The rufescent tiger heron's main call is a low-pitched paired hoot, often given at night. It also gives a fast series of sharp wok notes, which decrease in volume and speed, and a prolonged hoot, transcribed as ooooooo-ooh which rises markedly at the end.


Although the rufescent tiger heron's population size and trend has not been quantified, its range is huge, so the International Union for Conservation of Nature lists it as a species of least concern.


The bare-throated tiger heron (Tigrisoma mexicanum) is a wading bird of the heron family, Ardeidae, found from Mexico to northwestern Colombia, with one recorded sighting from the United States in Hidalgo County, Texas. It is 80 cm (31 in) in length and weighs 1,200 g (42 oz).
This large species is found in more open habitats than other Tigrisoma herons, such as river and lake banks. It waits often motionless for suitable prey such as fish, frogs or crabs to come within reach of its long bill.
This is a solitary breeder, not normally found in heron colonies. The nest is a small flattish stick platform in a tree into which 2–3 green-tinged white eggs are laid.


Tilia americana is a species of tree in the family Malvaceae, native to eastern North America, from southeast Manitoba east to New Brunswick, southwest to northeast Oklahoma, southeast to South Carolina, and west along the Niobrara River to Cherry County, Nebraska. It is the sole representative of its genus in the Western Hemisphere, assuming T. caroliniana is treated as a subspecies or local ecotype of T. americana. Common names include American basswood and American linden.


The American basswood is a medium-sized to large deciduous tree reaching a height of 18 to 37 m (60 to 120 ft) exceptionally 39 m (128 ft) with a trunk diameter of 1–1.5 m (3–5 ft) at maturity. It grows faster than many North American hardwoods, often twice the annual growth rate of American beech and many birch species. Life expectancy is around 200 years, with flowering and seeding generally occurring between 15 and 100 years, though occasionally seed production may start as early as eight years.
The crown is domed, the branches spreading, often pendulous. The bark is gray to light brown, with narrow, well defined fissures. The roots are large, deep, and spreading. The twigs are smooth, reddish-green, becoming light gray in their second year, finally dark brown or brownish gray, marked with dark wart-like excrescences. The winter buds are stout, ovate-acute, smooth, deep red, with two bud scales visible.
The leaves are simple, alternately arranged, ovate to cordate, asymmetrical, unequal at the base (the side nearest the branch the largest), 10–15 cm (4–6 in) (can grow up to 25 cm or 10 in) long and broad, with a long, slender petiole, a coarsely serrated margin and an acuminate apex. Bean noted that occasionally, enormous leaves measuring 38 cm or 15 in long by 25 cm or 10 in wide appear on thick, succulent shoots. They open from the bud conduplicate, pale green, downy; when full grown are dark green, smooth, shining above, paler beneath, with tufts of rusty brown hairs in the axils of the primary veins; the small stipules fall soon after leaf opening. The fall color is yellow-green to yellow. Both the twigs and leaves contain mucilaginous sap.
The flowers are small, fragrant, yellowish-white, 10–14 mm (13⁄32–9⁄16 inch) in diameter, arranged in drooping, cymose clusters of 6–20 with a whitish-green leaf-like bract attached for half its length at the base of the cyme. They are perfect, regular, with five sepals and petals, numerous stamens, and a five-celled superior ovary. The leaves emerge in mid-spring, but the flowers require day lengths of approximately 14 hours and 30 minutes to form, hence T. americana's range is limited to north of the 35th parallel. Time of flowering varies by several weeks depending on the latitude; early May in Canada and early June in the extreme southern extent. Leaf drop in fall occurs between early and late October depending on the latitude. The flowers are fragrant and insect-pollinated.
The fruit is a small, globose, downy, hard and dry cream-colored nutlet with a diameter of 8–10 mm (5⁄16–13⁄32 in).


American basswood is dominant in the sugar maple–basswood forest association, which is most common in western Wisconsin and central Minnesota, but occurs as far east as New England and southern Quebec in places that have mesic soil with relatively high pH. It also has minor occurrence in many other forest cover types.
Its flowers provide abundant nectar for insects. The seeds are eaten by chipmunks, mice, and squirrels. Rabbits and voles eat the bark, sometimes girdling young trees. The leaves serve as food for caterpillars of various Lepidoptera (see Lepidoptera which feed on Tilia). The ribbed cocoon maker species Bucculatrix improvisa has not been found on other plants.
This species is particularly susceptible to adult Japanese beetles (an invasive species in North America) that feed on its leaves. The mushroom Pholiota squarrosoides is known to decay the logs of the tree.


The American basswood can be propagated by cuttings and grafting as well as by seed. Propagated plants grow rapidly in a rich soil, but are susceptible to many pests.
The American basswood is known for being one of the most difficult native North American trees to propagate from seed, as they not only have a low viability rate (approximately 30% of all seeds are viable), but quickly develop an extremely hard seed coating that may delay germination for up to two years. If planting them, it is recommended to gather the seeds in early autumn and sow them before they dry out and form a coating. This will then allow germination to occur immediately. Overall, seeds are not a major part of the tree's reproductive strategy and it instead mostly spreads by self-coppicing. All juvenile basswoods coppice extremely readily, and even old trees will often sprout from the stump if cut.
The American basswood is recommended as an ornamental tree when the mass of foliage or a deep shade is desired; no native tree surpasses it in this respect. It is often planted on the windward side of an orchard as a protection to young and delicate trees. It is cultivated at least as far north as Juneau, Alaska.
The foliage and flowers are both edible, though the tender young leaves are more palatable. It is a beneficial species for attracting pollinators as well. Bees produce excellent honey with a mildly spicy flavor from its blossoms. The inner bark was used historically as a fiber source for making baskets, rope, and fishing nets.
Basswood attracts many insect pests including Japanese beetles and skeletonized leaves are common. Mite galls commonly form on the foliage.
Cultivars include 'Nova', 'Duros' (with an upright crown), the pyramidal 'Frontyard' and the conic-crowned 'Redmond'.
The tree was introduced to the UK in 1752, but has never prospered there, being prone to dieback.


The wood is pale brown, sometimes nearly white or faintly tinged with red; light, soft with fine close grain; clear of knots but does not split easily. It is low in strength and has a poor steam-bending classification. It can take stains and polish without difficulty and it planes, glues, screws and nails well. It is sold generally under the name basswood, but is sometimes confounded with tulip-wood and then called white-wood, and is largely used in the manufacture of wooden-ware, wagon boxes and furniture. It has a density of 0.4525 (relative to water). The wood is considered odorless. This makes it valuable in the manufacture of wooden-ware, cheap furniture, and bodies of carriages; it is also especially adapted for wood-carving. The inner bark is very tough and fibrous, used in the past for making ropes.
It is a common wood for use in the production of solid-body electric guitars, where it is considered an analogue for aspen and poplar, because it is light, strong and resonant, though it is usually used for guitars that will be painted an opaque color, because its lack of notable grain makes it an unattractive candidate for transparent finish. It is especially popular in heavy metal.


Although Tilia cordata is believed to be stronger, T. americana is also used medicinally. The dried flowers are mildly sweet and sticky, and the fruit is somewhat sweet and mucilaginous. Linden tea has a pleasing taste, due to the aromatic volatile oil found in the flowers. The flowers, leaves, wood, and charcoal (obtained from the wood) are used for medicinal purposes. Active ingredients in the linden flowers include flavonoids (which act as antioxidants), volatile oils, and mucilaginous constituents (which soothe and reduce inflammation). The plant also contains tannins that can act as an astringent.
Linden flowers are used in colds, cough, fever, infections, inflammation, high blood pressure, headache (particularly migraine), as a diuretic (increases urine production), antispasmodic (reduces smooth muscle spasm along the digestive tract), and sedative. The flowers were added to baths to quell hysteria, and steeped as a tea to relieve anxiety-related indigestion, irregular heartbeat, and vomiting. The leaves are used to promote sweating to reduce fevers. The wood is used for liver and gallbladder disorders and cellulitis (inflammation of the skin and surrounding soft tissue). The wood burned to charcoal is ingested to treat intestinal disorders and used topically to treat edema or infection, such as cellulitis or ulcers of the lower leg.
Several animal studies showed that the extract of T. americana increased sleeping time by 50 minutes (similar to the effects of diazepam) and decreased movement, which indicates sedative effects. It is argued that its mechanism of action is due to the flavonoid quercetin, as it inhibits the release of histamine.


Tilia cordata, the small-leaved lime or small-leaved linden, is a species of tree in the family Malvaceae, native to much of Europe. Other common names include little-leaf or littleleaf linden, or traditionally in South East England, pry or pry tree. Its range extends from Britain through mainland Europe to the Caucasus and western Asia. In the south of its range it is restricted to high elevations.


Tilia cordata is a deciduous tree growing to 20–40 m (66–131 ft) tall, diameter 1/3 to 1/2 the height, with a trunk up to 1 m diameter. The largest known trunk circumference was a specimen in Närke, Sweden, that measured 8.35 meters diameter at chest height. Lindar in Germany is said to be over 1000 years old. The bark is smooth and grayish when young, firm with vertical ridges and horizontal fissures when older. The crown is rounded in a formal oval shape to pyramidal. Branching is upright and increases in density with age. The leaves are alternately arranged, rounded to triangular-ovate, 3–8 cm long and broad, mostly hairless (unlike the related Tilia platyphyllos) except for small tufts of brown hair in the leaf vein axils – the leaves are distinctively heart-shaped. The buds are alternate, pointed egg shaped and have red scales. It has no terminal bud. The small yellow-green hermaphrodite flowers are produced in clusters of five to eleven in early summer with a leafy yellow-green subtending bract, have a rich, heavy scent; the trees are much visited by bees to the erect flowers which are held above the bract; this flower arrangement is distinctly different from that of the Common Lime Tilia × europaea where the flowers are held beneath the bract. The fruit is a dry nut-like drupe 6–7 mm long by 4 mm broad containing one, or sometimes two, brown seeds (infertile fruits are globose), downy at first becoming smooth at maturity, and (unlike T. platyphyllos and also T. × europaea) not ribbed but very thin and easily cracked open.


