Owls have often been depicted from the Upper Palaeolithic onwards, in forms from statuettes and drawings to pottery and wooden posts, but in the main they are generic rather than identifiable to species. The little owl is, however, closely associated with the Greek goddess Athena and the Roman goddess Minerva, and hence represents wisdom and knowledge. A little owl with an olive branch appears on a Greek tetradrachm coin from 500 BC (a copy of which appears on the modern Greek one-euro coin) and in a 5th-century B.C. bronze statue of Athena holding the bird in her hand. The call of a little owl was thought to have heralded the murder of Julius Caesar.
In Bulgarian and Romanian folklore, the little owl is said to be a harbinger of death. In 1992, the little owl appeared as a watermark on Jaap Drupsteen’s 100 guilder banknote for the Netherlands.
In 1843 several little owls that had been brought from Italy were released by the English naturalist Charles Waterton on his estate at Walton Hall in Yorkshire but these failed to establish themselves. Later successful introductions were made by Lord Lilford on his Lilford Hall estate near Oundle in Northamptonshire and by Edmund Meade-Waldo at Stonewall Park near Edenbridge, Kent. From these areas the birds spread and had become abundant by 1900. The owls acquired a bad reputation and were believed to predate game bird chicks. They therefore became a concern to game breeders who tried to elliminate them. In 1935 the British Trust for Ornithology initiated a study into the little owl's diet led by the naturalist Alice Hibbert-Ware. The report showed that the owls feed almost entirely on insects, other invertebrates and small mammals and thus posed little threat to game birds.
There is evidence that from the 19th century little owls were occasionally kept as ornamental birds. In Italy, tamed and docked little owls were kept to hunt rodents and insects in the house and garden.
More common was keeping little owls to use them in so-called cottage hunting. This took advantage of the fact that many bird species react to owls with aggressive behaviour when they discover them during the day (mobbing). Such huntings, particularly with tawny owls, were practiced in Italy from 350 B.C. until the 20th century and in Germany from the 17th to the 20th century. In Italy, mainly skylarks were caught in this way. The main place of trade was Crespina, a small town near Pisa. Here, little owls were traditionally sold on 29 September, which had been taken from their nests and raised in human care. Only since the 1990s has this trade been officially banned; however, because of the long cultural tradition for hunting with little owls, exemptions are still granted. Thus, there is still a breeding center for little owls near Crespina, which is maintained by hunters.


Athetis tarda, the slowpoke moth, is a moth of the  family Noctuidae. It is found in North America, where it has been recorded from New Hampshire to Florida and from Missouri to Texas. The habitat consists of oak woodlands.
The wingspan is 23–35 mm. The forewings are dark greyish-brown with darker but inconspicuous lines and blackish inconspicuous spots. There is usually a group of four pale dots around the reniform spot. Adults are on wing from late March to May and again from late August to September.
The larvae feed on dead Quercus leaves.


Athyrium angustum is known as the northern lady fern, native to northeastern North America.  It was long included in the superspecies Athyrium filix-femina, but is now largely recognized as a distinct species.
Athyrium angustum has a more southern counterpart, Athyrium asplenioides which can be difficult to distinguish between the two. This species, the southern lady fern, has a broader frond, especially at the base.


The great purple hairstreak (Atlides halesus), also called the great blue hairstreak, is a common gossamer-winged butterfly species in parts of the United States. It is actually a Neotropical species; its North American range only includes the warm-temperate and subtropical parts of that continent, and it ranges southwards almost to the Isthmus of Panama. The type specimen, however, was shipped to Europe from the Colony of Virginia, probably around the time of the United States Declaration of Independence.
The common names refer to the butterfly's two main colors – dusky purple on the underside, and iridescent blue above. Particularly the males are very colorful in flight – brilliant blue and velvety black, with bright red and golden markings – but when sitting down they show their inconspicuous dusky purple underside. On each hindwing, there are two tails, with one short and one long tail, lending itself to the name "hairstreak". Several subspecies are recognized.
Its caterpillar larvae feed on the mistletoe genus Phoradendron.


Males of this species wait for possible mates for mating on tall perches such as trees. The mated females then choose mistletoe plants for oviposition. The eggs are laid in either groups or by themselves on the host plant. The eggs appear white with a hard and solid outer surface. During oviposition, female butterflies will lay as many as twenty single eggs at different locations on the leaves of a mistletoe plant.


Next, the larvae pupate in well-protected areas close to the base of trees under pieces of bark or fallen leaves.  Pupae appear dark brown and after about a minimum of 16 days, pupae will emerge as the adult stage butterfly.


After about 16 days from pupation to hatching, the adult butterfly will emerge from its chrysalis. Adult butterflies have their orange and black colorings to signal the protective toxins and even have a behavior of rubbing their wings together. This draws attention to the markings on their back wings that serve as a "false head." During flight season, which stretches from spring to early summer, and from early fall to winter, ovipositing females preferentially target isolated mistletoe plants that have trunks of a smaller diameter to lay their eggs on, which is likely to minimize competition from other ovipositing butterflies.
The great purple hairstreak has various natural enemies including parasitoid wasps, the species being Apanteles sp. as well as Metadontia amoena.


Atolmis rubricollis, the red-necked footman, is a small moth of the family Erebidae. It is found in the summer in forested regions of Europe and Northern Asia. This moth was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae.


The red-necked footman is a small moth that is mostly charcoal grey or deep dark brown (fresh specimens almost black), but has a conspicuous orange thorax, part of which is visible behind the black head as an orange-red collar. The hindwings are brownish grey. The antennae and legs are black and the end of the abdomen is yellowish orange or golden yellow. The wings are tightly folded together around the body and have pleated, squared-off ends. The wingspan is 25 to 35 mm (1.0 to 1.4 in) and the length of the forewings is 15 to 18 mm (0.6 to 0.7 in).
Wilhelm Neuburger named Romanian specimens as the synonym Atolmis flavicollis; these were less dark brown and with a light yellow instead of a red collar.


The white eggs of the red-necked footman are laid in small groups in crevices in the branches of trees, especially those of old firs. They grow to a length of about 27 mm (1.1 in). Their head is black with a bold diagonal white stripe on either side. Their main colour is dark greenish grey marbled with cream. Each segment bears six tiny reddish yellow warts which bear black hairs. The caterpillars feed on lichens growing on the trunks and branches of trees, and can be found between August and October. They pupate before winter sets in and overwinter as glossy brownish red pupae, in a loose cocoon buried among moss and leaf litter. The moths fly between May and July depending on their location. They are mostly nocturnal, being attracted to lights, but also sometimes fly by day. Sometimes the moths feed at scabiouses and other flowers, but they usually rest during the day on the long branches of firs overhanging paths in woods, where they may be obtained by beating the branches over a net.


The red-necked footman is found in Europe south to the Mediterranean and east across the Palearctic to temperate Asia, including Siberia as far east as the Amur River and China. It is found in parts of Ireland, and in the United Kingdom is present in the south-westerly counties of England and Wales. Records from other parts of the United Kingdom probably represent accidentals and not breeding populations. It is a woodland species found in deciduous and coniferous woodland, especially on spruce trees, but also on pine, oak and beech. It likes to be near streams in cool wooded valleys in upland regions.


Atrichoseris is a genus of plants in the family Asteraceae. It contains only one known species, Atrichoseris platyphylla, known by the common names tobacco weed, parachute plant, and gravel ghost.
A. platyphylla is native to the deserts of the southwestern United States (southern California, Arizona, Nevada and the southwestern corner of Utah) and northwestern Mexico (Sonora, Baja California).
The plant produces a low basal rosette of rounded leaves patterned with gray-green and purple patches at ground level. It sends up a weedy-looking thin branching stem up to 70 centimetres (28 inches) tall, topped with a number of attractive, fragrant white or pink-tinged flowers, about 2.5–5 cm (1–2 in) wide, the layered ray florets rectangular and toothed. The flowers bloom between February and May. The hairless fruit has the shape of a five-sided club.
The genus name, Atrichoseris, means 'chicory plant without hairs', referring to the fruit, and the specific epithet, platyphylla, means 'flat-leaved'.


Atriplex canescens (or chamiso, chamiza, four-wing saltbush)  is a species of evergreen shrub in the family Amaranthaceae native to the western and midwestern United States.


Atriplex canescens has a highly variable form, and readily hybridizes with several other species in the genus Atriplex.  The degree of polyploidy also results in variations in form.  Its height can vary from 1 foot to 10 feet, but 2 to 4 feet is most common.  The leaves are thin and 0.5 to 2 inches long.
It is most readily identified by the fruits, which have four wings at roughly 90 degree angles and are densely packed on long stems.
This species blooms from April to October.


Among the Zuni people,  an infusion of dried root and blossoms or a poultice of blossoms is used for ant bites. Twigs are also attached to prayer plumes and sacrificed to the cottontail rabbit to ensure good hunting. The Native American Hopi Indians preferred the ashes of four-wing saltbush for the nixtamalization of maize (the first step in the process of creating tortillas and pinole, by which the pericarp of Indian corn is removed before parching and grinding). Oftentimes the four-wing saltbush was used instead of slaked lime (hydrate lime/slaked powder lime). Four-wing saltbush is also a common marker that archaeologists can use to locate ancient Pueblo ruins, which may indicate that the small branches of this bush were burned for their alkaline ashes to nixtamalize maize by Native peoples throughout the South-Western United States.


Atriplex polycarpa, the allscale, (or all-scale) cattle spinach, allscale saltbush, or cattle saltbush, is a plant in the family Amaranthaceae.
It is native to the Southwestern United States, California, and northern Mexico.
This species blooms in July and August.


Atriplex semibaccata, commonly known as Australian saltbush, berry saltbush, or creeping saltbush, is a species of flowering plant in the family Amaranthaceae and is endemic to Australia. It is a perennial herb native to Western Australia, South Australia, Queensland and New South Wales, but has been introduced into other states and to overseas countries. It flowers and fruits in spring, and propagates from seed when the fruit splits open. This species of saltbush is adapted to inconsistent rainfall, temperature and humidity extremes and to poor soil. It is used for  rehabilitation, medicine, as a cover crop and for fodder. Its introduction to other countries has had an environmental and economic impact on them.


