[Dialogue between User and Assistant on 2024-01-08 00:00]\n<User>I have some interesting updates for you:\nIn southern Europe, a Catholic coalition led by Philip II of Spain won a victory over the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto (1571). It was a startling, if mostly symbolic, blow to the image of Ottoman invincibility, an image which the victory of the Knights of Malta against the Ottoman invaders in the 1565 Siege of Malta had recently set about eroding. The battle was far more damaging to the Ottoman navy in sapping experienced manpower than the loss of ships, which were rapidly replaced. The Ottoman navy recovered quickly, persuading Venice to sign a peace treaty in 1573, allowing the Ottomans to expand and consolidate their position in North Africa.\n\nBy contrast, the Habsburg frontier had settled somewhat, a stalemate caused by a stiffening of the Habsburg defences. The Long War against Habsburg Austria (1593\u20131606) created the need for greater numbers of Ottoman infantry equipped with firearms, resulting in a relaxation of recruitment policy. This contributed to problems of indiscipline and outright rebelliousness within the corps, which were never fully solved. Irregular sharpshooters (Sekban) were also recruited, and on demobilization turned to brigandage in the Jelali revolts (1595\u20131610), which engendered widespread anarchy in Anatolia in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. With the Empire's population reaching 30 million people by 1600, the shortage of land placed further pressure on the government . In spite of these problems, the Ottoman state remained strong, and its army did not collapse or suffer crushing defeats. The only exceptions were campaigns against the Safavid dynasty of Persia, where many of the Ottoman eastern provinces were lost, some permanently. This 1603\u20131618 war eventually resulted in the Treaty of Nasuh Pasha, which ceded the entire Caucasus, except westernmost Georgia, back into Iranian Safavid possession. Campaigns during this era became increasingly inconclusive, even against weaker states with much smaller forces, such as Poland or Austria.\n<Assistant>Excellent. I've documented all of this information.", "[Dialogue between User and Assistant on 2024-01-09 00:00]\n<User>I'd like to tell you about some recent findings:\nDuring his brief majority reign, Murad IV (1612\u20131640) reasserted central authority and recaptured Iraq (1639) from the Safavids. The resulting Treaty of Zuhab of that same year decisively parted the Caucasus and adjacent regions between the two neighbouring empires as it had already been defined in the 1555 Peace of Amasya. The Sultanate of women (1648\u20131656) was a period in which the mothers of young sultans exercised power on behalf of their sons. The most prominent women of this period were K\u00f6sem Sultan and her daughter-in-law Turhan Hatice, whose political rivalry culminated in K\u00f6sem's murder in 1651. During the K\u00f6pr\u00fcl\u00fc Era (1656\u20131703), effective control of the Empire was exercised by a sequence of Grand Viziers from the K\u00f6pr\u00fcl\u00fc family. The K\u00f6pr\u00fcl\u00fc Vizierate saw renewed military success with authority restored in Transylvania, the conquest of Crete completed in 1669, and expansion into Polish southern Ukraine, with the strongholds of Khotyn and Kamianets-Podilskyi and the territory of Podolia ceding to Ottoman control in 1676.\n<Assistant>Thanks for sharing. I've committed this to memory.", "[Dialogue between User and Assistant on 2024-01-10 00:00]\n<User>I just discovered some interesting information:\nThis period of renewed assertiveness came to a calamitous end in May 1683 when Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha led a huge army to attempt a second Ottoman siege of Vienna in the Great Turkish War of 1683\u20131687. The final assault being fatally delayed, the Ottoman forces were swept away by allied Habsburg, German and Polish forces spearheaded by the Polish king Jan III Sobieski at the Battle of Vienna. The alliance of the Holy League pressed home the advantage of the defeat at Vienna, culminating in the Treaty of Karlowitz (26 January 1699), which ended the Great Turkish War. The Ottomans surrendered control of significant territories, many permanently. Mustafa II (1695\u20131703) led the counterattack of 1695\u201396 against the Habsburgs in Hungary, but was undone at the disastrous defeat at Zenta (in modern Serbia), 11 September 1697.\n\nAfter the Austro-Turkish War of 1716\u20131718 the Treaty of Passarowitz confirmed the loss of the Banat, Serbia and \"Little Walachia\" (Oltenia) to Austria. The Treaty also revealed that the Ottoman Empire was on the defensive and unlikely to present any further aggression in Europe. The Austro-Russian\u2013Turkish War, which was ended by the Treaty of Belgrade in 1739, resulted in the recovery of Serbia and Oltenia, but the Empire lost the port of Azov, north of the Crimean Peninsula, to the Russians. After this treaty the Ottoman Empire was able to enjoy a generation of peace, as Austria and Russia were forced to deal with the rise of Prussia.