The trees favour good, loamy sites, but can also be found on sandy, infertile soils, and are not thought to be drought resistant. Dormant shoots of Tilia cordata can resist winter frost temperatures as low as −34 °C.
In Britain Tilia cordata, traditionally called pry, is considered an indicator of ancient woodland, and is becoming increasingly rare. Owing to its rarity, a number of woods have been given SSSI status. Cocklode Wood, part of the Bardney Limewoods, is the best surviving spread of medieval small leaved limes in England. Another site is Shrawley Wood in Worcestershire. Small-leaved lime was once regarded as holy and good for carving.
Trees in northern England were found to have established when the climate was warmer and have adapted to the cooling climate. Paleobotanical analysis of tree pollen preserved in peat deposits demonstrates that Tilia cordata was present as a woodland tree in the southern Lake District c 3100 B.C. In spite of the late migration of T. cordata into the Lake District, pollen diagrams from many sites show rapid expansion so that, within a few centuries, it had become plentiful and even locally dominant in the southern valleys.  Maximum values for Tilia from all pollen diagrams available for the north of England show a conspicuous concentration of high values in the southern Lake District.  At several sites among the limestone hills on both sides of the estuary of the River Kent, the curves for Tilia, although beginning about 4800 to 4000 B.C. then achieve values of at least 10% within a few centuries. At Witherslack values of this magnitude persist for a depth of 3 m which represents about 4000 years.  For much of this period Ulmus is approximately 10%, Quercus 20%  and the remaining arboreal pollen is largely that of Alnus.  For a shorter period Tilia exceeds Quercus and reaches a maximum of 30%.  The (Witherslack) basin is about 200 m in width, so that with distance correction factors applied this indicates that the surrounding woodlands on well-drained soils contained Tilia, Quercus and Ulmus in the proportions 4 : 1 : 1. Modern mature woodland trees were estimated to have germinated between 1150 and 1300 AD, making them around 800 years old. Precise age determination is impossible as heartwood at the centre disintegrates and therefore rings cannot be counted, and other methods are used.


The tree is fairly disease-resistant, though a common problem is leaf scorch where planted on dry soils, however leaf scorch is not a long-term problem as the leaves are lost in the autumn. Pests include Japanese beetles, aphids, lace bugs and various species of moths, such as Lymantria dispar dispar (Gypsy moth). This moth is one of the top 100 invasive species in North America, introduced by Étienne Léopold Trouvelot, and citizens are encouraged to remove Gypsy moth egg masses and cocoons from tree bark in order to help prevent the spread of this species.


Tilia cordata is widely grown as an ornamental tree. It was much planted to form avenues in 17th and early 18th century landscape planning. A famous example is Unter den Linden in Berlin. It is also widely cultivated in North America as a substitute for the native Tilia americana (American linden or basswood) which has a larger leaf, coarser in texture; there it has been renamed "Little-leaf Linden". It is popular as both a shade tree with its dense canopy, an ornamental tree with its architectural shape and a street tree. In the US, Tilia cordata has been planted in Wellesley, MA; Modesto, CA; Chicago, IL; Indianapolis, IN; and Atlanta, GA as street trees. In Europe, there are espaliered trees owing to the ability to survive heavy pruning. Tilia cordata is an easy tree to train for bonsai when the training is not done all at once. Letting the tree recoup in between sessions over a period of several months creates a healthy, good-looking miniature tree.  Prior to the advent of firearms, it was also commonly used for making shields (as referenced in Beowulf).
Tilia cordata survives best in a soil pH range of 5.0 to 8.0. and in USDA Hardiness Zones 3–7.  The tree prefers moist, well drained soil, but can survive flooding; it is not highly drought tolerant. It does not do well in soils with high salinity.


Common lime: T. cordata readily hybridises with Tilia platyphyllos; the hybrid is commonly known as common lime, Tilia × europaea (syn. T. × vulgaris).


'Corinthian' ('Corzam') – dense, uniform limb spacing creates a compact, pyramidal, formal shape; darker and smaller leaves; resistant to Japanese beetles.
'Greenspire' – the most common, a cross between the cultivar 'Euclid' and a selection from the Boston Parks, broadly used as a street tree, survives better under difficult conditions, overall a good looking, quick growing tree.
'June Bride' – significantly pyramidal habit, evenly spaced branches around a very straight central leader, glossier leaves, and 3 to 4 times as many flowers.
'Winter Orange' – rich red-orange-brown stems with reddish buds, can be cut back to grow long shoot extensions. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit.


The young leaves can be eaten as a salad vegetable. Often cattle graze upon them.


Tilia cordata is the national tree of the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic, and one of two national trees in Latvia.
The leaf of Tilia cordata is also considered a national symbol of Slovenia.


Tillandsia utriculata, commonly known as the spreading airplant or the giant airplant, is a species of bromeliad that is native to Florida and Georgia in the United States, the Caribbean, southern and eastern Mexico (Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Oaxaca, the Yucatán Peninsula), Central America, and Venezuela.
Two varieties are recognized:
Tillandsia utriculata subsp. pringlei (S.Watson) C.S.Gardner - eastern Mexico
Tillandsia utriculata subsp. utriculata - most of species range
Florida populations of Tillandsia utriculata are highly susceptible to attack by the invasive weevil Metamasius callizona, and have been devastated virtually throughout their range. Tillandsia utriculata holds more impounded water in its leaf axils, known as its tank, (up to a liter) than does any other Florida bromeliad. It is a major host of many species of aquatic invertebrates. With T, utriculata on a steady decline a loss of habit is occurring for many of these animal species.


Timandra amaturaria, the cross-lined wave moth or cobra inchworm, is a species of moth of the family Geometridae. The species was first described by Francis Walker in 1866. It is found in the US from Massachusetts to Florida, west to Texas and north to Wisconsin.
The wingspan is 20–28 mm. Adults have hooked forewings. The hindwings are pointed. Adults are on wing from May to September.
The larvae feed on some species of Polygonum and Rumex. They are black or reddish with yellow lateral streaks. Their characteristic shape has earned them the common name of cobra inchworm.


Tipula abdominalis, the giant crane fly, is a species of large crane flies in the family Tipulidae.


Tiquilia plicata, the fanleaf crinklemat or fan-leaved tiquilia, is a perennial, subshrub-like plant of lower elevation deserts in the family Boraginaceae, the borages and forget-me-nots. It is found in the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico, in the states of California, Nevada, Arizona, Sonora, and Baja California. It is a short, low-growing plant, seldom over 12 in tall.
It has purple, lavender to bluish 5-lobed flowers; also small ovate leaves, crinkly with ridges, up to 1/2 in.


Tisiphone abeona, the swordgrass brown, is a nymphalid butterfly. It is endemic to Australia.
The wings of the adult are brown and have a wingspan of about 60 mm.
The larvae feed on Gahnia species.


T. a. abeona (Donovan, 1805) (New South Wales, from the Hunter River south)
T. a. albifascia Waterhouse, 1904 (eastern Victoria)
T. a. antoni Tindale, 1947 (western Victoria to south-east Australia)
T. a. aurelia Waterhouse, 1915 (New South Wales, from Camden Haven to Port Stevens)
T. a. joanna (Butler, 1866) (New South Wales, Port Macquarie)
T. a. morrisi Waterhouse, 1914 (Queensland, from Southport to New South Wales)
T. a. rawnsleyi (Miskin, 1876) (Queensland, from Gympie to Caloundra)
T. a. regalis Waterhouse, 1928 (New South Wales, from the Dorrigo Plateau to the Barrington Tops)


Tithonia diversifolia  is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae that is commonly known as the tree marigold, Mexican tournesol, Mexican sunflower, Japanese sunflower or Nitobe chrysanthemum. It is native to Mexico and Central America but has a nearly pantropical distribution as an introduced species. Depending on the area they may be either annual or perennial. It has shown great potential in raising the soil fertility in soils depleted in nutrients. Originating in Mexico; research has shown its potential in benefiting poor African farmers. This plant is a weed that grows quickly and has become an option as an affordable alternative to expensive synthetic fertilizers. It has shown to increase plant yields and the soil nutrients of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K).


Tithonia diversifolia is 2–3 m (6.6–9.8 ft) in height with upright and sometimes ligneous stalks in the form of woody shrubs. The large, showy flowers are yellow to orange colored and 5–15 cm wide and 10–30 cm long. Leaves are sub-ovate, serrate, acute, 10 to 40 cm long, simply or mostly 3-7 lobed, somewhat glandular, and slightly grayish beneath.  The seeds are achenes, 4-angled, and 5mm long. The seeds are spread by wind. The leaves of the plant alternate in sides they grow on, which is where the plant gets the name diversifolia. This is accompanied by flowers which are yellow in colour and range from 6–13 cm in length. It can grow throughout the year and its seeds are spread through way of wind, water, and animals.


This plant was originally domesticated in Mexico and spread to other parts of Central and South America and north into the United States. It was brought over to parts of Africa and Asia as an ornamental plant and has become an invasive weed that is widely spread. It is most commonly found in areas with an altitude between 550m and 1950m. It is commonly found scattered among rivers and roadsides. In Asia and Latin America this plant is also referred to as kembang bulan (Indonesian and Javanese), jalacate (Spanish), buatong (Thai) and dã quỳ (Vietnamese).


In Japan, towards the end of the Meiji Period, they were imported as ornamental plants although seldom cultivated there. Having a characteristic bitter taste, they were  used to induce a fever to help fight poisoning, although not used for direct medicinal purposes. There is also the story of the species being introduced to Japan by Nitobe Inazo, hence its Japanese name, the Nitobe chrysanthemum (ニトベギク; Nitobegiku).
It is the official symbol of Da Lat city, Vietnam.
They are sold in herbal medicine markets in Taiwan.
It is the provincial flower of Mae Hong Son Province, Thailand.
T. diversifolia can be used as a green fertilizer for farmers. It can also be used as chicken feed, fuelwood, soil erosion control, and building materials. For fertilization, it is used as a mulch which can be spread on top of the soil or buried beneath it. The advantages here is that using the plant as a fertilizer has proven to increase crop yields. T. diversifolia has the ability to restore phosphorus in high amounts to the soil. T. diversifolia as a fertilizer contains 1.76% N, 0.82% P, and 3.92% K. All three properties are lower in cattle manure, and P is higher in poultry and swine manure.


Tithonia diversifolia can grow in many different environmental conditions. It has a moderate drought tolerance. It is ideally grown in areas with an annual rainfall ranging from 1000–2000 mm and a temperature of 15-31 degrees Celsius. This plant does not require a large amount of nutrients because it is able to increase the amount of essential nutrients in the soil itself. As a weed it spreads rapidly which allows farmers to obtain large amounts for the use of fertilization.