Atriplex semibaccata is a taproot perennial herb, that has prostrated and decumbent characteristics. Native to Australia and widespread in all mainland Australian states, A. semibaccata thrives in harsh and saline conditions. A. semibaccata is often mat-forming or semi-erect and can grow 40–80 cm tall, spanning a diameter of 1.5-2m. Its slender branches arise from a woody taproot.
Leaves are white scruffy, subsessile (small stalk) and are spatulate or obovate (oblong or elliptic) when the plant is young. Leaves develop a green to grey-green colour, with a length of 5-30mm and a width of 2-9mm, where the base is tapered and tip obtuse. Leaves are thin, oblong-elliptic, obtuse and have short petiolate (1–2 cm). Staminate flowers are tiny, terminal and 1.5mm wide, whereas pistillate flowers cluster distally from leaves. A. semibaccata is monoecious.
Fruiting bracteoles are red or orange when mature, as well as having a convex and rhombic shape (diamond like appearance). Fruits are succulent, united at base, margin toothed, sessile and are a length of 4-6mm.
A. semibaccata is seed propagated and seeds are dimorphic. Black seeds are 1.5-1.7mm, while brown seeds are 2mm in size. It can be used as fodder and is useful for degraded or salt affected land. Optimal conditions for habitat, include dry/subtropical climate and direct sunlight. A. semibaccata has an all-year season of interest and a plant hardiness zone of 4. A. semibaccata requires light hydration in soil that is either clay, loam, peat, sand or silt as well as a soil pH that is neutral.


Atriplex semibaccata was first formally described in 1810 by Robert Brown in his Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen. The species is classified in the Amaranthaceae family and Chenopodiaceae subfamily, along with other halophytic plants (salt-tolerant) species. A. semibaccata has several reported varieties such as var. melanocarpa, var. biformis, var. microcarpa var. gracilis and var. appendiculata. These variations include the morphological differences within this species.
Australia's native range is centred on bracteoles, which are the succulent fruits of A. semibaccata.  There are two forms of A. semibaccata in Australia. In Western Australia and southern arid areas are home to rhomboid and succulent bracteoles, whereas slim dry and deltoid shaped bracteoles are found in Queensland and New South Wales. A. semibaccata hybridises with Atriplex spinibractea, where both species subside in New South Wales. This formed the variant, known as A. neurivalvis in northern Queensland, where succulence is not apparent in its bracteoles.
Genetic variability analysis with the use of molecular markers has investigated A. semibaccata and other species of the genus Atriplex. Phylogenetic analysis has confirmed a deviation from all other tested species (A. halimus, A. amnicola, A. lentiformis, A. canescens, A. undulata and A. nummularia).  A. semibaccata is distinguished as one of two major groups that are least similar to the other species.
The common names for A. semibaccata include the Australia saltbush. It is also commonly called Australian saltweed, creeping saltbush and berry saltbush. This is one of many Atriplex species native to Australia and is referenced widely in North America. The genus name Atriplex has Latin origins from the ‘atriplexum’, which has been derived from the Greek word ‘astraphaxes’, which translates to "saltbush" or "orach". The species epithet ‘semibaccata’ is derived from the Latin word ‘semi’ which translates to "half", while ‘baccata’ means "bearing berries".


This species of saltbush is endemic to Australia and is native to Western Australia, South Australia, Queensland and New South Wales, but has become naturalised in the Australian Capital Territory, on Norfolk Island and possibly Tasmania. It has also been introduced to North and South America, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, the Middle East, Arabian Peninsula, Asia, and the Mediterranean region.  A. semibaccata was introduced to different regions worldwide as a drought and salt tolerant fodder crop. Similarly, A. semibaccata was introduced in Tasmania for grazing purposes. Located in heavy soil that is slightly saline, in woodland that is close to salt lakes, and is usually an invader of disturbed areas. First reported distribution was in California in 1901 as a livestock forage in alkaline regions. Seeds were soon after distributed (1916) and by 1940, A. semibaccata inhabited southern coast regions and irregularly inland. Optimal conditions for habitat, include dry/subtropical climate and direct sunlight.


A. semibaccata reproduces by seed propagation. This appears when the fruiting bracteoles split when ripe and dry, exposing an individual seed. The seed is with ascending radicle. A. semibaccata is self-compatible and wind pollinated. Male flowers occur as small glomerules in distal axils, while female flowers appear in scattered axillary clusters. Seed persistence in soil and germination conditions are unknown. A. semibaccata does not obtain dormancy when germination rates are high.
In Australia, A. semibaccata flowers and fruits in spring and summer, however flowering is prolonged in Western Australia. A. semibaccata in the northern hemisphere (USA) typically flowers in spring (March–May), summer (June–August) and early winter (December–February).


The development of C₄ photosynthesis has played a role in the evolutionary success of the Atriplex genus. Various C₄ Chenopodiaceae plants differ from the Kranz anatomy of Atriplex, which includes a layer of bundle sheath cells surrounding the vascular bundle, as well as radially arranged palisade cells, with little variation in C₄ leaf types. Depending on the immediate environmental conditions, A. semibaccata demonstrates the ability to adapt. This relates to environmental conditions such as air temperature, soil moisture, salinity and evaporation.
Greater exposure to a saline environment, induces a salt stress response which displays a decrease number of chloroplasts in chlorenchyma and bundle sheath cells, as well as a decreased root diameter, leaf size, leaf stromal conductance and the net leaf photosynthetic rate. Higher saline exposure increases intracellular CO₂ concentration and the number of stomata per unit leaf area.
During winter, A. semibaccata becomes dormant, whereas other Atriplex species maintain function. Low and inconsistent rainfall, varying temperatures, humidity and poor soil are contributing factors that involve A. semibaccata to adapt.


A. semibaccata is native to Australia, however it is not located in tropical and humid regions such as Northern Queensland. It is a drought tolerant species of subtropical arid and semi-arid regions. A region with a mean annual rainfall of 250-900mm is optimal for A. semibaccata. It is a low spreading and deep-rooted sub-shrub that does not require much soil moisture. Sun exposed regions are an optimal condition for growth.  A. semibaccata is winter tolerant and can survive a minimum air temperature of -5 °C. A. semibaccata is salt-laden wind tolerant and has been indicated as an environmental advantage against plants that are distributed along coastal regions. Additionally, saline soil allows for rapid and more profuse seed germination. This is a competitive advantage, against native species worldwide. A. semibaccata has a high degree of salt tolerance (9-16 dS/m) and grows in soil that is exposed to light and is acidic.  A. semibaccata grows in various soil types, including clay loams, sandy loams and waterlogged environments.


Natural dispersion of A. semibaccata are over short distances as seeds are found under remnant and understorey plants. Animal dispersion expands the distance covered of A. semibaccata. The red fruiting bracteoles of A. semibaccata are succulent and are attractive to herbivore species. Species that eat the fruiting bracteoles are responsible for animal dispersion and spread the seed of A. semibaccata. A. semibaccata seeds have been found in the digestive tract of  reptiles, birds and foxes in California, USA.  Accidental introduction of A. semibaccata is a result of relocating hay and other fodder crops. A. semibaccata was introduced internationally to various countries, to acquire the drought and saline resistant properties that allow for use as a fodder and ground cover.  A. semibaccata is intentionally dispersed for its uses.


In its native range of Australia, A. semibaccata is used in agroforestry to improve the performance and profitability of vineyards. A. semibaccata has been introduced to regions with reduced water availability due to drought and increased temperatures, as a sustainable cover crop that deters potential pest species. Native perennial cover crops such as A. semibaccata can increase the abundance of symbiotic invertebrates that can improve pest control and limit the need of synthetic pest controls.


A. semibaccata has been used for regenerative purposes, where it has been planted to restore mine spoils. A. semibaccata is adaptive to the saline and drought conditions of mining waste and exhibits germination among these regions. A. semibaccata has also been used for landscaping purposes and as ground cover to control soil and erosion.  A. semibaccata is an effective weed control in verges, roundabouts and nature strips. Additional uses of A. semibaccata includes land reclamation without the need for saline water irrigation systems and restoring bare patches of ground.


A. semibaccata is used as saltland pasture and produces fodder for grazing animals when sources of paddock feed are limited. This can improve production from saltland sites, reduce salt movement and stabilise soil structure. A. semibaccata is a readily grazed Atriplex saltbush, which provides a more diverse diet and primary fodder/ animal feed.  The high salt content in foliage reduces the use of A. semibaccata as a food source if availability of drinking water for livestock is not adequate. A. semibaccata is palatable when young, contains a low energy value and is a source of crude protein. Additional food supplements and adequate drinking water are necessary for livestock.


A. semibaccata essential oils contain compounds with antibacterial and antioxidant properties. The essential oils of A. semibaccata are moderately synergistic with gentamicin, which is an antibiotic that is used to treat several bacterial infections. A. semibaccata is suitable for revegetation of marginal lands, with the use of its biomass as an essential oil for the control of microbial infections. Additionally, alcohol extracts from A. semibaccata, such as scopoletin, coumarin, scopolin, umbelliferorne, 7-methoxy coumarin, phenolic acid and P-coumaric acid has  antibacterial activity. Isolated compounds from A. semibaccata, such as compounds tyramine and lignanamide exhibit cytotoxic activity against the proliferation of leukemia lymphoblasts (CCRF-CEM) cells.


A. semibaccata is grown and dispersed over short distances. This creates a dense fire-retardant ground cover that displaces native plant species. A. semibaccata is identified as an invasive species by the US Fish and Wildlife service and is known to affect endangered species such as Panicum niihauense (critically endangered), Verbesina dissita and Sesbania tomentosa. Scaevola coriacea and Sesbania tomentosa are native and endangered grass species of Hawaii, USA.  Scaevola coriacea is found in three naturally occurring populations and Sesbania tomentosa is located on the island of Molokai. In California, USA , A. semibaccata competes with native plants such as Verbesina dissita for space, shade, water and light. A. semibaccata creates an ecological shift that is caused by competition for resources, shading, ecosystem change and habitat alteration.
A. semibaccata enhances biodiversity through biological control. Agroecosystems that involve A. semibaccata increase the abundance of invertebrates that assist in pest control as well as an increased range of predators and parasitoids. A. semibaccata acts as a cover crop that provides shelter for various invertebrates, this increases biodiversity and bioactivity. This provides the environment for natural breakdown of organic material, aeration and nutrient cycling that keeps A. semibaccata and surrounding vegetation healthy. Additionally, this abundant soil diversity supports pest predators that prevent harmful organisms from over populating. This prevents the destruction of crops. A. semibaccata improves the quality and structure of soil, suppresses weeds and contributes to pest management.


