Arion ater varies from 10 to 15 cm(3.9–5.9 in), reaching maturity at about 2.5 cm(1.0 in) and speed up to 4,5 cm/min or 2,54 m/h
The black slug is generally deep black, with some adults being brown or even white. Generally, pigmentation darkens directly with increasing latitude. Young specimens tend to be brown or ivory whitish, turning to grey before becoming characteristically black at maturity. Rust-brown individuals are arguably classified as a separate species Arion rufus (Red Slug). The two can only be distinguished by dissecting the reproductive anatomy.
The foot-fringe is black, the tubercles are large and elongate, and the sole is blackish grey. The atrium and vagina (genitalia) are considerably narrower than is the spermatheca (organ for storing sperm). The oviduct is narrow while the spermatheca is spherical.
The black slug is omnivorous, and its diet includes fungi, carrion, earthworms, leaves, stems, dead plant material and dung. The food is shredded into tiny pieces by the radula and is then digested by enzymes.
Like other terrestrial slugs, the black slug is a hermaphrodite, preferring to find a mate—often several—but can self-fertilize. After mating, the black slug seeks a dark, moist environment such as beneath mosses—occasionally within topsoil—to lay its eggs about 5mm (0.2 in) in diameter. Between August and October, an individual slug lays up to 150 eggs every one to three weeks—clutches diminishing to 20 eggs late in the season. Juveniles hatch after at least twenty-seven days, hatching later under cold temperatures. Maturation takes up to nine months, enabling mating in early summer. Black slugs die shortly after laying its last clutch, rarely surviving into a second year.
The ovotestis (gonad or hermaphrodite gland) produces gametes at the proximal end of the reproductive system. The hermaphrodite duct runs forward, connecting to the albumen gland and the common duct (spermoviduct). The male and female gametes separate before entering the common duct. The male portion of the reproductive tract contains the vas deferens and the epiphallus. Arion slugs lack a penis. The vas deferens connects the spermoviduct to the epiphallus. The epiphallus then opens to the genital atrium. The spermathecal duct (bursa copulatrix duct) is a sac for storing spermatozoa and also enters the atrium. The female portion contains the oviduct, transferring eggs from the common duct to the atrium. The atrium is further subdivided into an upper and lower atrium. A stimulating organ (ligula) can also be found in the atrium. Finally, the atrium opens through the genital pore. The genital pore is located on the animal slightly behind and below the right upper tentacle on the head.
Like other members of the family Arionidae, the black slug has a pneumostome (breathing hole) on the right side of its mantle through which it breathes. This mantle is the part in snails that secretes a shell, but in the black slug, the mantle contains a resilient protective structure of calcareous granules.
Arion ater produces three forms of mucus. The first two aid the animal in locomotion, with a thinner mucus coating the animal laterally, and a thicker, more viscous mucus secreted along the length of the slug. This combination facilitates wave like contractions of the foot that propel the animal forward. The third type of mucus is a vile-tasting substance which helps deter predation. All three forms of mucus help protect the slug from dehydration, as well as to locate and identify other slugs to mate with, or even prey upon.


The California vole is found from El Rosario in Baja California in the south, through much of California and as far as Eugene, Oregon in the north. It is, however, absent from most of the deserts of southeastern California and from the extreme northeastern and northwestern corners of the state. It inhabits a range of different grassland habitats, from wet coastal marshland to dry uplands and savannah.


The California vole is herbivorous, feeding mainly on grasses and sedges, supplemented by other flowering herbs. Preferred foods include wild oats, ryegrass, and brome grass, although all of these are introductions from Europe, and therefore cannot represent the animal's original diet. They can become an agricultural pest, causing widespread damage especially to fields of artichokes, but also to crops such as alfalfa, potatoes, and asparagus.
Because the California vole is relatively common and widespread, it has numerous natural predators, including hawks, owls, egrets, long-tailed weasels, coyotes, skunks, mountain lions and garter snakes.


California voles are crepuscular or nocturnal. However, they spend much of their time below ground, using burrows connected by above-ground runways they use to find food. Home ranges are relatively small, with the animals rarely venturing far from their burrows; averages of 103 square metres (1,110 sq ft) for males and 68 square metres (730 sq ft) for females have been reported. The larger ranges of males overlap with the ranges of several nearby females, but they are generally aggressive only towards other nearby males, clawing and biting any intruders. Although they also sometimes use abandoned gopher tunnels, burrows dug by the voles themselves are blind-ending and range from 1.5 to 12 m (4.9 to 39.4 ft) in length. The voles construct nests of dried grass within their burrows; these have a single entrance, and are typically between 7 and 15 cm (2.8 and 5.9 in) below the surface.
The voles are active above ground primarily to find food, reaching the seeds on high grasses by standing on their hind legs and clipping the stems with their teeth. They often carry the food back to their burrow to eat it, although they do not hoard food or hibernate through the winter. California voles are often found in groups of a single male, one or more females, and a number of young, and the male may assist the female in construction of her nest before she gives birth. California voles are reasonably strong swimmers, and may use this tactic to attempt to escape from predators.


California voles are able to breed almost year-round, although most breeding occurs during the middle of the wet season, from March to April. Males may breed with more than one female, although the species is not as strongly polygynous as some other voles. Copulation can be prolonged and repeated, and is followed by formation of a copulatory plug and by induced ovulation. Gestation lasts three weeks and results in the birth of up to 10 young, with four or five being most common. The female is ready to breed again with 15 hours of giving birth, and may give birth to several litters over the course of her life.
The young are born hairless and blind, weighing an average of 2.8 g (0.099 oz). They begin to grow fur within five days of birth, and their eyes open at 9 days, although they are capable of sensing light before this. The young are weaned at around two weeks of age, and have a full set of adult teeth by three weeks. Females reach sexual maturity after as little as three weeks, while males become sexually mature after six weeks. The lifespan is correspondingly short, with individuals living for less than a year, even in the absence of predators.


The impala inhabits woodlands due to its preference for shade; it can also be found on the interface (ecotone) between woodlands and savannahs. Places near water sources are preferred. In southern Africa, populations tend to be associated with Colophospermum mopane and Acacia woodlands. Habitat choices differ seasonally – Acacia senegal woodlands are preferred in the wet season, and A. drepanolobium savannahs in the dry season. Another factor that could influence habitat choice is vulnerability to predators; impala tend to keep away from areas with tall grasses as predators could be concealed there. A study found that the reduction of woodland cover and creation of shrublands by the African bush elephants has favoured impala population by increasing the availability of more dry season browse. Earlier, the Baikiaea woodland, which has now declined due to elephants, provided minimum browsing for impala. The newly formed Capparis shrubland, on the other hand, could be a key browsing habitat. Impala are generally not associated with montane habitats; however, in KwaZulu-Natal, impala have been recorded at altitudes of up to 1,400 metres (4,600 ft) above sea level.
The historical range of the impala – spanning across southern and eastern Africa – has remained intact to a great extent, although it has disappeared from a few places, such as Burundi. The range extends from central and southern Kenya and northeastern Uganda in the east to northern KwaZulu-Natal in the south, and westward up to Namibia and southern Angola. The black-faced impala is confined to southwestern Angola and Kaokoland in northwestern Namibia; the status of this subspecies has not been monitored since the 2000s. The common impala has a wider distribution, and has been introduced in protected areas in Gabon and across southern Africa.


The impala (/ɪmˈpɑːlə, -ˈpælə/, Aepyceros melampus) is a medium-sized antelope found in eastern and southern Africa. The only extant member of the genus Aepyceros and tribe Aepycerotini, it was first described to European audiences by German zoologist Hinrich Lichtenstein in 1812. Two subspecies are recognised—the common impala, and the larger and darker black-faced impala. The impala reaches 70–92 cm (28–36 in) at the shoulder and weighs 40–76 kg (88–168 lb). It features a glossy, reddish brown coat. The male's slender, lyre-shaped horns are 45–92 cm (18–36 in) long.
Active mainly during the day, the impala may be gregarious or territorial depending upon the climate and geography. Three distinct social groups can be observed: the territorial males, bachelor herds and female herds. The impala is known for two characteristic leaps that constitute an anti-predator strategy. Browsers as well as grazers, impala feed on monocots, dicots, forbs, fruits and acacia pods (whenever available). An annual, three-week-long rut takes place toward the end of the wet season, typically in May. Rutting males fight over dominance, and the victorious male courts female in oestrus. Gestation lasts six to seven months, following which a single calf is born and immediately concealed in cover. Calves are suckled for four to six months; young males—forced out of the all-female groups—join bachelor herds, while females may stay back.
The impala is found in woodlands and sometimes on the interface (ecotone) between woodlands and savannahs; it inhabits places near water. While the black-faced impala is confined to southwestern Angola and Kaokoland in northwestern Namibia, the common impala is widespread across its range and has been reintroduced in Gabon and southern Africa. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classifies the impala as a species of least concern; the black-faced subspecies has been classified as a vulnerable species, with fewer than 1,000 individuals remaining in the wild as of 2008.


Males are sexually mature by the time they are a year old, though successful mating generally occurs only after four years. Mature males start establishing territories and try to gain access to females. Females can conceive after they are a year and a half old; oestrus lasts for 24 to 48 hours, and occurs every 12–29 days in non-pregnant females. The annual three-week-long rut (breeding season) begins toward the end of the wet season, typically in May. Gonadal growth and hormone production in males begin a few months before the breeding season, resulting in greater aggressiveness and territoriality. The bulbourethral glands are heavier, testosterone levels are nearly twice as high in territorial males as in bachelors, and the neck of a territorial male tends to be thicker than that of a bachelor during the rut. Mating tends to take place between full moons.
Rutting males fight over dominance, often giving out noisy roars and chasing one another; they walk stiffly and display their neck and horns. Males desist from feeding and allogrooming during the rut, probably to devote more time to garnering females in oestrus; the male checks the female's urine to ensure that she is in oestrus. On coming across such a female, the excited male begins the courtship by pursuing her, keeping a distance of 3–5 metres (9.8–16.4 ft) from her. The male flicks his tongue and may nod vigorously; the female allows him to lick her vulva, and holds her tail to one side. The male tries mounting the female, holding his head high and clasping her sides with his forelegs. Mounting attempts may be repeated every few seconds to every minute or two. The male loses interest in the female after the first copulation, though she is still active and can mate with other males.
Gestation lasts six to seven months. Births generally occur in the midday; the female will isolate herself from the herd when labour pain begins. The perception that females can delay giving birth for an additional month if conditions are harsh may however not be realistic. A single calf is born, and is immediately concealed in cover for the first few weeks of its birth. The fawn then joins a nursery group within its mother's herd. Calves are suckled for four to six months; young males, forced out of the group, join bachelor herds, while females may stay back.