A study on the use of this green fertilizer on tomato plants shows that this is a useful method to increase crop yields in order to benefit the farmer’s wealth. However, this is not without a serious look at the labour requirements. A different study found that, with maize, the overall labour demand versus the financial prospects is not worthwhile, especially in areas of unpredictable rainfalls. This same study also found that growing T. diversifolia on farmer land is not as beneficial from an economic standpoint. Instead, it is better to harvest from an off site location and transport to the fields. From this study, fields that received only a P fertilizer yielded an income to the farmer of $50USD/ha. When only T. diversifolia was applied, this income rose to $494USD/ha. The latter results are high, as another study showed an increase of only to $116USD/ha.


Harvesting and distributing this fertilizer over the land by hand is very labour-intensive. The best yields come when T. diversifolia is grown off the land as to not take up growing space. For this reason, when time spent on labour has been factored, this approach may not be beneficial to a farmer.


While T. diversifolia has moderate drought tolerance, the amount of rainfall that the African subtropics receives may not be enough to support the growing of this biomass. T. diversifolia currently grows in humid and semi humid areas in Africa. However, no evidence was found to suggest that it had been attempted in desert conditions.


Tithonia diversifolia can be used as organic fertilizer biomass. The biomass refers to materials that are derived from the plant, such as its foliage, being worked into the soil as a dry fertilizer. Since its use as fertilizer requires high labour, it is recommended for use with high value crops such as tomato, kale, carrot, and maize. For this use, the plant is first grown in hedges around the edges of harvest land. It is important though to keep the maximum amount of growing area a farmer has. The green stems (not the woody stems), leaves, and flowers can be removed from the plant at a farmer selected time, though it is recommended that cutting every 5 months will give a plentiful amount of nutrients in the biomass. The biomass can also be used as a mulch and can be left on top of the soil to decompose into the ground. It has been found that the biomass from T. diversifolia breaks down rapidly and releases nutrients quickly. When applying the mulch or biomass to the soil, it should be applied at the minimum amount of one ton to every hectare of land. However, the best yield is given when 5 tons/hectare is applied. The downside here is that a lot of foliage is needed to cover a small area of land because it has a high water content. Mixing this biomass with a synthetic fertilizer will bring higher yields. A study found that when applying tithonia with triple superphosphate (TSP) that the yields increased by 220% compared to a control test containing only an inorganic nitrogen fertilizer (Urea). When using T. diversifolia it should be supplemented with a Mg fertilizer as this nutrient is lacking in quantity when compared to other green fertilizers.


Tivela stultorum, also known as the Pismo clam, is a species of large, edible, saltwater clam, a marine bivalve mollusk in the family Veneridae, the Venus clams. This species is native to the eastern Pacific Ocean. As the name implies, the Pismo clam lives in Pismo Beach, California. It has been found at least as far south as 300 miles south of the US–Mexico border in Baja California on the Pacific Ocean side, where strong surf sometimes washes ashore live clams. The indigenous peoples of California used this species for food.


The forest kingfisher (Todiramphus macleayii), also known as Macleay's or the blue kingfisher, is a species of kingfisher in the subfamily Halcyoninae, also known as tree kingfishers. It is a predominantly blue and white bird. It is found in Indonesia, New Guinea and coastal eastern and Northern Australia. Like many other kingfishers, it hunts invertebrates, small frogs, and lizards.


The forest kingfisher was first described by the naturalists Sir William Jardine and Prideaux John Selby in 1830. It was known for many years by its old scientific name of Halcyon macleayi before being transferred to the genus Todiramphus. The generic name is derived from the genus Todus (Brisson, 1760), 'tody' (a West Indian insectivorous bird) and Ancient Greek rhamphos, 'bill'. The specific epithet honours the Scottish entomologist and Colonial Secretary to New South Wales Alexander Macleay (1767-1848).
Three subspecies are recognised:
T. m. macleayi, the nominate subspecies, is found across the Top End eastwards to the Gulf of Carpentaria.
T. m. incinctus, described by John Gould, has a greener tinge to its back and is slightly larger. It is found down the east coast of Australia.
T. m. elisabeth (Heine, 1883) is found in eastern New Guinea.


The forest kingfisher measures 21.5–25.5 cm (8.5–10.0 in) in length and the male weighs 32–43 g (1.1–1.5 oz) while the female weighs 29–44 g (1.0–1.6 oz). It has blue wings, head and tail with white breast, abdomen and nape. It has a white patch in front of the eyes and a black band stretching from the bill, through the eyes to the ear coverts. A white patch is visible on the wings in flight. The female is distinguished by a blue rather than white nape. The iris is dark brown and the legs and feet dark grey. Immature birds are duller with a blackish crown. The call is a shrill t-reek, repeated regularly, most often in the early morning.


The forest kingfisher is native to Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and Australia, where it is found on or near the Australian coastline from Port Stephens in New South Wales northwards to Cape York and westwards across the Top End. It is a summer visitor in the southern parts of its range in New South Wales and southern Queensland; elsewhere it is resident all year round.
As its name suggests, it inhabits subtropical or tropical dry forest, subtropical or tropical moist lowland forest, and subtropical or tropical mangrove forest and Melaleuca swampland.


Although the population trend of the forest kingfisher is decreasing, it is classed as a species of least concern on the IUCN Red List.


The sacred kingfisher (Todiramphus sanctus) is a medium-sized woodland kingfisher that occurs in mangroves, woodlands, forests and river valleys in Australia, New Zealand and other parts of the western Pacific.


The binomial name Halcyon sanctus was introduced by Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Thomas Horsfield in 1827 who described a sacred kingfisher zoological specimen from New Holland, Australia. Vigors and Horsfield compare it with Alcedo sacra described by Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1788. Gmelin in turn based his description on John Latham's "Sacred King's Fisher" published in 1782. Latham described several varieties, one of which was illustrated in Arthur Phillip's The Voyage of Governor Phillip to Botany Bay published in 1789. The genus Halcyon is now split and the sacred kingfisher placed in the genus Todiramphus that had been erected by the French surgeon and naturalist René Lesson in 1827. The generic name is derived from the genus Todus (Brisson, 1760), 'tody' (a West Indian insectivorous bird) and Ancient Greek rhamphos (ῥάμφος), 'bill'. The specific epithet is the Latin sanctus 'sacred'.
Five subspecies are recognised:
T. s. sanctus (Vigors & Horsfield, 1827) – Australia to eastern Solomon Islands, New Guinea and Indonesia
T. s. vagans (Lesson, 1828) – New Zealand, Lord Howe Island and Kermadec Islands
T. s. norfolkiensis (Tristram, 1885) – Norfolk Island
T. s. canacorum (Brasil, L, 1916) – New Caledonia
T. s. macmillani (Mayr, 1940) – Loyalty Islands
The holotype of Halcyon norfolkiensis Tristram is an adult male held in the vertebrate zoology collection of National Museums Liverpool at World Museum, with accession number NML-VZ T6527. The specimen was collected in Norfolk Island in October 1879 by E. L. Layard and came to the Liverpool national collection through the purchase of Canon Henry Baker Tristram's collection by the museum in 1896.


The name "sacred kingfisher" can be traced back to Latham's 1782 description of the species and what he called the "Respected Kingsfisher" of the Friendly Isles (now Tonga), and the "Venerated Kingsfisher" of the Society Islands (both collared kingfishers). Latham claims, citing Parkinson's journals, that all three kingfishers were held in "superstitious veneration" by the natives on account of frequently inhabiting marae and burial grounds, and were not allowed to be taken or killed. Later sources claim Polynesians venerated it for having the power of control over the waves.


The sacred kingfisher is mostly blue-green to turquoise above with white underparts and collar feathers, a black mask and buff lores. Both sexes are similar, but females are usually greener, duller and less buff beneath, and juveniles have buff or mottled brown edges on the collar, underparts and upper-wing coverts. Adults are 20–23 cm (7.9–9.1 in) long. Males weigh 28–61 g (1.0–2.2 oz) and females 28–56 g (1.0–2.0 oz).


Sacred kingfishers are found in Australia, New Zealand, Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, New Guinea, eastern Indonesia, much of northern and western Melanesia, and the Kermadec Islands. This species breeds throughout much of Australia (except the dry interior), New Zealand, New Caledonia and locally, New Guinea. Populations in the southern two-thirds of Australia migrate northwards at the end of the breeding season to New Guinea, east to the eastern Solomon Islands and west to Indonesia becoming uncommon to very sparse westwards to Sumatra. Birds move south again to Australia in August and September. It has also occurred as a vagrant on Christmas Island (in the Indian Ocean), Malaysia, the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and Nauru. A pair were spotted in Pampanga, Philippines in April / May 2016.
In Australia, it inhabits open eucalypt forests, melaleuca swamps, mangroves, mudflats, wetlands and river or lake margins, farmland, parks and gardens. In New Zealand, T. sanctus vagans shows altitudinal migration, with post-breeding movement from higher altitudes to the coast and also from forest to coast and open lands.


The sacred kingfisher feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates (particularly insects bugs and spiders), small crustaceans, fish (infrequently), frogs, small rodents and reptiles, and there are a few reports of them eating finches and other small birds. Usually, the sacred kingfisher will sit on a low branch and wait for prey to pass by. It swoops down to grab the prey by briefly landing (sally-pounce) or hovering (sally-strike), and then returns to its perch to eat its catch by beating and swallowing.


The breeding season is from August to March (mostly September to January), often with two broods. Once a pair of birds has mated, both members of the pair dig the nest; a burrow in a river bank, a hollow in a large branch or a termite mound are prime examples of nest location. The female lays a clutch of 3 to 6 glossy white, rounded eggs, measuring 25 mm × 22 mm (0.98 in × 0.87 in), which are incubated for 17–18 days by both parents (mainly female). Both parents (and possibly helpers) feed the nestlings for up to 4 weeks, and for a further 7–10 days after fledging.


The sacred kingfisher has a wide distribution and the population trend is increasing, and it is classed as least concern on the IUCN Red List.


The sacred kingfisher is known in New Zealand English as kōtare, from the Māori name rendered as Ghotarré by Latham.


Tolmiea menziesii (/tɒlˈmiːə mɛnˈziːzi.aɪ/) is a species of flowering plant in the family Saxifragaceae. It is known by the common names youth on age, pick-a-back-plant, piggyback plant, and thousand mothers.
It is a perennial plant native to the West Coast of North America, occurring in northern California, Oregon, Washington, British Columbia and southern Alaska. It occurs as a naturalised plant or garden escape in Scotland, parts of Wales, Northern Ireland and northern and western parts of England.


