January 1 – Scotland adopts January 1 as New Year's Day instead of March 25.
January
Hugh O'Neill, 2nd Earl of Tyrone, renews the Nine Years' War (Ireland) against England with an invasion of Munster.
Sebald de Weert makes the first definite sighting of the Falkland Islands.
February 17 – On his way to be burned at the stake for heresy in Rome, Giordano Bruno has his tongue "imprisoned" after he refuses to stop talking.
February 19 – Huaynaputina volcano in Peru undergoes a catastrophic eruption, the worst to be recorded in South America.
March 20 – Linköping Bloodbath: Five Swedish nobles are publicly executed by decapitation and Polish–Swedish King Sigismund III Vasa is de facto deposed as ruler of Sweden.
April 19 – The first Dutch ship ever to arrive in Japan, the Liefde ("Love"), anchors in Sashifu, in the Bungo Province (modern-day Usuki in Ōita Prefecture). The sailors present on this ship are William Adams, Jan Joosten van Lodensteijn, Jacob Quaeckernaeck and Melchior van Santvoort.
May 27 – Michael the Brave becomes ruler of Wallachia, Transylvania and Moldavia, formally uniting the three Danubian Principalities under one Romanian ruler.


June 10 – Abraam, Egyptian Coptic Orthodox bishop and saint (b. 1829)
June 11 – Adolf Friedrich V, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (b. 1848)
June 14 – Adlai E. Stevenson I, 23rd Vice President of the United States (b. 1835)
June 15 – John Robert Sitlington Sterrett, American classical scholar and archeologist (b. 1851)
June 19 – Brandon Thomas, British actor and playwright (Charley's Aunt) (b. 1848)
June 21 – Bertha von Suttner, Austrian writer and pacifist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1843)
June 22 – Princess Phannarai, Thai princess consort (b. 1838)
June 25 – Georg II, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen (b. 1826)
June 28
Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria (assassinated) (b. 1863)
Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, wife of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria (assassinated) (b. 1868)


1767 (MDCCLXVII) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar, the 1767th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 767th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 67th  year of the 18th century, and the  8th   year of the 1760s decade. As of the start of 1767, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


The Transverse Ranges result from a complex of tectonic forces and faulting stemming from the interaction of the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate along the dextral (right slip) San Andreas Fault system. Their orientation along an east–west axis as opposed to the general northwest–southeast trend of most California ranges results from a pronounced left step in the San Andreas Fault that occurred in the Pliocene (c. 4 million years ago) when southern reaches of the fault moved east to open the Gulf of California. The crust within the Pacific Plate south of the ranges can not easily make the left turn westward as the entire plate moves northwestward, forcing pieces of the crust to compress and lift.
Prior to this shift of the fault to create the left bend, northwest–southeast trending rock belts in all of the Transverse Ranges began to rotate clockwise in the right shear of Pacific Plate – North American Plate motion. This tectonic rotation began in Early Miocene Time and continues today. The total rotation is about 90° in the Western Transverse Ranges and less (about 40°) in the eastern ranges. Catalina Island shows the most rotation: almost 120°.
A mechanism proposed for the rotation event is capture of the subducting Monterey plate by the outboard Pacific plate. Because the Monterey plate was then beneath southern California, the capture resulted in pulling of the overlying crust out and northward from the rest of California.


The first Europeans known to reach the South Island were the crew of Dutch explorer Abel Tasman who arrived in his ships Heemskerck and Zeehaen. In December 1642, Tasman anchored at the northern end of the island in Golden Bay / Mohua which he named Moordenaar's Bay (Murderers Bay) before sailing northward to Tonga following a clash with Māori. Tasman sketched sections of the two main islands' west coasts. Tasman called them Staten Landt, after the States General of the Netherlands, and that name appeared on his first maps of the country. Dutch cartographers changed the name to Nova Zeelandia in Latin, from Nieuw Zeeland, after the Dutch province of Zeeland. It was subsequently Anglicised as New Zealand by British naval captain James Cook of HM Bark Endeavour who visited the islands more than 100 years after Tasman during (1769–1770).
The first European settlement in the South Island was founded at Bluff in 1823 by James Spencer, a veteran of the Battle of Waterloo.
In January 1827, the French explorer Jules Dumont d'Urville arrived in Tasman Bay / Te Tai-o-Aorere on the corvette Astrolabe. A number of landmarks around Tasman Bay were named by d'Urville and his crew including d'Urville Island, French Pass and Torrent Bay.


Following the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi from February 1840, Lieutenant-Governor Captain William Hobson declared British sovereignty over New Zealand in May 1840 and the South Island, along with the rest of New Zealand, briefly became a part of the Colony of New South Wales. This declaration was in response to France's attempts to colonise the South Island at Akaroa and the New Zealand Company attempts to establish a separate colony in Wellington, and so Hobson declared British sovereignty over all of New Zealand on 21 May 1840 (the North Island by treaty and the South by discovery). Seven days after the declaration, the Treaty was signed at Akaroa on 28 May.
On 17 June 1843, Māori and British settlers clashed at Wairau in what became known as the Wairau Affray. Also known as the Wairau Massacre in most older texts, it was the first serious clash of arms between the two parties after the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi and the only one to take place in the South Island. Four Māori died and three were wounded in the incident, while among the Europeans the toll was 22 dead and five wounded. Twelve of the Europeans were shot dead or clubbed to death after surrendering to Māori who were pursuing them.
The Otago Settlement, sponsored by the Free Church of Scotland, took concrete form in Otago in March 1848 with the arrival of the first two immigrant ships from Greenock (on the Firth of Clyde) – the John Wickliffe and the Philip Laing. Captain William Cargill, a veteran of the Peninsular War, served as the colony's first leader: Otago citizens subsequently elected him to the office of Superintendent of the Province of Otago.
While the North Island was convulsed by the New Zealand Wars of the 1860s and 1870s, the South Island, with its low Māori population, was generally peaceful. In 1861 gold was discovered at Gabriel's Gully in Central Otago, sparking a gold rush. Dunedin became the wealthiest city in the country and many in the South Island resented financing the North Island's wars.
In the 1860s, several thousand Chinese men, mostly from the Guangdong province, migrated to New Zealand to work on the South Island goldfields. Although the first Chinese migrants had been invited by the Otago Provincial government they quickly became the target of hostility from white settlers and laws were enacted specifically to discourage them from coming to New Zealand.


There are 23 territorial authorities within the South Island: 4 city councils and 19 district councils. Three territorial authorities (Nelson City Council, and the Tasman and Marlborough District Councils) also perform the functions of a regional council and thus are known as unitary authorities.
Population as of June 2021.
Total of Christchurch City and Banks Peninsula areas.
Includes Stewart Island and Solander Islands.


January 7 – The Ebel riot occurs in Sweden.
January 9 – Jean-Pierre Blanchard becomes the first to fly in a gas balloon in the United States.
January 13 – Nicolas Jean Hugon de Bassville, a representative of Revolutionary France, is lynched by a mob in Rome.
January 21 – French Revolution: After being found guilty of treason by the French National Convention, Citizen Capet, Louis XVI of France, is guillotined in Paris.
January 23 – Second Partition of Poland: The Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia partition the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
February – In Manchester, Vermont, the wife of a captain falls ill, probably with tuberculosis. Some locals believe that the cause of her illness is that a demon vampire is sucking her blood. As a cure, Timothy Mead burns the heart of a deceased person in front of a crowd of a few hundred people.
February 1 – French Revolutionary Wars: The French First Republic declares war on Great Britain, the Dutch Republic and (on March 7) Spain. During the year, the War of the First Coalition is joined by Portugal, the Holy Roman Empire, Naples and Tuscany in opposition to France.
February 11 – French expedition to Sardinia (Expédition de Sardaigne): A French fleet under admiral Laurent Truguet debarks troops near Cagliari in Sardinia.
February 22 – French expedition to Sardinia: A small French and Corsican force briefly occupies the small Sardinian island of La Maddalena, then withdraws to Corsica. 23-year-old lieutenant Napoleon Buonaparte is second-in-command.
February 25 – George Washington holds the first Cabinet meeting as President of the United States.
February 27 – The Giles Resolutions are introduced to the United States House of Representatives, asking the House to condemn Alexander Hamilton's handling of loans.
March 1–3 – John Langdon serves as President pro tempore of the United States Senate.
March 4 – George Washington is sworn in as President of the United States in Philadelphia, for his second term.
March 5 – French troops are defeated by Austrian forces, and Liège is recaptured.
March 18
Second Battle of Neerwinden: A coalition army of Habsburg monarchy and Dutch Republic troops repulses attacks from French Republican forces, near Neerwinden, Flemish Brabant.
The first republican state in Germany, the Republic of Mainz, is declared by Andreas Joseph Hofmann.
April 6 – French Revolutionary Wars: The Committee of Public Safety is established in France, with Georges Danton as its head.
April 9 – Edmond-Charles Genêt, France's new Minister to the United States, arrives at Charleston, South Carolina.
April 22 – George Washington signs the Neutrality Proclamation.
April 25 – The pioneer parishes of New Orleans and Louisiana are erected, as well as incorporated into the Diocese of Louisiana and the Two Floridas.
May 25 – French expedition to Sardinia: The last French troops occupying the small Sardinian island of San Pietro surrender to a Spanish fleet.
May 31 – French Revolution: Regular troops under François Hanriot demand that the Girondins be expelled from the National Convention.
June – The Macartney Embassy, a British diplomatic mission to China led by George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney, reaches Canton, but will be rebuffed by the Qianlong Emperor.
June 2 – French Revolution: The Girondins are overthrown in France.
June 10 – French Revolution: The Jardin des Plantes and the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle are created by the National Convention. The museum opens in Paris the following year, and the garden houses one of the first public zoos.
June 21 – The town of Hamilton, Massachusetts, is incorporated.


1793 (MDCCXCIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar, the 1793rd year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 793rd  year of the 2nd millennium, the 93rd  year of the 18th century, and the  4th   year of the 1790s decade. As of the start of 1793, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.
  The French Republic introduced the French Revolutionary Calendar starting with the year I.


Indo-European languages
Germanic
West Germanic
Low Franconian
Dutch
Afrikaans, Dutch-based creoles
Afrikaans descended from Dutch dialects in the 17th century. It belongs to a West Germanic sub-group, the Low Franconian languages. Other West Germanic languages related to Afrikaans are German, English, the Frisian languages, and the unstandardised languages Low German and Yiddish.