Pholiota aurivella is a species of fungus in the family Strophariaceae that is found in native forest of New Zealand, southern Canada, and in the United States. It is frequently found in the American West and Southwest, especially in late summer and fall. Most field guides list it as inedible, with one reporting that it contains toxins which cause gastric upset. According to David Arora, the taste resembles "marshmallows without the sugar." It is sticky or slimy when moist and grows in clusters on live or dead trees.
The cap colour is bright to golden yellow, viscid when young with relatively dark scales. The stem is pale, and scaly closer to the bottom.
Pholiota limonella and its subspecies are very similar, seeming to differ only in the spores.


Columbian ground squirrels live in colonies distributed discontinuously throughout their range.  They are found in alpine and subalpine areas, along the edges of meadows or on mounds where meadow flooding occurs.  They are not found as frequently in rocky, fellfield, heather, or herbfield environments as they are in meadows and grasslands.  They will occupy disturbed habitats including clear-cuts.  In areas where they are sympatric with Belding's ground squirrel, they inhabit areas of higher elevation and wetter climate.  Belding's ground squirrel tends towards drier, sagebrush regions.   In Oregon, the Columbian ground squirrel is found primarily in the Blue Mountains, where other characteristic mammal species include: the montane shrew (Sorex monticolus), Belding's ground squirrel (Urocitellus beldingi), the American red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus), the northern pocket gopher (Thomomys talpoides), the southern red-backed vole (Myodes gapperi), and the western jumping mouse  (Zapus princeps).
Predation of other vertebrates by Columbian ground squirrels has not been described.  However, cannibalism has been observed.  Adult females sometimes may kill juveniles as well.  It was postulated that sympatric species, including northern pocket gophers, deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus), and meadow voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus) might use or raid provisioned burrows.  Observations of possible killings of meadow voles by Columbian ground squirrels were published in 1985.  These killings did not appear motivated for purposes of predation, so may have been motivated by defense of home territory and resources.
Population densities are reportedly higher in "agricultural bottomlands" compared to "wheatfields".  In subalpine Idaho, the density was recorded at 35 animals per hectare.  In Alberta, densities of juveniles were estimated between 5-20 per hectare, which older animal estimates were 12-16 per hectare.
They are "one of the most vegetarian of all the ground squirrels".  In the early part of the season, they primarily eat succulent fresh vegetation.  When the vegetation grows more tough, they are inclined to eat more grains and seeds.  By the end of the season, they appear enormously fat.  Examination of stomach contents from a group of 43 squirrels revealed vegetable matter in all cases.  Nothing but vegetation was found in 86% of the stomachs, while 2% contained traces of other mammals and 14% contained insect remains.
Columbian ground squirrels may be parasitized by the Rocky Mountain wood tick (Dermacentor andersoni), which is a carrier for the bacteria that causes Rocky Mountain spotted fever.  Other external parasites include the lice Enderleinellus suturalis and Neohaemotopinus laeviusculus; the fleas Neopsylla inopina, Opisocrostis tuberculatus, and Oropsylla idahoensis; the mites Dermacarus heptneri, Androlaelaps fahrenholz, Macrocheles sp., and Pygmephorus erlangensis.  Internal parasites include Trypanosoma species Trypanosoma otospermophili, and the Eimeria species: Eimeria bilamellata, Eimeria callospermophili, and Eimeria lateralis.  Instances of presence of Yersinia pestis, the cause of the black plague, have been reported.  They may be a reservoir for Powassan or St Louis encephalitis virus, based on some antibody screening analyses.  Columbian ground squirrels may also suffer dermatitis from Dermatophilus congolensis.
Treatment of female Columbian ground squirrels with flea powder resulted in an improved condition of treated animals.  Litters produced by treated females were larger.  The treated females were gained mass between the time the young were born, through weaning.  Untreated cohorts, on the other hand, lost mass over this time frame.
Predators of the Colombian ground squirrel include the grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis), coyote (Canis latrans), Pacific marten (Martes caurina), grey wolf (Canis lupus) American badger (Taxidea taxus), weasels (Mustela and Neogale sp.), and mountain lion (Puma concolor).  Predatory birds include the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), and goshawk (Accipiter gentilis).


The Columbian ground squirrel (Urocitellus columbianus) is a species of rodent common in certain regions of Canada and the northwestern United States. It is the second largest member of the genus Urocitellus, which is part of the tribe Marmotini, along with marmots, chipmunks, prairie dogs, and other holarctic ground squirrels. They are stout, with short dense fur, which is characteristically tawny across the bridge of the nose. Social encounters sometimes are initiated with kissing behavior and the most common activity above ground is standing at attention. Residing in mountainous terrain and high plains in northern latitudes, they hibernate for 8 to 9 months of the year in burrows, which may be used for many years. They are emaciated when emerging in the spring. The Columbian ground squirrel came to the attention of the scientific community through writings produced by Lewis and Clark, while 21st century molecular genetics has more finely illuminated its ties with other close relatives.


The Columbian ground squirrel is one of the largest members of the genus, the largest being the Arctic ground squirrel. They have a relatively sturdy, robust build. They measure 325–410 mm (12.8–16.1 in) in length overall, with a tail measuring 80–116 mm (3.1–4.6 in). The hind feet measure 47–57 mm (1.9–2.2 in) and the ear 16–22.5 mm (0.63–0.89 in).
The hair is dense and relatively short. The facial fur is bronze across the bridge of the nose. The fur along the back, legs, and feet is a more cinnamon buff, with darker fur closer to the body. There is a pale beige to buff ring of fur around the eye. The neck fur is gray along the sides of the cheeks. The flanks may be light beige or gray. They have a darker tail, with darker underfur and some lighter beige markings above and dark to grayish white below. Molting occurs diffusely, without a clear line of delineation.
Two subspecies have been described, which vary in appearance. Compared with U. c. columbianus, the population U. c. ruficaudus has a tail more rufous and less gray above. The sides of the face and throat are also more deeply rust shaded. The legs and feet are darker as well. The skull of U. c. ruficaudus is broader, with more robust zygomatic arches.
Several albino variants have been found. An albino squirrel was captured alive by a student near Pullman, Washington in 1932. It had been in an alfalfa field. The animal had white hair and pink eyes. A zoologist reported intentions to keep the animal alive to study genetic inheritance patterns. The following year, he reported finding three more young albinos in the same area. Around 30 years prior, two albino skins had been collected, also near Pullman.  It was proposed that the recessive trait persisted in the locality, appearing at sporadic intervals.


Columbian ground squirrels in Alberta hibernate around 250 days a year, with only 69–94 days of activity observed. The amount of time active varies depending on local climate as well as variations in behavior of animals of different sexes and ages. Each sex and age group hibernates at different soil depths and begins hibernation when the soil temperature of their hibernaculum is at its warmest. During hibernation, the squirrels are positioned vertically in a tight ball.  The temperature drops significantly, the heart rate slows and respirations are scarcely perceptible. The first group to emerge is adult males, which is likely due to their need to regrow their testes for breeding, as the testes of other ground squirrels have been found to shrink in size and stop sperm production during hibernation. Adult males are followed by adult females, yearlings, then juveniles. Animals at higher elevations and latitudes emerge later. They emerge from hibernation and start breeding earlier at low elevations.
They raise one litter per year. Young are born naked, blind, and toothless.  After 5–6 days, their weight has doubled.  They are covered with dark silky hair by day 12.  Around day 17, the eyes are beginning to open.  They may emerge into the sunlight outside the den around day 21-24.  After 4 weeks, they are able to leave the nest altogether.
Before their first hibernation, newborn Columbian ground squirrels only have a period of a few weeks to wean off their mother's milk. Because of this, the 27 day lactation period of the mother squirrel is the young's primary opportunity to get the nutrition necessary for surviving hibernation. The concentrations of most components of the mother's milk vary throughout the lactation period, most dramatically seen in calcium, which typically experiences a 134% increase in concentration from the beginning of lactation to its peak (~17 days postpartum).

Mammalogist Vernon Orlando Bailey examined a Columbia ground squirrel burrow at an elevation of 7,000 ft (2,100 m) near the Piegan Pass in Glacier National Park.  In late July, an adult female was found bringing up fresh soil to the burrow entrance daily.  The animal was removed and the burrow excavated for examination The mound at the entrance consisted of an estimated 8 US gal (0.030 m³) of soil.  The soil was of varying dates of accumulation, since the lower layers appeared packed from previous seasons.  The burrow itself had this main opening as well as two alternates, which were concealed from external observation and likely served as avenues of escape if a predator were to enter the burrow.  The main shafts of the burrow were around 3.5 in (89 mm) in diameter.  Chambers were established and varying intervals throughout the burrow, possibly to allow for storage of earth being excavated or safe haven from predators.  At a distance of around 8 ft (2.4 m) from the entrance, a nest had been constructed.  The nest itself was made from leaves of locally abundant "glacier grass" (Luzula parviflora).  Varying ages of grass were found, suggesting that the nest had been used during prior seasons.  In an adjoining chamber, deeper down in the earth, an older abandoned nest, filled partially with excrement, apparently served as a toilet for the squirrel.
The two types of burrow entrance were also noted by other observers, with one being small and roughly the same diameter as the tunnel itself, while another larger and more funnel shaped.  The amount of soil excavated is around 4–12 kg (8.8–26.5 lb) per year, with an estimated 4–7 m (13–23 ft) of annual tunnel construction to established burrows.  New burrow construction results in 25–50 kg (55–110 lb) of soil excavation.
The most common activities for Columbian ground squirrels, while above ground, include standing at attention, feeding, and grooming.  More time was spent standing at attention than engaging in other activities.  Aggressive behavior was observed most commonly in adult males, particularly early in the season.   Columbian ground squirrel activity patterns are sensitive to climate and ambient light, avoiding cloudy days, cold winds, and inclement weather.  They emerge from dens about an hour before sunrise and return near sunset.  They are active during the hottest parts of the day, but more likely to be found out around mid-morning.
Columbian ground squirrels, when encountering each other, commonly will touch their mouths and noses together, an act resembling kissing.  These greetings last 1–5 seconds and may precede other social interactions, including sexual activity.
C. Hart Merriam, writing in 1891, documented reports of the Columbian ground squirrel's behavior provided by local observers in Idaho.  If disturbed while out of the burrow, the squirrels stood at attention, watching while approached to within a few yards, then raced for the burrow entrance, making squeaks and whistles.  Locals called them "Seven sleepers", because they stayed underground for about seven months of the year.  They were noted to have ample fat supplies when entering burrows to hibernate, but observed to be weak and thin when emerging the following spring.  The mounds excavated by burrowing squirrels ranged from 3–10 inches (76–254 mm) in height.  The burrows descended vertically from the entrance 18–24 inches (460–610 mm).