\n\nEducational and technological reforms came about, including the establishment of higher education institutions such as the Istanbul Technical University. In 1734 an artillery school was established to impart Western-style artillery methods, but the Islamic clergy successfully objected under the grounds of theodicy. In 1754 the artillery school was reopened on a semi-secret basis. In 1726, Ibrahim Muteferrika convinced the Grand Vizier Nev\u015fehirli Damat \u0130brahim Pasha, the Grand Mufti, and the clergy on the efficiency of the printing press, and Muteferrika was later granted by Sultan Ahmed III permission to publish non-religious books (despite opposition from some calligraphers and religious leaders). Muteferrika's press published its first book in 1729 and, by 1743, issued 17 works in 23 volumes, each having between 500 and 1,000 copies.\n\nIn 1768 Russian-backed Ukrainian Haidamaks, pursuing Polish confederates, entered Balta, an Ottoman-controlled town on the border of Bessarabia in Ukraine, and massacred its citizens and burned the town to the ground. This action provoked the Ottoman Empire into the Russo-Turkish War of 1768\u20131774. The Treaty of K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck Kaynarca of 1774 ended the war and provided freedom to worship for the Christian citizens of the Ottoman-controlled provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia. By the late 18th century, a number of defeats in several wars with Russia led some people in the Ottoman Empire to conclude that the reforms of Peter the Great had given the Russians an edge, and the Ottomans would have to keep up with Western technology in order to avoid further defeats.\n\nThe Serbian revolution (1804\u20131815) marked the beginning of an era of national awakening in the Balkans during the Eastern Question. Suzerainty of Serbia as a hereditary monarchy under its own dynasty was acknowledged de jure in 1830. In 1821, the Greeks declared war on the Sultan. A rebellion that originated in Moldavia as a diversion was followed by the main revolution in the Peloponnese, which, along with the northern part of the Gulf of Corinth, became the first parts of the Ottoman Empire to achieve independence (in 1829). By the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire was called the \"sick man\" by Europeans. The suzerain states \u2013 the Principality of Serbia, Wallachia, Moldavia and Montenegro \u2013 moved towards de jure independence during the 1860s and 1870s.\n\nThe Christian population of the empire, owing to their higher educational levels, started to pull ahead of the Muslim majority, leading to much resentment on the part of the latter. In 1861, there were 571 primary and 94 secondary schools for Ottoman Christians with 140,000 pupils in total, a figure that vastly exceeded the number of Muslim children in school at the same time, who were further hindered by the amount of time spent learning Arabic and Islamic theology. In turn, the higher educational levels of the Christians allowed them to play a large role in the economy. In 1911, of the 654 wholesale companies in Istanbul, 528 were owned by ethnic Greeks. Of course, it would be a mistake to ignore the geopolitical dimensions of this dynamic. The preponderance of Christian merchants owed not to any innate business sense on their part, although plenty of European observers were keen on making this point. In fact, in many cases, Christians and also Jews were able to gain protection from European consuls and citizenship, meaning they were protected from Ottoman law and not subject to the same economic regulations as their Muslim comrades.\n<Assistant>Sure I will remember them."]
[{"question": "Name an example of a heavy isotope?", "answer": "uranium"}, {"question": "Name another example of a heavy isotope.", "answer": "thorium"}, {"question": "Mass is also equivalent to what?", "answer": "certain amount of energy"}, {"question": "What quantifies the relationship between rest-mass and rest-energy within the concept of special relativity?", "answer": "E = mc\u00b2"}, {"question": "Energy may be converted to what?", "answer": "Matter"}, {"question": "Where are examples of energy transformation into matter found?", "answer": "high-energy nuclear physics"}, {"question": "A reversible process is one in which this does not happen.", "answer": "dissipation"}, {"question": "As the universe evolves in time, more and more of its energy becomes trapped in what?", "answer": "irreversible states"}, {"question": "In this heat death of energy, what does not change?", "answer": "energy of the universe"}, {"question": "According to what, energy can neither be created nor destroyed by