Tolmiea menziesii has hairy, five to seven-lobed, toothed leaves and a capsule fruit containing spiny seeds
It bears many small flowers in a loose raceme. Each flower consists of a tubular purple-green to brown-green calyx and four linear or subulate (awl-shaped) red-brown petals, about twice the length of the sepals.
It has unusual reproductive habits. It grows plantlets from the petiole near the base of each leaf. The plantlets drop off, fall in the soil, and take root there. It will also reproduce by rhizomes and by seeds.


The genus was named after the Scottish-Canadian botanist William Fraser Tolmie, while the species name refers to Archibald Menzies, the Scottish naturalist for the Vancouver Expedition (1791–1795).
The plant was formerly considered to be the only member of a monotypic genus until diploid populations (due to autopolyploidy) were split off as a separate species T. diplomenziesii from the tetraploid populations.


Tolmiea menziesii is commonly cultivated as an ornamental plant, for use as a house plant or planted as a groundcover in gardens. It requires moisture and does not tolerate much sun or dryness.


The yellow-olive flatbill or yellow-olive flycatcher (Tolmomyias sulphurescens) is a species of bird in the family Tyrannidae. It is found in tropical and subtopical forest and woodland in Central and South America, but over its range there are significant variations in plumage, iris-colour and voice, leading to speculations that more than one species is involved. Its plumage is overall greenish-yellow, the lores are whitish, the crown is often greyish and some subspecies have a dusky patch on the auriculars. The flat bill is black above and pale pinkish or greyish below; similar to the yellow-margined flatbill, but unlike the grey-crowned flatbill.


Tolype velleda, the large tolype moth or velleda lappet moth, is a species of moth of the family Lasiocampidae. It was first described by Caspar Stoll in 1791. The species is found from Nova Scotia to central Florida, west to Texas and north to Ontario.

The wingspan is 32–58 mm. The females are larger than the males. Males have whitish veins and a broad dark gray subterminal band on their forewings. The hindwings are dark gray, either with or without a whitish median band. Females have similar markings, but are paler and less contrasting. Adults are on wing from July to September in one generation per year.
The larvae feed on various broadleaf trees and shrubs, including Malus, Fraxinus, Populus, Tilia, Fagus, Betula, Prunus, and Quercus species. They are grayish with long hairs. Larvae can be found from June to August.


Torilis arvensis is a species of flowering plant in the family Apiaceae known by the common names spreading hedgeparsley, tall sock-destroyer and common hedge parsley. It is native to parts of Europe and it is known elsewhere, such as North America, as an introduced species and a common weed. It grows in many types of habitat, especially disturbed areas. It is an annual herb producing a slender, branching, rough-haired stem up to a meter in maximum height. The alternately arranged leaves are each divided into several pairs of lance-shaped leaflets up to 6 centimeters long each. The leaflet is divided or deeply cut into segments or teeth. The inflorescence is a wide open compound umbel of flower clusters on long, slender rays. Each flower has five petals which are unequal in size and are white with a pinkish or reddish tinge. Each greenish or pinkish fruit is 3 to 5 millimeters long and is coated in straight or curving prickles.


Torilis japonica, the erect hedgeparsley, upright hedge-parsley or Japanese hedge parsley, is a herbaceous flowering plant species in the celery family Apiaceae. Japanese hedge parsley is considered both an annual and biennial plant depending on the biogeographical location. This means Japanese hedge parsley can complete its life cycle in either one or two growing seasons depending on habitat. Japanese hedge parsley is typically found in areas with disturbed soils, pastures, margins, open woodland, near waste sites, or right-of-way habitats. It can withstand a variety of habitats, thriving in partial and full shaded areas, but also withstanding habitats with full sunlight penetration. It is considered an aggressive invasive species in North America; invading a wide range of habitats due to its environmental tolerance and tendency to outcompete native vegetation. This species is considered a threat in several areas that causes problems relating to overall environmental health and stability. Aside from its environmental implications, T. japonica has potential to fight several cancers through a terpene it produces called Torilin, extracted from its fruits.


Japanese hedge parsley typically grows between 2–4 feet tall during its second year of growth. The leaves of Japanese hedge parsley are fern-like, alternate, divided pinnately, and have very slim stems that support each leaf. The plant doesn't flower until its second growth year in June–August  and the flowers are white with five petals in multiple broad domed umbels. The flowers are bisexual in the epicenter and a stamen is located at the margins of the umbels. There are five stamens that alternate with the petals of the flowers and the ovary is located below. Japanese hedge parsley can be described as unspecialized and self-fertile, and very attractive to pollinators.
Each plant produces easily distributable bristle-textured, rosy or white/green fruits that eventually turn brown when mature. The fruits are schizocarps and then mericarps when split into two. The schizocarpic fruits are dry, remain closed until maturity, and have two pollen-containing chambers. Each mericarp of the fruit is five-ribbed, making its dispersal highly effective and competitive towards native vegetation.


Despite japonica meaning “of Japan”, the native range of Japanese hedge parsley spans from Western Europe to central Asia, northern Japan, and Mediterranean parts of northern Africa.  In Europe, T. japonica is a summer annual/biennial. In its United States invasive range, it is considered a summer biennial. In Japan, it is considered a winter annual.


The major threat from Japanese hedge parsley is its ability to grow vigorously and disperse rapidly. Japanese hedge parsley was first introduced to North America in 1917 and has been considered invasive since its introduction. Reasons for its introduction are unknown, but it is assumed it was for medicinal purposes because it is not considered ornamental. The plant’s current distribution as an invasive species is in southern parts of Canada and in the Midwestern, Eastern, Southern parts of the US, and Oregon.
In Wisconsin, the Department of Natural Resources (DNR) found that this plant tends to establish itself along roadsides, edge habitats, or open areas and then spread to grasslands, prairies, savannahs, and forests. A 1979 study revealed that Japanese hedge parsley seeds showed the most promising degree of survival in harsh and disturbed soils, which revealed its overall resilience and threatening ability to invade. Also, the plant can produce seeds that do not germinate until the following autumn of the next year, allowing seeds to build up in the seed bank and increase elimination difficulty. This strategy gives Japanese hedge parsley an advantage in areas where native vegetation fails to grow or becomes disturbed. Mowing of the initially-established habitats encourage population density growth when brown fruits are present, which could be the reason for its initial ability to spread over a short period of time.
This species has been commonly misidentified with other species within the genus Torilis (T. arvensis), which has inhibited knowledge of its range and overall seriousness as a threat to biodiversity. Researchers have not determined why this plant is invasive in North America while exhibiting not invasive tendencies as an agricultural weed in Europe. The species is clearly highly adaptive to its biogeographic location, utilizing certain strategies more than others depending on the environment in which it is found. Studies have shown that seed dormancy and germination differ greatly across the US and across the globe. This limiting the scientific understanding on management strategies. To date, there are no documented studies on Japanese hedge parsley’s effect on native vegetation communities in relation to the possible response to climate change  or eutrophication.


The Wisconsin DNR has listed several non-chemical ways of removing the species. They list pulling, cutting, or mowing the stems as being effective, but only 50-70% effect the following season after treatment. When the brown fruits are present on the plants, it is important to avoid mowing to limit seed spread. If the brown fruits are present when pulling and cutting, fruits should be disposed of properly to avoid dispersal. Prescribed burns are another non-chemical control method that the Wisconsin DNR suggests when treating Japanese hedge parsley. After applying this control method, the following season shows a 50% effectiveness in terms of permanent removal. Thus, burning may only be effective in conjunction with other control techniques and / or fire adapted habitats such as prairies.
The Wisconsin DNR also recommends several chemical management options for treating Japanese hedge parsley. Glyphosate, a common herbicide that is applied to the leaves of plants to regulate growth. As a means of chemical control, glyphosate should be applied to Japanese hedge parsley vegetation during its first year of growth in the fall or spring. Although, this was found to be less than 50% effective the season after treatment. Chemical treatment with Metasulfuron  can be applied to rosettes in the spring or fall and was found to be 70-90% effective the season following the treatment. Lastly, the DNR mentions Triclopyr, a common herbicide used on woody and herbaceous weeds, as a means of chemical treatment to rosettes in the spring or fall, but may result in contamination of groundwater if not used properly and is only 50-70% effective the season after the control methods.
In terms of Japanese hedge parsley’s seed resilience and germination, it was found that when exposed to lower temperatures the seeds become dormant, which can also be reversed by exposure to higher temperatures. This suggests that Japanese hedge parsley can become more aggressive in higher temperatures, eluding to possible effects of climate change. A study exploring the impacts of clipping time on Japanese hedge parsley and seed production recommend clipping the plant in the reproductive phase but before fruit ripening.
In Wisconsin, Japanese hedge parsley is prohibited/restricted under the state's Invasive Rule- NR 40. This identifies the species as established in the state and posing a huge threat to human and environmental health and transporting, possessing, or introducing without a permit is regulated. Overall, very little policy has been made in response to the biological invasion of this species.


Japanese hedge parsley has been known for its medicinal properties in Chinese traditional medicine. It has been used for treating hemorrhoids, spasm, uterine tumors, fever, and dysentery. Recently, medical studies have shown that Japanese Hedgeparsley may have a potential for combating cancer. A substance known as torilin can be extracted from the plant and has been shown to be a potent inhibitor of 5 alpha-reductase, the enzyme that converts testosterone to DHT. Torilin is a compound from the fruits of the plant and has been shown to inhibit the growth of blood vessels in tumor development from benign to malignant and thus has a toxic effect on tumors. It also has been found to inhibit the conversion of testosterone to androgen, which is being studied further in the treatment of prostate cancer and alopecia.


Torilis nodosa is a species of flowering plant in the family Apiaceae known by the common names knotted hedgeparsley and short sock-destroyer. It is native to parts of Europe, especially the Mediterranean Basin and it is known elsewhere, such as North America, as an introduced species and a common weed. It grows in many types of habitat, particularly disturbed areas. It is an annual herb producing a hairy stem up to half a meter in maximum height. The alternately arranged leaves are each divided into several pairs of smooth-edged lance-shaped or linear leaflets. The inflorescence is a dense compound umbel of flower clusters on very short rays, often appearing like a cluster. Each flower has five petals which are unequal in size and are white with a pinkish or reddish tinge. Each greenish or pinkish fruit is about 3 millimeters long and is coated in long prickles.