The mushroom cap is 1–3 cm wide, round to convex (flattening with age), pale yellow to orange-brown, smooth, sometimes cracked, and tacky with moisture but otherwise dry. The stalks are 2–5 cm tall and 1–3 mm wide. A partial veil quickly disappears, leaving traces on the cap's edge, but no ring on the stem. The cap's odor and taste are mild or mealy.
The spores are brown, elliptical, and smooth. Some experts divide A. pediades into several species, mainly by habitat and microscopic features, such as spore size. It is recognized by the large, slightly compressed basidiospores which have a large central germ pore, 4-spored basidia, subcapitate cheilocystidia and, rarely, the development of pleurocystidia.
This species is edible, but it could be confused with poisonous species, including one of the genus Hebeloma. Some field guides just list it as inedible or say that it is not worthwhile.


Agrocybe pediades is a typically lawn and other types of grassland mushroom, but can also grow on mulch containing horse manure. It was first described as Agaricus pediades by Swedish mycologist Elias Magnus Fries in 1821, and moved to its current genus Agrocybe by Victor Fayod in 1889. A synonym for this mushroom is Agrocybe semiorbicularis, though some guides list these separately. Technically it is edible, but it could be confused with poisonous species, including one of the genus Hebeloma.


The jack o'lantern mushroom is poisonous; while not lethal, consuming this mushroom leads to very severe cramps, vomiting, and diarrhea.
The toxic ingredient of many species of Omphalotus is a sesquiterpene compound known as illudin S. This, along with illudin M, have been identified in O. nidiformis. The two illudins are common to the genus Omphalotus and not found in any other basidiomycete mushroom.


To an untrained eye, O. olivascens appears similar to some chanterelles, but unlike the chanterelle, the jack-o'-lantern mushroom has true, blade-like gills (rather than ridges) and it can have olive coloration that chanterelles lack; also, Omphalotus species are saprotrophic, grow directly on wood, and are bioluminescent.
The cap is 4–18 cm (1.6–7.1 in) wide. The stalks are 4–15 cm (1.6–5.9 in) long and 1–4 cm (0.39–1.57 in) wide. The spores are white to pale yellow.


Several Omphalotus species with similar bioluminescent properties occur worldwide, all of which are presumed poisonous. The best known are the North American jack o'lantern mushroom (O. olearius) and the tsukiyotake (O. japonicus (Kawam.) Kirchm. & O.K. Mill. (formerly known as Lampteromyces japonicus (Kawam.) Sing.), found in Japan and eastern Asia. Molecular analysis shows the jack-o'-Lantern to be most closely related to the ghost fungus Omphalotus nidiformis. Miller notes that the colours and shades of the ghost fungus most closely resemble this species.
Gymnopilus junonius is another similar-looking species.


This species is found in tropical and subtropical waters from the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, but not in the Red Sea.
It lives in clear and calm waters in rocky and coral reefs from the surface to 120 m deep.


The Chinese trumpetfish  is diurnal and solitary. It is a clever stealth hunter with two techniques to catch its prey. The first is the ambush, consisting of lying in wait for a potential prey close to hard coral, black coral bush, or gorgonian.  The second is the discrete tracking, where the trumpetfish stays close to some big fishes (groupers, carangids) or even hawksbill sea turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) until it has the opportunity to approach unsuspecting prey. The Chinese trumpetfish feeds on small fishes and crustaceans.


Aulostomus chinensis is a medium-sized fish which grows up to 80 cm in length. Its body is elongated and compressed laterally, with a long, tubular snout which has a small barbel at its inferior extremity. The protusible mouth can be extended forward to catch prey. On the top posterior part of the body, the dorsal fin is composed of two parts, the first anterior is a set of isolated spines and the second is a small ray fin. This latter fin is similar in shape to the anal fin which is just under. The pelvic fins are located in the middle of the body and are small, with one basal black spot.
The body coloration can be uniform or mottled in a range of grey, brown, or dark green. Some fish are uniformly bright yellow. The rear part of the body is normally black with white dots. Two black spots are present on the tail. The compound set of the long caudal peduncle and the caudal fin is yellowish, whatever the fish coloration. Caudal fin usually has two round black spots, at least one black spot occurs on the top and sometimes a second spot on the low part.


The Siberian chipmunk can survive in a variety of habitats and conditions. They are usually found in coniferous forests, stony areas within forests and mountains, habitats filled with shrub, along waterways or roads, or other small patches of agricultural land. In Europe, the introduced populations usually live in deciduous forests, mixed deciduous and coniferous forests, or urban areas with greenery. Tamias sibiricus is able to survive in various environmental conditions, anywhere from 29°N to 69°N and −65 °C to 30 °C. However, this species has a low ability of dispersal, and since they are mainly introduced into woody forests or urban areas with greenery, they have less potential to be naturally dispersed to other regions. Also they have trouble overcoming man-made and naturally occurring obstacles, like roads or swamps.
The Siberian chipmunk lives in loose colonies, where every individual has its own territory. The territory ranges from 700 to 4000 m² and is larger for females than males and is also larger in autumn than spring. The Siberian chipmunk marks its territory with urine and oral glands inside of its cheeks. This method illustrates one way in which this species communicates with one another.


Siberian chipmunks are omnivores that store or cache food. Normally, they eat pine seeds, along with different deciduous and coniferous tree seeds. In addition to seeds, they eat herb roots, insects, molluscs, birds, reptiles, grains, fruit, and fungus.


Siberian chipmunks are essential food sources for other animals, such as diurnal raptors, weasels, and small cats. Other known predators include hawks, owls, and foxes. They evade being preyed upon by these animals by being alert, hiding in their burrows, and using their camouflaged fur to blend in with surroundings. They distribute seeds and fungal spores, and other animals feed off their stored food. They may help control forest tree pests. In Russia, they eat approximately 50 percent of the forest nuts. In Belgium, these chipmunks have been blamed for preying upon low-nesting birds.
If the species were introduced to Britain, it is possible that Siberian chipmunks may compete with other small animals, such as the red squirrel, wood mouse, and bank vole.


This species is native to Russia in northern European, Siberia to Sakhalin and Kunashir, extreme eastern Kazakhstan, northern Mongolia, northern and central China, Korea, and in Japan in Hokkaido, Iturup, Rishiri, Rebun, Teuri, and Yagishiri. It has been introduced at one confirmed locality, Karuizawa, on Honshu.
During the 1960s, South Korea began to export these animals to Europe as pets. Between 1960 and 1980, South Korea exported more than 200,000 individuals to Europe.
In the 1970s there were sightings in parks in Europe, and a number of small populations have become resident in suburban forests and urban parks in Belgium, France, Switzerland, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Austria. This is mostly caused by owners releasing these animals because they no longer wanted them as pets, or the owners purposefully freed the chipmunks to live naturally in the wild. Other Siberian chipmunks escaped from captivity and inhabited the forested areas of Europe. The Dutch chipmunks for example are escapees from a former zoo in Tilburg. When the zoo was shut down and all animals were moved away, many chipmunks got forgotten due to their underground residence. While thousands of animals were introduced to new environments, they are not very invasive and are naturally slow spreading, 200 to 250 metres (660 to 820 ft) per year, which prevented them from rapidly moving to areas far beyond where they escaped. In 2009, 22 introduced populations in Europe, and 11 in France, were identified in forests and urban parks since the 1970s (not all may still be extant).


It is known that they are iteroparous, viviparous, and their breeding season usually occurs after hibernation in mid April. They tend to breed only once or twice a year, and the number of offspring varies from three to eight. The young are born blind and naked, and they weigh between 3–5 g (0.11–0.18 oz). After the 28- to 35-day gestation period, the offspring open their eyes about 20 to 25 days after birth. The females are responsible for caring for the young, and they teach them how to forage around six weeks. Then the offspring complete the weaning stage around seven weeks, and they reach the independent stage around eight weeks. Adult body mass is reached at around three to four months, and by nine months, both the male and the female reach sexual maturity.


Typically the Siberian chipmunk has four white stripes and five dark stripes along the back. It is 18–25 cm (7.1–9.8 in) long, a third of which is the tail. The weight of adults depends on the time of year and food availability. It exhibits slight variations in coloration in different geographic regions.  Even though the Siberian chipmunk normally grows to 50–150 g (1.8–5.3 oz). The Siberian chipmunk exhibits sexual dimorphism, and size and body proportions are the only way to distinguish younger chipmunks from older ones. Its small size may contribute to its relatively short life from two to five years in the wild. However, in captivity it lives up to ten years.


The Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) is an oreochromine cichlid fish native to southeastern Africa. Dull colored, the Mozambique tilapia often lives up to a decade in its native habitats. It is a popular fish for aquaculture. Due to human introductions, it is now found in many tropical and subtropical habitats around the globe, where it can become an invasive species because of its robust nature. These same features make it a good species for aquaculture because it readily adapts to new situations.  It is known as black tilapia in Colombia and as blue kurper in South Africa.