The economic impact of A. semibaccata is positive in regions where it is not invasive. Benefits that have a positive economic effect include its value in rehabilitation, medicinal properties as well as food and cover cropper. The negative economic impact is generated by its invasiveness that endangers native species, causes a change in ecological and alters the surrounding biodiversity. This requires physical and chemical control processes that can be laborious and require economic expenditure. Control chemicals for A. semibaccata involve herbicides, such as dicamba, dicamba/MCPA amine, 2,4-D and picloram/2,4-D.  To physically remove A. semibaccata, hand pulling is an effective method due to its small size. To physically control A. semibaccata, it must be uprooted prior to seed production. Site revision is required to remove plants arising from residual seed pools.


Atropa belladonna, commonly known as belladonna or deadly nightshade, is a toxic perennial herbaceous plant in the nightshade family Solanaceae, which also includes tomatoes, potatoes, and eggplant (aubergine). It is native to Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia. Its distribution extends from Great Britain in the west to western Ukraine and the Iranian province of Gilan in the east. It is also naturalised or introduced in some parts of Canada and the United States.
The foliage and berries are extremely toxic when ingested, containing tropane alkaloids. These toxins include atropine, scopolamine, and hyoscyamine, which cause delirium and hallucinations, and are also used as pharmaceutical anticholinergics. Tropane alkaloids are of common occurrence not only in the Old World tribes Hyoscyameae (to which the genus Atropa belongs) and Mandragoreae, but also in the New World tribe Datureae - all of which belong to the subfamily Solanoideae of the plant  family Solanaceae.
Atropa belladonna has unpredictable effects. The antidote for belladonna poisoning is physostigmine or pilocarpine, the same as for atropine.


Atropa belladonna has a long history of use as a medicine, cosmetic, and poison. Known originally under various folk names (such as "deadly nightshade" in English), the plant was baptized Atropa belladonna by Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) when he devised his classification system. Linnaeus chose the genus name Atropa because of the poisonous properties of these plants. Atropos (lit. "unturning one"), one of the Three Fates in Greek mythology, is said to have cut a person's thread of life after  her sisters had spun and measured it. Linnaeus chose the species name belladonna ("beautiful woman" in Italian) in reference to the cosmetic use of the plant during the Renaissance, when women used the juice of the berries in eyedrops intended to dilate the pupils and make the eyes appear more seductive.
Extracts of plants in the deadly nightshade family have been in use since at least the 4th century BC, when Mandragora (mandrake) was recommended by Theophrastus for treatment of wounds, gout, and sleeplessness, and as a love potion. In the first century BC, Cleopatra used Atropine-rich extracts from the Egyptian henbane plant (another nightshade) for the above-mentioned purpose of dilating the pupils of her eyes.
The use of deadly nightshades as a poison was known in ancient Rome, as attested by the rumor that the Roman empress Livia Drusilla used the juice of Atropa belladonna berries to murder her husband, the emperor Augustus.
In the first century AD, Dioscorides recognized wine of mandrake as an anaesthetic for treatment of pain or sleeplessness, to be given prior to surgery or cautery.
The use of nightshade preparations for anesthesia, often in combination with opium, persisted throughout the Roman and Islamic Empires and continued in Europe until superseded in the 19th century by modern anesthetics.
The modern pharmacological study of Atropa belladonna extracts was begun by the German chemist Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge (1795–1867). In 1831, the German pharmacist Heinrich F. G. Mein (1799–1864) succeeded in preparing a pure crystalline form of the active substance, baptized atropine.


Atropa belladonna is a branching herbaceous perennial rhizomatous hemicryptophyte, often growing as a subshrub from a fleshy rootstock. Plants grow to 2 m (7 ft) tall with ovate leaves 18 cm (7 in) long. The bell-shaped flowers are dull purple with green tinges and faintly scented. The fruits are berries, which are green, ripening to a shiny black, and approximately 1.5 cm (0.6 in) in diameter. The berries are sweet and are consumed by animals that disperse the seeds in their droppings, even though they contain toxic alkaloids (see Toxicity). There is a pale-yellow flowering form called Atropa belladonna var. lutea with pale yellow fruit.
A. belladonna is sometimes confused with the much less poisonous black nightshade, Solanum nigrum, belonging to a different genus within Solanaceae. A comparison of the fruit shows that the black nightshade berries grow in bunches, whereas the deadly nightshade berries grow individually.  Another distinction is black nightshade flowers have white petals.


Atropa belladonna is native to temperate southern, Central and Eastern Europe; North Africa, Turkey, Iran and the Caucasus, but has been cultivated and introduced outside its native range. In southern Sweden it was recorded in Flora of Skåne in 1870 as grown in apothecary gardens near Malmö.
In Britain it is native only on calcareous soils, on disturbed ground, field margins, hedgerows and open woodland. More widespread as an alien, it is often a relic of cultivation as a medicinal herb. Seed is spread mainly by birds.
It is naturalized in parts of North America, where it is often found in shady, moist locations with limestone-rich soils. It is considered a weed species in parts of the world, where it colonizes areas with disturbed soils.


Atropa belladonna is rarely used in gardens, but, when grown, it is usually for its large upright habit and showy berries.Germination of the small seeds is often difficult, due to hard seed coats that cause seed dormancy. Germination takes several weeks under alternating temperature conditions, but can be sped up with the use of gibberellic acid. The seedlings need sterile soil to prevent damping off and resent root disturbance during transplanting.


Atropa belladonna is in the nightshade family (Solanaceae), which it shares with potatoes, tomatoes, eggplants, jimsonweed, tobacco, wolfberry, and chili peppers. The common names for this species include belladonna, deadly nightshade, divale, dwale, banewort, devil's berries, death cherries, beautiful death, devil's herb, great morel, and dwayberry.


The name Atropa belladonna was published by Carl Linnaeus in Species Plantarum in 1753. Atropa is derived from the name of the Greek goddess Atropos ('she who may not be turned aside' i.e. 'the inflexible' or 'the implacable')—one of the three Greek fates or destinies who would determine the course of a man's life by the weaving of threads that symbolized his birth, the events in his life, and finally his death, with Atropos cutting these threads to mark the last of these. The name "belladonna" comes from the Italian language, meaning 'beautiful lady'; originating either from its usage as a cosmetic to beautify pallid skin, or more probably, from its usage to increase the pupil size in women.


Belladonna is one of the most toxic plants known, and its use by mouth increases risk in numerous clinical conditions, such as complications of pregnancy, cardiovascular diseases, gastrointestinal disorders, and psychiatric disorders, among others. All parts of the plant contain tropane alkaloids. Roots have up to 1.3%, leaves 1.2%, stalks 0.65%, flowers 0.6%, ripe berries 0.7%, and seeds 0.4% tropane alkaloids; leaves reach maximal alkaloid content when the plant is budding and flowering, roots are most poisonous in the end of the plant's vegetation period. Belladonna nectar is transformed by bees into honey that also contains tropane alkaloids. The berries pose the greatest danger to children because they look attractive and have a somewhat sweet taste. The root of the plant is generally the most toxic part, though this can vary from one specimen to another.
The active agents in belladonna, atropine, hyoscine (scopolamine), and hyoscyamine, have anticholinergic properties. The symptoms of belladonna poisoning include dilated pupils, sensitivity to light, blurred vision, tachycardia, loss of balance, staggering, headache, rash, flushing, severely dry mouth and throat, slurred speech, urinary retention, constipation, confusion, hallucinations, delirium, and convulsions.  In 2009, A. belladonna berries were mistaken for blueberries by an adult woman; the six berries she ate were documented to result in severe anticholinergic syndrome. The plant's deadly symptoms are caused by atropine's disruption of the parasympathetic nervous system's ability to regulate involuntary activities, such as sweating, breathing, and heart rate. The antidote for belladonna poisoning is an anticholinesterase (such as physostigmine) or a cholinomimetic (such as pilocarpine), the same as for atropine.
Atropa belladonna is also toxic to many domestic animals, causing narcosis and paralysis. However, cattle and rabbits eat the plant seemingly without suffering harmful effects. In humans, its anticholinergic properties will cause the disruption of cognitive capacities, such as memory and learning.


Belladonna cultivation is legal in Southern and Eastern Europe, Pakistan, North America, and Brazil. Belladonna leaves and roots can be bought with a medical prescription in pharmacies throughout Germany. In the United States, there is only one approved prescription drug containing belladonna alkaloids such as atropine, and the FDA  regards any over-the-counter products claiming efficacy and safety as an anticholinergic drug, to be illegal.


The common name belladonna originates from its historic use by women, as bella donna is Italian for "beautiful woman". Drops prepared from the belladonna plant were used to dilate women's pupils, an effect considered to be attractive and seductive. Belladonna drops act as a muscarinic antagonist, blocking receptors in the muscles of the eye that constrict pupil size. Belladonna is currently rarely used cosmetically, as it carries the adverse effects of causing minor visual distortions, inability to focus on near objects, and increased heart rate. Prolonged usage was reputed to cause blindness.


Scientific evidence to recommend the use of A. belladonna in its natural form for any condition is insufficient, although some of its components, in particular l-atropine, which was purified from belladonna in the 1830s, have accepted medical uses. Donnatal is a prescription pharmaceutical, that combines natural belladonna alkaloids in a specific, fixed ratio with phenobarbital to provide peripheral anticholinergic or antispasmodic action and mild sedation. Donnatal contains 0.0194 mg of atropine. According to the FDA and Donnatal labeling, it is possibly effective for use as adjunctive therapy in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome (irritable colon, spastic colon, mucous colitis) and acute enterocolitis. Donnatal is not approved by the FDA as being either safe or effective. According to the FDA, Donnatal use has significant risks: it can cause harm to a fetus if administered to a pregnant woman, can lead to heat prostration if used in hot climates, may cause constipation, and may produce drowsiness or blurred vision.
The Towns-Lambert or Bella Donna Cure was a regimen for treating alcohol use disorder in the early 20th century.