The Afrikaner religion had stemmed from the Protestant practices of the Reformed Church of Holland during the 17th century, later on being influenced in South Africa by British ministries during the 1800s. A landmark in the development of the language was the translation of the whole Bible into Afrikaans. While significant advances had been made in the textual criticism of the Bible, especially the Greek New Testament, the 1933 translation followed the textus receptus and was closely akin to the Statenbijbel. Before this, most Cape Dutch-Afrikaans speakers had to rely on the Dutch Statenbijbel. This Statenvertaling had its origins with the Synod of Dordrecht of 1618 and was thus in an archaic form of Dutch. This was hard for Dutch speakers to understand, and increasingly unintelligible for Afrikaans speakers.
C. P. Hoogehout, Arnoldus Pannevis, and Stephanus Jacobus du Toit were the first Afrikaans Bible translators. Important landmarks in the translation of the Scriptures were in 1878 with C. P. Hoogehout's translation of the Evangelie volgens Markus (Gospel of Mark, lit. Gospel according to Mark); however, this translation was never published. The manuscript is to be found in the South African National Library, Cape Town.
The first official translation of the entire Bible into Afrikaans was in 1933 by J. D. du Toit, E. E. van Rooyen, J. D. Kestell, H. C. M. Fourie, and BB Keet. This monumental work established Afrikaans as 'n suiwer en ordentlike taal, that is "a pure and proper language" for religious purposes, especially amongst the deeply Calvinist Afrikaans religious community that previously had been sceptical of a Bible translation that varied from the Dutch version that they were used to.
In 1983, a fresh translation marked the 50th anniversary of the 1933 version and provided a much-needed revision. The final editing of this edition was done by E. P. Groenewald, A. H. van Zyl, P. A. Verhoef, J. L. Helberg and W. Kempen. This translation was influenced by Eugene Nida's theory of dynamic-equivalence which focussed on finding the nearest equivalent in the receptor language to the idea that the Greek, Hebrew or Aramaic wanted to convey. The challenge to this type of translation is that it doesn't take into account that there are shifts in meaning in the receptor language.
A new translation, Die Bybel: 'n Direkte Vertaling was released in November 2020. It is the first truly ecumenical translation of the Bible in Afrikaans as translators from various churches, including the Roman Catholic and Anglican Churches, are involved.
Various commercial translations of the Bible in Afrikaans have also appeared since the 1990s, such as Die Boodskap and the Nuwe Lewende Vertaling. Most of these translations were published by Christelike Uitgewersmaatskappy (CUM).


The Spanish government lifts the restrictions against neutrals trading with the colonies, thus acknowledging Spain's inability to supply the colonies with needed goods and markets.
Robert Burns's version of the Scots poem Auld Lang Syne is first published, in this year's volume of The Scots Musical Museum.
Annual British iron production reaches 125,000 tons.
Rizla rolling papers established.
Shinyukan School, predecessor of Keio Gijyuku University, founded in Nakatsu, Kyushu Island, Japan.


July 8
John Mills, American soldier, officer (b. 1754)
Adam Naruszewicz, Polish-Lithuanian nobleman (b. 1733)
July 16
William Gerard Hamilton, English statesman  (b. 1729)
George Howard, British field marshal (b. 1718)
July 17 – John Christopher Hartwick, Lutheran minister in Colonial America, founder of Hartwick College (b. 1714)
July 20 – John Houstoun, American lawyer, statesman from Savannah (b. 1744)
July 21
Robert Burns, Scottish poet (b. 1759)
Philip Carteret, British naval officer, explorer in two circumnavigation expeditions (b. 1733)
August 1
Robert Pigot, 2nd Baronet, British Army officer during the American Revolutionary War (b. 1720)
Sir Robert Pigot, 2nd Baronet, British army officer (b. 1720)
August 2 – Sarah Osborn, American writer (b. 1714)
August 10 – Ignaz Anton von Indermauer, Austrian nobleman from Tyrol, Landvögte and Kreishauptmann of Vorarlberg (b. 1759)
August 12 – Mary Ann Wrighten, English singer, actress (b. 1751)
August 25 – Isaac Parsons, American planter (b. 1752)
August 31 – John McKinly, American physician, politician from Wilmington (b. 1721)
September 1 – David Murray, 2nd Earl of Mansfield (b. 1727)
September 7 – Henri François Lambert, brigadier general of the French revolutionary army (b. 1760)
September 11 – Anna Barbara Gignoux, German industrialist (b. 1725)
September 20
Juan José Elhuyar, Spanish chemist, mineralogist (b. 1754)
Christian Febiger, American Revolutionary War commander (b. 1749)
September 21 – François Séverin Marceau-Desgraviers, French revolutionary general (killed in battle) (b. 1769)
September 27 – Jonathan Sewall, last British attorney general of Massachusetts (b. 1729)
September 29 – Henry Hamilton, Anglo-Irish soldier, government official of the British Empire (b. c. 1734)


January 1
Alexandre-Théophile Vandermonde French musician and chemist (b. 1735)
Giambattista Vasco, Italian economist (b. 1733)
January 5 – Samuel Huntington, Connecticut jurist (b. 1731)
January 5 – Anna Barbara Reinhart, Swiss mathematician (b. 1730)
January 13 – John Anderson, Scottish scientist and inventor (b. 1726)
February 7 – Sir Francis Geary, 1st Baronet, officer of the British Royal Navy (b. 1709)
February 14 – Samuel Pegge, English antiquary (b. 1704)
February 15 – John Caesar Australian bushranger of African descent (b. 1763)
February 17 – James Macpherson, Scottish writer (b. 1736)
February 25 – Jean-Nicolas Stofflet, French royalist general (executed) (b. 1751)
February 28 – Friedrich Wilhelm Rust, German violinist (b. 1739)
March 1 – Carl Fredrik Adelcrantz, Swedish architect and civil servant (b. 1716)
March 3 – Pierre-René Rogue, French Catholic priest, member of the Congregation of the Mission (b. 1758)
March 6 – Guillaume Thomas François Raynal, French writer, man of letters during the Age of Enlightenment (b. 1713)
March 10
William Chambers, Scottish-Swedish architect (b. 1723)
John Forbes, British Royal Navy officer (b. 1714)
March 12 – Franz Töpsl, Augustinian Canon Regular (b. 1711)
March 16 – Joseph Gerrald, Scottish political reformer (b. 1763)
March 19 – Hugh Palliser, British naval officer, administrator (b. 1722)
March 26 – François de Charette, French Royalist soldier, politician (b. 1763)
March 30 – Princess Augusta Wilhelmine of Hesse-Darmstadt (b. 1765)


January 6 – Bishop Seth Ward, English mathematician and astronomer (b. 1617)
January 9 – Sir Hugh Cholmeley, 4th Baronet, English politician (b. 1632)
January 18 – Ernest Günther, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein (b. 1609)
January 27
Robert Aske, merchant in the City of London (b. 1619)
Sir Henry Beaumont, 2nd Baronet, English politician (b. 1638)
February 12 – Marie Louise of Orléans (b. 1662)
February 13 – Carlo Pio di Savoia, Italian Catholic cardinal (b. 1622)
February 22 – Willem Ogier, Flemish playwright (b. 1618)
February 24 – Elsa Elisabeth Brahe, Swedish countess and duchess (b. 1632)
March 10 – Philip Louis, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Wiesenburg (b. 1620)
March 18 – John Dixwell, English judge (b. 1607)
March 30 – Kazimierz Łyszczyński, Polish philosopher (b. 1634)
April 14 – Archduchess Maria Anna Josepha of Austria, youngest surviving daughter of Ferdinand III (b. 1654)
April 16 – Aphra Behn, English author (b. 1640)
April 18 – George Jeffreys, 1st Baron Jeffreys, British Lord Chief Justice (b. 1648)
April 19 – Christina, Queen of Sweden (b. 1626)
April 22 – Thomas Proby, English politician (b. 1632)
May 12 – Sir John Reresby, 2nd Baronet, English politician and diarist (b. 1634)
May 14 – Sambhaji, High Protector of the Maratha Empire (b. 1657)
May 15 – Jean Paul Médaille, French Jesuit missionary (b. 1618)
June 8 – Decio Azzolino, Italian Catholic cardinal (b. 1623)
June 20 – Richard Sherlock, English priest (b. 1612)
June 25 – William Thomas, Welsh Anglican bishop (b. 1613)
June 27 – Richard Waldron, colonial settler, acting President of the Province of New Hampshire (b. 1615)
June 28 – Thomas Mainwaring, English politician (b. 1623)
July 7 – Princess Louise of Savoy, Hereditary Princess of Baden-Baden (b. 1627)
July 8 – Edward Wooster, English Connecticut pioneer (b. 1622)
July 27 – John Graham, 1st Viscount Dundee, Scottish general (b. 1648)
August 6 – Sophia Dorothea of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, Prussian royal consort (b. 1636)
August 9 – Dionisio Lazzari, Italian sculptor and architect (b. 1617)
August 12 – Pope Innocent XI (b. 1611)
August 13 – Count Maximilian I, Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (b. 1636)
August 21 – William Cleland, Scottish poet and soldier (b. c. 1661)
August 28 – Claude-Jean Allouez, French Jesuit missionary and explorer of North America (b. 1622)
September 10 – John Belasyse, 1st Baron Belasyse of England (b. 1614)
September 26 – August, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck (b. 1652)
September 30 – Julius Francis, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, Bohemian noble (b. 1641)
October 4 – Quirinus Kuhlmann, German Baroque poet and mystic (b. 1651)
October 13 – George Ent, English scientist (b. 1604)
October 15 – Sir Edward Dering, 3rd Baronet, English politician (b. 1650)
October 24 – Adolph John I, Count Palatine of Kleeburg, Swedish prince (b. 1629)
November 13 – Philipp von Zesen, German poet (b. 1619)
November 20 – Samuel Peterson, American city founder (b. 1639)
November 26 – Marquard Gude, German archaeologist (b. 1635)
December 6 – Pjetër Bogdani, Albanian priest and writer (b. c. 1630)
December 16 – Cornelis Geelvinck, Dutch mayor (b. 1621)
December 29 – Thomas Sydenham, English physician (b. 1624)


1856 (MDCCCLVI) was a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar, the 1856th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 856th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 56th  year of the 19th century, and the  7th   year of the 1850s decade. As of the start of 1856, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


July 9 – Amedeo Avogadro, Italian chemist (b. 1776)
July 11 – Norberto Ramírez, Central American politician
July 14 – Edward Vernon Utterson, English lawyer, literary antiquary, collector and editor (b. 1775/1776)
July 20 – Anna Nielsen, Danish mezzo-soprano (b. 1803)
July 29
Karel Havlíček Borovský, Czech politician, writer (b. 1821)
Robert Schumann, German composer, pianist (b. 1810)
August 6 – Robert Lucas de Pearsall, English composer; setting of "In dulce jubilo" (b. 1795)
August 14 – William Buckland, English geologist, palaeontologist (b. 1784)
August 19 – Anna Maria Rüttimann-Meyer von Schauensee, politically active Swiss salonist (b. 1772)
August 29 – Mary Anne Schimmelpenninck, British Christian writer (b. 1778)
August 30 – Gilbert Abbott à Beckett, English writer (b. 1811)
September 3 – Honório Hermeto Carneiro Leão, Marquis of Paraná, Brazilian politician (b. 1801)
October 19
Josceline Percy, British admiral (b. 1784)
William Sprague III, American politician from Rhode Island (b. 1799)
Said bin Sultan, Sultan of Muscat and Oman (b. 1797)
October 21 – Francisco Plancarte y Navarrete, Mexican archaeologist and Archbishop of Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Monterrey (d. June 2, 1920)
November 23 – Manuela Sáenz, Colombian national heroine  (b. 1797)
December 20 – Francesco Bentivegna, Italian revolutionary (b. 1820)