Torreya californica is a species of conifer endemic to California, occurring in the Pacific Coast Ranges and the foothills of the Sierra Nevada. It is commonly known as California torreya or California nutmeg tree (although not closely related to true nutmeg). It is one of only two species of genus Torreya that are native to North America.
California torreya is an evergreen tree growing to 15–25 meters tall, with a trunk diameter of 0.5–1 meters (exceptionally 2 meters). A champion-scale tree, photographed in 2022 at Samuel Taylor State Park north of San Francisco, is shown in the photo to the right (notice the human touching the tree). In full sun, the crown is conical in overall shape, with whorled branches. But in subcanopy shade, the tree may grow leaning and sometimes multi-stem. The leaves are needle-like, stiff, sharp pointed, 3–5 cm long and 3 mm broad; they are arranged spirally, but twisted at the base to lie flat either side of the shoots.
As with all species of genus Torreya, the male (pollen) cones are 5–7 mm long, grouped in lines along the underside of a shoot. The female (seed) cones are single or grouped two to five together on a short stem; minute at first, they mature in about 18 months to a drupe-like structure with the single large nut-like seed 2.5–4 cm long surrounded by a fleshy covering, dark green to purple at full maturity in the fall.


Torreya californica is native to mountainous habitats in either the California Coast Ranges or the west slopes of the  Cascade and Sierra Nevada mountain ranges in California, which are distant from the coast. In the Coast Ranges, it is distributed from southwest Trinity County south to Monterey County. In the interior mountain ranges, it is distributed from Shasta County south to Tulare County. Mountainous terrain affords this narrowly dispersed ancient conifer opportunities to track suitable microclimates by shifting altitude and local topography, along with shifts between northerly (cool) and southerly (warm) slope  aspects or deep ravines and canyons, while remaining on the same mountain. Short distance adjustments are crucial for this genus, as squirrels and humans seem to be the most active agents for seed dispersal.
The patchiness of its geographic range is a form of disjunct distribution. The species is considered to be rare, but wherever it is found in the wild it may be abundant. This pattern of distribution is suggestive of a  relict taxon that has had difficulties navigating episodes of climate change in which range shifts needed to occur in topographically complex landscapes. A sister species in eastern North America,  Florida torreya, was reduced to only a single population owing to episodes of climate change during the Quaternary glaciation. Its status as a glacial relict was recognized in its listing as an endangered species.
Range shifts would have been difficult for all species of genus Torreya. Rodents are the only abundant and dependable seed dispersers — yet they gather and cache the large seeds only short distances.


Species within the Torreya genus are all adapted to establish and grow slowly as subcanopy woody plants in forest habitats of moderate to dense shade. In this way, their leaf structure and growth habit resemble species of yew, genus Taxus, which is a close relative.
When a tree-fall opens the forest canopy (or if nearby roadbuilding occurs), then upward growth will be stimulated.
Stems will lean in very shady conditions, in quest of patches of sunlight. Extremely leaning stems within a shady subcanopy gather moss as they age. An old leaning stem that fails to access sunlight will perish, but not before the long-lived root crown has given rise to one or more younger stems searching for sunlight in different directions.
Seed production occurs on female branches (and trees) only in the presence of direct sunlight. Because the Torreya genus has very long-lived roots, it can continue slow growth, while replenishing basal stems, for many decades without seed production becoming crucial for the persistence of a local population.


The seeds were used by Native Americans in Northern California as food. The seeds were once mentioned in pharmacognostic literature under the Latin name nux moschata Californica. The wood was used for making bows and the root fibers for basket weaving.
The wood is sometimes used in making Go game boards, as a cheaper substitute for the prized kaya (Torreya nucifera) of Japan and Southeast Asia.


The warm-chevroned moth (Tortricidia testacea) is a moth of the family Limacodidae. It is found from Nova Scotia west and south to Manitoba, Missouri and Mississippi. There is also a record from South Carolina.
The wingspan is 15–26 mm. Adults are on wing from April to August.
The larvae feed on beech, birch, black cherry, chestnut, oak and witch-hazel.


Toxicodendron diversilobum (syn. Rhus diversiloba), commonly named Pacific poison oak or western poison oak, is a woody vine or shrub in the sumac family, Anacardiaceae. It is widely distributed in western North America, inhabiting conifer and mixed broadleaf forests, woodlands, grasslands, and chaparral biomes. Peak flowering occurs in May. Like other members of the genus Toxicodendron, T. diversilobum causes itching and allergic rashes in most people after contact by touch or smoke inhalation. Despite its name, it is not closely related to oaks.


Toxicodendron diversilobum is extremely variable in growth habit and leaf appearance. It grows as a dense 0.5–4 metres (1+1⁄2–13 feet) tall shrub in open sunlight, a treelike vine 3–9 m (10–30 ft) and may be more than 30 m (100 ft) long with an 8–20 centimetres (3+1⁄4–7+3⁄4 inches) trunk, as dense thickets in shaded areas, or any form in between. It reproduces by spreading rhizomes and by seeds.
The plant is winter deciduous, so that after cold weather sets in, the stems are leafless and bear only the occasional cluster of mature fruit. Without leaves the stems may sometimes be identified by occasional black marks where its milky sap may have oozed and dried.
The leaves are divided into three (rarely 5, 7, or 9) leaflets, 3.5 to 10 cm (1+1⁄2 to 4 in) long, with scalloped, toothed, or lobed edges. They generally resemble the lobed leaves of a true oak, though tend to be more glossy. Leaves are typically bronze when first unfolding in February to March, bright green in the spring, yellow-green to reddish in the summer, and bright red or pink from late July to October.
White flowers form in the spring, from March to June. If they are fertilized, they develop into greenish-white or tan drupes.
Botanist John Howell observed that the plant's toxicity obscures its aesthetic values:
In spring, the ivory flowers bloom on the sunny hill or in sheltered glade, in summer its fine green leaves contrast refreshingly with dried and tawny grassland, in autumn its colors flame more brilliantly than in any other native, but one great fault, its poisonous juice, nullifies its every other virtue and renders this beautiful shrub the most disparaged of all within our region.


Toxicodendron diversilobum is found in California (Los Angeles was built on the site of a village named Yaangna or iyáanga’, meaning "poison oak place"), the Baja California Peninsula, Nevada, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. The related T. pubescens (eastern poison oak) is native to the Southeastern United States. T. diversilobum and T. rydbergii (western poison ivy) hybridize in the Columbia River Gorge area.
Toxicodendron diversilobum is common in various habitats, from mesic riparian zones to xeric chaparral. It thrives in shady and dappled light through full and direct sunlight conditions, at elevations below 1,500 m (5,000 ft). The vining form can climb up large shrub and tree trunks into their canopies. Sometimes it kills the support plant by smothering or breaking it. The plant often occurs in chaparral and woodlands, coastal sage scrub, grasslands, and oak woodlands; and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menzesii), hemlock–Sitka spruce, Sequoia sempervirens (coast redwood), Pinus ponderosa (Ponderosa pine), and mixed evergreen forests.


Black-tailed deer, mule deer, California ground squirrels, western gray squirrels, and other indigenous fauna feed on the leaves of the plant. It is rich in phosphorus, calcium, and sulfur. Bird species use the berries for food, and utilize the plant structure for shelter. Neither native animals nor horses, livestock, or dogs demonstrate reactions to urushiol.
Due to human allergic reactions, T. diversilobum is usually eradicated from gardens and public landscaped areas. It can be a weed in agricultural fields, orchards, and vineyards. It is usually removed by pruning, herbicides, digging out, or a combination.


Toxicodendron diversilobum leaves and twigs have a surface oil, urushiol, which causes an allergic reaction. It causes contact dermatitis – an immune-mediated skin inflammation – in four-fifths of humans. Most, if not all, will become sensitized over time with repeated or more concentrated exposure to urushiol.
The active components of urushiol have been determined to be unsaturated congeners of 3-heptadecylcatechol with up to three double bonds in an unbranched C17 side chain. In poison ivy, these components are unique in that they contain a -CH2CH2- group in an unbranched alkyl side chain.


Toxicodendron diversilobum skin contact first causes itching; then evolves into dermatitis with inflammation, colorless bumps, severe itching, and blistering. In the dormant deciduous seasons the plant can be difficult to recognize, however contact with leafless branches and twigs also causes allergic reactions.
Urushiol volatilizes when burned, and human exposure to T. diversilobum smoke is extremely hazardous, from wildfires, controlled burns, or disposal fires. The smoke can poison people who thought they were immune. Branches used to toast food over campfires can cause reactions internally and externally.
Urushiol is also found in the skin of mangos, posing a danger to people sensitized to T. diversilobum when eating the fruit while it is still in the rind.


Californian Native Americans used the plant's stems and shoots to make baskets, the sap to cure ringworm, and as a poultice of fresh leaves applied to rattlesnake bites. The juice or soot was used as a black dye for sedge basket elements, tattoos, and skin darkening.
An infusion of dried roots, or buds eaten in the spring, were taken by some native peoples for an immunity from the plant poisons.
Chumash peoples used T. diversilobum sap to remove warts, corns, and calluses; to cauterize sores; and to stop bleeding. They drank a decoction made from the roots to treat dysentery.


Toxicodendron diversilobum can be a carefully situated component in wildlife gardens, habitat gardens, and natural landscaping.
The plant is used in habitat restoration projects. It can be early stage succession where woodlands have been burned or removed, serving as a nurse plant for other species.


Toxicodendron rydbergii, the western poison ivy, is a species of Toxicodendron in the cashew family. It is native to most of Canada from the Maritimes to British Columbia, and most of the contiguous United States except the southeastern states, New Jersey, Delaware, and California.  It can be found growing in forests, and other wooded areas, usually near streams and rivers.

Unlike Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison ivy), which often appears as a trailing or climbing vine, Toxicodendron rydbergii is a shrub that can grow to 1 m (3 ft) tall, rarely up to 3 m (10 ft). The leaves are trifoliate and alternate.  The leaflets are variable in size and shape, and are usually 15 cm (6 in) long, turning yellow or orange in autumn. On the compound trifoliate leaves, the two leaflets opposite each other are typically asymmetrical, in contrast to the terminal leaflet which always shows bilateral symmetry.  The fruits are small, round, and yellowish.


Toxicodendron rydbergii  is a bushy shrub (height 30 cm). Leaves alternate, often shiny; with 3 divisions (leaflets), each with a tail, the one in the center a little longer; leaflets irregular in outline and sinuous with or without teeth, well marked veins; color varying with the seasons: wine red in spring, green in summer and multicolored in autumn. Creamy white or greenish flowers clustered in cones at the base of the leaves. Ribbed fruits; white, yellow or brown; the size of a dry pea; noticeable especially when the leaves have fallen. Most often, we find individuals without flowers and fruits.


All parts of this plant contain urushiol, which can cause severe contact dermatitis in most individuals.