Atropa belladonna and related plants, such as Datura stramonium (commonly known as jimson weed), have occasionally been used as recreational drugs because of the vivid hallucinations and delirium they produce. These hallucinations are most commonly described as very unpleasant, and recreational use is considered extremely dangerous because of the high risk of unintentional fatal overdose. The main psychoactive ingredients are the alkaloids scopolamine and, to a lesser extent, hyoscyamine. The effects of atropine on the central nervous system include memory disruption, which may lead to severe confusion. The major effects of belladonna consumption last for three to four hours; visual hallucinations can last for three to four days, and some negative aftereffects are preserved for several days.


The tropane alkaloids of A. belladonna were used as poisons, and early humans made poisonous arrows from the plant. In Ancient Rome, it was used as a poison by Agrippina the Younger, wife of Emperor Claudius, on the advice of Locusta, a woman who specialized in poisons, and Livia, who is rumored to have used it to kill her husband Emperor Augustus.
Macbeth of Scotland, when he was still one of the lieutenants of King Duncan I of Scotland, used it during a truce to poison the troops of the invading Harold Harefoot, King of England, to the point that the English troops were unable to stand their ground and had to retreat to their ships.
Medical historians also suspect that Solomon Northup, a free black man who was kidnapped and sold into slavery in 1841, was poisoned using a combination of Atropa belladonna and laudanum.


Among the ancient folk traditions of the Romanian (Moldavian) / Ukrainian region of Bukovina in the Carpathians is the ritual for a Bukovinian girl to enhance her attractiveness by making an offering to deadly nightshade. She entered the fields on a Sunday in Shrovetide, clad in her Sunday best, accompanied by her mother and bringing a bag of bread, salt, and brandy. She would dig up a deadly nightshade root and leave the three offerings in its place. As she returned home, she carried the root on the top of her head. On the way both to and from home, she avoided all quarrels and arguments. If asked by anyone on the way back what she was taking home, she would not divulge the truth or the spell would break.


The species is one of the earliest formally classified ants, first described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 as Formica cephalotes in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae together with 16 other ant species, all of which he placed in the genus Formica. It was later transferred to a new genus, Atta, along with five other species by Danish zoologist Johan Christian Fabricius in 1804. In 1911, American entomologist William Morton Wheeler designated A. cephalotes as the type species of Atta. It was also designated as the type species of Oecodoma, but the genus is now a synonym of Atta.


The species is widely distributed in the Neotropical region, from Mexico to Bolivia, with disjunct populations in Amazonas and north-eastern Brazil.
Across the rainforest floor they typically occupy an area of approximately 20 square feet. They live in nests that can be as deep as 7 metres that they have carefully positioned so that a breeze can rid the nest of the dangerous levels of CO₂ given off by the fungus they farm and eat.


The queen is approximately 30 mm long, and dark brown. Workers are dark brown, with thorns. Soldiers grow up to 18 mm, and are well-fortified.
The ants cut leaves and grow a basidiomycete fungus called Leucoagaricus gongylophorus (Agaricaceae) with them. Oleic acid is one of their undertaking triggers.


A. mexicana is found in Mexico (where is commonly called hormiga chicatana, hormiga podadora de hoja/desert ant and mochomo), and crosses into Arizona, United States.
This species is highly adaptive, and thrives in such urban areas as Puerto Vallarta. Densities of A. mexicana nests are very high in numerous areas, including the resort community of Nuevo Vallarta.


The species is found in various locations of central and southern Mexico during the start of the rainy season, when the soil becomes wet and the ants leave for their nuptial flight. That time of the year is the most active for the chicatanas, during which they clean their anthill and create new colonies, becoming very abundant. In Chiapas, for example, they are harvested from late May to early July. In Tuxtla Gutiérrez, they are known as nucú and are prepared in a stew with the same name; in Chiapa de Corzo and Ocosingo they are respectively called nacasmá and cocosh. They are also widely known in Veracruz, Oaxaca, the mountainous areas of Guerrero, Guanajuato, Puebla, Morelos, and Edomex.
When consumed as snacks (botanas), they are uniquely fried with olive oil or toasted on a comal, usually with salt, lemon, and hot sauce, and traditionally accompany the Pox. They are also fried in tacos. In Maya regions, they are stewed in chilmole.
In Mixtec tradition, they are the main ingredient of a sauce called salsa de chicatanas, which is also prepared with chili pepper, onion and garlic and smeared on cooked meat or cheese tortillas. There are several variations of that sauce, such as the one prepared with chile de árbol by the Zoque people of Jamiltepec, the one made with coastal chili in Pinotepa Nacional, and one prepared with guajillo chili in the Mixteca Poblana. In Veracruz, they are included in a pipián called tlatonile.


Atta texana is a fungus-farming ant species of the genus Atta, found in Texas, Louisiana, and  northeastern states of Mexico. Common names include town ant, parasol ant, fungus ant, Texas leafcutter ant, cut ant, and night ant.  It harvests leaves from over 200 plant species, and is considered a major pest of agricultural and ornamental plants, as it can defoliate a citrus tree in less than 24 hours. Every colony has several queens and up to 2 million workers. Nests are built in well-drained, sandy or loamy soil, and may reach a depth of 6 m (20 ft), have 1000 entrance holes, and occupy 420 m² (4,500 sq ft).


A. texana workers measure 4 to 14 mm (0.16 to 0.55 in) in length, and are highly polymorphic. The back of the thorax has three pairs of spines. The ant has a narrow waist and is rusty brown in color. It should also be mentioned: Its closely-related cousin, Atta mexicana has colonies up to 8 Million, and the queen for A. mexicana is larger than the texana queen; however, it should also be mentioned that A. mexicana is only able to have a single queen, while A. texana may have multiple queens (Often 2)


The nuptial flights of A. texana synchronize in regions; the virgin queens and males fly at night.


Atypoides riversi, known as turret spider, is a species of mygalomorph spider in the family Antrodiaetidae. It is a medium-sized spider native to Northern California that construct burrows with a cork-like trapdoor made of soil, vegetation and silk.  This spider's length is 13 to 18 millimetres (0.51 to 0.71 in) long, though females are larger than males.


Augochlora pura is a solitary sweat bee found primarily in the Eastern United States. It is known for its bright green color and its tendency to forage on a variety of plants. Inhabiting rotting logs, this bee can produce up to three generations per year. Both males and females have been observed licking sweat from human skin, most likely seeking salt
Augochlora pura was recently suggested the common name Pure Green Sweat Bee, but about it has been written that "...it does not seem to need one with such a musical scientific designation that means 'pure golden green.'"


Within Halictidae, 4 subfamilies, 81 genera, and over 4,000 species have been defined. About 1,000 of the species in the genera Halictus, Lasioglossum, Augochlora, and Augochlorella, are eusocial.


Both males and females are approximately 8 mm long. Over most of the range of the speies, their entire bodies are a shiny, bright green, in contrast to many Lasioglossum species such as L. zephyrus, which are a dull metallic green. Male Augochlora pura tend to have darker mandibles and may be slightly more bluish than females, but otherwise, males and females are similar. Both sexes are a deep blue metallic color in Florida, and this color form was previously treated as a separate taxon, Augochlora pura mosieri.


A. pura is found mainly in the eastern United States. It ranges from Maine through Minnesota south through Texas and Florida. A. pura has been documented as far north as Quebec. Its active season is February through November, with the longer seasons in the more southern states. A. pura builds its nests in rotting wood in forests and even wood piles in suburbia. It spends most of its time near its nests, but also visits nearby brush and pastures. According to a study on the bottomland hardwood forest of the southeastern United States, A. pura accounted for about 91% of bees collected in the area.


Augochlora pura has a flight season from early April through September, but nests are active only from early May to early August. Unlike other halictids, A. pura does not take flight in response to warm days later in the fall. There are two to three generations per year in nature, as limited by the seasons, but bees in the laboratory have been shown to produce at least six generations per year. There is no reason to believe these generations would not continue indefinitely. In nature, females become active in August and September, mate, and remain in a state of ovarian diapause on moist soil beneath rotting logs. In contrast, all males die in the fall. Overwintered females found new nests in April. Their offspring emerge in June, and proceed to found nests of their own by the end of the month. Males tend to emerge from the first cells built, and females emerge shortly thereafter. Males in the laboratory live on average about 14.88 days.


Augochlora pura uses the burrows of other insects as its own burrow starting points, and makes a variety of architectural structures within the xylem and phloem of fallen trees. Depending on the availability of resources, they may construct cluster nests with superimposed horizontal layers, platform nests with all cells within one plane, and tunnel nests with single or chainlike rows. Nests are often intermediates of these three types. Cells begin as wood fragments supported by the floor or ceiling. Then, this framework is coated with substrate and finally a waxy coating. This waxy coating is thought to be the product of an enzyme-mediated polyesterification of secretions of the Dufour's gland.


As solitary bees, A. pura females do not remain in their mother's nest if she is alive. However, there may be times in which A. pura females group together. When the mother is old or deceased, multiple young females may live as a group. Multiple females have also been seen huddled together while overwintering. There is no worker caste, and reproductive females are not cooperative. Bees attempting to enter a nest that does not belong to them will be promptly attacked. Mothers have even been observed to attack their own offspring. If nests meet by chance, a wall is quickly constructed between them. Males return to the same sleeping places each night, and may sleep in groups of up to six males, but only if sleeping places are limited. In this case, all males sleeping together face the same direction. Males enter vacant nests and attack any other males attempting to enter.


Augochlora pura mates while visiting flowers. All, or nearly all, females mate. Males fly in swarms and hover over flowers.  They fly from flower to flower and feed, and land on any similarly sized insect on a flower. In fact, they even pounce on black dots on paper. When a male finds a receptive female, he mates with her for from three seconds through two minutes. Instead of pursuing females in the air, A. pura males wait for them to land on flowers. As in Lasioglossum zephyrum, the odors of A. pura females function as aphrodisiacs. Males have been observed to stack themselves on top of a copulating male, attempting to mate with that one female. Augochlora pura males have been observed to stroke the female's head with their antennae before and during copulation. During copulation, the male will release his grasp and remain connected only by his genitalia. Females may attempt to crawl or bite the male's metasoma. Copulation in the field lasts for approximately 28.5 seconds. Males have not been shown to have a preference for either young or old females.