April 5 – Booker T. Washington, American educator (d. 1915)
April 6 – Maurice Sarrail, French general (d. 1929)
April 12 – Martin Conway, British art critic, mountaineer (d. 1937)
April 14 – Albert W. Grant, American admiral (d. 1930)
April 18 – Hammerton Killick, Haitian admiral (d. 1902)
April 23 – Granville Woods, African-American inventor (d. 1910)
April 24 – Philippe Pétain, French soldier, statesman (d. 1951)
April 26 – Sir Joseph Ward, 17th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1930)
April 27 – Tongzhi Emperor of China (d. 1875)
May 6
Sigmund Freud, Austrian neurologist (d. 1939)
Robert Peary, American Arctic explorer (d. 1920)
May 8 – Pedro Lascuráin, 34th President of Mexico (d. 1952)
May 15 – L. Frank Baum, American author, poet, playwright, actor and independent filmmaker (The Wizard of Oz) (d. 1919)
May 18 – Guglielmo Pecori Giraldi, Italian nobleman, general and politician (d. 1941)
May 21 – José Batlle y Ordóñez, Twice President of Uruguay (d. 1929)
May 25
Ján Bahýľ, Slovak engineer, inventor (d. 1916)
Louis Franchet d'Espèrey, French general (d. 1942)
June 14 – Andrey Markov, Russian mathematician (d. 1922)
June 22 – H. Rider Haggard, English novelist (d. 1925)
June 29 – Maria Cederschiöld, Swedish journalist   (d. 1935)


Views of the family-level classification of the traditionally accepted Caprifoliaceae and other plants in the botanical order Dipsacales have been considerably revised in recent decades.  Most botanists now accept the placement of two of the most familiar members of this group, the elderberries (Sambucus) and the viburnums (Viburnum), in the family Adoxaceae instead; these were formerly classified here.
Several other families of the more broadly treated Caprifoliaceae s.l. are separated by some but not all authors; these are treated as subfamilies in the listing of selected genera below, along with estimated numbers of species.
Diervilloideae
Diervilla (bush honeysuckle): 3 species
Weigela: 10 species.
Caprifolioideae s.s.
Heptacodium (seven-son flower): 1 species
Leycesteria: 6 species
Lonicera (honeysuckle): 180 species
Symphoricarpos (snowberry): 17 species
Triosteum (horsegentian): 6 species
Linnaeoideae
Abelia: 30 species
Dipelta: 4 species
Kolkwitzia (beautybush): 1 species
Linnaea (twinflower): 1 species
Morinoideae
Acanthocalyx: 3 species
Cryptothladia
Morina
Zabelia
Dipsacoideae
Cephalaria
Dipsacus  (teasel): 15 species
Knautia
Pterocephalus: 25 species
Scabiosa (scabious, pincushion flower): 30 species
Succisa
Succisella
Triplostegia
Valerianoideae
Centranthus: 12 species
Fedia
Nardostachys : 3 species
Patrinia: 17 species
Plectritis (seablushes): 5 species
Valeriana (valerians): 125 species
Valerianella (cornsalads): 20 species


The Caprifoliaceae or honeysuckle family is a clade of dicotyledonous flowering plants consisting of about 860 species in 42 genera, with a nearly cosmopolitan distribution. Centres of diversity are found in eastern North America and eastern Asia, while they are absent in tropical and southern Africa.


The flowering plants in this clade are mostly shrubs and vines: rarely herbs. They include some ornamental garden plants grown in temperate regions. The leaves are mostly opposite with no stipules (appendages at the base of a leafstalk or petiole), and may be either evergreen or deciduous. The flowers are tubular funnel-shaped or bell-like, usually with five outward spreading lobes or points, and are often fragrant. They usually form a small calyx with small bracts. The fruit is in most cases a berry or a drupe. The genera Diervilla and Weigela have capsular fruit, while Heptacodium has an achene.


For official purposes, the UK government does not refer to the Southern England as a single entity, but the Office for National Statistics divides UK into twelve regions. In England, the North West, North East and Yorkshire and the Humber make up the North ("centre-north"); the West Midlands and East Midlands (as well as Wales) make up the Midlands ("centre-south") and the rest of England make up the South.
Culturally speaking, the majority of people think that the South consists of the South East (92%), Greater London (88%), South West (87%),  and to lesser extent the East of England (57%). However, 35% of people surveyed placed the East of England as part of the Midlands. Generally people in the North tend to put the East of England in the South more than people in the South or Midlands.


The South has a land border with the Midlands and a sea border with France, Belgium and the Netherlands.
The South is generally more low-lying than the North. There are a number of hill ranges, such as the Cotswolds and the Chilterns.
London is the largest city in the South of England and is the capital of the United Kingdom. The London Metropolitan Area has a population of 14.2 million (2019), making it the largest metropolitan area in Europe.


The Czech Republic lies mostly between latitudes 48° and 51° N and longitudes 12° and 19° E.
Bohemia, to the west, consists of a basin drained by the Elbe (Czech: Labe) and the Vltava rivers, surrounded by mostly low mountains, such as the Krkonoše range of the Sudetes. The highest point in the country, Sněžka at 1,603 m (5,259 ft), is located here. Moravia, the eastern part of the country, is also hilly. It is drained mainly by the Morava River, but it also contains the source of the Oder River (Czech: Odra).
Water from the Czech Republic flows to three different seas: the North Sea, Baltic Sea, and Black Sea. The Czech Republic also leases the Moldauhafen, a 30,000-square-meter (7.4-acre) lot in the middle of the Hamburg Docks, which was awarded to Czechoslovakia by Article 363 of the Treaty of Versailles, to allow the landlocked country a place where goods transported down river could be transferred to seagoing ships. The territory reverts to Germany in 2028.
Phytogeographically, the Czech Republic belongs to the Central European province of the Circumboreal Region, within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, the territory of the Czech Republic can be subdivided into four ecoregions: the Western European broadleaf forests, Central European mixed forests, Pannonian mixed forests, and Carpathian montane conifer forests.
There are four national parks in the Czech Republic. The oldest is Krkonoše National Park (Biosphere Reserve), and the others are Šumava National Park (Biosphere Reserve), Podyjí National Park, Bohemian Switzerland.
The three historical lands of the Czech Republic (formerly some countries of the Bohemian Crown) correspond with the river basins of the Elbe and the Vltava basin for Bohemia, the Morava one for Moravia, and the Oder river basin for Czech Silesia (in terms of the Czech territory).


As of 2020, the Czech Republic ranks as the 21st most environmentally conscious country in the world in Environmental Performance Index. It had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 1.71/10, ranking it 160th globally out of 172 countries. The Czech Republic has four National Parks (Šumava National Park, Krkonoše National Park, České Švýcarsko National Park, Podyjí National Park) and 25 Protected Landscape Areas.


The Czech Republic has a temperate climate, situated in the transition zone between the oceanic and continental climate types, with warm summers and cold, cloudy and snowy winters. The temperature difference between summer and winter is due to the landlocked geographical position.
Temperatures vary depending on the elevation. In general, at higher altitudes, the temperatures decrease and precipitation increases. The wettest area in the Czech Republic is found around Bílý Potok in Jizera Mountains and the driest region is the Louny District to the northwest of Prague. Another factor is the distribution of the mountains.
At the highest peak of Sněžka (1,603 m or 5,259 ft), the average temperature is −0.4 °C (31 °F), whereas in the lowlands of the South Moravian Region, the average temperature is as high as 10 °C (50 °F). The country's capital, Prague, has a similar average temperature, although this is influenced by urban factors.
The coldest month is usually January, followed by February and December. During these months, there is snow in the mountains and sometimes in the cities and lowlands. During March, April, and May, the temperature usually increases, especially during April, when the temperature and weather tends to vary during the day. Spring is also characterized by higher water levels in the rivers, due to melting snow with occasional flooding.
The warmest month of the year is July, followed by August and June. On average, summer temperatures are about 20–30 °C (36–54 °F) higher than during winter. Summer is also characterized by rain and storms.
Autumn generally begins in September, which is still warm and dry. During October, temperatures usually fall below 15 °C (59 °F) or 10 °C (50 °F) and deciduous trees begin to shed their leaves. By the end of November, temperatures usually range around the freezing point.
The coldest temperature ever measured was in Litvínovice near České Budějovice in 1929, at −42.2 °C (−44.0 °F) and the hottest measured, was at 40.4 °C (104.7 °F) in Dobřichovice in 2012.
Most rain falls during the summer. Sporadic rainfall is throughout the year (in Prague, the average number of days per month experiencing at least 0.1 mm (0.0039 in) of rain varies from 12 in September and October to 16 in November) but concentrated rainfall (days with more than 10 mm (0.39 in) per day) are more frequent in the months of May to August (average around two such days per month). Severe thunderstorms, producing damaging straight-line winds, hail, and occasional tornadoes occur, especially during the summer period.


Sometime after the publication of the Eclogues (probably before 37 BC), Virgil became part of the circle of Maecenas, Octavian's capable agent d'affaires who sought to counter sympathy for Antony among the leading families by rallying Roman literary figures to Octavian's side. Virgil came to know many of the other leading literary figures of the time, including Horace, in whose poetry he is often mentioned, and Varius Rufus, who later helped finish the Aeneid.
At Maecenas' insistence (according to the tradition) Virgil spent the ensuing years (perhaps 37–29 BC) on the long didactic hexameter poem called the Georgics (from Greek, "On Working the Earth") which he dedicated to Maecenas.
The ostensible theme of the Georgics is instruction in the methods of running a farm. In handling this theme, Virgil follows in the didactic ("how to") tradition of the Greek poet Hesiod's Works and Days and several works of the later Hellenistic poets.
The four books of the Georgics focus respectively on:
raising crops;
raising trees;
livestock and horses;
beekeeping and the qualities of bees.
Well-known passages include the beloved Laus Italiae of Book 2, the prologue description of the temple in Book 3, and the description of the plague at the end of Book 3. Book 4 concludes with a long mythological narrative, in the form of an epyllion which describes vividly the discovery of beekeeping by Aristaeus and the story of Orpheus' journey to the underworld.
Ancient scholars, such as Servius, conjectured that the Aristaeus episode replaced, at the emperor's request, a long section in praise of Virgil's friend, the poet Gallus, who was disgraced by Augustus, and who committed suicide in 26 BC.
The Georgics' tone wavers between optimism and pessimism, sparking critical debate on the poet's intentions, but the work lays the foundations for later didactic poetry. Virgil and Maecenas are said to have taken turns reading the Georgics to Octavian upon his return from defeating Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC.


Publius Vergilius Maro (Classical Latin: [ˈpuːbliʊs wɛrˈɡɪliʊs ˈmaroː]; traditional dates 15 October 70 – 21 September 19 BC), usually called Virgil or Vergil (/ˈvɜːrdʒɪl/ VUR-jil) in English, was an ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period. He composed three of the most famous poems in Latin literature: the Eclogues (or Bucolics), the Georgics, and the epic Aeneid. A number of minor poems, collected in the Appendix Vergiliana, were attributed to him in ancient times, but modern scholars consider his authorship of these poems as dubious.
Virgil's work has had wide and deep influence on Western literature, most notably Dante's Divine Comedy, in which Virgil appears as the author's guide through Hell and Purgatory.
Virgil has been traditionally ranked as one of Rome's greatest poets. His Aeneid is also considered a national epic of ancient Rome, a title held since composition.