Mozambique tilapia are omnivorous. They can consume detritus, diatoms, invertebrates, small fry and vegetation ranging from macroalgae to rooted plants. This broad diet helps the species thrive in diverse locations.
Due to their robust nature, Mozambique tilapias often over-colonize the habitat around them, eventually becoming the most abundant species in a particular area.  When over-crowding happens and resources get scarce, adults will sometimes cannibalize the young for more nutrients.  Mozambique tilapia, like other fish such as Nile tilapia and trout, are opportunistic omnivores and will feed on algae, plant matter, organic particles, small invertebrates and other fish.   Feeding patterns vary depending on which food source is the most abundant and the most accessible at the time.  In captivity, Mozambique tilapias have been known to learn how to feed themselves using demand feeders.  During commercial feeding, the fish may energetically jump out of the water for food.


The native Mozambique tilapia is laterally compressed, and has a deep body with long dorsal fins, the front part of which have spines. Native coloration is a dull greenish or yellowish, and weak banding may be seen. Adults reach up to 39 cm (15 in) in standard length and up to 1.1 kg (2.4 lb). Size and coloration may vary in captive and naturalized populations due to environmental and breeding pressures. It lives up to 11 years.


Green iguanas are primarily herbivores, with captives feeding on leaves such as turnip, mustard, and dandelion greens, flowers, fruit, and growing shoots of upwards of 100 different species of plant. In Panama, one of the green iguana's favorite foods is the wild plum (Spondias mombin).
Although they consume a wide variety of foods if offered, green iguanas are naturally herbivorous and require a precise ratio of minerals (two to one calcium to phosphorus) in their diet. Captive iguanas must have a variety of leafy greens along with fruits and vegetables such as turnip greens, collard greens, butternut squash, acorn squash, mango, and parsnip. Juvenile iguanas often eat feces from adults  to acquire the essential microflora to digest their low-quality and hard-to-process vegetation-only diet.
Some debate exists as to whether captive green iguanas should be fed animal protein. Some evidence shows wild iguanas eating grasshoppers and tree snails, usually as a byproduct of eating plant material. Wild adult green iguanas have been observed eating birds' eggs and chicks. They occasionally eat a small amount of carrion or invertebrates. Zoologists, such as Adam Britton, believe that such a diet containing protein is unhealthy for the animal's digestive system, resulting in severe long-term health damage, including kidney failure and leading to premature death. On the other side of the argument is that green iguanas at the Miami Seaquarium in Key Biscayne, Florida, have been observed eating dead fish, and individuals kept in captivity have been known to eat mice without any ill effects. De Vosjoli writes that captive animals have been known to survive and thrive on eating nothing but whole rodent block, or monkey chow, and one instance of romaine lettuce with vitamin and calcium supplements. When found in unnatural habitats, especially those of high human population, they have also been
known to feed on human garbage and poultry feces. Captive iguanas should not be fed lettuce or meat, and instead receive the vitamins and minerals they need from a purely herbivorous diet.


The green iguana (Iguana iguana), also known as the American iguana or the common green iguana, is a large, arboreal, mostly herbivorous species of lizard of the genus Iguana.  Usually, this animal is simply called the iguana. The green iguana ranges over a large geographic area; it is native from southern Brazil and Paraguay as far north as Mexico, and has been introduced from South America to Puerto Rico and is very common throughout the island, where it is colloquially known as gallina de palo ("bamboo chicken" or "chicken of the tree") and considered an invasive species; in the United States, feral populations also exist in South Florida (including the Florida Keys), Hawaii, the U.S. Virgin Islands and the Rio Grande Valley of Texas. Green iguanas have also successfully colonised the island of Anguilla, arriving on the island in 1995 after rafting across the Caribbean from Guadeloupe, where they were introduced.
A herbivore, it has adapted significantly with regard to locomotion and osmoregulation as a result of its diet. It grows to 1.5 m (4.9 ft) in length from head to tail, although a few specimens have grown more than 2 m (6.6 ft) with bodyweights upward of 20 lb (9.1 kg).
Commonly found in captivity as a pet due to its calm disposition and bright colors, it can be very demanding to care for properly. Space requirements and the need for special lighting and heat can prove challenging to the hobbyist.


The green iguana is a large lizard and is probably the largest species in the iguana family, though a few in the genus Cyclura may match or exceed it in weight. Adults typically grow to 1.2 to 1.7 m (3.9 to 5.6 ft) in length from head to tail. As in all iguanas, the tail comprises much of this length, and the snout-to-vent length of most green iguanas is 30 to 42 cm (12 to 17 in). A typical adult male weighs around 4 kg (8.8 lb) while the smaller adult female typically weighs 1.2 to 3 kg (2.6 to 6.6 lb). A few large males can reach or exceed 8 kg (18 lb) in weight and 2 m (6.6 ft) long. Some specimens have even reportedly been measured at a body weight of greater than 9.1 kg (20 lb).
Despite their name, green iguanas occur in different colours and types. In southern countries of their range, such as Peru, green iguanas appear bluish in colour, with bold blue markings. On islands such as Bonaire, Curaçao, Aruba, and Grenada, a green iguana's colour may vary from green to lavender, black, and even reddish brown. Green iguanas from the western region of Costa Rica are red, and animals of the northern ranges, such as Mexico, appear orange. Juvenile green iguanas from El Salvador are often bright blue, but  lose this color as they get older.
Adult iguanas found on most of St. Lucia, mainly on the northeastern coast, Louvette, and Grand Anse, have many differences from other green iguana populations. They are light green with predominant black stripes. Instead of the typical orange dewlap, the iguanas of St. Lucia have a black dewlap. When compared to the common green iguana, females lay about half the number of eggs, 25 instead of 50. Scales to the back of their head, near the jawbone, are smaller. Their irises are white or cream, whereas other green iguanas have yellow irises.
Green iguanas possess a row of spines along their backs and tails, which helps to protect them from predators. Their whip-like tails can be used to deliver painful strikes, and like many other lizards, when grabbed by the tail,  iguanas can allow it to break, so they can escape and eventually regenerate a new one. In addition, iguanas have a well-developed dewlap, which helps regulate their body temperature. This dewlap is used in courtships and territorial displays.
Green iguanas have excellent vision, enabling them to detect shapes and motions at long distances. As green iguanas have only a few rod cells, they have poor vision in low-light conditions. At the same time, they have cells called double-cone cells that give them sharp color vision and enable them to see ultraviolet wavelengths. This ability is highly useful when basking so they can ensure they absorb enough sunlight to produce vitamin D.
Green iguanas have a white photosensory organ on the top of their heads called the parietal eye (also called the third eye, pineal eye, or pineal gland), in contrast to most other lizards that have lost this primitive feature. This "eye" has only a rudimentary retina and lens and cannot form images, but is sensitive to changes in light and dark and can detect movement. This helps the iguana detect predators stalking it from above.
Green iguanas have very sharp teeth that are capable of shredding leaves and even human skin. These teeth are shaped like a leaf, broad and flat, with serrations on the edge. The similarity of these teeth to those of one of the first dinosaurs discovered led to the dinosaur being named Iguanodon, meaning "iguana tooth", and the incorrect assumption that it had resembled a gigantic iguana. The teeth are situated on the inner sides of the jawbones, which is why they are hard to see in smaller specimens.
Primarily herbivorous, green iguanas are presented with a special problem for osmoregulation; plant matter contains more potassium and as it has less dense nutritional content, more must be eaten to meet metabolic needs. As green iguanas are not capable of creating liquid urine more concentrated than their bodily fluids, like birds they excrete nitrogenous wastes as urate salts through a salt gland. As a result, green iguanas have developed a lateral nasal gland to supplement renal salt secretion by expelling excess potassium and sodium chlorides.
Green iguanas from Guatemala and southern Mexico (which may belong to the distinct species I. rhinolopha) predominantly have small horns on their snouts between their eyes and their nostrils, whereas others do not.


The native range of the green iguana extends from southern Mexico to central Brazil, Paraguay, and Bolivia and the Caribbean; specifically Grenada, Aruba, Curaçao, Bonaire, Trinidad and Tobago, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Montserrat, Saba and Útila. They have been introduced to Grand Cayman, Puerto Rico, Hispaniola (in the Dominican Republic), Saint Martin (island), Guadeloupe, Martinique, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Singapore, Thailand, Taiwan, Texas, Florida, Hawaii, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Furthermore, green iguanas colonised the island of Anguilla in 1995 after being washed ashore following a hurricane. Though the species is not native to Martinique, a small wild colony of released or escaped green iguanas endures at historic Fort Saint Louis.
In South and Central America, where the green iguana is native, it is an endangered species in some countries because people have been hunting and eating this gallino de palo ("bamboo chicken" or "chicken of the trees") for a long time.
Green iguanas are diurnal, arboreal, and are often found near water. Agile climbers, Iguana iguana can fall up to 50 feet (15 m) and land unhurt (iguanas use their hind leg claws to clasp leaves and branches to break a fall). During cold, wet weather, green iguanas prefer to stay on the ground for greater warmth. When swimming, iguanas remain submerged, letting their legs hang limply against their sides. They propel through the water with powerful tail strokes.
While they may often be found in trees, these animals are well-known burrowers. The size of their burrow can range from 0.3 to 2.4 metres (1 ft 0 in to 7 ft 10 in) deep, with a diameter of 10 to 20 centimetres (4 to 7+3⁄4 in). They have been observed burrowing in canals, levees, and dikes and along seawalls in southern Florida. If individuals do not dig their own, they may even use gopher tortoise burrows or usurp those of the Florida burrowing owl.


Male green iguanas have highly developed femoral pores on the underside of their thighs, which secrete a scent (females have femoral pores, but they are smaller in comparison to those of the males). In addition, the dorsal spines that run along a green iguana's back are noticeably longer and thicker in males than they are in females, making the animals somewhat sexually dimorphic.
Male green iguanas tend to display more dominant behaviors, such as head bobbing and tail whipping. They also tend to develop a taller dorsal crest than females, as well as taller dorsal spines (or spikes).  Large,  round, very pronounced jowls are generally a male characteristic. Jowls are located under the jaw and are protected by the subtympanic plate, which is a large, green, circular-shaped scale.
Green iguanas are oviparous, with females laying clutches of 20 to 71 eggs once per year during a synchronized nesting period. The female green iguana gives no parental protection after egg laying, apart from defending the nesting burrow during excavation. In Panama, the green iguana has been observed sharing nest sites with American crocodiles, and in Honduras with spectacled caimans.
The hatchlings emerge from the nest after 10–15 weeks of incubation. Once hatched, the young iguanas look similar to the adults in color and shape, resembling adult females more so than males and lacking dorsal spines.
Juveniles stay in familial groups for the first year of their lives. Male green iguanas in these groups often use their own bodies to shield and protect females from predators, and it appears to be the only species of reptile to do this.