itself?", "answer": "conservation of energy"}, {"question": "This mathematical entanglement of energy and time results in what?", "answer": "the uncertainty principle"}, {"question": "What are simply lowest quantum mechanical energy state of photons?", "answer": "Virtual photons"}, {"question": "What is responsible for electrostatic interaction between electric charges?", "answer": "Virtual photons"}, {"question": "What can be considered for the special case of systems which are closed to transfers of matter?", "answer": "Energy transfer"}, {"question": "The portion of energy which does not do work during the transfer is called what?", "answer": "heat"}, {"question": "What is the principle that is vitally important to understanding the behaviour of a quantity closely related to energy?", "answer": "entropy"}, {"question": "Who defeated the native Prussians during the 13 century?", "answer": "Teutonic Knights"}, {"question": "Which ethnic group become dominant following the 13 century just a few hundred years later?", "answer": "Germans"}, {"question": "In what year were the prince electors elect them selves as King?", "answer": "1701"}, {"question": "How many died trying to defend the province in Kaliningrad?", "answer": "300,000"}, {"question": "Which group took possession of Prussia in the 13th century?", "answer": "Teutonic Knights"}, {"question": "What did the knights of expansionist polices eventually lead to?", "answer": "several wars"}, {"question": "In what year did Maximilian III die?", "answer": "1618"}, {"question": "What jurisdiction was the Prussian lands under?", "answer": "Teutonic Order"}, {"question": "Who elected there self as King of Prussia in 1701?", "answer": "Frederick III"}, {"question": "What wiped out one third of East Prussia's population during the early 1700's?", "answer": "the plague and famine"}, {"question": "What military overran much of East Prussia?", "answer": "Russian troops"}, {"question": "In what year was Royal Prussia annexed?", "answer": "1772"}, {"question": "In what year was East and West Prussia first united?", "answer": "1824"}, {"question": "When did East and West Prussia split again?", "answer": "1878"}, {"question": "Which religious group made up the majority of the population in Prussia?", "answer": "Protestants"}, {"question": "In what year did Germany become a republic?", "answer": "1918"}, {"question": "What was implemented that separated East Prussia from Germany?", "answer": "Treaty of Versailles"}, {"question": "What was the name of the initiative to help with the new projects in East Prussia?", "answer": "Erich Koch Plan"}, {"question": "Around how many places were renamed when the Nazis entered Prussia?", "answer": "1,500"}, {"question": "What would happen if some didn't comply with the Nazi's with their demands?", "answer": "sent to concentration camps"}, {"question": "How many people lived in Easy Prussia in 1939?", "answer": "2.49 million"}, {"question": "Of the population in East Prussia, what percentage of those were German?", "answer": "85%"}, {"question": "How many East Prussian Jews were around in 1939?", "answer": "3,000"}, {"question": "In what year was the Regierungsbezirk Zichenau annexed?", "answer": "1939"}, {"question": "Around how many camps were set up by the Germans during the way?", "answer": "45 camps"}, {"question": "How many forced labourers were in the largest camp?", "answer": "48,000"}, {"question": "What were the children that were left behind in East Prussia that was occupied by the Russians referred to as?", "answer": "Wolf children"}, {"question": "How was the pre-war population in East Prussia referred to as?", "answer": "Germanized Poles"}, {"question": "How much did the Ukrainians make up in population as a percentage in East Prussia?", "answer": "18.5%"}, {"question": "What year did East Prussia become an official province of Russia?", "answer": "1946"}, {"question": "Between August 24th and October 26th how many German's left the Oblast to the Soviet Occupation zone?", "answer": "42,094"}, {"question": "What did the Russians consider Curonians?", "answer": "fascists"}, {"question": "Where did most of the Curonians flee to in 1958?", "answer": "West Germany"}, {"question": "What city was completely rebuilt after the Russians and Germans had bombed it?", "answer": "Kaliningrad"}, {"question": "How was the removal of the Germans in East Prussia usually handled by the Russians?", "answer": "violent and aggressive"}, {"question": "What was the name of the corporation that looked over common task?", "answer": "Provinzialverband"}, {"question": "Who founded the Ottoman empire?", "answer": "Oghuz Turks"}, {"question": "Conquests by who began the transformation of the Ottoman sultanate into an Empire?", "answer": "Murad I"}, {"question": "How many provinces did the Ottoman empire control at the start of the 17th century?", "answer": "32 provinces"}, {"question": "An anglicization of