According to the commentators, Virgil received his first education when he was five years old and later went to Cremona, Milan, and finally Rome to study rhetoric, medicine, and astronomy, which he would abandon for philosophy. From Virgil's admiring references to the neoteric writers Pollio and Cinna, it has been inferred that he was, for a time, associated with Catullus' neoteric circle. According to Servius, schoolmates considered Virgil extremely shy and reserved, and he was nicknamed "Parthenias" ("virgin") because of his social aloofness. Virgil also seems to have suffered bad health throughout his life and in some ways lived the life of an invalid. According to the Catalepton, he began to write poetry while in the Epicurean school of Siro in Naples. A group of small works attributed to the youthful Virgil by the commentators survive collected under the title Appendix Vergiliana, but are largely considered spurious by scholars. One, the Catalepton, consists of fourteen short poems, some of which may be Virgil's, and another, a short narrative poem titled the Culex ("The Gnat"), was attributed to Virgil as early as the 1st century AD.


Critics of the Aeneid focus on a variety of issues. The tone of the poem as a whole is a particular matter of debate; some see the poem as ultimately pessimistic and politically subversive to the Augustan regime, while others view it as a celebration of the new imperial dynasty. Virgil makes use of the symbolism of the Augustan regime, and some scholars see strong associations between Augustus and Aeneas, the one as founder and the other as re-founder of Rome. A strong teleology, or drive towards a climax, has been detected in the poem. The Aeneid is full of prophecies about the future of Rome, the deeds of Augustus, his ancestors, and famous Romans, and the Carthaginian Wars; the shield of Aeneas even depicts Augustus' victory at Actium against Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII in 31 BC. A further focus of study is the character of Aeneas. As the protagonist of the poem, Aeneas seems to waver constantly between his emotions and commitment to his prophetic duty to found Rome; critics note the breakdown of Aeneas' emotional control in the last sections of the poem where the "pious" and "righteous" Aeneas mercilessly slaughters Turnus.
The Aeneid appears to have been a great success. Virgil is said to have recited Books 2, 4, and 6 to Augustus; and Book 6 apparently caused the emperor's sister Octavia to faint. Although the truth of this claim is subject to scholarly skepticism, it has served as a basis for later art, such as Jean-Baptiste Wicar's Virgil Reading the Aeneid.
Unfortunately, some lines of the poem were left unfinished, and the whole was unedited, at Virgil's death in 19 BC.


As part of the American Revolution, the invasion of Quebec resulted after Benedict Arnold captured Fort Ticonderoga in present-day upstate New York in May 1775 as a launching point to Arnold's invasion of Quebec in September. While Arnold approached the Plains of Abraham, Montreal fell to American forces led by Richard Montgomery on November 13, 1775, after it was abandoned by Guy Carleton. After Arnold withdrew from Quebec City to Pointe-aux-Trembles on November 19, Montgomery's forces left Montreal on December 1 and arrived there on December 3 to plot to attack Quebec City, with Montgomery leaving David Wooster in charge of the city. Montgomery was killed in the failed attack and Arnold, who had taken command, sent Brigadier General Moses Hazen to inform Wooster of the defeat.
Wooster left Hazen in command on March 20, 1776, as he left to replace Arnold in leading further attacks on Quebec City. On April 19, Arnold arrived in Montreal to take over command from Hazen, who remained as his second-in-command. Hazen sent Colonel Timothy Bedel to form a garrison of 390 men 40 miles upriver in a garrison at Les Cèdres, Quebec, to defend Montreal against the British army. In the Battle of the Cedars, Bedel's lieutenant Isaac Butterfield surrendered to George Forster.
Forster advanced to Fort Senneville on May 23. By May 24, Arnold was entrenched in Montreal's borough of Lachine. Forster initially approached Lachine, then withdrew to Quinze-Chênes. Arnold's forces then abandoned Lachine to chase Forster. The Americans burned Senneville on May 26. After Arnold crossed the Ottawa River in pursuit of Forster, Forster's cannons repelled Arnold's forces. Forster negotiated a prisoner exchange with Henry Sherburne and Isaac Butterfield, resulting in a May 27 boating of their deputy Lieutenant Park being returned to the Americans. Arnold and Forster negotiated further and more American prisoners were returned to Arnold at Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec, ("Fort Anne") on May 30 (delayed two days by wind).
Arnold eventually withdrew his forces back to the New York fort of Ticonderoga by the summer. On June 15, Arnold's messenger approaching Sorel spotted Carleton returning with a fleet of ships and notified him. Arnold's forces abandoned Montreal (attempting to burn it down in the process) prior to the June 17 arrival of Carleton's fleet.
The Americans did not return British prisoners in exchange, as previously agreed, due to accusations of abuse, with Congress repudiating the agreement at the protest of George Washington. Arnold blamed Colonel Timothy Bedel for the defeat, removing him and Lieutenant Butterfield from command and sending them to Sorel for court-martial. The retreat of the American army delayed their court martial until August 1, 1776, when they were convicted and cashiered at Ticonderoga. Bedel was given a new commission by Congress in October 1777 after Arnold was assigned to defend Rhode Island in July 1777.


Montreal (/ˌmʌntriˈɔːl/ (listen) MUN-tree-AWL; officially Montréal, French: [mɔ̃ʁeal] (listen); Mohawk: Tiohtià꞉ke) is the second-most populous city in Canada and most populous city in the Canadian province of Quebec. Founded in 1642 as Ville-Marie, or "City of Mary", it is named after Mount Royal, the triple-peaked hill around which the early city of Ville-Marie is built. The city is centred on the Island of Montreal, which obtained its name from the same origin as the city, and a few much smaller peripheral islands, the largest of which is Île Bizard. The city is 196 km (122 mi) east of the national capital Ottawa, and 258 km (160 mi) southwest of the provincial capital, Quebec City.
As of 2021, the city had a population of 1,762,949, and a metropolitan  population of 4,291,732, making it the second-largest city, and second-largest metropolitan area in Canada. French is the city's official language and in 2016 was the only home language of 53.7% of the population, while 18.2% spoke only English and 18.7% spoke neither French nor English at home. 9.4% spoke a mix of French, English and a foreign language at home. In the larger Montreal Census Metropolitan Area, 71.2% of the population spoke at least French at home, compared to 19.0% who spoke English. Still in 2016, 87.4% of the population of the city of Montreal considered themselves fluent in French while 91.4% could speak it in the metropolitan area. Montreal is one of the most bilingual cities in Quebec and Canada, with 57.4% of the population able to speak both English and French.
Historically the commercial capital of Canada, Montreal was surpassed in population and in economic strength by Toronto in the 1970s. It remains an important centre of commerce, aerospace, transport, finance, pharmaceuticals, technology, design, education, art, culture, tourism, food, fashion, video game development, film, and world affairs. Montreal is the location of the headquarters of the International Civil Aviation Organization, and was named a UNESCO City of Design in 2006. In 2017, Montreal was ranked the 12th-most liveable city in the world by the Economist Intelligence Unit in its annual Global Liveability Ranking, although it slipped to rank 40 in the 2021 index, primarily due to stress on the healthcare system from the COVID-19 pandemic. It is regularly ranked as a top ten city in the world to be a university student in the QS World University Rankings.
Montreal has hosted multiple international conferences and events, including the 1967 International and Universal Exposition and the 1976 Summer Olympics. It is the only Canadian city to have held the Summer Olympics. In 2018, Montreal was ranked as a global city. The city hosts the Canadian Grand Prix of Formula One; the Montreal International Jazz Festival, the largest jazz festival in the world; the Just for Laughs festival, the largest comedy festival in the world; and Les Francos de Montréal, the largest French-language music festival in the world. It is also home to the Montreal Canadiens of the National Hockey League, who have won the Stanley Cup more times than any other team.


The 1820s (pronounced "eighteen-twenties") was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1, 1820, and ended on December 31, 1829.
It saw the rise of the First Industrial Revolution. Photography, rail transport, and the textile industry were among those that largely developed and grew prominent over the decade, as technology advanced significantly. European colonialism began gaining ground in Africa and Asia, and trade with the Qing Dynasty began to open up more towards foreign traders, particularly those from Europe. As European imperialism gained momentum, opposition from affected/exploited societies resulted, with wars such as the Java War and the Greek War of Independence. Resistance in the form of separatism and nationalism (particularly in the Spanish American wars of independence) led to the independence of many countries around the world, such as Brazil, Peru, and Bolivia.


The Greek War of Independence and the Russo-Turkish War were two of the decade's more important conflicts. Meanwhile, colonialism in Africa had just begun to accelerate, and global trade between Asian powers (e.g. the Qing Dynasty) with European powers (mainly the British and French empires) increased substantially. In South America, states such as Bolivia, Peru, and Brazil gained independence from the Spanish Empire and Portuguese Empire.


October 1 – C. Bechstein's piano factory is founded, one of three established in a "Golden year" in the history of the piano (Julius Blüthner and Steinway & Sons being the others).
October 4–5 – Crimean War: The Ottoman Empire begins war with Russia.
October 4 – On the east coast of the United States, Donald McKay launches the Great Republic, the world's biggest sailing ship, which at 4,500 tons is too large to be successful.
October 28 – Crimean War: The Ottoman army crosses the Danube into Vidin/Calafat, Wallachia.
October 30 – Taiping Rebellion: The Taiping Northern Expeditionary Force comes within 3 miles (4.8 km) of Tianjin.
November 3 – Troops of William Walker capture La Paz in Baja California Territory, and declare the (short-lived) Republic of Lower California.
November 4 – Crimean War: Battle of Oltenitza – Turkish forces defeat the Russians.
November 15 – Maria II of Portugal is succeeded by her son Pedro V.
November 30 (November 18 O.S.) – Crimean War: Battle of Sinop – The Russian fleet destroys the Turkish fleet.
December 6 – Taiping Rebellion: French minister de Bourboulon arrives at the Heavenly Capital, aboard the Cassini.
December 14 – Compagnie Générale des Eaux, predecessor of Vivendi and Veolia, a global media conglomerate, is founded in Paris, France.
December 30 – Gadsden Purchase: The United States buys approximately 77,000 square kilometres (30,000 sq mi) of land from Mexico, to facilitate railroad building in the Southwest.


January 6 – Florida Governor Thomas Brown signs legislation that provides public support for the new East Florida Seminary, leading to the establishment of the University of Florida.
January 8 – Taiping Rebellion: Zeng Guofan is ordered to assist the governor of Hunan, in organising a militia force to search for local bandits.
January 12 – Taiping Rebellion: The Taiping army occupies Wuchang.
January 19 – Giuseppe Verdi's opera Il Trovatore premieres, in performance at Teatro Apollo in Rome.
February 10 – Taiping Rebellion: Taiping forces assemble at Hanyang, Hankou and Wuchang, for the march on Nanjing.
February 12 – The city of Puerto Montt is founded in the Reloncaví Sound, Chile.
February 22 – Washington University in St. Louis is founded as Eliot Seminary.
March – The clothing company Levi Strauss & Co. is founded in the United States.
March 4 – Inauguration of Franklin Pierce as 14th President of the United States (his only child was killed in a train accident on January 6).
March 5 – Saint Paul Fire and Marine, as predecessor of The Travelers Companies, a worldwide insurance service, founded in Minnesota, United States.
March 20 – Taiping Rebellion: A rebel army of around 750,000 seizes Nanjing, killing 30,000 Imperial troops.
March 29 – Manchester is granted city status in the United Kingdom.