Females behave rhythmically during their nesting phase. They construct cells, one at a time, during the night. They forage throughout the morning, feeding on nectar first, and then collecting pollen. Then, they spend their afternoons forming balls of provisions, performing oviposition, and capping cells. If guarding occurs, it tends to happen during midday or the afternoon.


Augochlora pura is known for its economy of labor. It can build its cells in various arrangements depending on environmental constraints. Steps in the cell construction process are sometimes omitted. For example, the primary cell construction is skipped if an old cell can be utilized. This plasticity is pivotal to the parasitic and social behaviors of halictids.


Augochlora pura forages on a variety of flowers, including more inconspicuous flowers like walnut. They have been observed visiting over 40 distinct species. In the laboratory, A. pura even foraged for nectar, pollen, or both at foreign flowers not found near their natural habitat. A female collect pollen from up to ten flowers to provision a single cell, and these are often from different species. Males exhibit patrolling behavior. They fly between specific flowers, and maintain this route continuously with only short rests. They fly so quickly that they may be difficult to follow visually.


Inside rotten logs, A. pura has been seen to associate with nests of another bee species, Lasioglossum coeruleum.
A. pura utilize the powdered wood produced by passalid beetles when constructing their nests.
Many A. pura found dead in the spring are covered with the fungus Fusarium. It is unclear whether the fungus was actually the cause of death.
Parasitic nematodes of the species Aduncospiculum halicti have been discovered in the Dufour's gland and genital tract of both males and females.


Austrolestes colensonis (Māori: kekewai), commonly known as the blue damselfly, is a species of damselfly of the family Lestidae. It is endemic to New Zealand and can commonly be found throughout the country, and at any time of the year. It is New Zealand's largest damselfly, and only blue odonate.


This species was first being described by Adam White in 1846. The first reference to this species was an illustration published under the name Agrion colensonis. In 1862 Edmond de Sélys Longchamps wrote a description of the species and used the name Lestes colensonis. The New Zealand entomologist George Hudson described, discussed and illustrated this species in 1904 under the name L. colensonis. In 1913 Robin Tillyard placed this species within the genus Austrolestes.


Hudson described the species as follows:
The expansion of the wings is 2+1⁄8 inches, and the length of the body 1+3⁄4 inches. The general colour of the male is dark purplish-black, with brilliant blue markings. The front of the labium, the pronotum, two broad stripes on the mesonotum, the articulations of the wings and the articulations of the abdomen are brilliant blue. The legs are black above and yellowish-brown beneath. The superior appendages of the male are like pincers toothed inside and having a tubercle at the base inside, which is the commencement of a dilatation, terminated towards the middle by a very sharp tooth ; the end inclined downwards and curved slightly outwards. The inferior appendages are not half the length of the superior ; they are brown, thick, approximated, and slightly attenuated.
In the female the head and pronotum are dull slaty black, the central portions of the mesonotum brilliant green-edged, first with a narrow band of white and then broadly with black. The abdomen is bright green at the  base, becoming dull purple towards the tip ; the end of each segment is marked with a shaded ring of black, and the beginning of the succeeding segment with a sharp, fine ring of white. The anal appendages are separated, sub-cylindrical, yellowish, shorter than the last segment, the valves slightly toothed at the tips.
A. colensonis is the largest damselfly in New Zealand. Adult males can be distinguished by their widely separated blue eyes alongside a pale blue upper border on the mouthparts. The thorax has three metallic blue stripes separated by black, which is the predominant colour. Along the abdomen each segment from two to seven has a blue anterior ring located on the margin between segments; the remainder of the abdomen is black except for a dorsal blue area on segment ten. Females are similar to the male but with a thicker abdomen which has long thin appendages at the clubbed tip. Both females and young males are iridescent green in colour rather than blue.
The larvae of this species are between 17 and 21 millimetres in length and have a broad head with large eyes, a cylindrical body shape and a rounded tip on the tail gill with no hairs, and three horizontal brown stripes.


This species is found throughout New Zealand, including Stewart Island and Chatham Island; the Chatham Island individuals seem to be genetically distinct from the mainland population, and most have an interrupted blue stripe on the thorax, but currently this is thought insufficient to consider them a separate species. A. colensonis can be seen near water at any time, but especially November to April; adults seen in June and July may be overwintering. It is the main damselfly species in mountain tarns, so is presumably cold-tolerant.


A. colensonis has a twenty-year life cycle.  Some eggs hatch in the summer that they are laid while others overwinter and hatch the following spring. Those eggs that hatch in the following year overwinter in a dormant state. Temperature is the major influence that regulates the rate of development. Too low and it can cause the death of the embryo.
Eggs can hatch in about 20–21 days where the temperature is 20 degrees Celsius. Nymphs then live for a year to a year and a half before metamorphosis takes place. Before emergence, the nymphal darkens until it is nearly black in colour. The nymphs may take several short trips from the water a few days before emergence. Emergence normally  takes place on rush or grass stalks 10–40 cm above the water line. It is common for there to be a high rate of mortality due to the moulting adult losing its grip on the substrate and ending up in a body of water where it can drown.
Emergence occurs during the day from the months of October to February, with the majority bursting around January. However adults can be found at late as May in Dunedin and in early June in Northland. After emergence and maiden flight, young adults mature sexually for several days; during this time there can be quite a high number of dispersals. Once males reach maturity they venture out to find habitats suitable for breeding and to set their territories where they stay motionless on their established porch for extended periods of time until they are bothered by an intruder. Early afternoons, the height of reproductive activity, you will see males go chasing after females that fly through their territory. The mating "wheel" lasts for 10 minutes, and egg-laying generally occurs in tandem; the pair land on a floating piece of vegetation and the female drives a shaft through the stem and into the pith. She then lays 6–9 eggs, taking up to a minute. This is repeated and eggs are laid out either in close batches or spaced between one another. Once the nymphs, known as pronaiads, are hatched they begin to search for water so they can moult and release the second larval instar (about 2.3 mm long). These nymphs are quite active swimmers; once they reach a later stage they roam about on the surface of detritus and vegetation on the bottom of ponds.


The larvae are quite active due to their ability to perform jumping movements and when disturbed the larvae swim very rapidly with the legs held close to the body towards the bottom sediments in which it buries itself.
They eat a range of prey including oligochaetes, rotifers, cyclopoids, copepods, ostracods, Chydorus sphaericus, Simocephalus vetulus elizabethae, water mites, Sigara species, Anisops species, damselfly larvae, and chironomid larvae. The larvae of A. colensonis are also cannibalistic. They catch other water insects by hiding amongst submerged vegetation and then ambushing their prey.
A. colensonis has been found to show aggressive, agonistic behavior. Larvae remain still and sit in one spot for hours and are easily bothered by disturbance. Rowe observed captured larvae that were placed in aquariums where the larvae executed various forms of postures and motor patterns. The larvae were perched on two separate straws, one vertical, the other horizontal; each larvae defended their territory from the other organism. If larvae were put together in high numbers it was noted that they would lose legs or caudal lamellae on occasion in intraspecific interactions. Attacks that would occur sometimes resulted in the severing of a seized appendage, however there were no signs of predation after the event.
As adults A. colensonis also exhibit thermoregulation behavior. There are two mechanisms involved: physiological colour changes and behavioural responses.  They change in the intensity of their blue colouration. Males are pale blue-purple earlier on in the morning or after being cool for several hours. However, as they warm first the thorax then the abdomen become a brighter blue. Females that have warmed enough may also look bluish in colour.


The larvae of the New Zealand damselfly also have predators even though they are usually one of the more dominant species in their pooling area. The predators consist of fish and beetles that they hide from in weed and submerged vegetation.
Humans also contribute significantly to New Zealand damselfly survival with their power to redirect streams, leaving dry ponds with larvae unable to survive and eggs unable to hatch. Natural events, such as droughts, can also cause ponds and streams to dry up with similarly deadly results for larvae and eggs.


Autographa californica, the alfalfa looper, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. The species was first described by Adolph Speyer in 1875. It is found in western North America from southern British Columbia to Baja California and to Manitoba, South Dakota, Colorado and New Mexico.
The wingspan is 36–42 mm. The moth flies from July to October depending on the location.
The larvae feed on a wide range of plants. Recorded food plants include species of families Apiaceae, Aquifoliaceae, Asteraceae, Boraginaceae, Brassicaceae, Caprifoliaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Ericaceae, Fabaceae, Grossulariaceae, Liliaceae, Lamiaceae, Linaceae, Malvaceae, Plantaginaceae, Poaceae, Podocarpaceae, Polygonaceae, Rhamnaceae, Rosaceae, Rutaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Solanaceae and Verbenaceae.


Autographa precationis (common looper moth) is a moth of the family Noctuidae. It is found in eastern and central North America.
The wingspan is 30–38 mm. Adults are on wing from April to October depending on the location. There are three or more generations per year.
The larvae feed on various forbs, including Apiaceae, Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Convolvulaceae, Fabaceae, Malvaceae, Plantaginaceae  and Verbenaceae species.


The common looper is thought to have recently moved into the greater niche provided by more soybean planting in its range, with larvae observed in the wild feeding on soybean plants in addition to their usual fare. Notably, their digestibility and efficiency of food utilization for soybeans was not as high as with Pseudoplusia includens, suggesting host plant preference for common loopers is slightly different. Visually, the two species are strikingly similar, so it is easy to confuse the two, but notably the silver spots on the wings of the Common Looper are usually conjoined, while the spots on the wings of P. includens are separated, and their wings are shinier than those of A. precationis. Larvae of this species have 21-23 crochets per proleg, and are bright green, with a small black marks (false eyes) on each side of the head.


Avena barbata is a species of wild oat known by the common name slender wild oat. It has edible seeds. It is a diploidized autotetraploid grass (2n=4x=28). Its diploid ancestors are A. hirtula Lag. and A. wiestii Steud (2n=2x=14), which are considered Mediterranean and desert  ecotypes, respectively, comprising a single species.  A westie and A. hirtula are widespread in the Mediterranean Basin, growing in mixed stands with A. barbata, though they are difficult to tell apart.
This is a winter annual grass with thin tillers (stems) growing up to 60 to 80 centimeters in maximum height, but known to sometimes grow taller. The bristly spikelets are 2 to 3 centimeters long, not counting the bent awn which is up to 4 centimeters in length. Avena barbata largely reproduces by selfing in natural populations, with very low rates of outcrossing.
A. barbata is native to central Asia (as far east as Pakistan) and the Mediterranean Basin.  As an introduced species it also occurs in other Mediterranean-like habitats of New Zealand, Australia, South Africa, Argentina, Chile, Brazil, and Uruguay. In Europe it has been reported in Finland, France, Germany, Norway, Bulgaria, and Austria. In North America it is an introduced species and noxious weed, where it is especially widespread in California.  In California it has displaced native species of grass. It is also found in Oregon, Washington, Hawaii, Massachusetts, Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico.
Genetic evidence indicates that A. barbata in Argentina and California originated from Spain, during the Spanish colonization of the Americas.