Toxicodendron vernix, commonly known as poison sumac, or swamp-sumach, is a woody shrub or small tree growing to 9 metres (30 feet) tall. It was previously known as Rhus vernix. This plant is also known as thunderwood, particularly where it occurs in the southern United States. All parts of the plant contain a resin called urushiol that causes skin and mucous membrane irritation to humans. When the plant is burned, inhalation of the smoke may cause the rash to appear on the lining of the lungs, causing extreme pain and possibly fatal respiratory difficulty.


Poison sumac is a shrub or small tree, growing up to nearly 9 metres (30 feet) in height. Each pinnate leaf has 7–13 leaflets, each of which is 5–10 centimetres (2–4 inches) long. These are oval-to-oblong; acuminate (tapering to a sharp point); cuneate (wedge-shaped) at the base; undulate (wavy-edged); with an underside that is glabrous (hairless) or slightly pubescent (down-like hair) beneath. The stems along the leaflets are red and the leaves can have a reddish tint to them, particularly at the top of the plant. New bark for a poison sumac tree is lightish gray, and as the bark ages, it becomes darker.
Its flowers are greenish, growing in loose axillary panicles (clusters) 8–20 cm (3–8 in) long. The fruits are subglobose (not quite spherical), whitish-gray, flattened, and about 0.5 cm (1⁄4 in) across; these are eaten by birds.
Poison sumac fruit are creamy white and part of a cluster. Typically, they are around 4 to 5 millimetres (5⁄32 to 3⁄16 in) in size.


Poison sumac grows exclusively in wet and clay soils, usually in swamps and peat bogs, in the eastern United States and extreme southeast Canada.


The fruit and leaves of the poison sumac plant contain urushiol, an oil that causes an allergic rash upon contact with skin. They are, however, not toxic to birds or other animals, and eaten by them when other food is scarce, especially in winter.


In terms of its potential to cause urushiol-induced contact dermatitis, poison sumac is more toxic than its relatives poison ivy and poison oak.
The differences in toxicity in poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac are due to differences in the side chains of the chemicals in these plants. In general, poison ivy has a C₁₅ side chain, poison oak has a C₁₇ side chain and poison sumac has a C₁₃ side chain.
The dermatitis shows itself in painful and long continued swellings and eruptions. In the worst case, smoke inhaled by burning poison sumac leads to life-threatening pulmonary edema whereby fluid enters the alveoli.


Toxicoscordion venenosum, with the common names death camas and meadow death camas, is a species of flowering plants in the genus Toxicoscordion, of the Melanthiaceae family. It is native to western North America.
The plant is called alapíšaš in Sahaptin, and nupqasaquⱡ ("nup-ka-sa-qush") in Ktunaxa.


Toxicoscordion venenosum grows up to 70 cm tall with long, basal, grass-like leaves. The bulbs are oval and look like onions but do not smell like edible onions of the genus Allium.
The flowers are cream coloured or white and grow in pointed clusters, flowering between April and July. The flower clusters are a raceme (each cluster branches once along the main stalk), unlike its close relative Toxicoscordion paniculatum, in which the flowers are born in a panicle (doubly branched flower stalks). The flowers have three sepals and three petals.


The plant is widespread across much of Western Canada, the Western United States, and northern Baja California (México).   They tend to grow in dry meadows and on dry hillsides as well as sagebrush slopes and montane forests.


All parts of the plant are poisonous. It is dangerous for humans as well as livestock. Consumption of 2% to 6% of the body weight of the animal is likely to be fatal. Along with other alkaloids, zygacine and other toxic esters of zygadenine are the primary neurotoxic alkaloids contributing to the plant's toxicity.
The plant is visited by a specialist mining bee, Andrena astragali, which is possibly the only bee that can tolerate its toxins. Others are fatally poisoned.


Toxomerus geminatus (Say,1823) the  Eastern Calligrapher, is a common species of syrphid fly observed in the eastern and central United States and Canada. Syrphid flies are also known as Hover Flies or Flower Flies because the adults are frequently found hovering around flowers from which they feed on nectar and pollen. Adults are  6.1–7.6 mm (0.24–0.30 in) long. The larvae are predators of a variety of aphids and mites.


The species was first described as Toxostoma curvirostre by William John Swainson in 1827. Since then, six subspecies have been recognized, and have been divided into two branches. Genetic research has indicated that the curve-billed thrasher is the sister species of a clade consisting of the ocellated thrasher, brown thrasher, long-billed thrasher, and Cozumel thrasher. This contrasts with an earlier suggestion that curve-billed and ocellated thrashers are closest relatives.


The curve-billed thrasher is immediately recognized as a thrasher by its long tail and short wings. It is also recognized for its sickle-shaped bill, almost as long as its head width and brownish black in color. The body is compact with a large head, short wings and long tail. However, the tail is short relative to other thrasher species. The chest is grayish brown with circular brown-gray spots. The eyes are generally orange, shading to golden in adulthood. Juveniles are lacking in pale tips, rectrices, abdominal feathers are unkempt and upper parts and chest are washed rufously.
Variations are markedly different with each subspecies. The eastern subspecies has more distinct spots on its chest, more white along the tips and rectrices and obvious wing bars. T.c. palmeri has less spotting on chest and tips and less obvious wing bars. Other examples include T.c. curvirostre possessing longer wings and a tail than T.c. oberholseri; T.c. insularum is paler with more grey than T.c. palmeri and has more visible spotting on its breast.
One study published in 2003 suggested that curve-billed speciation was due to climate, which could be explained by molt and feather wear. The same study suggested that the Sierra Madre Occidental acts as a barrier to initiate differentiation within the species.
Measurements:
Length: 10.6–11.0 in (27–28 cm)
Weight: 2.1–3.3 oz (60–94 g)
Wingspan: 13.4–13.6 in (34–35 cm)


The curve-billed thrasher is commonly found throughout the southwestern United States from Arizona's Sonoran Desert across New Mexico to west Texas, southeastern Colorado and southwestern Kansas as well as most of Mexico from the Sonoran-Chihuahuan Deserts and south through the Mexican Plateau into Central Tamaulipas, inland to Oaxaca, and on the coast of Sonora to Nayarit. Vagrants have been found in bordering states of its range, as far north as North Dakota, Alberta and Manitoba and as far east as Florida. Palmeri types have been spotted in Florida, while curvirostre have been found in Iowa on several occasions. Other than previously noted exceptions, the curve-billed is essentially non-vagrant.
In comparison with other desert thrashers, the curve-billed is not as particular with habitats and can be found from ground level up to 3,000 m (9,800 ft). It generally resides where cholla and saguaro cacti, ocotillo, mesquites, palo verde, and creosote bushes are prevalent. It can also be located along woodland edges, piñon, dry desert bushland and areas within its region where cacti are present.  If there is an adequate amount of desert vegetation near human habitation, along with feeders, the curve-billed can adapt within these environments.


The curve-billed thrasher can generally be found running rapidly from cover to cover or flying near ground level from bush to bush. However, this bird is not shy about being in the open. It is generally a forager on ground level but can be very aggressive in routing out potential competitors for food at feeders, such as the Inca dove and round-tailed ground squirrel.


One recorded case of courtship behavior involving curve-billed thrashers describes two males attacking each other vigorously and resorting to purring and hissings sounds when neither bird appeared to relent. The two males then puffed up their chests and strutted up and down in front of the female. They continued to alternate between purr and hiss and fighting one another until one triumphed. The victor flew towards the female and both chirped melodically before copulation.


The curve-billed breeding season begins in February and reaches an apex between March and May; however, new fledglings have been recorded as late as August. Dates vary within its range due to temperature and rainfall. Nests are generally built at conspicuous locations, the cholla being favored. Other potential nesting sites range from mesquite, prickly pear or yucca to the occasional oak and pine trees. The nest is generally a deep cup but can be flat with a depression for the eggs. The outer layer consists of thorny twigs while the inner layer includes smooth sticks, roots, coarse and fine grasses, rootlets or hair.
Both sexes build the nest; the building periods can be as brief as three days to as long as four weeks. Egg count differs by location; the number has been as low as two and as high as five. Egg color varies; they can appear bluish green to pale yellowish blue, spotted abundantly in reddish brown. Both sexes incubate but the female is mainly responsible as well as being the sole provider of brooding. Curve-billed parents defend their nests fervently against other species; snakes are the most frequent predators of eggs and nestlings. Curved-billed Thrashers are rarely victims of nest parasitism by cowbirds. In situations where food is scarce, parents feed older fledglings first. The fledging period ranges from 11 to 18 days.


The curve-billed thrasher is an omnivore. Its diet includes invertebrates such as beetles, moths, butterflies, arachnids, and snails. It also eats vegetable matter, and fruits from cacti, prickly pear, hackberries, and anacua, among other plants. The curve-billed has also been spotted eating dog food, and will feed it to their chicks. They are ground feeders, and not well adapting to climbing on branches. Thrashers will take surface prey, but will also dig holes more than 2 inches (5.1 cm) deep to search for food. Curve-billeds will also sip nectar from saguaro blossoms and eat insects trapped within, serving as pollinators in the process. They also have great love for the resulting saguaro fruits, which is an important source of water in dry months.:168-187


Predators, which mainly focus on young birds, include snakes, coyotes, and roadrunners. This may account for very low brood success in the species, as only 20% of nests are successful in a year.:183-185
Curve-billed thrashers share a very similar range to the cactus wren, as well as a favorite species to nest in: the jumping cholla. Because of this, interspecific conflict is frequent. Fights over food are rare, but fights to protect fledglings are heated. They will vigorously work to destroy each other's nests, although typically only roosting nests, not breeding nests, are destroyed. Despite this, nests of curve-billeds and cactus wrens may still be concurrently and successfully raised even feet away from each other. Anderson & Anderson noted a minimum nest distance of a highly unusual 15 centimetres (neither nest was destroyed by the either throughout the entire season), although average interspecies nest distances were well over thirty metres. Nest destruction is almost always unsuccessful, and less intense, during breeding times, as both species adamantly defend their own nests. Once breeding season wanes, and fledglings emerge, competition becomes more fierce.:168-187


Although its populations is declining, the curve-billed thrasher is rated as a species of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.


The long-billed thrasher (Toxostoma longirostre) is a medium-sized resident songbird of South Texas and eastern Mexico.  It bears a strong resemblance to its close relative the brown thrasher in appearance, calls, and various other behaviors; however, the two species do not overlap in range except in the winter when the brown thrasher will temporarily reside in the northern range of the long-billed.
The bird is a large sized mimid that is not especially wary, but it will take precautionary measures to prevent itself from being potential prey. Like other thrashers, it is named after its sweeping methods when searching for food, not for thrashing predators, although they are aggressive defenders of their territories.