1853 (MDCCCLIII) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar, the 1853rd year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 853rd  year of the 2nd millennium, the 53rd  year of the 19th century, and the  4th   year of the 1850s decade. As of the start of 1853, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


April 16 – Indian Railways: The first passenger railway in India opens from Bombay to Thana, Maharashtra, 22 miles (35 km).
May
The world's first public aquarium opens, at the London Zoo.
An outbreak of yellow fever kills 7,790 in New Orleans.
Isambard Kingdom Brunel accepts John Scott Russell's tender for construction of the SS Great Eastern passenger steamer.
May 12–October 31 – The Great Industrial Exhibition is held in Dublin, Ireland.
May 23 – The first plat for Seattle, Washington is laid out.
June 27 – Taiping Rebellion: The Northern Expeditionary Force crosses the Yellow River.
June 30 – Georges-Eugène Haussmann is selected as préfect of the Seine (department), to begin the re-planning of Paris.


July 1 - The Swiss watch company Tissot is founded.
July 8 – U.S. Commodore Matthew C. Perry arrives in Edo Bay, Japan, with a request for a trade treaty.
July 25 – Outlaw and bandit Joaquin Murrieta is killed in California.
July 27 – Iesada succeeds his father Ieyoshi, as Japanese shōgun. The Late Tokugawa shogunate (the last part of the Edo period in Japan) begins.
August 12 – New Zealand acquires self-government.
August 23 – The first true International Meteorological Organization is established in Brussels, Belgium.
August 24
The Royal Norwegian Navy Museum is founded at Karljohansvern in Horten, perhaps the world's first naval museum.
Potato chips are first prepared, by George Crum at Saratoga Springs, New York, according to popular accounts.
September 19 – Hudson Taylor first leaves for China.
September 20 – Otis Elevator, as predecessor of Otis Worldwide was founded in United States.


Seychelles was uninhabited throughout most of recorded history. Tombs on the island, visible until 1910, are the basis for the scholarly belief that Austronesian seafarers and later Maldivian and Arab traders were the first to visit the archipelago.  Vasco da Gama and his 4th Portuguese India Armada discovered the Seychelles on 15 March 1503; the first sighting was made by Thomé Lopes aboard Rui Mendes de Brito.  Da Gama's ships passed close to an elevated island, probably Silhouette Island, and the following day Desroches Island. They mapped a group of seven islands and named them The Seven Sisters. The earliest recorded landing was in January 1609, by the crew of the Ascension under Captain Alexander Sharpeigh during the fourth voyage of the British East India Company.
A transit point for trade between Africa and Asia, it was said that the islands were occasionally used by pirates until the French began to take control in 1756 when a Stone of Possession was laid on Mahé by Captain Nicholas Morphey. The islands were named after Jean Moreau de Séchelles, Louis XV's Minister of Finance.
The British frigate Orpheus commanded by Captain Henry Newcome arrived at Mahé on 16 May 1794, during the War of the First Coalition. Terms of capitulation were drawn up and the next day Seychelles was surrendered to Britain. Jean Baptiste Quéau de Quincy, the French administrator of Seychelles during the years of war with the United Kingdom, declined to resist when armed enemy warships arrived. Instead, he successfully negotiated the status of capitulation to Britain which gave the settlers a privileged position of neutrality.
Britain eventually assumed full control upon the surrender of Mauritius in 1810, formalised in 1814 at the Treaty of Paris. Seychelles became a crown colony separate from Mauritius in 1903. Elections were held in 1966 and 1970.


1903
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
The following events occurred in December 1903:


Philippine–American War: Thirty American soldiers who had died in the Philippines were buried with honors at Arlington National Cemetery.
A United States federal court took possession of all property controlled by evangelist and faith healer John Alexander Dowie in the city of Zion, Illinois.
At a quartz mine in Nevada, David Crisman, a miner in his late sixties, was killed by a premature blast. Eight years earlier Crisman had survived being trapped in a mine by a cave-in for 46 days.
Born:
Sherman Kent, American history professor and CIA intelligence analyst; in Chicago, Illinois (d. 1986)
Reg Smith (born Redvers Smith), English footballer; in Rotherham, West Riding of Yorkshire, England (date of death unknown)
Nikolai Voznesensky, Soviet politician and economic planner; in Tula Governorate, Russian Empire (d. 1950, executed by shooting)


Swedish Antarctic Expedition: The corvette ARA Uruguay arrived safely in Buenos Aires, Argentina with the rescued expedition members.
The University of Ottawa building was completely destroyed by a fire that started at 7 a.m., with property loss estimated at $500,000. The fire was believed to have been started by a burning cigarette.
Born: Jim Sullivan, Welsh rugby league player and coach; in Cardiff, Wales (d. 1977)
Died:
Louis Abrahams, British-born Australian tobacconist and art patron, suicide by firearm (b. 1852)
Robert B. Gatling, about 35, son of Richard Jordan Gatling, heart disease
Victor Roger, French composer (b. 1853)


At about 7 a.m. in Hanley, Staffordshire, England, tallow chandler Thomas Holland was walking to work along St John Street when the pavement opened beneath him and he fell to his death into an old mine shaft filled with poisonous gas. There was no safe way to recover Holland's body from the shaft, which was 121 feet (37 m) deep. After the town council closed the pit, Holland's funeral was held in the middle of the street on December 5. According to a witness, Holland was singing the Christian hymn "When The Roll Is Called Up Yonder" by James Milton Black prior to his death, and reached the line "when the roll is called up yonder I'll be there" just before he fell.
In Fishkill Landing, New York, 12-year-old Hugh Schofield died after becoming paralyzed during a football game.
Born:
Mary Bell, Australian aviator; in Launceston, Tasmania, Australia (d. 1979)
Eva Gräfin Finck von Finckenstein (born Eva Schubring), German politician; in Berlin, Germany (d. 1994)
Sydney Goldstein, British mathematician; in Kingston upon Hull, East Riding of Yorkshire, England (d. 1989)
Yashpal, Indian revolutionary and Hindi-language author; in Kangra Hills, Punjab Province, British India (d. 1976)
Died:
Abiel Leonard, S.T.D., bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Utah, typhoid fever (b. 1848)
John Dalrymple, 10th Earl of Stair KT, Scottish peer and politician (b. 1819)


The Primulaceae /prɪmjəˈleɪʃiː/, commonly known as the primrose family (but not related to the evening primrose family), are a family of herbaceous and woody flowering plants including some favourite garden plants and wildflowers. Most are perennial though some species, such as scarlet pimpernel, are annuals.
Previously one of three families in the order Primulales, it underwent considerable generic re-alignment once molecular phylogenetic methods were used for taxonomic classification. The order was then submerged in a much enlarged order Ericales and became a greatly enlarged Primulaceae sensu lato (s.l). In this new classification of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, each of the Prumulales families was reduced to the rank of subfamily of Primulaceae s.l. The original Primulaceae (Primulaceae sensu stricto or s.s.) then became subfamily Primuloideae, and one genus (Maesa) was raised to the rank of a separate subfamily, making four in all.


The fruit of Primulaceae begins as an ovary and inside it are the future seeds (ovules). These are attached to a central axis without any partitions between them (an arrangement called free central placentation; see item 7 in the figure), and they are bitegmic (having a double protective layer around each ovule). Unlike in most other families of Ericales, both layers form the opening at the top (the micropyle).


The family shares a number of characteristics, including  haplostemonous flowers having the same number of petals and stamens, sympetalous corolla having the petals united, stamens opposite the petals, free central placentation, bitegmic (two layered) ovules and nuclear endosperm formation.


Primulaceae are mostly herbaceous, having no woody stem, except that some form cushions (spreading mats a few inches high) and their stems are stiffened by lignin. The stems can grow upright (erect) or spread out horizontally and then turn upright (decumbent).


Each flower is bisexual, having both stamens and carpels. They have radial symmetry;  the petals can be separate or partially or fully fused together to form a tube-shaped corolla that opens up at the mouth to form a bell-like shape (as in item 8 in the figure) or a flat-faced flower. In most of the families of Ericales, stamens alternate with lobes, but in Primulaceae there is a stamen opposite each petal.
The calyx has 4 to 9 lobes and persists after flowering. They are grouped in unbranched, indeterminate clusters such as racemes, spikes, corymbs or umbels.


The taxonomic history of Primulaceae has been long and complex. The botanical authority for the family name is given to August Batsch (1794), as Batsch ex Borkh, using the term Primulae with six genera, the valid description being subsequently given by Borkhausen (1797). Some earlier authors attributed the name to Ventenat (1799), as Primulaceae Vent., who described the Primulacées, but Batsch had precedence.
Linnaeus (1753) placed Primula and related primuloid genera in the Hexandria Monogynia (six stamens one pistil) in his sexual classification based on reproductive characteristics. Jussieu arranged Linnaeus' genera in a hierarchical system of ranks based on the relative value of a much wider range of characteristics. In his Genera plantarum (1789) he organised the primuloid genera into two Ordo (families), within a class (VIII) he called Dicotyledones Monopetalae Corolla Hypogyna, based on the cotyledons (two), form of the petals (fused), and position of the corolla with respect to the ovary (below).  Jussieu's families were the Lysimachiae, including Primula and Theophrasta and the Sapotae, including Myrsine, these being the three main lineages in modern understanding.
The most complete treatment of the Primulaceae family, with nearly 1,000 species arranged into 22 genera, was by Pax and Knuth in 1905 in the Engler system. They divided the family into five tribes (and several subtribes); Androsaceae, Cyclamineae, Lysimachieae, Samoleae and Corideae. Many systems since have lacked consistency, but generally recognised two major groups as either tribes or subfamilies, the Lysimachieae and Primuleae (the Androsaceae of Pax and Knuth), with the largest genera being Primula, Lysimachia and Androsace.
In the Cronquist system (1988), Cronquist included the three closely related families, Primulaceae, Myrsinaceae and Theophrastaceae in the order Primulales, of subclass Dilleniidae, based on morphological characteristics, in particular, ovaries with free-central placentation, a feature considered synapomorphic. His circumscription of Primulaceae included about 800 species.


As seeds develop, an endosperm grows around the embryo through free division of nuclei without forming walls (nuclear endosperm formation). The embryo forms a pair of short, narrow cotyledons (item 10 in the figure). Usually multiple seeds are in a capsule that is carried on a straight stalk (pedicel or scape). After it matures, it splits apart, releasing the seeds ballistically.