The northern elephant seal lives in the eastern Pacific Ocean. They spend most of their time at sea, and usually only come to land to give birth, breed, and molt.  These activities occur at rookeries that are located on offshore islands or remote mainland beaches.  The majority of these rookeries are in California and northern Baja California, ranging from Point Reyes National Seashore, California to Isla Natividad, Mexico. Significant breeding colonies exist at Channel Islands, Año Nuevo State Reserve, Piedras Blancas Light, Morro Bay State Park and the Farallon Islands in the US, and Isla Guadalupe, Isla Benito del Este and Isla Cedros in Mexico. In recent decades the breeding range has extended northwards. In 1976 the first pup was found on Point Reyes and a breeding colony established there in 1981. Since the mid-1990s some breeding has been observed at Castle Rock in Northern California and Shell Island off Oregon, and in January 2009 the first elephant seal births were recorded in British Columbia at Race Rocks. The California breeding population is now demographically isolated from the population in Baja California.
Northern elephant seals exhibit extreme sexual dimorphism in their feeding behaviours.  When the males leave their rookeries, they migrate northwards to their feeding grounds along the continental shelf from Washington to the western Aleutians in Alaska. The males mostly feed on benthic organisms on the ocean floor. When the females leave their rookeries, they head north or west into open ocean, and forage across a large area in the northeastern Pacific. They have been recorded as far west as Hawaii. Female elephant seals feed mainly on pelagic organisms in the water column.
Vagrant elephant seals possibly appear on tropical regions such as at Mariana Islands. Historical occurrences of elephant seal presence, residential or occasional, in western North Pacific are fairly unknown. There have been two records of vagrants visiting to Japanese coasts; a male on Niijima in 1989 and a young seal on beaches in Hasama, Tateyama in 2001. A 2.5 meter female was found on Sanze beach, Tsuruoka, Yamagata in October 2017, making it the first record from Sea of Japan. This individual was severely weakened but showing signs of recovery after receiving medications at Kamo Aquarium, and the aquarium is discussing whether or not to release her.
Some individuals have been observed on the coast of northeast Asia. Certain individuals established haul-out sites at the Commander Islands in the early 2000s; however, due to aggressive interactions with local Steller sea lions, long-term colonization is not expected.
Female elephant seals forage in the open ocean, while male elephant seals forage along the continental shelf. Males usually dive straight down to the ocean floor and stay at the bottom foraging for benthic prey. The females hunt for pelagic prey in the open ocean, and dive deeper (up to 1735 m, though on average about 500 m) and stay down longer than the males.  Female elephant seals have been tagged and found to dive almost continuously for 20 hours or more a day, mostly in 400 to 600 meter deep water, where small fish are abundant.
Northern elephant seals eat a variety of prey, including mesopelagic fish such as myctophids, deep-water squid, Pacific hake, pelagic crustaceans, relatively small sharks, rays, and ratfish. Octopoteuthis deletron squid are a common prey item, one study found this species in the stomachs of 58% of individuals sampled off the coast of California. A female northern elephant seal was documented in 2013 by a deep sea camera at a depth of 894 m (2,933 ft), where it consumed a Pacific hagfish, slurping it up from the ocean floor. The event was reported by a Ukrainian boy named Kirill Dudko, who further reported the find to scientists in Canada. Elephant seals do not need to drink, as they get their water from food and metabolism of fats.
While hunting in the dark depths, elephant seals seem to locate their prey at least partly by vision; the bioluminescence of some prey animals can facilitate their capture. Elephant seals do not have a developed a system of echolocation in the manner of cetaceans, but their vibrissae, which are sensitive to vibrations, are assumed to play a role in search of food. Males and females differ in diving behavior. Males tend to hug the continental shelf while making deep dives and forage along the bottom, while females have more jagged routes and forage in the open ocean. Elephant seals are prey for orcas and great white sharks. Both are most likely to hunt pups, and seldom hunt large bull elephant seals, but have taken seals of all ages. The shark, when hunting adults, is most likely to ambush a seal with a damaging bite and wait until it is weakened by blood loss to finish the kill.


Northern elephant seals return to their terrestrial breeding ground in December and January, with the bulls arriving first. The bulls haul out on isolated or otherwise protected beaches, typically on islands or very remote mainland locations. It is important that these beach areas offer protection from the winter storms and high surf wave action. The bulls engage in fights of supremacy to determine which few bulls will achieve a harem.
After the males have arrived to the beach, the females arrive to give birth. Females fast for five weeks and nurse their single pup for four weeks; in the last few days of lactation, females come into estrus and mate. In this polygynous society, a high-ranking bull can have a harem of 30–100 cows, depending on his size and strength. Males unable to establish harems will wait on the periphery, and will try to mount nearby females. Dominant bulls will disrupt copulations of lower-ranking bulls. They can mount females without interference, but commonly break off to chase off rivals. While fights are not usually to the death, they are brutal and often with significant bloodshed and injury; however, in many cases of mismatched opponents, the younger, less capable males are simply chased away, often to upland dunes. In a lifetime, a successful bull could easily sire over 500 pups. Most copulations in a breeding colony are done by only a small number of males and the rest may never be able to mate with a female. Pups are sometimes crushed during battles between bulls.

After arrival on shore, males fast for three months, and females fast for five weeks during mating and when nursing their pups. The gestation period is about 11 months. Sometimes, a female can become very aggressive after giving birth and will defend her pup from other females. Such aggression is more common in crowded beaches. While most females nurse their own pups and reject nursings from alien pups, some do accept alien pups with their own. An orphaned pup may try to find another female to suckle and some are adopted, at least on Año Nuevo Island. Some pups, known as super weaners, may grow to exceptionally large sizes by nursing from other females in addition to their mothers. Pups nurse about four weeks and are weaned abruptly before being abandoned by their mother, who heads out to sea within a few days. Left alone, weaned pups will gather into groups and stay on shore for 12 more weeks. The pups learn how to swim in the surf and eventually swim farther to forage. Thus, their first long journey at sea begins.
Elephant seals communicate though various means. Males will threaten each other with the snort, a sound caused by expelling air though their probosces, and the clap-trap, a loud, clapping sound comparable to the sound of a diesel engine. Pups will vocalize when stressed or when prodding their mothers to allow them to suckle. Females make an unpulsed attraction call when responding to their young, and a harsh, pulsed call when threatened by other females, males or alien pups. Elephant seals produce low-frequency sounds, both substrate-borne and air-borne. These sounds help maintain social hierarchy in crowded or noisy environments and reduce energy consumption when fasting.


The huge male northern elephant seal typically weighs 1,500–2,300 kg (3,300–5,100 lb) and measures 4–5 m (13–16 ft), although some males can weigh up to 3,700 kg (8,200 lb). Females are much smaller and can range from 400 to 900 kg (880 to 1,980 lb) in weight, or roughly a third of the male's bulk, and measure from 2.5 to 3.6 m (8.2 to 11.8 ft). The bull southern elephant seals are, on average, larger than those in the northern species, but the females in both are around the same size, indicating the even higher level of sexual dimorphism in the southern species. Northern elephant seals typically live for around 9 years.
Both adult and juvenile elephant seals are bar-skinned and black before molting. After molting, they generally have a silver to dark gray coat that fades to brownish-yellow and tan. Adult males have hairless necks and chests speckled with pink, white, and light brown. Pups are mostly black at birth and molt to a silver gray after weaning.
The eyes are large, round, and black. The width of the eyes and a high concentration of low-light pigments suggest sight plays an important role in the capture of prey. Like all seals, elephant seals have atrophied hind limbs whose underdeveloped ends form the tail and tail fin. Each of the "feet" can deploy five long, webbed fingers. This agile, dual palm is used to propel water. The pectoral fins are used little while swimming.
While their hind limbs are unfit for locomotion on land, elephant seals use their fins as support to propel their bodies. They are able to propel themselves quickly (as fast as 8 km/h) in this way for short-distance travel, to return to water, catch up with a female or chase an intruder.
Like other seals, elephant seals' bloodstreams are adapted to the cold in which a mixture of small veins surrounds arteries capturing heat from them. This structure is present in extremities such as the hindlimbs.
A unique characteristic of the northern elephant seal is that it has developed the ability to store oxygenated red blood cells within its spleen. In a 2004 study researchers used MRI to observe physiological changes of the spleens of 5 seal pups during simulated dives. By 3 minutes, the spleens on average contracted to a fifth of their original size, indicating a dive-related sympathetic contraction of the spleen. Also, a delay was observed between contraction of the spleen and increased hematocrit within the circulating blood, and attributed to the hepatic sinus. This fluid-filled structure is initially expanded due to the rush of RBC from the spleen and slowly releases the red blood cells into the circulatory system via a muscular vena caval sphincter found on the cranial aspect of the diaphragm. This ability to slowly introduce RBC into the blood stream is likely to prevent any harmful effects caused by a rapid increase in hematocrit.


Cladonia furcata or the many-forked cup lichen is a species cup lichen in the family Cladoniaceae. It has an intermediate to tolerant air pollution sensitivity. Extracts of this species have been shown to kill leukemia cells in vitro, and may have possible value in the treatment of cancer.


Cladonia furcata is most commonly found in forests near coastlines, at low to mid elevations. It may be found growing on moss, humus, and soil, more rarely on rotten wood or at the base of trees. In North America, it is found from Alaska to California, and is very common in the west Cascade range.


The ornate tree lizard feeds on mostly insects and their larvae, but have also been known to eat plants and vegetables as well as inanimate objects thinking they were food. These lizards also have diet patterns that change throughout the seasons changing what they eat and the quantity of it. In the winter/spring time their main food sources and largest quantity of food eaten were from the insect families Homoptera, Formicidae, Hemiptera, and Lepidopterous larvae but in the summer their diet changed to their main food sources mostly consisting of the insect families Coleoptera and Formicidae. For the ornate tree lizard, their food intake is variable. Multiple studies have provided evidence that the diet of the Urosaurus ornatus is seasonally variable—the diet changes according to changes in the seasons. Because they are abundant in areas where there are more trees, they depend on the food available in that niche. When the seasons undergo change or the prey migrate, it induces changes in the abundance of the lizards food and its availability.