Californian populations of Avena barbata represent one of the most extensively studied examples of putative "ecotypes" in the plant literature.  Its population genetics and evolution have been extensively examined since 1967, primarily in the laboratories of R.W. Allard and Subodh Jain and their many students in the 1960s, 1970s,  1980s, and 1990s at U.C. Davis, and more recently by Robert Latta at the University of Dalhousie University in Nova Scotia.
The general pattern that emerged from these earlier studies was that throughout the Central Valley of California, consisting of semiarid grasslands and oak savannahs, and extending south to San Diego, populations of this species were dominated by a monomorphic phenotype possessing dark/black seeds with hairy lemmas, as well as smooth  leaf sheaths; these morphological characters were correlated with a specific isozyme pattern as well as a specific ribosomal DNA genotype. This "ecotype" is called the "xeric" type. Populations outside the Central Valley, along the coastal strip, the intermontane regions of the coast ranges, and the higher foothills of the Sierra Nevada mountains, were either monomorphic for white seeds with generally smooth lemmas and hairy leaf sheaths or were polymorphic with varying mixtures of the seed and leaf sheath characters.  These populations were also either monomorphic or polymorphic for isozyme patterns and ribosomal DNA genotypes other than the xeric type; they are called the "mesic" type.  The mesic type has never apparently been observed south of approximately the same latitude as Monterey, either in coastal ranges, the Central Valley, or the foothills of the Sierras.  When the morphological traits as well as the allozyme and ribosomal DNA genotypes were considered together, it is argued that there are six ecotypes in the otherwise "mesic" classification.
Whole-plant studies also showed that the xeric and mesic types differed from each other for many characters such as the flag leaf, primary stem height, number of tillers, weight and number of seeds, dry weight, and flowering time, with the music ecotype being generally larger and more fecund, overall, than the xeric type; further, the flag leaves of the xeric type were consistently smaller than the mesic type under many conditions.  It was further shown that xeric populations that were monomorphic for the seed and leaf sheath characters and allozymes had a less genetic variation for quantitative genetics characters than mesic populations; however, quantitative genetic variation existed in all xeric or mesic populations that were studied. Consequently, with all genetic characters studied, xeric populations of the xeric ecotype were more similar to each other than they were to the music ecotype, and the evidence indicated that the various ecotypes represented  significant linkage disequilibrium and coadapted genetic complexes.
For field identification purposes, the leaf sheath pubescence in the seedling stage and lemma color at seed maturity as well as the flag leaf dimensions would reliably separate the xeric from the mesic ecotypes throughout California.
Early on it was speculated that the genetic patterns observed in A. barbata were highly correlated with rainfall and temperature.  The general pattern at both a macro and micro geographical scale was that the monomorphic "xeric" type occurred in those regions with between 250mm and 500mm of rainfall, while the polymorphic and monomorphic "mesic" populations occurred in those areas of California with greater than 500mm.
Regardless of the correlations found with the mesic and xeric genotypes with rainfall in California, greenhouse experiments have not shown that the xeric type has greater reproductive capacity or other physiologic superiority to the mesic under artificially induced wet or dry conditions.  In fact Latta argues that the mesic type is superior to the xeric, and may be supplanting the xeric in those areas where the xeric has been dominant, at least in Northern California.


Avena barbata has been studied in Spain, Israel, and Morocco by students and colleagues of R.W. Allard at U.C. Davis, Pèrez de la Vega and Pedro Garcia of the University of Leon, and E. Nevo in Israel (). The general pattern that has emerged is that there is more genetic variability in the Mediterranean populations than there are in Californian populations.  Further, the multi-locus genotypes found in California are unique to California. The Mediterranean populations have their own unique sets of multi-locus genotypes. There is a unique 14-locus allozyme genotype specific to the colder regions of Spain.
Neither the "xeric" nor monomorphic "mesic" genotypes described in California are found in Spain.


Both Californian and Argentinian populations represent a subset of the genetic variability found in Spain, on a locus by locus comparison.  However, unlike Spain, Argentina has one widespread 14 locus allozyme genotype called the "Pampeano" type, which is not found in Spain; it differs from the Californian "xeric" type at three of the 14 loci examined.  The "xeric" Californian type is found in 6% of the plants examined in Argentina; the "xeric" type also occurs in Chile.
The genetic evidence indicates that Avena barbata came to both Argentina and California from southwest Spain.


Avena fatua is a species of grass in the oat genus. It is known as the common wild oat. This oat is native to Eurasia but it has been introduced to most of the other temperate regions of the world. It is naturalized in some areas and considered a noxious weed in others.
Avena fatua is a typical oat in appearance, a green grass with hollow, erect stems 1 to 4 feet (30–120 cm) tall bearing nodding panicles of spikelets. The long dark green leaves are up to a centimeter wide and rough due to small hairs. The seedlings are also hairy. The seed kernel is thinner, longer, darker and hairy when compared with the seed of the common cultivated oat (Avena sativa). This species and other wild oats can become troublesome in prairie agriculture when it invades and lowers the quality of a field crop, or competes for resources with the crop plants. It takes very few wild oat plants to cause a significant reduction in the yield of a wheat or cultivated oat field,  even though the seeds are a type of oat.


Avicennia marina, commonly known as grey mangrove or white mangrove, is a species of mangrove tree classified in the plant family Acanthaceae (formerly in the Verbenaceae or Avicenniaceae). As with other mangroves, it occurs in the intertidal zones of estuarine areas.


Grey mangroves grow as a shrub or tree to a height of 3 to 10 m (9.8 to 32.8 ft), or up to 14 metres (46 ft) in tropical regions.  The habit is a gnarled arrangement of multiple branches. It has smooth light-grey bark made up of thin, stiff, brittle flakes. This may be whitish, a characteristic described in the common name.  The leaves are thick, 5 to 8 cm (2.0 to 3.1 in) long, a bright, glossy green on the upper surface, and silvery-white, or grey, with very small matted hairs on the surface below.  As with other Avicennia species, it has aerial roots (pneumatophores); these grow to a height of about 20 centimetres (7.9 in), and a diameter of 1 centimetre (0.39 in). These allow the plant to absorb oxygen, which is deficient in its habitat. These roots also anchor the plant during the frequent inundation of seawater in the soft substrate of tidal systems. The flowers range from white to a golden yellow colour, are less than 1 centimetre (0.39 in) across, and occur in clusters of three to five. The fruit contains large cotyledons that surround the new stem of a seedling. This produces a large, fleshy seed, often germinating on the tree and falling as a seedling. The grey mangrove can experience stunted growth in water conditions that are too saline, but thrive to their full height in waters where both salt and fresh water are present. The species can tolerate high salinity by excreting salts through its leaves.
The grey mangrove is a highly variable tree, with a number of ecotypes, and in forms closely resembling other species. It has been reported to tolerate extreme weather conditions, high winds, and various pests and diseases. It is a pioneer in muddy soil conditions with a pH value of 6.5 to 8.0, but is intolerant of shade.


A number of botanists have proposed division of the species, but currently three subspecies and one variety are recognised:
A. m. subsp. australasica (Walp.) J.Everett
A. m. subsp. eucalyptifolia (Valeton) J.Everett
A. m. subsp. marina
A. m. var. rumphiana (Hallier f.) Bakh., syn. Avicennia lanata Ridl., Avicennia rumphiana Hallier f.


It is distributed along Africa's east coast, south-west, south and south-east Asia, Australia, and northern parts of New Zealand.  It is one of the few mangroves found in the arid regions of the coastal Arabian Peninsula, mainly in sabkha environments in the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, Oman, as well as in similar environments on both side of the Red Sea (in Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Eritrea, and Sudan), and Qatar and southern Iran along the Persian Gulf coast. It is a characteristic species of the Southern Africa mangroves ecoregion, and is one of three species present in Africa's southernmost mangroves, in the estuary of South Africa's Nahoon River at 32°56′S. The species is also found in Somalia.


In Australia it occurs in every mainland state and extends much farther south than other mangroves, with its southern most limit at Corner Inlet (38 degrees south) near Wilson's Promontory in Victoria. Its distribution is disjunct in Western Australia; the population of the Abrolhos Islands is 300 km (190 mi) further south than the nearest population of Shark Bay.  Another mangrove system is found even further south (500 kilometres (310 mi)) at Bunbury. This colonisation of southerly climes may have occurred relatively recently, perhaps several thousand years ago, when they were transferred by the Leeuwin Current.  The most inland occurrence of mangroves in Australia is a stand of grey mangroves in the Mandora Marsh, some 60 kilometres (37 mi) from the coast. In South Australia along the Barker Inlet and Port River in Gulf St Vincent, as well as in sheltered bays in Spencer Gulf and the west coast of Eyre Peninsula, A. marina forests form hatcheries for much of the state's fish and shellfish commercial and recreational fisheries.


In New Zealand, Avicennia marina is the only mangrove species. It grows in the top half of the North Island, between 34 and 38 degrees south. Avicennia marina was known in New Zealand as Avicennia resinifera until recently; its Māori name is mānawa.


The redhead is in the family Anatidae (ducks, swans, geese) and genus Aythya (diving ducks).  There are currently no described subspecies of the redhead.
The two syntype specimens of Fuligula americana Eyton (Monogr. Anat., 1838, p.155) are held in the vertebrate zoology collections of National Museums Liverpool at World Museum, with accession numbers NML-VZ D829 (male immature) and NML-VZ D829a (female adult). The specimens were collected in North America and came to the Liverpool national collection via Thomas Campbell Eyton’s collection and the 13th Earl of Derby’s collection which was bequeathed to the city of Liverpool.