Many species of viburnum have become popular as garden or landscape plants because of their showy flowers and berries, fragrance, and  good autumn colour of some forms. Some popular species, hybrids, and cultivars include:
The hybrid Viburnum × bodnantense (V. farreri × V. grandiflorum) is particularly popular for its strongly scented pink flowers on the leafless deciduous shoots in mid- to late winter.
Viburnum × burkwoodii (V. carlesii × V. utile)
Viburnum × carlcephalum (V. carlesii × V. macrocephalum)
Viburnum carlesii has round white flowerheads, strong fragrance, dense structure, and reddish leaves in autumn.
Viburnum davidii is an evergreen species from China with blue fruit.
Viburnum dentatum has flat-topped flowers, bluish fruit, and reddish leaves in autumn. It is somewhat salt-tolerant. The cultivar 'Blue Muffin' is more compact than the species and has fruit that are a deeper blue than the species.
Viburnum dilatatum has flat-topped flowers, reddish leaves in autumn, and bright red fruit that persist into winter.
Viburnum × jackii – Jack's viburnum
Viburnum × juddii (V. bitchiuense × V. carlesii)
Viburnum plicatum has white flowers, textured leaves, reddish-black fruit, and can grow quite large under ideal conditions.  The species can tolerate shade, but not drought.
Viburnum × pragense (V. rhytidophyllum × V. utile)
Viburnum × rhytidophylloides (V. lantana × V. rhytidophyllum)
Viburnum rhytidophyllum is a popular evergreen species, grown mainly for its foliage effect of large, dark green leathery leaves with strongly wrinkled surface. This is the parent species of two popular hybrid cultivars known as 'Alleghany' and '{ragense'. 'Alleghany' was selected from a hybrid between V. rhytidophyllum and V. lantana 'Mohican' (in 1958, at the US National Arboretum).
Viburnum setigerum has upright, coarse structure and orange to reddish-orange fruit.
Viburnum sieboldii has coarse, open structure, flat-topped flowers, reddish-black fruit, and can grow as a small tree.
Viburnum tinus is a widely grown garden and landscape shrub.
The cultivars 'Pragense' and 'Eskimo', of mixed or uncertain parentage, have won the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


The leaves are opposite, simple, and entire, toothed or lobed; cool temperate species are deciduous, while most of the warm temperate species are evergreen. Some species are densely hairy on the shoots and leaves, with star-shaped hairs.
The flowers are produced in corymbs 5–15 cm across, each flower white to cream or pink, small, 3–5 mm across, with five petals, strongly fragrant in some species. The gynoecium has three connate carpels with the nectary on top of the gynoecium. Some species also have a fringe of large, showy sterile flowers around the perimeter of the corymb to act as a pollinator target.
The fruit is a spherical, oval, or somewhat flattened drupe, red to purple, blue, or black, and containing a single seed; some are edible for humans, but many others are mildly poisonous. The leaves are eaten by the larvae of many Lepidoptera species.
Birds eat the berries of Viburnum obovatum (also called Walter Viburnum after Thomas Walter).


Around 165 species are described. A 2014 phylogenetic study proposed the following phylogenetic scheme and sections:
V. clemensiae Kern
Lentago – Eastern North America except for V. elatum in Mexico
V. cassinoides L. – Witherod viburnum, wild raisin, Appalachian tea
V. elatum Benth
V. lentago L. – nannyberry
V. nudum L. – possumhaw
V. obovatum Walter – Small-leaf Virbunum
V. prunifolium L. – blackhaw
V. rufidulum Raf. – rusty blackhaw
Punctata
Viburnum lepidotulum Merr. & Chun
Viburnum punctatum Buch.-Ham. Ex D. Don
Euviburnum
V. bitchiuense Makino
V. buddleifolium
V. burejaeticum Regel et Herder
V. carlesii Hemsl. Ex Forb. & Hemsl. – Korean spice viburnum
V. cotinifolium D. Don
V. lantana L. – wayfaring tree, hoarwithy
V. macrocephalum Fortune – Chinese viburnum (琼花)
V. mongolicum (Pall.)Rehder
V. rhytidophyllum Hemsl. Ex Forb. & Hemsl. – wrinkled viburnum
V. schensianum Maxim.
V. utile Hemsl. – service viburnum
V. veitchii C.H. Wright – service viburnum
Pseudotinus – Asia, except V. lantanoides in Eastern North America
V. furcatum Blume ex Hook.f. & Thomson – forked viburnum, scarlet leaved viburnum
V. lantanoides Michx. – hobble-bush, American wayfaring tree
V. nervosum D. Don
V. sympodiale Graebn.
Solenotinus – Asia, extending west to India and south to Indonesia
V. awabuki Hort.Berol.  Ex  K.  Koch
V. brachybotryum Hemsl.
V. chingii P.S. Hsu
V. corymbiflorum P.S. Hsu & S.C. Hsu
V. erubescens  Wall
V. farreri Stearn – Farrer's viburnum
V. foetens
V. grandiflorum Wall. Ex DC – Himalayan viburnum
V. henryi Hemsl.
V. odoratissimum Ker-Gawl. – sweet viburnum
V. oliganthum Batalin
V. sieboldii Miq. – Siebold's viburnum
V. subalpinum Hand.-Mazz.
V. suspensum Lindl. – Sandankwa viburnum
V. taitoense Hayata
Lutescentia (excluding Tomentosa)
V. amplifolium
V. colebrookeanum Wall. Ex DC
V. garrettii
V. junghunii
V. laterale
V. lutescens Blume
V. pyramidatum
Tomentosa – China, Japan
V. plicatum Thunberg – Japanese snowball
V. hanceanum
Amplicrenotinus (excluding Crenotinus)
V. amplificatum J. Kern
Urceolata
V. taiwanianum Hayata
V. urceolatum Siebold  &  Zucc.
Tinus – Asia, except V. tinus in Europe
V. atrocyaneum C.B. Clarke
V. calvum Rehder
V. cinnamomifolium Rehder – cinnamon-leaved viburnum
V. davidii Franchet – David viburnum
V. propinquum Hemsl.
V. rigidum Vent.
V. tinus M.J. – Laurustinus
V. triplinerve
Corisuccotinus (excluding Succotinus and Coriaceae)
V. acerifolium L. – maple-leaf viburnum
V. kansuense Batalin
V. orientale Pall.
Succotinus
V. adenophorum W.W. Sm.
V. annamensis Fukouoka
V. betulifolium Batalin
V. brachyandrum Nakai
V. corylifolium Hook.f. & Thomson
V. dilatatum Thunberg – linden viburnum
V. erosum Thunberg
V. flavescens W.W. Sm.
V. foetidum (Graebn.) Rehder
V. formosanum Hayata
V. hupehense Rehder
V. ichangense Rehder
V. integrifolium Hayata
V. japonicum Spreng
V. lobophyllum
V. luzonicum Rolfe
V. melanocarpum Hsu in Chen et al.
V. mullaha Buch.-Ham. Ex D.Don
V. parvifolium Hayata
V. sempervirens K. Koch
V. setigerum M.J. Donoghue – tea viburnum
V. tashiroi Nakai
V. wrightii Miquel – Wright's viburnum
Coriaceae
V. coriaceum Blume
V. cylindricum Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don
V. hebanthum Wight & Arn.
Sambucina
V. beccarii Gamble
V. hispidulum J. Kern
V. inopinatum Craib.
V. sambucinum Reinew. Ex Blume
V. vernicosum Gibbs
V. ternatum Rehder
Opulus – Circumboreal
V. edule Raf. – squashberry, mooseberry, pembina, pimbina, lowbush cranberry, moosomin (Cree language)
V. koreanum – Korean viburnum
V. opulus L. – Guelder-rose
V. sargentii Koehne – Tianmu viburnum (天目琼花)
V. trilobum Marshall – high bush viburnum
Mollotinus
V. australe C.V. Morton – Mexican arrowwood
V. bracteatum Rehder – bracted arrowwood, limerock arrowwood
V. ellipticum Hook. – common viburnum, oval-leaved viburnum
V. molle Michx. – softleaf arrowwood
V. rafinesquianum Schult. – downy arrowwood
Dentata – Mexico, Caribbean, and Central and South America
V. dentatum L. – arrowwood viburnum
V. recognitum Fernald – smooth arrowwood
Oreinotinus – Mexico, Caribbean, and Central and South America
V. acutifolium Benth.
V. caudatum Greenm.
V. costaricanum (Oerst.) Hemsl.
V. discolor Benth.
V. disjunctum C.V. Morton
V. divaricatum
V. jamesonii (Oerst.)Killip & A.C. Sm.
V. jucundum C.V. Morton
V. lautum C.V. Morton
V. loeseneri Graebn.
V. stellato-tomentosum (Oerst.) Hemsl.
V. stenocalyx Hemsl.
V. sulcatum (Oerst.) Hemsl.
V. toronis Killip & A.C. Sm.
V. triphyllum Benth. – chuchua, chuque
Undetermined
V. arboreum
V. betulifolium Batalin
V. glomeratum
V. hondurense
V. maculatum
V. molinae
V. mortonianum
V. phlebotrichum
V. subpubescens
V. treleasei
V. tridentatum
V. venosum (or V. dentata var venosum)


1961
January
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September
October
November
December
1961 (MCMLXI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar, the 1961st year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 961st  year of the 2nd millennium, the 61st  year of the 20th century, and the  2nd   year of the 1960s decade.


1678 (MDCLXXVIII) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar, the 1678th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 678th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 78th  year of the 17th century, and the  9th   year of the 1670s decade. As of the start of 1678, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


Sphagnum has a distinctive cellular structure. Mosses have no vascular system to move water and nutrients around the plant. Thus tissues are thin and usually one cell thick to allow these to diffuse easily. Sphagnum mosses have two distinct cell types. There are normal photosynthesising cells with chlorophyll. Additionally there are larger Aline or retort cells. These are barrel shaped. They have pores and soak up water like a sponge. These unique cells mean Sphagnum can keep the habitat watery by releasing water to keep bogs waterlogged. Walker (2019) describes Sphagnum thus as 'habitat manipulators'.


The term is from the Latin caudex, a noun meaning "tree trunk".


The city of La Paz has a consistently decreasing volume of colonial buildings, mostly centered around the vicinity of the Plaza Murillo. Due to a lack of funds and the inability of property owners to pay for restorations to colonial buildings, many have been torn down, or are in a dilapidated state. As historic buildings are more expensive to keep, land owners find it less of a burden to construct more modern buildings as opposed to keeping the old ones. Although there has been an increasing number of projects and propositions to restore some of the city's colonial buildings, the future of these historic edifices remains uncertain.


The Spanish conquistadors founded the city in 1548 with the name Nuestra Señora de La Paz (meaning Our Lady of Peace). The name commemorated the restoration of peace following the insurrection of Gonzalo Pizarro and fellow conquistadors four years earlier against Blasco Núñez Vela, the first viceroy of Peru.
In 1825, after the decisive victory of the republicans at Ayacucho over the Spanish army in the course of the Spanish American wars of independence, the city's full name was changed to La Paz de Ayacucho (meaning The Peace of Ayacucho).
The region in which La Paz is located in was known as Chuquiago Marka (marka means village; Chuqi Yapu means 'gold farm', probably due to the exploitation of gold nuggets in the small rivers of the place; spelling differences due to Aymara writing compared to Spanish transliteration) in the Aymara language, leading former President of Bolivia Evo Morales to suggest renaming the city to "Chuquiago Marka" in a speech in 2017.