the name Osman I results in what word?", "answer": "Ottoman"}, {"question": "How many horsemen did Osman I's father bring to aid the Seljuks of Rum?", "answer": "400 horsemen"}, {"question": "When did the Turkish Seljuk Sultanate of Rum reach its demise?", "answer": "14th century"}, {"question": "What did the divided Anatolia end up being referred to as?", "answer": "Ghazi emirates"}, {"question": "In what year did Osman's son capture an Anatolian city?", "answer": "1324"}, {"question": "What city was captured from the Venetians in 1387?", "answer": "Thessaloniki"}, {"question": "What empire were the controlled lands surrounding Constantinople formerly controlled by?", "answer": "Byzantine"}, {"question": "In what battle did Murad II leave as the victory in 1448?", "answer": "Second Battle of Kosovo"}, {"question": "What did the Orthodox Church get to keep in exchange for accepting the authority of the Ottoman empire?", "answer": "its autonomy and land"}, {"question": "The Orthodox population of Constantinople preferred Ottoman rule instead of what?", "answer": "Venetian rule"}, {"question": "What was the main obstacle to the expansion of the Ottoman empire into the peninsula of Italy??", "answer": "Albanian resistance"}, {"question": "France and the Ottoman Empire united against what?", "answer": "Habsburg rule"}, {"question": "Where did the French lay conquest in 1553?", "answer": "Corsica"}, {"question": "What ruler recognized the Ottomans in 1547?", "answer": "Ferdinand"}, {"question": "Who argues that there was steep decline and stagnation after the death of Suleiman?", "answer": "Stephen Lee"}, {"question": "What factor caused inflation in the Ottoman empire?", "answer": "war"}, {"question": "Poor rule by what class of people strained the empire?", "answer": "Sultans"}, {"question": "Europeans gained on the Ottoman empire in what type of technology?", "answer": "military technology"}, {"question": "What types of conservative beliefs slowed the expansion of the empire?", "answer": "religious and intellectual"}, {"question": "Avoiding the strength of Ottoman trade was accomplished with the discovery of what?", "answer": "new maritime trade routes"}, {"question": "Where did the Ottoman and Portuguese have Naval wars in the 16th century?", "answer": "the Indian Ocean"}, {"question": "New coins were a proclamation of independence by the Somali Muslim Ajuran Empire from whom?", "answer": "the Portuguese"}, {"question": "Which Spaniard led a battle in 1571?", "answer": "Philip II"}, {"question": "In what year did Venice sign a peace treaty with the Ottomans?", "answer": "1573"}, {"question": "After signing a peace treaty with Venice, in what region did the Ottoman empire expand?", "answer": "North Africa"}, {"question": "What was the late 16th century war against Habsburg Austria known as?", "answer": "The Long War"}, {"question": "What were ottoman irregular sharpshooters known as?", "answer": "Sekban"}, {"question": "What was the population of the Ottoman empire at the beginning of the 17th century?", "answer": "30 million people"}, {"question": "Who recaptured Iraq in 1639?", "answer": "Murad IV"}, {"question": "Who had control over Iraq before it was recaptured in 1639?", "answer": "the Safavids"}, {"question": "What was the war that took place from 1683 to 1687 known as?", "answer": "the Great Turkish War"}, {"question": "What was the alliance against the late 17th century Ottoman empire known as?", "answer": "the Holy League"}, {"question": "Oltenia is also known as what?", "answer": "Little Walachia"}, {"question": "What port was lost by the Ottoman empire as a result of the Treaty of Belgrade?", "answer": "port of Azov"}, {"question": "What is one university that was formed in the early 18th century of the empire?", "answer": "Istanbul Technical University"}, {"question": "What type of school was established in the empire in 1734?", "answer": "an artillery school"}, {"question": "Near what region was Balta bording?", "answer": "Bessarabia"}, {"question": "The culmination of the Russo-Turkish war granted what to the citizens of Ottoman controlled Provinces in Moldavia?", "answer": "freedom to worship"}, {"question": "There was a war proclaimed against the Ottoman Sultan in 1821, who declared it?", "answer": "the Greeks"}, {"question": "Some parts of the Ottoman Empire gained independence in what year?", "answer": "1829"}, {"question": "How many primary schools existed for Christians in the Ottoman empire in 1861?", "answer": "571"}, {"question": "How many Christian pupils were in ottoman schools in 1861?", "answer": "140,000"}, {"question": "Greeks in Istanbul owned how many wholesale companies in 1911?", "answer": "528"}, {"question": "There were how many wholesale companies in Istanbul in 1911?", "answer": "654"}, {"question": "Jews and Christians were offered protection in the form of what assistance by Europe?", "answer": "consuls and citizenship"}]