Urosaurus ornatus, commonly known as the ornate tree lizard, is a species of lizard in the family Phrynosomatidae. The species is native to the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. The species, which was formerly called simply the "tree lizard", has been used to study physiological changes during the fight-or-flight response as related to stress and aggressive competition. Its life history and costs of reproduction have been documented in field populations in New Mexico and Arizona. This species has been fairly well studied because of its interesting variation in throat color in males (within a population) that can correlate with different reproductive strategies,


The ornate tree lizard may grow to a snout-to-vent length (SVL) of up to 59 millimetres (2.3 in). As adults, all males have paired turquoise patches of skin on the abdomen; females lack this abdominal coloration. Male ornate tree lizards are found in a variety of colors. While not all populations contain more than one or two colors, 9 color types have been documented within U. ornatus. A population documented in Verde River, Arizona, has two types of coloration patterns among male tree lizards that account for 45% of all males. The first is characterized by a blue spot in the center of a larger orange patch on the throat fan ("dewlap"). The second has a solid orange throat fan ("dewlap"). The orange-blue males are more aggressive and defend territories that can include up to four females. The orange males have longer, leaner body types and are much less aggressive. Orange males can be nomadic during dry years, and during rainy years tend to occupy small territories.


A group of U. ornatus, consisting of one male and one or more females, typically inhabits an area containing one or more large trees, shrubs, or boulders. The male copulates with each female, and the females retain eggs about two weeks after mating. In many parts of its range, females may lay more than one clutch of eggs a year.


Steller sea lions tend to live in the coastal waters of the subarctic because of the cooler temperate climate of the area. Like all otariids, Steller sea lions are amphibious and spend some time in water and some on land. Typically, Stellar sea lions spend their time in the water feeding but haul-out onto land to reproduce, raise their pups, molt, and rest. Steller sea lions usually congregate on isolated islands because they are the ideal terrestrial habitat. These isolated islands are preferred by Stellar sea lions because they can avoid predation from terrestrial predators, easily thermoregulate (by means of cooling winds), and access offshore prey more easily. Some haul-out sites, known as rookeries, are commonly used for reproduction while other haul-out sites are used for other purposes like molting. However, both biotic and abiotic factors can influence the amount of time that Steller sea lions spend on land. Haul-out sites and haul-out abundance of the Steller sea lion can be determined by prey availability, predator abundance, tide levels, weather, etc.


Steller sea lions are skilled and opportunistic marine predators, feeding on a wide range of fish and cephalopod species. Important diet components include walleye pollock, Atka mackerel, halibut, herring, capelin, flatfish Pacific cod, rockfish, sculpins, salmon, sand lance, and cephalopods such as various squid and octopus. They seem to prefer schooling fish and forage primarily between intertidal zones and continental shelves. They usually aggregate in groups of up to twelve in areas of prey abundance. They are known to aggregate near fishing vessels, preying on bycatch discards. Most of the data on their foraging comes from data collected off the coast of Alaska; little is known of their foraging behavior elsewhere.
The composition of the diet of Steller sea lions varies seasonally and geographically; as opportunistic predators, they concentrate on the locally most abundant prey species. In addition to their primary marine environment, they sometimes enter estuaries and feed on brackish-water fish such as sturgeon. Very occasionally, they have been known to prey on northern fur seals, harbor seals, and sea otter pups. Records suggest that the range of their prey species has broadened over time.


Steller sea lions are top-tier carnivores, but are susceptible to predation, primarily by killer whales. Shark species are also possible predators: sleepers and great whites may prey on juvenile sea lions.


The range of the Steller sea lion extends from the Kuril Islands in the Sea of Okhotsk in Russia to the Gulf of Alaska in the north, down to Año Nuevo Island off the coast of central California to the south. They formerly bred as far south as the Channel Islands, but have not been observed there since the 1980s. Based on genetic anаlyses and local migration patterns, the global Steller sea lion population has traditionally been divided into an eastern and western stock at 144°W longitude, roughly through the middle of the Gulf of Alaska. Recent evidence suggests the sea lions in Russia in the Sea of Okhotsk and the Kuril Islands comprise a third Asian stock, while the sea lions on the eastern seaboard of Kamchatka and the Commander Islands belong to the western stock.
In the summer, Steller sea lions tend to shift their range somewhat southward. Therefore, though there are no reproductive rookeries in Japan, several consistent haul-out sites are found around Hokkaidō in the winter and spring. Vagrants have been spotted in the Yellow Sea and Bohai Gulf and along the coast of Korea and China. The oldest fossil known of the species was found near Kanazawa, Japan and dates to the late Early Pleistocene (0.8 Ma).


Primary prey of Mediterranean house geckos has been noted to include crickets, grasshoppers, cockroaches, spiders, beetles, moths, butterflies, ants, isopods, and snails. These geckos are visual hunters; prey selection depends on whether it is alive or dead. A study by Barbour and Rose found that Mediterranean house geckos are more likely to choose living prey over dead (1968).


Native to the Mediterranean region, the "Med gecko" is one of the most successful species of geckos in the world. It has spread over much of the world and established stable populations far from its origins; it holds no threatened or endangered status. It can be found in countries with Mediterranean climates, such as Portugal , Spain, France, Italy, Greece, Israel, Albania, Malta, Bulgaria, North Macedonia, coastal Croatia (except western Istria), Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Adriatic islands, coastal Montenegro, the coastal part of Albania, Cyprus, Turkey, northern Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia,  Jordan, Syria, Libya, Egypt, Lebanon, northern Yemen (the Socotra Archipelago), Somalia, Eritrea, Kenya, southern Iran, Iraq, Oman, Qatar, Pakistan, India, the Balearic Islands (Island Addaya Grande), the Canary Islands (introduced to Gran Canaria and Tenerife), Panama, Puerto Rico, Belize, and Cuba.
In Mexico, introductions are known to the states Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatán, Baja California, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Sonora, Durango, and Nuevo León. Introductions are also known from across the Southern United States (being particularly well-established in Gulf Coast states) including Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Florida, Georgia, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland,  Mississippi, Missouri, Nevada, New Mexico,  North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, and Virginia.


The Mediterranean Gecko is a very small lizard generally measuring between 10–13 cm (4–5 inches) in length, with sticky toe pads, vertical pupils, and large eyes that lack eyelids. Snout rounded, about as long as the distance between the eye and the ear opening, 1.25 to 1.3 the diameter of the orbit; forehead slightly concave; ear-opening oval, oblique, nearly half the diameter of the eye. Body and limbs moderate. Digits variable in length, the inner always well developed; 6 to 8 lamellae under the inner digits, 8 to 10 under the fourth finger, and 9 to 11 under the fourth toe. Head with large granules anteriorly, posteriorly with minute granules intermixed with round tubercles. Rostrum four-sided, not twice as broad as deep, with medial cleft above; nostril pierced between the rostrum, the first labial, and three nasals; 7 to 10 upper and 6 to 8 lower labials; mental large, triangular, at least twice as long as the adjacent labials, its point between two large chin-shields, which may be in contact behind it; a smaller chin shield on each side of the larger pair. Upper surface of body covered with minute granules intermixed with large tubercles, generally larger than the spaces between them, suboval, trihedral, and arranged in 14 or 16 pretty, regular longitudinal series. Abdominal scales small, smooth, roundish-hexagonal, imbricate. Males with a short angular series of 4 to 10 (exceptionally 2) preanal pores. Tail cylindrical, slightly depressed, tapering, covered above with minute scales and transverse series of large keeled tubercles, beneath with a series of large transversely dilated plates. Light brown or grayish above, spotted with darker; many of the tubercles white, lower surfaces white. They may be completely translucent except for the spotting. Some are darker.
They often seek darkness when fleeing. They may be seen singularly or in a group ranging from 2 to 5 together.


Mediterranean house geckos inhabit a wide range of habitats. They can be found in areas near human presence such as university campuses, cemeteries, coastal regions, and shrublands. In these urban or suburban areas, they are typically seen in the cracks of old brick buildings. They can also be found in other areas like mountain cliffs and caves. Their nests can be found in trash piles, attics, or under the baseboards of buildings (Klawinski, 1992).


Mediterranean house geckos reach sexual maturity within four months to a year. Male house geckos produce clicking sounds to attract a mate, with the female responding in her own squeaks. They also display copulatory biting, with stronger bites resulting in higher fertilization success. Fertilization is internal. Breeding season is typically from April to August each year and eggs are laid mid-May to August in an average clutch size of two. Female house geckos experience delayed fertilization and can store sperm in a funnel shaped organ called the infundibulum for up to five months. Because of this, exact gestation time is unknown but is estimated to be around 40 days. Neither males nor females have been observed providing any parental care, with males going as far as to bite the juveniles (Rose & Barbour, 1968).


T. rugosa is an omnivore that eat snails, insects, carrion, vegetation and flowers. Since they are slow-moving, they tend to eat other slow moving species. This is perhaps why T. rugosa has a stronger preference for plants than other blue-tongue skink species. They can easily crush through the shells of snails with their strong jaws.
As they overlap with human habitation and settlement, they have also been known to eat human food, such as sausage and chicken, as well as fruits such as strawberries, banana and passionfruit.


Tiliqua rugosa, most commonly known as the shingleback lizard or bobtail lizard, is a short-tailed, slow-moving species of blue-tongued skink (genus Tiliqua) endemic to Australia. It is commonly known as the shingleback or sleepy lizard. Three of its four recognised subspecies are found in Western Australia, where the bobtail name is most frequently used. The fourth subspecies, T. rugosa asper, is the only one native to eastern Australia, where it goes by the common name of the eastern shingleback.
Apart from bobtail and shingleback, a variety of other common names are used in different states, including two-headed skink, stumpy-tailed skink, bogeye or boggi, pinecone lizard. The Noongar  Aboriginal people refer to rugosa as yoorn in their language.
T. rugosa has a short, wide, stumpy tail that resembles its head and may serve the purpose of confusing predators. The tail also contains fat reserves, which are drawn upon during brumation in winter, during which many lizards perform a behaviour similar to hibernation except they require water every day, but can go without food. This skink is an omnivore; it eats snails and plants and spends much of its time browsing through vegetation for food. In human habitation, it is often seen basking on roadsides or other paved areas.