San Jorge
Located in the district known as Cotahuma and near Sopocachi, is one of the main residential and diplomatic areas of the city. San Jorge is one of the most exclusive neighborhoods of La Paz and the financial center of the metropolis, housing international firms like Deloitte, Bank of America, Ernst & Young, BBVA and the famous Ritz Hotel. It is now home of Bolivia's tallest building known as Torre Girasoles, and the only intelligent building of the country, known as Torre Azul. The neighborhood is also populated with expensive offices, renowned restaurants, museums and bookstores. Its Avenida Arce, one of the main streets of the city, is the highest-priced street in the country and the one with the most upscale boutiques in Bolivia. San Jorge is home to the embassies of the United States, the United Kingdom, Brazil, Japan, Germany and Spain. The offices of the World Bank, the Inter-American Development Bank, the CAF – Development Bank of Latin America, the Goethe Institut, the Alliance Française and the Dante Alighieri Society are also located in this modern neighborhood.
Sopocachi
Located in the 1st District (Cotahuma), Sopocachi is probably one of the oldest residential neighborhoods, 10 minutes from the center of the city. Despite the expansion and development of the area, this quarter maintained its residential property. In the last years, there has been an important commercial expansion, mainly on the surroundings of Abaroa Square, one of the many squares and parks of the zone.
San Pedro
Located in the 1st District (Cotahuma), on the right bank of the Choqueyapu River and built around the "Plaza de San Pedro" (official name: Plaza Sucre, Sucre Square), is home to numerous shops, businesses and small enterprises, especially printing, spare parts and auto maintenance and repair shops. San Pedro's "Rodriguez Market" remains as one of the most popular middle-class and oldest of the city. The San Pedro prison is here.
Centro
The city's downtown area, in the 7th District, comprising the center of La Paz and principal roads of the city, like Arce Avenue, 16 July Avenue (also known as "Prado Avenue"), Mariscal Santa Cruz Avenue and Camacho Avenue – the last one being the home of the headquarters of the principal banks and companies of the country.
Casco Viejo
Located in the 7th District, is the historic and ancient center of La Paz. It now houses museums, hotels, shops and buildings as the Mayor City of La Paz and the Central Bank of Bolivia. In the Old Quarter is the Plaza Murillo, which is home to the Government Palace and the National Congress.
Miraflores
In the 7th District, Miraflores district is separated from downtown by a long barrel (Parque Urbano Central, "Central Urban Park") and connected by the Bridge of the Americas and two avenues. Originally a residential zone, its growth has led it to become a major recreational center. It houses universities (including the Universidad Mayor de San Andrés's faculty of medicine), hospitals and the Estadio Hernando Siles (capacity of 45,000 people).
Northern District
Located in the 2nd and 3rd districts, it has a significant industrial activity (mainly food), being the Cervecería Boliviana Nacional (Bolivian National Brewery) the most significant industry founded by Germans, and one of the city's biggest companies in the country. It connects La Paz with the city of El Alto by the autopista (highway).
Southern District
In the 5th district; has less height than the rest of La Paz (3,200 to 2,800 meters). This area houses some of the most affluent and exclusive neighborhoods of the city, like Obrajes, Irpavi, Calacoto, La Florida and Achumani, among others. It has been benefited from steady economic growth and is now the second commercial and financial center of the city, housing international firms like Moody's, Citibank, Aon Corporation, Huawei, Millicom International Cellular, Nissan Motor Corporation, Samsung Electronics, Pan American Silver Corporation, a Sumitomo Corporation branch, Ernst & Young, and the "MegaCenter", La Paz's biggest shopping mall.


June 1 – Nelson Riddle, American bandleader (d. 1985)
June 3 – Forbes Carlile, Australian athlete (d. 2016)
June 4 – Bobby Wanzer, American basketball player and coach (d. 2016)
June 5
James Francis Edwards, Canadian fighter pilot (d. 2022)
P. K. Warrier, Indian Ayurveda practitioner (d. 2021)
June 6 – Mikheil Tumanishvili, Georgian theater director, teacher (d. 1996)
June 7
Myrtle Edwards, Australian cricketer, softball player (d. 2010)
Bernard Lown, American medical innovator, Nobel Peace Prize recipient (d. 2021)
Jakob Skarstein, Norwegian journalist and radio personality (d. 2021)
Brian Talboys, New Zealand politician, 7th Deputy Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 2012)
June 8
Alexis Smith, Canadian-born American actress (d. 1993)
Suharto, President of Indonesia (d. 2008)
June 9 – Margaret Danhauser, American professional baseball player (d. 1987)
June 10
Oskar Gröning, German SS officer, war criminal (d. 2018)
Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, Greek-born member of the British royal family as consort of Elizabeth II (d. 2021)
Sergio Arellano Stark, Chilean military officer (d. 2016)
Yakov Springer, Polish weightlifting judge (d. 1972)
June 12
Luis García Berlanga, Spanish film director and screenwriter (d. 2010)
Johan Witteveen, Dutch politician, economist and 5th Managing Director of the IMF (d. 2019)
June 13
Edmund W. Gordon, American psychologist
Nancy Warren, American professional baseball player (d. 2001)
June 16 – Walter Barylli, Austrian violinist (d. 2022)
June 17 – Aydın Boysan, Turkish architect (d. 2018)
June 19
Richard M. Goody, English-born American atmospheric physicist and professor
Doris Sands Johnson, Bahamian teacher, suffragette and politician (d. 1983)
Louis Jourdan, French actor (d. 2015)
June 21
Gebhard Büchel, Liechtenstein decathlete
Hernando Hoyos, Colombian sports shooter (d. 2000)
Patricia Kenworthy Nuckols, American field hockey player and aviator
Thomas Morrow Reavley, American judge (d. 2020)
Jane Russell, American actress (d. 2011)
June 22
Ralph K. Hofer, American fighter pilot (d. 1942)
Růžena Krásná, Czech politician and human rights advocate (d. 2012)
Barbara Perry, American actress and singer (d. 2019)
June 23
Paul Findley, American politician (d. 2019)
Marius Mora, French cross-country skier (d. 2006)
Colin Pinch, Australian cricketer (d. 2006)
June 24 – Gerhard Sommer, German soldier (d. 2019)
June 25 – Dennis Wilson, British war poet (d. 2022)
June 26
Robert Everett, American computer scientist (d. 2018)
Violette Szabo, French World War II heroine (d. 1945)
June 27
Muriel Pavlow, English actress (d. 2019)
Princess Vimolchatra of Thailand (d. 2009)
June 28 – P. V. Narasimha Rao, Prime Minister of India (d. 2004)
June 29
Bob Kennedy, American football player (d. 2010)
Jean Kent, English actress (d. 2013)
Reinhard Mohn, German businessman (d. 2009)
June 30
Oswaldo López Arellano, 42nd and 44th President of Honduras (d. 2010)
Jules Amez-Droz, Swiss fencer (d. 2012)
Pierre Labric, French organist and composer


Other than alfalfa, several of the creeping members of the family (such as Medicago lupulina and Medicago truncatula) have been used as forage crops.


Béna et al. (2005) constructed a molecular phylogeny of 23 Sinorhizobium strains and tested the symbiotic ability of six strains with 35 Medicago species. Comparison of these phylogenies indicates many transitions in the compatibility of the association over evolutionary time. Furthermore, they propose that the geographical distribution of strains limits the distribution of particular Medicago species.


Medicago is a genus of flowering plants, commonly known as medick or burclover, in the legume family (Fabaceae). It contains at least 87 species and is distributed mainly around the Mediterranean basin. The best-known member of the genus is alfalfa (M. sativa), an important forage crop, and the genus name is based on the Latin name for that plant, medica, from Greek: μηδική (πόα) Median (grass). Most members of the genus are low, creeping herbs, resembling clover, but with burs (hence the common name). However, alfalfa grows to a height of 1 meter, and tree medick (M. arborea) is a shrub. Members of the genus are known to produce bioactive compounds such as medicarpin (a flavonoid) and medicagenic acid (a triterpenoid saponin). Chromosome numbers in Medicago range from 2n = 14 to 48.
The species Medicago truncatula is a model legume due to its relatively small stature, small genome (450–500 Mbp), short generation time (about 3 months), and ability to reproduce both by outcrossing and selfing.
Comprehensive descriptions of the genus are Lesinš and Lesinš 1979 and Small and Jomphe 1989. Major collections are SARDI (Australia), USDA-GRIN (United States), ICARDA (Syria), and INRA (France).


January 4 – Jean Baptiste Gay, vicomte de Martignac succeeds the Comte de Villèle, as Prime Minister of France.
January 8 – The Democratic Party of the United States is organized.
January 22 – Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington succeeds Lord Goderich as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.
February 19 – The Boston Society for Medical Improvement is established in the United States.
February 21 – The first American-Indian newspaper in the United States is published, named "Cherokee Phoenix".
February 22 – Treaty of Turkmenchay: By this Russian-Persian peace treaty signed on February 10 at Torkamanchay, Persia (Iran), the latter country is forced irrevocably to cede the territories of the Erivan Khanate (most of present-day central Armenia and the northern Iğdır Province of Turkey), the Nakhichevan Khanate (most of the modern-day Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic of Azerbaijan), the remainder of the Talysh Khanate (southeastern Azerbaijan), and the Ordubad and Mughan regions (also part of modern-day Azerbaijan) to Imperial Russia. By this and the Treaty of Gulistan (1813) it has now lost all its territories north of the Aras River, comprising modern-day Georgia, Dagestan, Azerbaijan and Armenia to Russia. Armenians from Persian Azerbaijan are to be resettled in the Caucasus.
March 3 – Dom Pedro I, Emperor of Brazil and former King of Portugal, signs a document "to complete my abdication of the Portuguese crown" (made in 1826), to renounce all claims in favor of his daughter Queen Maria II, and to declare "indubitable proof" that he wishes Portugal to be "perpetually separated from the Brazilian nation....in such a manner as may render even the idea of reunion impracticable."
March 18 – Simón Bolívar, President of Colombia (and former President of Venezuela, Peru and Bolivia), departs from the capital at Bogotá, in order to help his ally, General José Antonio Páez, suppress an uprising near the Venezuelan border, but is sidetracked by another rebellion in Cartagena.


1828 (MDCCCXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar, the 1828th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 828th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 28th  year of the 19th century, and the  9th   year of the 1820s decade. As of the start of 1828, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


October 26 – English naturalist and explorer William John Burchell collects the only known specimen of Parabouchetia brasiliensis, an exceptionally rare member of the nightshade family Solanaceae, in central Brazil.
November 11 – Greek War of Independence: the London Protocol entails the creation of an autonomous Greek state under Ottoman suzerainty, encompassing the Morea and the Cyclades.
November 12 – Anouvong, ruler of the Kingdom of Vientiane, is deposed and the kingdom is annexed by Siam.  During the war, the city of Vientiane is obliterated by Siamese forces.
December 1 – Decembrist revolution (Argentina): Juan Lavalle, returning to Buenos Aires with troops that fought in the Cisplatine War, deposes the provincial governor Manuel Dorrego, reigniting the Argentine Civil Wars.
December 3 – 1828 United States presidential election: Andrew Jackson is elected President of the United States, defeating incumbent John Quincy Adams in a landslide.
December 20 – Georgia legislature charters the Medical Academy of Georgia, which becomes the Medical College of Georgia, and authorizes it to award a Bachelor of Medicine degree, making it the 13th oldest U.S. medical school and the sixth public medical school to be established.
December 28 – The province of Echigo, Japan, is hit by a 6.8 magnitude earthquake, killing more than 1,500 people.
December 30 – Publication (begun on January 14) of Franz Schubert's song cycle Winterreise is concluded posthumously.