The redhead and the common pochard form a sister group which itself is sister to the canvasback. This group is then sister to the monophyletic group consisting of the white-eyes (hardhead, Madagascar pochard, and the sister species ferruginous duck and baer's pochard) and scaups (New Zealand scaup, ring-necked duck, tufted duck, greater scaup, lesser scaup).


The redhead is a pochard, a diving duck specially adapted to foraging underwater. Their legs are placed farther back on the body, which makes walking on land difficult, the webbing on their feet is larger than dabbling ducks and their bills are broader, to facilitate underwater foraging. In addition, pochards have a lobed hind toe. No pochard has a metallic coloured speculum, something that is characteristic of other ducks.


During breeding season, adult males have a copper head and neck, with a black breast. The back and sides are grey, the belly is white and the rump and tail are a light black. Male bills are pale blue with a black tip and a thin ring separating the two colours.  Non breeding males lose the copper colour and instead have brown heads.


Adult females, however, have a yellow to brown head and neck. The breast is brown, the belly is white and the rest of the body is a grey to brown. The female bills are slate with a dark tip that is separated by a blue ring. Females remain the same colour year round.


During breeding season, redheads are found across a wide range of North America, from as far north as Northern Canada to the Caribbean. Their preferred areas include the intermontane regions of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and the Dakotas with some small localities in Ontario, Quebec and southern United States. These pochards then migrate south to winter in warmer climates.  These areas include southern United States where breeding does not occur and extends to Mexico, Guatemala, Cuba, and the Bahamas.  In either season, redheads use wetlands as their main habitat.


Small, semi-permanent wetlands in non-forested country where the water is deep enough to provide dense emergent vegetation is considered ideal breeding habitat for redheads.  When wintering, redheads switch to large areas of water near the coast that are protected from wave action but can also be found in reservoirs, lakes, playa wetlands, freshwater river deltas, coastal marshes, estuaries and bays.


Redheads do not have many predators and are most likely to die of disease or indirect human impact. These ducks are considered less desirable as table fare than their puddle duck cousins like the mallard; however, their beautiful plumage makes them a targeted species for waterfowl hunters looking to focus on diving ducks.  Adults can be preyed upon by northern river otters, red-tailed hawks, great horned owls, bald eagles, golden eagles and to a greater extent, minks.  Most predation comes in the form of duckling predation and egg foraging.  Northern pike and snapping turtles are known to eat ducklings whereas skunks, minks, crows and magpies will steal and eat redhead eggs.


The North American Waterfowl Management Plan for redheads is 760,000 North American birds.  The population size has increased in the past few decades to well over 1.4 million birds.  Redheads make up 2% of North America's duck population and only 1% of its harvested ducks.  Populations may be stable because of restrictive bag limits for the species.  In addition, the species uses semi-permanent and permanent wetlands to breed and these habitats are less likely to be affected by drought.  For future management of the species, organizations are looking into wetland conservation.


Redheads leave their winter range in late January and February with all birds migrating by mid-March. In western North America, migrants begin arriving in Oregon, British Columbia and Colorado in February. In central North America, migrants arrive as soon as temperatures open wetlands and lakes, which can range from late February (Nebraska) to early May (Alberta, Manitoba and Iowa). In the Great Lakes region and north-eastern North America, migrants will also arrive as soon as bodies of water open up.


Western birds migrate through Great Basin to the Pacific Coast. In British Columbia, fall migration begins in September and continues through October. The Great Salt Lake region is of particular importance to migrants in western United States. Central North American redheads will begin migrating earlier, around August/September and go through the Great Plains to the Texas coast.  Eastern populations will migrate through the Great Lakes region to the Atlantic Coast or Florida from October to November. Most redheads winter along the Gulf of Mexico (offshore Louisiana, Florida and Mexico) however eastern populations will winter in South Carolina.


Redheads flock together on lakes and other bodies of water but will migrate in pairs, which are formed in December or January through elaborate courtship rituals. Unpaired redheads will migrate together in a ‘courting party’ that can be up to 25 individuals strong and hopefully find a mate within the group. The pair bonds are established yearly through a long courtship process. Males begin this process through neck-kinking and head throwing displays while emitting a cat-like call. The male will continue by initiating a neck-stretching display while producing a cough like call, a display and vocalization in which the females reciprocates. If interested, the female will herself produce inciting calls towards the male while performing alternate lateral and chin lifting movements. The male then swims ahead of her and turns the back of his head towards the female.  Once courtship is finished, the two birds are paired for the year.  Eventually, the male initiates copulation by alternating bill dipping and preening dorsally towards the female, an action in which the female might return to the male.


Once copulation is completed, female redheads begin forming nests.  They are built with thick and strong plant material in emergent vegetation, such as hard stem bulrush, cattails and sedges, over or near standing water.  Redheads do not defend their territory or home range and are actually very social while in their breeding ground. This is thought to occur because some younger, inexperienced redhead females parasitize other pochards. Some redheads lay their eggs in other pochards’ nests, including the canvasback, ring-necked duck and greater and lesser scaups and this social parasitism by redheads reduces the hatching success of other pochards’ eggs, especially those of the canvasback. In contrast, because of the parasitic relationship between the redhead and other pochards, redhead hybrids with the ring-necked duck, canvasback and the greater and lesser scaups have been found.  Canvasback x redhead hybrids can be fertile.  Brood sizes range from 5-7 young, with the mother abandoning the chicks at 8 weeks old, before they are capable of flying.  They remain flightless for another 2–4 weeks.


There is little information on redhead vocalizations outside of breeding calls.  Males will emit calls when courting the female.  When the neck is fully extended in the neck-stretching display, males will emit a distinct wheee-oww, which sounds catlike.  Males may also produce a soft coughing call, although this call is less frequent.  Females will emit a soft errrr note when she is inciting a male.


All pochards have similar diets that include both plant and animal materials.  Redheads undergo a niche switch when breeding and when wintering.  During the breeding season, redheads will eat as much animal matter as possible, including gastropods, mollusks and insect larvae.  They will eat the occasional grass and other emergent vegetation.  However, once they fly south, redheads will change their diet to include mostly plant material, including pondweeds, wild rice, wild celery, wigeon grass, bulrushes, muskgrass and shoal grass.
Gastropods known as food of Aythya americana include: Acteocina canaliculata, Acteon punctostriatus, Anachis avara, Anachis obesa, Caecum nitidum, Calliostoma sp., Cerithidea pliculosa, Cerithium lutosum, Crepidula convexa, Diastoma varium, Melanella sp., Mitrella lunata, Nassarius acutus, Nassarius vibex, Natica sp., Neritina virginea, Odostomia trifida, Olivella minuta, Olivella watermani, Polinices sp., Pyramidellidae, Pyrgocythara plicosa, Rissoina catesbyana, Sayella livida, Turbonilla sp., Turbonilla interrupta and Vitrinella sp.


The common pochard (/ˈpɒtʃərd/; Aythya ferina) is a medium-sized diving duck. The scientific name is derived from Greek  aithuia an unidentified seabird mentioned by authors including Hesychius and Aristotle, and Latin  ferina, "wild game", from ferus, "wild".


These are gregarious birds, forming large flocks in winter, often mixed with other diving ducks such as the tufted duck.
These birds feed mainly by diving or dabbling. They eat aquatic plants with some molluscs, aquatic insects and small fish. They often feed at night, and will up-end for food as well as the more characteristic diving. According to the article 'Patterns in the diving behaviour of the pochard, Aythya ferina: a test of an optimality model' Pochard's have a behavioral preference when it comes to their feeding patterns. This behavioral preference is that Pochards prefer shallower water in comparison to deeper water even though the food concentration in deeper water may be higher.
In a number of countries the population of Common Pochard is decreasing mainly due to urbanization of the natural habitats and their transformation, as well as due to overhunting.
The pochard is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies.


Azolla filiculoides (water fern) is a species of Azolla, native to warm temperate and tropical regions of the Americas which was introduced to Europe, North and sub-Saharan Africa, China, Japan, New Zealand, Australia, the Caribbean and Hawaii.
It is a floating aquatic fern, with very fast growth, capable of spreading over lake surfaces to give complete coverage of the water in only a few months. Each individual plant is 1–2 cm across, green tinged pink, orange or red at the edges, branching freely, and breaking into smaller sections as it grows. It is not tolerant of cold temperatures and, in temperate regions it largely dies back in winter, surviving by means of submerged buds. It harbors the diazotrophic organism, Nostoc azollae, in specialized leaf pockets. This ancient symbiosis allows N. azollae to fix nitrogen from the air and contribute to the fern's metabolism.
Fossil records from as recent as the last interglacials are known from several locations in Europe (Hyde et al. 1978). 50 million years ago, Azolla filiculoides may have played a pivotal role in cooling the planet.
Azolla filiculoides was one of the first two fern species for which a reference genome has been published.


The only sure method of distinguishing this species from Azolla cristata (long incorrectly known as A. caroliniana) is to examine the trichomes on the upper surfaces of the leaves. Trichomes are small protuberances that create water resistance. They are unicellular in A. filiculoides but septate (two-celled) in A. cristata.


The species has been introduced to many regions of the Old World, grown for its nitrogen-fixing ability that may be used to enhance the growth rate of crops grown in water, such as rice, or by removal from lakes for use as green manure. A. filiculoides is frequently cultivated in aquariums and ponds, where it can become easily dominant over other species.


A. filiculoides was first recorded in Europe in 1870s-1880s, when the species may have been accidentally transported in ballast water, with fry, or directly as an ornamental or aquarium plant. It was introduced into Asia from East Germany in 1977 as an alternative to the cold susceptible native strain of A. pinnata, used as a green manure in the rice industry. A. filiculoides has also been spread around the world as a research model plant for the study of Azolla-Anabaena symbiosis. In the areas of introduction, A. filiculoides is capable of rapid growth, especially in eutrophic ecosystems, and outcompete native aquatic plants. The dense mat of A. filiculoides causes lack of light penetration and an anaerobic environment due to detritus decomposition, causing a drastic reduction of water quality, aquatic biodiversity and ecosystem funcion.