The species is widely distributed in arid to semiarid regions of southern and western Australia. The range extends from Shark Bay, Western Australia, across the southernmost regions of the country to the coast, then north into Queensland. Four subspecies are found in Western Australia, including one at Rottnest Island. It also lives in the eastern states of Victoria and New South Wales, but does not reach coastal areas in these states.
The habitat of the species includes shrub lands, eucalyptus forests, desert grasslands, and sandy dunes. They often shelter in the bush under low foliage. Being cold-blooded, these skinks are well known to have a strong preference for sun basking in open areas, and are often seen along roadsides or other cleared areas in its range. On average, individuals have a home range of four hectares, and can move up to 500 metres per day.
These lizards show strong home range site stability for up to several years and often multiple lizards can utilise the same burrow. As conditions become hotter and drier these lizards tend to share the burrows. During the spring time and given an adequate source of food that season and normal mating behaviour, males can often overlap each other's ranges. This can lead to territoriality and agonistic behaviour.


Tiliqua rugosa has a heavily armoured body and can be found in various colours, ranging from dark brown to cream.  Its snout–vent length varies from 260 to 310 mm (10 to 12 in), and it is very heavy-bodied for its length. Their eyes are small with a reddish-brown and grey colour.
It has a triangular head and a bright blue tongue, inside a bright pink mouth.  Its short, stumpy tail is similar in shape to its head.  This is probably a defence mechanism to confuse predators although it also stores fat and has led to the common name of "two-headed skink". Unlike many skinks, shinglebacks do not exhibit autotomy and cannot shed their tails.
The average lifespan for these skinks is 10 to 15 years, but some individuals have been known to live for as much as 50 years in the wild.
The species normally shed their skin as a whole, including the eye covering. This takes up to several hours, during which the lizard rubs against objects to help the process.
The species exhibits sexual dimorphism, with males being stockier than females and having a larger head although females generally grow larger than males.


Common habitats are shallow ponds or streams. Some may inhabit brackish environments, such as estuaries. These sources of water tend to have an abundance of aquatic vegetation due to the shallow pools. Common snapping turtles sometimes bask—though rarely observed—by floating on the surface with only their carapaces exposed, though in the northern parts of their range, they also readily bask on fallen logs in early spring. In shallow waters, common snapping turtles may lie beneath a muddy bottom with only their heads exposed, stretching their long necks to the surface for an occasional breath. Their nostrils are positioned on the very tip of the snout, effectively functioning as snorkels.
Snapping turtles are omnivorous.  Important aquatic scavengers, they are also active hunters that use ambush tactics to prey on anything they can swallow, including many invertebrates, fish, frogs, reptiles (including snakes and smaller turtles), unwary birds, and small mammals. In some areas adult snapping turtles can occasionally be incidentally detrimental to breeding waterfowl, but their effect on such prey as ducklings and goslings is frequently exaggerated. As omnivorous scavengers though, they will also feed on carrion and a surprisingly large amount of aquatic vegetation.
Common snapping turtles have few predators when older, but eggs are subject to predation by crows, American mink, skunks, foxes, and raccoons. As hatchlings and juveniles, most of the same predators will attack them as well as herons (mostly great blue herons), bitterns, hawks, owls, fishers, American bullfrogs, large fish, and snakes. There are records during winter in Canada of hibernating adult common snapping turtles being ambushed and preyed on by northern river otters. Other natural predators which have reportedly preyed on adults include coyotes, American black bears, American alligators and their larger cousins, alligator snapping turtles. Large, old male snapping turtles have very few natural threats due to their formidable size and defenses, and tend to have a very low annual mortality rate.
These turtles travel extensively over land to reach new habitats or to lay eggs. Pollution, habitat destruction, food scarcity, overcrowding, and other factors drive snappers to move; it is quite common to find them traveling far from the nearest water source. Experimental data supports the idea that snapping turtles can sense the Earth's magnetic field, which could also be used for such movements (together with a variety of other possible orientation cues).
This species mates from April through November, with their peak laying season in June and July. The female can hold sperm for several seasons, using it as necessary. Females travel over land to find sandy soil in which to lay their eggs, often some distance from the water. After digging a hole, the female typically deposits 25 to 80 eggs each year, guiding them into the nest with her hind feet and covering them with sand for incubation and protection.
Incubation time is temperature-dependent, ranging from 9 to 18 weeks. One study on the incubation period of the common snapping turtle incubated the eggs at two temperatures: 20 °C (68 °F) and 30 °C (86 °F). The research found that the incubation period at the higher temperature was significantly shorter at approximately 63 days, while at the lower temperature the time was approximately 140 days. In cooler climates, hatchlings overwinter in the nest. The common snapping turtle is remarkably cold-tolerant; radiotelemetry studies have shown some individuals do not hibernate, but remain active under the ice during the winter.
Common snapping turtle hatchlings have recently been found to make sounds before nest exit onto the surface, a phenomenon also known from species in the South American genus Podocnemis and the Ouachita map turtle. These sounds are mostly "clicking" noises, but other sounds, including those that sound somewhat like a “creak” or rubbing a finger along a fine-toothed comb, are also sometimes produced.
In the northern part of their range snapping turtles do not breathe for more than six months because ice covers their hibernating site. These turtles can get oxygen by pushing their head out of the mud and allowing gas exchange to take place through the membranes of their mouth and throat. This is known as extrapulmonary respiration.
If they cannot get enough oxygen through this method they start to utilize anaerobic pathways, burning sugars and fats without the use of oxygen. The metabolic by-products from this process are acidic and create very undesirable side effects by spring, which are known as oxygen debt. Although designated as "least concern" on the IUCN redlist, the species has been designated in the Canadian part of its range as "Special Concern" due to its life history being sensitive to disruption by anthropogenic activity.


The common snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina) is a species of large freshwater turtle in the family Chelydridae. Its natural range extends from southeastern Canada, southwest to the edge of the Rocky Mountains, as far east as Nova Scotia and Florida. The three species of Chelydra and the larger alligator snapping turtles (genus Macrochelys) are the only extant chelydrids, a family now restricted to the Americas. The common snapping turtle, as its name implies, is the most widespread.
The common snapping turtle is noted for its combative disposition when out of the water with its powerful beak-like jaws, and highly mobile head and neck (hence the specific epithet serpentina, meaning "snake-like"). In water, it is likely to flee and hide underwater in sediment. The common snapping turtle has a life-history strategy characterized by high and variable mortality of embryos and hatchlings, delayed sexual maturity, extended adult longevity, and iteroparity (repeated reproductive events) with low reproductive success per reproductive event.
Females, and presumably also males, in more northern populations mature later (at 15–20 years) and at a larger size than in more southern populations (about 12 years). Lifespan in the wild is poorly known, but long-term mark-recapture data from Algonquin Park in Ontario, Canada, suggest a maximum age over 100 years.


C. serpentina has a rugged, muscular build with a ridged carapace (upper shell), although ridges tend to be more pronounced in younger individuals. The carapace length in adulthood may be nearly 50 cm (20 in), though 25–47 cm (9.8–18.5 in) is more common. C. serpentina usually weighs 4.5–16 kg (9.9–35.3 lb). Per one study, breeding common snapping turtles were found to average 28.5 cm (11.2 in) in carapace length, 22.5 cm (8.9 in) in plastron length and weigh about 6 kg (13 lb).
Males are larger than females, with almost all  weighing in excess of 10 kg (22 lb) being male and quite old, as the species continues to grow throughout life. Any specimen above the aforementioned weights is exceptional, but the heaviest wild specimen caught reportedly weighed 34 kg (75 lb). Snapping turtles kept in captivity can be quite overweight due to overfeeding and have weighed as much as 39 kg (86 lb). In the northern part of its range, the common snapping turtle is often the heaviest native freshwater turtle.


Leucoagaricus leucothites, the white dapperling, or white Agaricus mushroom, is a species of agaric fungus. The species was originally described as Agaricus leucothites by Carlo Vittadini in 1835, and bears similarity to species of that genus. Solomon Wasser transferred it to Leucoagaricus in 1977. While sometimes regarded as edible, the species is suspected of being poisonous due to gastric-upset-causing toxins. It could also be confused with the deadly Amanita ocreata.
The mushroom's cap is 4 to 15 cm wide, is granular, white or gray-brown in color then sometimes grayish or pinkish. The flesh may bruise yellowish and the gills reddish. The stipe is 5 to 12 cm long, commonly with a wide base, and bruising yellow or brown. A ring is usually present. The spores are white, smooth, and elliptical.
It generally appears in civilized areas such as gardens and parks, but sometimes is found in forests.


In Alfacar and Viznar, Andalucia (Spain), P. furfuracea is used for respiratory complaints. The thallus is washed and boiled for a long time to prepare a decoction that is drunk.
Water extracts of this species have been shown to have a potent protective effect on genotoxicity caused by bismuth compounds such as colloidal bismuth subcitrate.


Pseudevernia furfuracea, commonly known as tree moss, is a lichenized species of fungus that grows on the bark of firs and pines. The lichen is rather sensitive to air pollution, its presence usually indicating good air conditions in the growing place. The species has numerous human uses, including use in perfume, embalming and in medicine. Large amounts of tree moss is annually processed in France for the perfume industry.


This lizard is native to the Mojave and Great Basin deserts. It is endemic to the United States, and can be found in California, Nevada, Utah, and Arizona. S. uniformis can be found living in desert flats, semiarid plains, low mountain slopes, and riparian woods.
Although S. uniformis is primarily an ambush predator, on occasion it will actively forage. This species will eat a variety of small invertebrates and their larvae including ants, beetles, grasshoppers, spiders, centipedes, and caterpillars. Occasionally, small lizards, nestling birds, leaves, flowers and berries are also consumed.