The first written records relating to modern-day Botswana appear in 1824. What these records show is that the Bangwaketse had become the predominant power in the region. Under the rule of Makaba II, the Bangwaketse kept vast herds of cattle in well-protected desert areas, and used their military prowess to raid their neighbours. Other chiefdoms in the area, by this time, had capitals of 10,000 or so and were fairly prosperous. This equilibrium came to end during the Mfecane period, 1823–1843, when a succession of invading peoples from South Africa entered the country. Although the Bangwaketse were able to defeat the invading Bakololo in 1826, over time all the major chiefdoms in Botswana were attacked, weakened, and impoverished. The Bakololo and AmaNdebele raided repeatedly and took large numbers of cattle, women, and children from the Batswana—most of whom were driven into the desert or sanctuary areas such as hilltops and caves. Only after 1843, when the Amandebele moved into western Zimbabwe, did this threat subside.
During the 1840s and 1850s trade with Cape Colony-based merchants opened up and enabled the Batswana chiefdoms to rebuild. The Bakwena, Bangwaketse, Bangwato and Batawana cooperated to control the lucrative ivory trade and then used the proceeds to import horses and guns, which in turn enabled them to establish control over what is now Botswana. This process was largely complete by 1880, and thus the Bushmen, the Kalanga, the Bakgalagadi, and other current minorities were subjugated by the Batswana.
Following the Great Trek, Afrikaners from the Cape Colony established themselves on the borders of Botswana in the Transvaal. In 1852 a coalition of Tswana chiefdoms led by Sechele I defeated Afrikaner incursions at the Battle of Dimawe and, after about eight years of intermittent tensions and hostilities, eventually came to a peace agreement in Potchefstroom in 1860. From that point on, the modern-day border between South Africa and Botswana was agreed on, and the Afrikaners and Batswana traded and worked together comparatively peacefully.
In 1884 Batawana, a northern based Tswana clan's cavalry under the command of Kgosi Moremi fought and defeated the Ndebele's invasion of northern Botswana at the Battle of Khutiyabasadi. This blow to the larger invading Ndebele force signalled the start of the collapse of the Ndebele Kingdom in Zimbabwe and helped galvanise Tswana speaking authority of the area now making part of northern Botswana.
Due to newly peaceful conditions, trade thrived between 1860 and 1880. Taking advantage of this were Christian missionaries. The Lutherans and the London Missionary Society both became established in the country by 1856. By 1880 every major village had a resident missionary, and their influence slowly became felt. Khama III (reigned 1875–1923) was the first of the Tswana chiefs to make Christianity a state religion and changed a great deal of Tswana customary law as a result. Christianity became the de facto official religion in all the chiefdoms by World War I.


During the Scramble for Africa the territory of Botswana was coveted by both the German Empire and Britain. During the Berlin Conference, Britain decided to annex Botswana in order to safeguard the Road to the North and thus connect the Cape Colony to its territories further north. It unilaterally annexed Tswana territories in January 1885 and then sent the Warren Expedition north to consolidate control over the area and convince the chiefs to accept British overrule. Despite their misgivings, they eventually acquiesced to this fait accompli.
In 1890 areas north of 22 degrees were added to the new Bechuanaland Protectorate. During the 1890s the new territory was divided into eight different reserves, with fairly small amounts of land being left as freehold for white settlers. During the early 1890s, the British government decided to hand over the Bechuanaland Protectorate to the British South Africa Company. This plan, which was well on its way to fruition despite the entreaties of Tswana leaders who toured England in protest, was eventually foiled by the failure of the Jameson Raid in January 1896.
When the Union of South Africa was formed in 1910 from the main British colonies in the region, the High Commission Territories—the Bechuanaland Protectorate, Basutoland (now Lesotho), and Swaziland (now Eswatini)—were not included, but provision was made for their later incorporation. However, the UK began to consult with their inhabitants as to their wishes. Although successive South African governments sought to have the territories transferred to their jurisdiction, the UK kept delaying; subsequently, it never occurred. The election of the Nationalist government in 1948, which instituted apartheid, and South Africa's withdrawal from the Commonwealth in 1961, ended any prospect of the UK or these territories agreeing to incorporation into South Africa.
An expansion of British central authority and the evolution of native government resulted in the 1920 establishment of two advisory councils to represent both Africans and Europeans. The African Council consisted of the eight heads of the Tswana tribes and some elected members. Proclamations in 1934 regulated tribal rule and powers. A European-African advisory council was formed in 1951, and the 1961 constitution established a consultative legislative council.


October 6 – The United States Naval War College is established in Newport, Rhode Island.
October 18 – The University of Wales, Bangor (UK) is founded.
October 22
The International Meridian Conference in Washington, D.C. fixes the Greenwich meridian as the world's prime meridian.
Letitia Alice Walkington becomes the first woman to receive a degree from the Royal University of Ireland.
November 1
The Irish Gaelic Athletic Association is founded in Thurles, Ireland.
Leicester City F.C. play their first match, as Leicester Fosse Football Club, in England.
November 2 – Timișoara, Romania is the first town in Europe with streets illuminated by electric light.
November 4 – 1884 United States presidential election: Democratic Governor of New York Grover Cleveland defeats Republican James G. Blaine in a very close contest, to win the first of his non-consecutive terms.
November 15 – The Berlin Conference, which regulates European colonisation and trade in Africa, begins (ends February 26, 1885).
December 1
American Old West: Near Frisco, New Mexico, deputy sheriff Elfego Baca holds off a gang of 80 Texan cowboys, who want to kill him for arresting cowboy Charles McCarthy (the cowboys have been terrorizing the area's Hispanos, and Baca is working against them).
Porfirio Díaz (1830–1915) returns as President of Mexico, an office he will hold until 1911.
December 4 – Reformers in Korea who admire the Meiji Restoration in Japan stage the Gapsin Coup, with Japan's help. China intervenes to rescue the king, and help suppress the rebels.
December 6 – The Washington Monument is completed in Washington, D.C., becoming the tallest structure in the world at this date.
December 10
The Third Reform Act widens the adult male electorate in the United Kingdom to around 60%.
Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is first published, in London.
December 16 – The World Cotton Centennial world's fair opens in New Orleans.


July 1 – In Great Britain, Indian student nationalist Madan Lal Dhingra assassinates Sir William Curzon Wyllie, political aid to the Secretary of State for India. This is an notable early escalation of violence in the Indian nationalist movement overseas.
July 16 – A revolution forces Mohammad Ali Shah of the Qajar dynasty to abdicate in favor of his son Ahmad Shah Qajar. He proceeds to leave Persia for Imperial Russia, reportedly seeking the assistance of Nicholas II of Russia in regaining the throne.
July 25 – Louis Blériot is the first man to fly across the English Channel (thus a large open body of water) in a heavier-than-air craft.
July 25–August 2 – "Tragic Week" (la Setmana Tràgica): The city of Barcelona experiences a workers' uprising.
July 26 – Blue Anchor Line passenger/cargo liner SS Waratah, on her second voyage from Australia to Britain, leaves Durban and is lost without trace with all 211 aboard.
August 2 – The United States Army Signal Corp Division purchases the world's first military airplane, a Wright Military Flyer, from the Wright brothers.
August 8 – Max Heindel formally founds the Rosicrucian Fellowship in Seattle, Washington.
August 12 – The Indianapolis Motor Speedway opens in the United States.


September 4 – Japan and China sign the Gando Convention, which gives Japan a way to receive railroad concessions in Manchuria.
October – Suzuki Weaving Machine Manufacturing, predecessor of the Suzuki motorbike and compact car brand in Japan, is founded in Shizuoka Prefecture.
October 8 – An earthquake in the Zagreb area leads Andrija Mohorovičić to identify the Mohorovičić discontinuity.
October 12 – The association football team Coritiba is founded in Curitiba, Brazil.
October 13 – An agreement by Germany, Italy and Switzerland gives the Germans and Italians access to the Gotthard Rail Tunnel.
October 16 – The Pittsburgh Pirates defeat the Detroit Tigers to win the 1909 World Series.
October 26 – Itō Hirobumi, four time Prime Minister of Japan (the 1st, 5th, 7th and 10th) and Resident-General of Korea, is assassinated by An Jung-geun, an activist of the Korean independence movement, at the Harbin railway station in Manchuria.


1909
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
1909 (MCMIX) was a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar, the 1909th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 909th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 9th  year of the 20th century, and the  10th  and last year of the 1900s decade. As of the start of 1909, the Gregorian calendar was 13 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


June – The volcanic island of Anak Krakatau begins to form in the Sunda Strait of Indonesia.
June 4 – Yugoslavia severs diplomatic relations with Albania.
June 4–6 – Clarence Chamberlin and Charles Albert Levine take off from Roosevelt Field, New York, and fly to Eisleben, Germany, in the Wright-Bellanca WB-2 Columbia aircraft Miss Columbia, two weeks after Charles Lindbergh's historic solo flight.
June 9 – The Soviet Union executes 20 people for alleged espionage in retaliation for the assassination two days earlier of Pyotr Voykov, the Soviet ambassador to Poland, at the railway station in Warsaw. Voykov had been shot by 19-year-old Boris Kowerda, an exiled Russian, in retaliation for having signed the death warrants in 1918 for Tsar Nicholas II and the Russian Imperial Family.
June 13
Léon Daudet, the leader of the French monarchists, is arrested in France.
A ticker tape parade is held for aviator Charles Lindbergh down Fifth Avenue in New York City.
June 18 – The Association football club Persebaya Surabaya is founded in the Dutch East Indies (modern-day Indonesia).
June 28 – Spanish airline Iberia is established.
June 29 – Solar eclipse of June 29, 1927: A total eclipse of the sun takes place over Wales, northern England, southern Scotland, Norway, northern Sweden, northmost Finland, and the northmost extremes of Russia.
June 29–July 1 – Commander Richard E. Byrd, Bernt Balchen, George Noville and Bert Acosta take off from Roosevelt Field, New York, in the Fokker Trimotor airplane America, and cross the Atlantic to the coast of France, having to ditch there because of bad weather; all four men survive the emergency landing.


January 1 – The British Broadcasting Company becomes the British Broadcasting Corporation, when its Royal Charter of incorporation takes effect. John Reith becomes the first Director-General.
January 7
The first transatlantic telephone call is made via radio from New York City, United States, to London, United Kingdom.
The Harlem Globetrotters exhibition basketball team play their first ever road game in Hinckley, Illinois.
January 9 – The Laurier Palace Theatre fire at a movie theatre in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, kills 78 children.
January 10 – Fritz Lang's futuristic film Metropolis is released in Germany.
January 11 – Louis B. Mayer, head of film studio Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM), announces the creation of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, at a banquet in Los Angeles, California.
January 19 – Great Britain sends troops to China to protect foreign nationals from spreading anti-foreign riots in central China.
January 24 – U.S. Marines invade Nicaragua by orders of President Calvin Coolidge, intervening in the Nicaraguan Civil War, and remaining in the country until 1933.


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