Baccharis halimifolia is a North American species of shrubs in the family Asteraceae. It is native to Nova Scotia, the eastern and southern United States (from Massachusetts south to Florida and west to Texas and Oklahoma), eastern Mexico (Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí, Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Quintana Roo), the Bahamas, and Cuba.
Widely used common names include eastern baccharis, groundsel bush, sea myrtle, and saltbush, with consumption weed, cotton-seed tree, groundsel tree, menguilié, and silverling also used more locally.  In most of its range, where no other species of the genus occur, this plant is often simply called baccharis.


Baccharis halimifola was first described and named by Carl Linnaeus in his Species Plantarum, published in 1753.  No subspecies or varieties are recognized within the species.
This species is the northernmost member of the large Western Hemisphere genus Baccharis in the aster family (Asteraceae).
Senecio arborescens, a Neotropical species, was confused with Baccharis halimifolia in the past.


Baccharis halimifolia is a fall-flowering  shrub growing to about 12 ft (4 m) high and comparably wide, or occasionally a small tree.  Its simple, alternate, thick, egg-shaped to rhombic leaves mostly have coarse teeth, with the uppermost leaves entire.  These fall-flowering Baccharis plants are dioecious, with male and female flowers on separate individuals.  Their flowers are borne in numerous small, compact heads in large leafy terminal inflorescences, with the snowy-white, cotton-like female flower-heads showy and conspicuous at a distance.
The species is sometimes confused with the marsh-elder (Iva frutescens), with which it often co-occurs, but the Baccharis has its leaves alternate, while those of the Iva are opposite.


Baccharis halimifolia, usually found in wetlands, is unusually salt-tolerant, and often found along salty or brackish shores of marshes and estuaries, and the inland shores of coastal barrier islands. In Florida, it is also found along ditches, in old fields, and in other disturbed areas. Other habitats in the northeastern United States include freshwater tidal marshes and open woods and thickets along the seacoast.
The flowers produce abundant nectar that attracts various butterflies, including the monarch (Danaus plexippus). These dense shrubs also provide wildlife food and cover.


The species has become naturalized in Europe and in New Zealand and considered invasive.
The species features since 2016 on the list of Invasive Alien Species of Union Concern. This means that import of the species and trade in the species is forbidden in the whole of the European Union.
In Australia, B. halimifolia is an invasive species along the coast of southern Queensland and New South Wales.  As biological control the rust fungus Puccinia evadens is used.
Furthermore, the lepidoptera Hellinsia balanotes (Meyrick, 1908), Aristotelia ivae Busck, 1900, Lorita baccharivora Pogue, 1988 and Prochoerodes truxaliata (Guenée, 1858) were released for its biological control.
In the northeastern United States, the species has become common well inland of the shrub's natural range along various major highways where road salt is heavily used, sometimes forming conspicuous displays when flowering in the fall, as along I-95 in Howard County, Maryland.


The seeds of Baccharis halimifolia are toxic to humans.


Baccharis halimifolia is occasionally cultivated and is considered useful as a hedge or border as well as a specimen plant.
In southern Louisiana, it has been traditionally used as a medicine to treat inflamed kidneys and fever.


Baccharis pilularis, called coyote brush (or bush), chaparral broom, and bush baccharis, is a shrub in the family Asteraceae native to California, Oregon, Washington, and Baja California. There are reports of isolated populations in New Mexico, most likely introduced.


The plants are found in a variety of habitats, from coastal bluffs, oak woodlands, and grasslands, including on hillsides and in canyons, below 2,000 feet (610 m).
Coyote brush is known as a secondary pioneer plant in communities such as coastal sage scrub and chaparral. It does not regenerate under a closed shrub canopy because seedling growth is poor in the shade. Coast live oak, California bay, Rhus integrifolia, and other shade producing species replace coastal sage scrub and other coyote bush-dominated areas, particularly when there has not been a wildfire or heavy grazing.
In California grasslands, it comes in late and invades and increases in the absence of fire or grazing. Coyote bush invasion of grasslands is important because it helps the establishment of other coastal sage species. However, establishment of coyote bush can be concerning because it also displaces highly biodiverse grassland habitat that are important to carbon storage and resilient to wildfires. After grassland restoration, coyote bush can be a major concern and plant invader that overtakes grassland habitat, especially if restoration activities are limited and nonperiodic.


The Baccharis pilularis shrub is generally smaller than 3 metres (9.8 ft) in height. Erect plants are generally mixed (and intergrade completely) with prostrate plants. It is glabrous and generally sticky.
The stems are prostrate to erect which branches spreading or ascending. The leaves are 8–55 millimetres (0.31–2.17 in) long and are entire to toothed and oblanceolate to obovate, with three principal veins.
The flower heads are in a leafy panicle. The involucres are hemispheric to bell shaped. This species is dioecious (pistillate and staminate flowers occur on separate plants). Both staminate and pistillate heads are 3.5–5 millimetres (0.14–0.20 in) long. Phyllaries are in 4–6 series, ovate, and glabrous. The receptacles are convex to conic and honeycombed. The staminate flowers range from 20–30 and there are 19–43 pistillate flowers.
This and other Baccharis species are nectar sources for most of the predatory wasps, native skippers (small butterflies), and native flies in their ranges.
Subspecies
Baccharis pilularis subsp. consanguinea(DC.) C.B.Wolf — primarily in coastal chaparral
Baccharis pilularis subsp. pilularis —  sandy coastal bluffs and beaches in California.


Baccharis pilularis is cultivated as an ornamental plant, and used frequently in drought tolerant, native plant, and wildlife gardens, and in natural landscaping and habitat restoration projects. The cultivar ground cover selections have various qualities of height and spread, leaf colors, and textures. The upright forms are useful for hedges and fence lines, and year-round foliage.
Coyote brush is usually deer-resistant. The plants are also drought tolerant after maturity, requiring watering once a week until established, and then about once per month during the first summer. They can mature in one to two years. The plants prefer good drainage.
Only male plants of Baccharis pilularis are cultivated for landscaping use. If these are substituted for Baccharis pilularis subsp. consanguinea in ecological restoration, there will not be as much seed set, nor recruitment of new individuals.


Cultivars, often with the common name "dwarf coyote brush" or "dwarf baccharis" indicating ground cover selections, include:
Baccharis pilularis 'Pigeon Point'—from Pigeon Point, California coast.
Baccharis pilularis 'Twin Peaks'—from coast along Sonoma to Monterey Counties.
Baccharis pilularis 'Santa Ana'


Baccharis sarothroides is a North American species of flowering shrub known by the common names broom baccharis, desertbroom, greasewood, rosin-bush and groundsel in English and "escoba amarga" or "romerillo" in Spanish. This is a spreading, woody shrub usually sticky with glandular secretions along the primarily leafless green stems. The small, thick leaves are a few centimeters long and are absent much of the year, giving the shrub a spindly, twiggy appearance. It flowers abundantly with tiny green blooms on separate male and female plants.
Native to the Sonoran Desert of northwestern Mexico (Baja California, Baja California Sur, Sinaloa, Sonora) and the Southwestern United States (southern California, Arizona, New Mexico, western Texas), it is common in gravelly dry soils and disturbed areas.


The Seri refer to desert broom as cascol caaco, and make a decoction by cooking the twigs. This tea is used to treat colds, sinus headache, and general sore achey ailments. The same tea is also used as a rub for sore muscles.
Studies done on plant extracts show that desert broom is rich in leutolin, a flavonoid that has demonstrated anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and cholesterol lowering capabilities. Desert broom also has quercetin, a proven antioxidant, and apigenin a chemical which binds to the same brain receptor sites that Valium does. However many members of the Sunflower family also contain compounds that cause negative side effects, thus caution is advised until this plant is more extensively tested.


Most people try to get rid of this plant, but it will grow in heavy clay or saline soils.   The tall, bushy shrub has green stems and twigs and highly reduced leaves.  It will accept shearing and can be trained into a decent, short-lived privacy hedge, useful while the longer-lived, taller, but slower growing Arizona rosewood gets established.  Plants may be purchased at nurseries and planted in place.  Avoid overwatering in heavy soils as desert broom will drown.


The oak titmouse (Baeolophus inornatus) is a passerine bird in the tit family Paridae. The American Ornithologists' Union split the plain titmouse into the oak titmouse and the juniper titmouse in 1996, due to distinct differences in song, preferred habitat, and genetic makeup.
The oak titmouse is a small, brown-tinged gray bird with small tuft or crest. The face is plain, and the undersides are a lighter gray. Sexes are similar, as there is very little to no sexual dimorphism.
This species lives year-round on the Pacific slope, resident from southern Oregon south through California west of the Sierra Nevada to Baja California, but its range surrounds the central San Joaquin Valley. It prefers open woodlands of warm, dry oak and oak-pine at low to mid-elevations but can also be found in forests as long as adequate oak trees are present.
The oak titmouse will sleep in cavities, dense foliage or birdhouses. When roosting in foliage, the titmouse chooses a twig surrounded by dense foliage or an accumulation of dead pine needles, simulating a roost in a cavity. It forms pairs or small groups, but does not form large flocks. It may join mixed-species flocks after breeding season for foraging. Pairs stay together after the breeding season.
Oak titmice eat insects and spiders, and are sometimes seen catching insects in mid air. They will also take berries, acorns, and some seeds. This species forages on foliage, twigs, branches, trunks, and occasionally on ground, sometimes hanging upside down to forage, and hammering seeds against branches to open them. Oak titmice are attracted to feeders with suet, peanut butter and sunflower seeds.
The song of the oak titmouse is a series of repeated phrases of two or three notes with the last note of lower pitch; usually three to seven phrases are grouped together. The call is a scratchy tsicka-dee-dee.
The oak titmouse builds its nest in a woodpecker hole, a natural cavity, or a nest box, using grass, moss, mud, hair, feathers, and fur. It breeds from March into July, with peak activity in April and May, laying 3–9 eggs, usually 6–8. The female is the primary incubator, with incubation taking 14–16 days. Young are altricial and are tended by both parents in nest for 16–21 days. Parents continue to tend to young for another three to four weeks after they leave the nest.
The oak titmouse and juniper titmouse appear almost identical, but differ in voice as well as range. The oak titmouse has a browner back than the juniper titmouse. The oak titmouse gives a repeated series of three to seven syllables, each comprising one low and one high note, while the juniper titmouse song consists of a series of rapid syllables on the same note. Ranges overlap only in a small area in California. The tufted titmouse, which does not overlap in range, has a whiter belly, rusty flanks, and black on the forehead.