The specific name longirostre is derived from the Latin words longus long and rostrum bill.
There are two subspecies of the long-billed thrasher. T. longirostre ssp. longirostre was first described in scientific literature by Frédéric de Lafresnaye in 1838 as Orpheus longirostris, while T. longirostre ssp. sennitti was described by Robert Ridgway a half-century later.
T. longirostre ssp. longirostre (Lafresnaye, 1838). Range is in eastern Mexico, within the states of Querétaro, Tamaulipas and Veracruz southward to Puebla.
T. longirostre ssp. sennitti (Ridgway, 1888), known as Sennett's thrasher. Range extends from southern (particularly south central) Texas to the Rio Grande Valley and the Mexican states of Tamaulipas and San Luis Potosi.
Along with the brown thrasher and Cozumel thrasher, the three are part of a superspecies rufum clade. Plumage patterns and bill shapes were originally used for grouping, and the birds also were shown as closely related with genetic studies.


This thrasher shares a striking resemblance with the brown thrasher. However, there are a number of differences. Its face is more gray in contrast to the reddish appearance of the thrasher. The underparts are whiter, less buffy, and more robustly colored, an eye that appears more orange and beady, and generally a longer-bill that is blacker and stands apart from the face. The long-billed's overall appearance has more contrasts in its pattern in comparison to the brown thrasher.
The sage thrasher, which shares some its distribution with the long-billed, is smaller, grayer, and its rectrices are of a more distinguished white color.


This species is a resident in southern Texas north to San Antonio and Aranas, south through north-western Mexico to central Veracruz, east to eastern Coahuila, San Luis Potosi and Hildalgo. The breeding density is at the highest among the Rio Grande Valley. Although it is a resident in the lower Rio Grande Valley, a significant amount of its habitat was destroyed for agricultural purposes, and its population in the area decreased from the 1930s to the 1970s. Some human activity that has introduced appropriate habitat is thought to have been some help the species, and it is still is a common resident within its range. In Texas there is some evidence of a northern and eastern expansion of the range over a five decade span (1957-2007), with climate change as the suggested cause. With the exception of vagrants found in New Mexico and Colorado, the species is a permanent resident of its range.


Long-billed thrashers usually stay hidden on or near the ground, though it may sing from conspicuous perches. Whenever it searches for insects on the ground, it will energetically turn over ("thrashing") leaves and other litter. It also can be spotted singing on exposed perches above its thornbush fortresses. Males generally are spotted singing from March until the mid-summer, excluding instances of singing song snatches periodically to balance the year. It is generally not wary, possibly because is not easily approached. The flights of the long-billed are generally close to the ground, short, erratic with exaggerated fluctuations. Long-billed thrashers are staunch defenders of their territories; it will defend its nest ferociously, including against humans.
The longest recorded lifespan of the species was one individual recovered on 30 September 1965, at age 7 years and 3 months, after being banded (on 24 Aug 1959) in Alamo, TX.


The general nesting habitat of long-billed thrashers is amongst dense vegetation with spiny shrubs and trees in order to make the nest inaccessible to potential predators. Nests have also been found in plants such as willows, mesquite, huisache, cacti, or yucca.
The nest is a bulky cup placed in thick low or mid-height vegetation and made of materials such as twigs, straws, and grasses.  The female lays 2 to 5 eggs described as bluish-white with dense reddish-brown and gray speckles; the appearance is indistinguishable from the brown thrasher. Most of the egg laying for the long-billed in Texas occurs in April and May, and May and June in Mexico, though dates have been as late as June and July, respectively. The eggs hatch over a period of 24 days. Unlike most thrashers, however, the hatching process is synchronous. Both parents are responsible for incubation, which lasts 13 or 14 days as well as feeding the fledglings. They are rarely victims of brood parasitism by the brown-headed cowbird or bronzed cowbird.


The California thrasher (Toxostoma redivivum) is a large member of family Mimidae found primarily in chaparral habitat in California and Baja California. It is the only species of Toxostoma throughout most of its range.


The California thrasher is closely related to the crissal thrasher (Toxostoma crissale) and LeConte's thrasher (T. lecontei), and the three may form a superspecies. It has two subspecies, the nominate T. r. redivivum and T. r. sonomae.


The California thrasher is about 32 cm (13 in) long and weighs up to 90 g (3.2 oz); it is the largest thrasher. It has a distinctive long, decurved beak and a long tail. It is generally deep grayish brown above with olive tones on the tail. It has a grayish buff supercilium, a dark cheek pattern and eye line, and unlike most thrashers, has dark eyes. The underparts are mostly buffy to tawny brown, with the upper breast and flanks a smoky gray. The two subspecies differ only slightly.


The nominate subspecies of California thrasher is found from Santa Cruz and Placer counties, California, south into northwestern Baja California, Mexico. T. r. sonomae is found from Trinity and adjoining counties in northern California southwards  to the range of the nominate subspecies. There appears to be slight overlap allowing gene flow between them.
The California thrasher is a year round resident of both slopes of the California Coast Ranges and the western slope of the Sierra Nevada. It is only rarely found in the Central Valley between them. Its primary habitat is chaparral. It also inhabits sagebrush, juniper bushland, and riparian and oak woodlands with a dense understory. It is sometimes found in suburban parks and yards that have dense cover. In elevation it ranges generally as high as 1,600 m (5,200 ft) and as high as 2,000 m (6,600 ft) in southern California mountains.


This species' behavior is difficult to observe because it tends to keep hidden in dense cover. In the open it runs swiftly with its tail raised.


The California thrasher forages mostly on the ground, by digging and sweeping leaf litter and soil with its bill. It walks or hops between foraging stops. Its diet in spring is almost exclusively insects and other small invertebrates, to which it adds small soft fruits during the rest of the year. When feeding on fruits it can be in exposed situations, but is often under cover.


The California thrasher's core breeding season spans from February into July, though it often begins in January. It often raises two broods. Both sexes build the nest, an open cup of fine twigs and roots lined with finer material such as strips of bark and dried forbs, and placed on a platform of larger twigs. The nest is usually hidden in dense shrubs, typically between 1 and 3 m (3.3 and 9.8 ft) above ground. The clutch size is usually three to four. Both parents incubate the eggs and brood and feed the young. Common raven (Corvus corax) and California scrub jay (Aphelocoma californica) are common predators of eggs and nestlings.


The California thrasher is a "striking and exuberant songster". It mimics many of the species that share its habitat, and both sexes sing. It typically sings from elevated and exposed perches, "vigorous and 'cheerful' phrases variously repeated". It also has a wide variety of calls.


The IUCN has assessed the California thrasher as being of Least Concern. It has a very large range, and very large population that has shown only a small decrease in recent decades. Habitat fragmentation and conversion appear to be the largest threats.


Cody, M. L. 1998. California Thrasher (Toxostoma redivivum). In The Birds of North America, No. 323 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA.


Academy Of Natural Sciences Of P. (1998). California Thrasher: Toxostoma redivivum. Birds of North America. vol 0, no 323. pp. 1–22.
Burns KJ & Barhoum DN. (2006). Population-level history of the wrentit (Chamaea fasciata): Implications for comparative phylogeography in the California Floristic Province. Molecular Phylogenetics & Evolution. vol 38, no 1. pp. 117–129.
Farnsworth A. (2001). WatchList species as viewed through the Christmas Bird Count database. American Birds. vol 102, pp. 29–31.
Pearson OP. (1979). Spacing and Orientation among Feeding Golden-Crowned Sparrows Zonotrichia-Atricapilla. Condor. vol 81, no 3. pp. 278–285.
Rich T & Rothstein SI. (1985). Sage Thrashers Oreoscoptes-Montanus Reject Cowbird Molothrus-Ater Eggs. Condor. vol 87, no 4. pp. 561–562.
Sgariglia EA & Burns KJ. (2003). Phylogeography of the California Thrasher (Toxostoma redivivum) based on nested-clade analysis of mitochondrial-DNA variation. Auk. vol 120, no 2. pp. 346–361.
Winter L. (2004). Trap-neuter-release programs: the reality and the impacts. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. vol 225, no 9. pp. 1369–1376.
Zink RM, Dittmann DL, Klicka J & Blackwell-Rago RC. (1999). Evolutionary patterns of morphometrics, allozymes, and mitochondrial DNA in thrashers (genus Toxostoma). Auk. vol 116, no 4. pp. 1021–1038.


Trachelospermum jasminoides is a species of flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae, native to eastern and southeastern Asia (Japan, Korea, southern China and Vietnam). Common names include confederate jasmine, southern jasmine, star jasmine, confederate jessamine, and Chinese star jasmine.
This plant, and the variegated cultivar 'Variegatum', have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


Trachelospermum jasminoides is an evergreen woody liana growing to 3 m (10 ft) high. When they meet a wet surface, they emit aerial weed roots, otherwise they surround the support (they are twining). If cut, like most Apocynaceae, they exude a white latex, resembling sticky milk. Young twigs, initially pubescent, become glabrous with age. The leaves are opposite, oval to lanceolate, 2–10 cm (3⁄4–3+7⁄8 in) long and 1–4.5 cm (3⁄8–1+3⁄4 in) broad, with an entire margin and an acuminate apex. Dark green in summer, the leaves turn bronze in winter.


The fragrant flowers are white, 1–2 cm (3⁄8–3⁄4 in) diameter, with a tube-like corolla opening out into five petal-like lobes. The white, rotate actinomorphic flowers have a calyx formed by five narrow, smooth, reflexed sepals 2−5  mm , much shorter than the corolla tube. The latter has a dilated tube in the middle, 5−10  mm long, terminating in 5 obliquely bypassed lobes, all curved, resembling a helix turning counterclockwise. The five stamens are inserted in the middle of the corolla tube. The ovary is formed of a style and two carpels, with five glands at its base. They are grouped in paniculate, terminal and axillary cymes. The fruit is a slender follicle 10–25 cm (3+7⁄8–9+7⁄8 in) long and 3–10 mm (1⁄8–3⁄8 in) broad, containing numerous seeds.