S. uniformis is a large robust lizard, and adults can grow to 5.5 inches in body length (snout-to-vent), with a tail slightly longer than the body. Color is brown or tan with yellow and black dorsal stripes or mottling and a black collar on the sides of the neck.
Males are larger than females, and have a swollen tail base, enlarged postanal scales and femoral pores, and bluish markings on the throat and belly. Females have a pale throat and underbelly, with faint or no blue markings. The head of a female may be orange or reddish in the breeding season.


The Texas alligator lizard is a relatively slow, diurnal lizard, with quite good vision. Though not generally aggressive, it may bite if handled, and is incorrectly considered to be venomous by many cultures.


The primary diet of G. infernalis is insects and other invertebrates, but it may sometimes prey on nestling birds or rodents.


The Texas alligator lizard (Gerrhonotus infernalis) is a species of lizard in the subfamily Gerrhonotinae of the family Anguidae. The species is endemic to the central region of the American state of Texas, and south into adjacent northern Mexico.


The Texas alligator lizard is a medium-sized lizard, attaining a maximum total length (including tail) of around 24 to 25 in (61 to 64 cm). It is the largest lizard species in Texas, and one of the largest alligator lizards in the world. This lizard has a flat, wedge-shaped head. Its body is generally a yellow-brown color, often with darker brown and white checker patterning on its dorsal surfaces, and uniformly light-colored, white, or grey on its ventral surfaces. Its scales are very stiff and plate-like. It has short limbs, and a tail that can fall off to distract a potential predator, but will regrow in time.


G. infernalis is often found on rocky hillsides, where it hides among the stones or in limestone crevices.


Breeding occurs year-round; sometimes, multiple clutches of eggs are laid per year. Females will often stay near the nesting site to protect it, but no parental care occurs once the young alligator lizards hatch. The young generally have more striking markings, and are only about 3–4 in (7.6–10.2 cm) long (including tail).


This clam originally occurs in freshwater environments of Eastern Asia, including Russia, Thailand, the Philippines, China, Taiwan, Korea, and Japan. C. fluminea also occurs naturally in freshwater environments of Africa.


Many coastal rivers with a heavy industrial shipping presence in the invaded range of C. fluminea sustain Asian clam populations. Various non-indigenous populations of C. fluminea include:
British Columbia circa 1924
The Columbia River in the northwest United States in 1938
River Thames, UK in 2004
Cuba
Lake Tahoe, on the borders of California and Nevada, they were first found in 2002, and the numbers increased rapidly after 2008.
Lake Placid, NY, USA
South America, including Argentina, Uruguay, Brasil (Río de La Plata basin, Río Amazonas Basin, Patagonia - Río Colorado, Río Negro- and is currently in expansion), Perú, Venezuela and Ecuador (Guayas, Daule, Vinces, Quevedo, and Babahoyo River drainages).
Germany's Rhine River in the late 1980s
Danube River through the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal.
It reached the Elbe in 1998 at the latest.
River Nore & Barrow, Republic of Ireland, first recorded in April 2010
Czech Republic - in Elbe in Bohemia since 2000 and it is spreading.
Slovakia
Minho River in Portugal
Between August 15-28 2020 in Briggs Lake in Minnesota. However UMN Extension does not believe they are able to naturally survive in Minnesota, instead surviving only in the higher temperatures of power plant coolant water.
Shuswap Lake, British Columbia, Canada in 2020.
Found in the Pend d'Oreille River in British Columbia, a tributary of the Columbia, in the spring of 2021.


Right after reaching maturity, these clams produce eggs, followed by sperm. Throughout adult life, Corbicula is a self-fertile simultaneous hermaphrodite which can broadcast spawn up to 570 mucoid larvae per day per individual, and more than 68,000 per year per individual. Larvae are ~200 microns in length when discharged from an adult and dispersed through water until becoming sessile adults. Adults can reach a length of about 5 cm.


A. hentzi is a terrestrial species commonly found in grasslands, burrowed underground, or using logs, stones, or other small animals' abandoned dens as their homes and feeding grounds. Texas brown tarantulas  use their spinnerets to line the entrance of their shelters with webbing to detect passing prey.


The distribution of A. hentzi includes  Colorado, Kansas, Missouri, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Texas, and Louisiana in the U.S. The species has also been documented in the northern parts of Mexico, extending along the New Mexico and Texas borders.


The Texas brown tarantula, also known as Oklahoma brown tarantula or Missouri tarantula (Aphonopelma hentzi), is one of the most common species of tarantula living in the Southern United States today. Texas brown tarantulas can grow to leg spans in excess of 4 in (10 cm) , and weigh more than 3 oz as adults. Their bodies are dark brown, though shades may vary between individual tarantulas. The colors are more distinct after a molt, as with many arthropods.


Most giant puffballs grow to be 10 to 50 centimetres (4 to 20 inches), sometimes to be 90 cm (35 in) in diameter; although occasionally some can reach diameters up to 150 cm (60 in) and weights of 20 kg (44 lb). The inside of mature giant puffballs is greenish brown, whereas the interior of immature puffballs is white. The large white mushrooms are edible when young.
The fruiting body of a puffball mushroom will develop within the period of a few weeks and soon begin to decompose and rot, at which point it is dangerous to eat.  Unlike most mushrooms, all the spores of the giant puffball are created inside the fruiting body; large specimens can easily contain several trillion spores. Spores are yellowish, smooth, and 3–5 μm in size.
The classification of this species has been revised in recent years, as the formerly recognized class Gasteromycetes, which included all puffballs, has been found to be polyphyletic. Some authors place the giant puffball and other members of genus Calvatia in order Agaricales. Also, the species has in the past been placed in two other genera, Lycoperdon and Langermannia. However, the current view is that the giant puffball is Calvatia.


Puffballs are a known styptic and have long been used as wound dressing, either in powdered form or as slices 3 cm thick. The fungus was often harvested prior to battles for this purpose.
It is the main source of the anti-tumor mucoprotein calvacin, which is present only in tiny quantities.


Calvatia gigantea, commonly known as the giant puffball, is a puffball mushroom commonly found in meadows, fields, and deciduous forests usually in late summer and autumn. It is found in temperate areas throughout the world.


Giant puffballs resemble the earthball (Scleroderma citrinum). The latter are distinguished by a much firmer, elastic fruiting body, and having an interior that becomes dark purplish-black with white reticulation early in development.  Scleroderma citrinum is poisonous and may cause mild intoxication.


The leafy seadragon is found only in southern Australian waters, from Wilson’s Promontory in Victoria at the eastern end of its range, westward to Jurien Bay,  220 km (140 mi) north of Perth in Western Australia. Individuals were once thought to have very restricted ranges; but further research has discovered that seadragons actually travel several hundred metres from their habitual locations, returning to the same spot using a strong sense of direction. They are mostly found over sand patches in waters up to 50 m (160 ft) deep, around kelp-covered rocks and clumps of sea grass. They are commonly sighted by scuba divers near Adelaide in South Australia, especially at Rapid Bay, Edithburgh, and Victor Harbor.


Much like the seahorse, the leafy seadragon's name is derived from its resemblance to another creature (in this case, the mythical dragon). While not large, they are slightly larger than most seahorses, growing to about 20–24 cm (8–9.5 in). They feed on plankton and small crustaceans.
The lobes of skin that grow on the leafy seadragon provide camouflage, giving it the appearance of seaweed. It is able to maintain the illusion when swimming, appearing to move through the water like a piece of floating seaweed. It can also change colour to blend in, but this ability depends on the seadragon's diet, age, location, and stress level.
The leafy seadragon is related to the pipefish and belongs to the family Syngnathidae, along with the seahorse. It differs from the seahorse in appearance, form of locomotion, and its inability to coil or grasp things with its tail.
A related species is the weedy seadragon, which is multicoloured and grows weed-like fins, but is smaller than the leafy seadragon. Another unique feature is the small, circular gill openings covering tufted gills, very unlike the crescent-shaped gill openings and ridged gills of most fish species.


Redear sunfish are native to the Southeast U.S.  They range from North Carolina to Florida, west to southern Illinois and Missouri, and south to the Rio Grande drainage in Texas. However, this fish has also been widely introduced to other locations in the United States outside of its native range.
In the wild, the redear sunfish inhabits warm, quiet waters of lakes, ponds, streams, and reservoirs. They prefer to be near logs and vegetation, and tend to congregate in groups around these features. This sunfish is also located in many freshwater marsh wetlands.


The redear sunfish (Lepomis microlophus), also known as the shellcracker, Georgia bream, cherry gill, chinquapin, improved bream, rouge ear sunfish and sun perch) is a freshwater fish in the family Centrarchidae and is native to the southeastern United States. Since it is a popular sport fish, it has been introduced to bodies of water all over North America. It is known for its diet of mollusks and snails.


The favorite food of this species is snails, which it obtains by cracking their shells, hence this feisty gamefish's common name: shellcracker.  These fish meander along lakebeds, seeking and cracking open snails and other shelled creatures. VanderKooy et al. (2000) observed that large L. microlophus predominantly focus on hard-shelled prey such as ostracods, hydrobiid snails and mussels throughout the entire year. In the same field investigation, it was observed that smaller fish tended to also consume zooplankton, amphipods, chironomid and ceratopongonid larvae and cladocerans, with varied distributions depending on the season. They are also believed to feed on algae, aquatic worms, copepoda, midge larvae, ephemeropteran and odonata nymphs, crayfish, small fish, and fish eggs. Redears have thick pharyngeal teeth (hard, movable plates in its throat) which allow it to crunch exoskeletons. It is even capable of opening small clams. The specialization of this species for the deep-water, mollusk-feeding niche allows it to be introduced to lakes without the risk of competition with fish that prefer shallower water or surface-feeding. In recent years, the stocking of redear has found new allies due to the fish's ability to eat quagga mussels, a prominent invasive species in many freshwater drainages.


The redear sunfish generally resembles the bluegill except for coloration and somewhat larger size. The redear sunfish also has faint vertical bars traveling downwards from its dorsal. It is dark-colored dorsally and yellow-green ventrally. The male has a cherry-red edge on its operculum; females have orange coloration in this area. The adult fish are between 20 and 24 cm (7.9 and 9.4 in) in length. Max length is 43.2 cm (17.0 in), compared to a maximum of about 40 cm (16 in) for the bluegill. Redear sunfish on average reach about 0.45 kg (0.99 lb), also larger than the average bluegill.