Trachelospermum jasminoides is commonly grown as an ornamental plant and houseplant. In gardens, public landscapes, and parks it is used as a climbing vine, a groundcover, and a fragrant potted plant on terraces and patios. It will flower in full sun, partial shade, or total shade, and requires well-drained soil (if constantly kept damp it may succumb to fungal infection), moderate water, moderate fertilizer, and a climbing structure (whether a trellis or another plant is secondary). Propagation is most commonly done with cuttings/clones.
It is widely planted in California and also particularly in the Southeastern United States, where its hardiness is confined to USDA Zones 8–10. It is debated however, where the common name for this plant, confederate jasmine, comes from. While some dictionaries (such as Merriam-Webster and dictionary.com) suggest that the name comes from the plant's common cultivation in the southern United States, others argue that the term actually comes from Malaysia, and the former Malay confederacy. It gets another of its common names, trader's compass, from an old Uzbekistan saying that it pointed traders in the right direction, provided they were of good character. It is also called star jasmine in Europe and Chinese jasmine or Chinese ivy in Asia.
Its irritating, milky latex-like sap makes it resistant to the depredations of Australian possums.


A valuable perfume oil is extracted from the steam distilled or tinctured flowers and used in high end perfumery.
In a dilute form, tinctured flowers are much used in Chinese, Vietnamese and Thai incenses. A bast fibre is produced from the stems.


Six indole alkaloids; ibogaine, coronaridine, voacangine, apparicine, conoflorine, and 19-epi-voacangarine have been reported.


Tradescantia pallida is an evergreen perennial plant of scrambling stature.  It is distinguished by elongated, pointed leaves - themselves glaucous green, sometimes fringed with red or purple - and bearing small, sterile three-petaled flowers of white, pink or purple.  Plants are top-killed by moderate frosts, but will often sprout back from roots.
The cultivar T. pallida 'Purpurea' has purple leaves and pink flowers.


Widely used as an ornamental plant in gardens and borders, as a ground cover, hanging plant, or - particularly in colder climates where it cannot survive the winter season - houseplant, it is propagated easily by cuttings (the stems are visibly segmented and roots will frequently grow from the joints).
As a houseplant, T. pallida has been judged exceptionally effective at improving indoor air quality by filtering out volatile organic compounds, a class of common pollutants and respiratory irritants, an effect known as phytoremediation.
Numerous cultivars are available, of which 'Purpurea' with purple foliage has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


Tradescantia zebrina, formerly known as Zebrina pendula, is a species of creeping plant in the Tradescantia genus. Common names include silver inch plant and wandering Jew. The latter name (also sometimes used for the related species T. fluminensis) is controversial, and some now use the alternative wandering dude. The plant is popular in cultivation due to its fast growth and attractive foliage. It is used as a groundcover in warm winter climates, and as a houseplant elsewhere.


Tradescantia zebrina has attractive zebra-patterned leaves, the upper surface showing purple new growth and green older growth parallel to the central axis, as well as two broad silver-colored stripes on the outer edges, with the lower leaf surface presenting a deep uniform magenta.  The leaves are bluish green and usually have two longitudinal stripes that are silvery on the surface and purple on the underside. The leaf sheaths are thin and translucent, 8 to 12 mm long and 5 to 8 mm wide, at the mouth they are long, otherwise glabrous or slightly hairy.

The low-lying, slightly succulent, perennial, herbaceous plant often forms dense mats or colonies. This is done primarily by natural formation of sinkers. On the nodules of the shoot are root approaches, from which roots develop in permanent contact with water or a sufficiently moist substrate under favorable conditions within a day. The shoots are glabrous or hairy. The stalked, parallel-veined leaves are mostly ovate, 4 to 10 cm long and 1.5 to 3 cm wide, pointed towards the tip, rounded to the base. The upper surface is glabrous to mildly hairy, the underside hairless to averagely hairy, ciliate towards the leaf base. The structure of the flower - usually from the three pink petals and the white sexual organs - is similar to that of the other Tradescantia, but unlike what happens in those, the plant branches off thanks to new buds whose attachment starts below that of the leaf (and not above)
The flowers are in groups, supported by two large foliage-like, narrow, ciliate bracts. The hermaphrodite, radial-symmetrical flowers are threefold. The three overgrown sepals are 2 to 3 mm long. The three only grown at the base petals are ovate-blunt, pink to purple and 5 to 9 mm long. The six equally sized stamens are violet hairy. Three carpels have become a top permanent ovary grown. They form capsule fruits that contain gray-brown seeds.
Skin irritation may result from repeated contact with or prolonged handling of the plant — particularly from the clear, watery sap (a characteristic unique to T. zebrina as compared with the other aforementioned types).


Tradescantia zebrina is native to Mexico, Central America, and Colombia, but can also be found on the Caribbean islands. It is naturalized in parts of Asia, Africa, Australia, South America, and various oceanic islands.
The plant grows in thickets in the wetland and rainforest, often on stones in shady and open areas or on river banks at altitudes of 2000 meters or below, but mainly at lower altitudes.


It is commonly available and used as a houseplant and groundcover, aggressively colonizing new areas when left undisturbed. Propagated by cuttings, this plant can be moved or manipulated easily as its runners cling lightly to the ground (if used as cover). It tends to become an invasive species if not properly maintained. The plant is not frost-resistant but can be kept indoors during the winter months in colder climates. It is hardy in USDA hardiness zones 9, 10 and 11.
The species, and the cultivars 'Purpusii' and 'Quadricolor' have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


It is classified as a Category 1b Invasive Species in South Africa, and thus may no longer be planted or propagated. All trade in seeds, cuttings or other propagative material is prohibited. It may not be transported or be allowed to disperse, either in rural or urban areas. It is also an invasive species in the Galápagos Islands.


The red-mantled saddlebags or red saddlebags (Tramea onusta) is a species of skimmer dragonfly found throughout the eastern United States. It has translucent wings with red veins, and has characteristic dark red blotches at their proximal base, which makes the dragonfly look as if it is carrying saddlebags when flying. The last two bands and the cerci of these dragonflies are black.
While male red-mantled saddlebags have a distinct red body, females will typically have light brown or pale orange bodies, as well as lighter white and brown eyes.


Traminda aventiaria, the cross-line wave moth, is a moth of the family Geometridae. The species was first described by Achille Guenée in 1858. It is found in the Indian subregion, Sri Lanka, to Hong Kong, Taiwan, New Guinea and Australia.


Its wings are dull pale green to reddish. An oblique ochreous-green fasciae is found on the forewings. Discal ring on forewing strong. The caterpillar is variegated light and dark brown and cylindrical in shape with lateral expansions to body. The caterpillar rest on leaf surfaces with a highly looped appearance. Pupa claviform. Cremaster triangular. Pupation occurs in a cocoon made by silk threads woven among leaves.
Host plants include Albizia, Pithecellobium dulce, Rosa species, Oenanthe javanica, and Acacia species such as Acacia leiocalyx, Acacia decurrens, Acacia concurrens, Acacia pennata and Acacia aulacocarpa.


Tremex columba, also known as the pigeon tremex or pigeon horntail, is a species of horntail that is native to eastern and western North America.


The females are larger than the males, with females growing to 25-30mm in length, and males about 20-25mm. The species can vary in coloration from light brown to dark reddish brown, and sports yellow and black stripes along the abdomen. Both males and females have long projections protruding from their rear, with the females possessing an additional projection in the form of an ovipositor.
The females of the species use their ovipositor to deposit their eggs into dead and dying deciduous trees such as beech, elm, maple, and oak, which the larvae burrow inside of and feed upon. They usually deposit between two and seven eggs into the tree. The female will die after this process, and carcasses can sometimes be seen stuck to the bark of host trees.


Megarhyssa macrurus, M. greenei, and M. atrata are the natural predators of this species. The female Megarhyssa seeks out the larvae within the tunnels bored by this species. It then lays an egg next to the larva and then injects a venom to paralyze it. Another parasitoid of Tremex columba is Ibalia anceps.
Because the species prefers dead or decaying trees, they usually pose little threat to vegetation as a pest, though they do sometimes select healthy trees, and via the ovipositor the species can infect the host tree with Cerrena unicolor, a fungus that can rot the trees.
The species is not considered harmful to humans, and does not sting or bite.


The pink-necked green pigeon is a medium-sized pigeon, measuring 25 to 30 cm (9.8–11.8 in) in length and weighing around 105–160 g (3.7–5.6 oz). The species has  sexually dimorphic plumage. The male has a grey head, pinkish neck and upper breast, and the rest of the breast is orange. The back is olive green and the wings are green with black primaries and yellow edging on the tertiaries which create a yellow bar across the wing in flight. The belly is yellowish with grey flanks, and the tail is grey with a black band at the end, and a chestnut uppertail coverts. The female is smaller overall, has a yellowish belly, throat and face, and greenish crown and back of the neck, although is otherwise similar to the male. The legs are pink or reddish, and the bill is white, pale blue green or grey. Juvenile birds look similar to females but are greyer above.
Pigeons in the genus Treron are unusual in the family for not having cooing calls, instead making whistling and quacking noises, but some cooing notes have been recorded for the pink-necked green pigeon, as the male makes a tri-syballic whistling call ending in a coo. It is also reported to make a rasping krrak krrak... call, but the species is generally held to not be particularly vocal, usually only calling in communal roosts and when it finds food.


The range of the pink-necked green pigeon extends from southern Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam south through the Malay Peninsula and across the Greater Sundas (and their surrounding islands), Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, and as far east as the Moluccas as well as the Philippines. It occupies a variety of habitats, including primary forest, forest edge, secondary forest, and coastal mangroves. It favours more open environments and where it is found in association with denser forest it is typically on the edges. It is also readily found in human dominated environments such as gardens, plantations and farmland. It is more common in lowlands and close to the coast, but can be found up to 300 m (980 ft) in the Philippines, 750 m (2,460 ft) in Borneo and 1,200 m (3,900 ft) in Sulawesi. The species is recorded as non-migratory by the Handbook of the Birds of the World, but other sources have described it as making local movements. A related species, the thick-billed green pigeon, covers vast distances in search of fruit, and it is likely that the pink-necked green pigeon has a similar behaviour.
After the main island of Krakatoa was obliterated in a volcanic eruption in 1883, leaving a handful of smaller islands, the pink-necked pigeon was observed on the first bird survey of these remnants. The survey was conducted in 1908, and at the time the pigeon was the only obligate frugivore (meaning it ate mostly fruit, as opposed to as part of a wider diet or opportunistically) that had established itself on the islands. Within the archipelago it was able to colonise Anak Krakatau, a volcano that emerged from the sea from the caldera in 1927, within 36 years of the new island suffering a large eruption in 1952. The delay between the island settling down and colonisation was likely due to the time taken for figs to become established on the island and begin fruiting. It later became extinct on that island, due to a small population and predation. The species has recently expanded its range, having colonised Flores at some time since 2000.