A native of most of Europe, North Africa and western Asia, Ornithogalum umbellatum has been adopted as an ornamental garden plant from where it has escaped and naturalised widely in North America, where it is considered an aggressive noxious weed of lawns, gardens and no-till agricultural land, which can be difficult to eradicate. In Europe its range extends from Ireland and Portugal in the west, Italy in the south, north to parts of France and east to Turkey and the Levant.
O. umbellatum prefers damp habitats, being found along rivers, streams, and lower, wet areas of pastures. It is tolerant to shade and soil type.


Ornithogalum umbellatum is thermoperiodic, requiring a cold winter to complete its life cycle. It first appears in early spring as tufts of leaves, prior to flowering (proteranthous), which occurs in late spring (May–June), the leaves fading prior to blooming. It reproduces by its bulbs, which form many offsetting bulbils that can be dispersed by water. Like many bulb plants from temperate regions, a period of exposure to cold is necessary before spring growth can begin. This protects the plant from growth during winter when intense cold may damage it. Warmer spring temperatures then initiate growth from the bulb. O. umbellatum spreads aggressively in clumps by means of these offsets.


The flowers are insect pollinated, but may also be self-fertile, forming seeds in summer (June–July). Seed dispersal plays a relatively minor role in propagation, but accounts for isolated blooms.


The petals exhibit photoperiodism, often opening at noon and closing at night or on cloudy days.


Ornithogalum umbellatum requires considerable moisture during winter and spring, but can tolerate summer drought. It can be grown in a woodland garden as semi-shade is preferable. It is hardy to zone 5 UK, 4–9 USDA, and can become invasive. It is produced commercially as an ornamental garden plant. To control invasive tendencies, it is best to plant in a container or an edged area. O. umbellatum may be grown as an indoor plant.


The plant, especially the bulb and flowers, contains cardiac glycosides, specifically convallatoxin and convalloside which are toxic to humans and livestock. Symptoms of poisoning include nausea, salivation, vomiting, diarrhea, and shortness of breath, as well as pain, burning, and swelling of lips, tongue, and throat. Prolonged contact may lead to skin irritation.


Despite the known toxicities, the plant has been described as edible for 2000 years and incorporated into some traditional regional cuisines (e.g. Turkey) and traditional medicine (e.g. India). In Britain, the plant has long been the subject of herbals for its claimed culinary and medicinal properties. This includes drying and grinding the bulbs, or boiling them and baking the flowers into bread. Essences are sold as patent remedies and for aromatherapy, such as Bach flower remedies. Medical authorities advise against ingesting any part of the plant.


Leonardo da Vinci drew O. umbellatum and included the plant in one of his depictions of Leda and the Swan (1508–1515), in which the flowers are held in Leda's left hand. In folklore, the biblical star of Bethlehem is said to have fallen to the earth and shattered into pieces which became the ubiquitous white flowers. Legend has also associated it with the journeys of Crusaders and pilgrims to the Holy Land.
A biblical passage in 2 Kings 6:25 relates an account of a siege in Samaria in which the desperate population consumed the excrement of doves (chiriyonim). "There was a great famine in Samaria; and behold, they besieged it, until a donkey's head was sold for eighty shekels of silver, and a fourth of a kab of dove's dung for five shekels of silver". There has been considerable discussion as to the exact meaning of this term. In notes taken by Paul Dietrich Giseke from a lecture by Linnaeus it is suggested that this Stercus Columbarum was in fact the plant Ornithogalum umbellatum, which grew abundantly in Palestine and "unde Anglis Bethlem's Star dicitur" (is known to the English as Bethlem's Star), the white colour of which resembled the excrement of birds, hence the name lac Avium (bird milk or Ornithogalum), and which was still eaten by the poor of that country.
Culturally, the flower has been associated with purity and hope, atonement and reconciliation.


USDA. "Ornithogalum umbellatum (star of Bethlehem)". Plants database. Retrieved 19 June 2019.
TPL (2013). "The Plant List Version 1.1". Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Missouri Botanical Garden. Retrieved 19 June 2019.
"Ornithogalum umbellatum L., Sp. Pl.: 307 (1753)". World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 29 June 2019.
"Ornithogalum umbellatum L.". Euro+Med Plantbase. Berlin-Dahlem Botanical Garden and Botanical Museum. 2006. Retrieved 21 June 2019.
"Ornithogalum umbellatum L." Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.


"Star of Bethlehem". Invasive Plant Atlas of New England (IPANE). The University of Georgia – Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health. 2019. Retrieved 17 June 2019.
BSBI. "Ornithogalum umbellatum L. "Garden Star-of-Bethlehem"". Botanical Society of Britain & Ireland. Retrieved 20 June 2019.
FNA (2003). "Ornithogalum umbellatum Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 1: 307. 1753". Flora of North America. New York: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 21 June 2019.
MBG. "Ornithogalum umbellatum". Plant Finder. Missouri Botanical Garden. Retrieved 17 June 2019.
Jordan, T (2000). "Star-of-Bethlehem, snowdrop, nap-at-noon, Ornithogalum umbellatum". Indiana Plants Poisonous to Livestock and Pets. Purdue University, College of Veterinary Medicine. Archived from the original on February 17, 2008. Retrieved 21 June 2019.
Devlin, Zoë (2019). "Star-of-Bethlehem". Wildflowers of Ireland. Retrieved 22 June 2019.
Muma, Walter. "Star-of-Bethlehem (Ornithogalum umbellatum)". Ontario Wildflowers. Retrieved 22 June 2019.
"Ornithogalum Species, Eleven-o'clock Lady, Nap at Noon, Snowdrop, Star of Bethlehem". Dave's Garden. 2019. Retrieved 22 June 2019.
Brown, Sharon (8 March 2011). "Star of Bethlehem: Toxic, Invasive, or Lovely?". Dave's Garden. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
"Ornithogalum umbellatum". Van Engelen. 2019. Retrieved 22 June 2019.
"Leonardo da Vinci – A star-of-Bethlehem and other plants c. 1506–12". Royal Collection Trust. Retrieved 23 June 2019.
"Star of Bethlehem". The Bach Centre. Retrieved 24 June 2019.
"Ornithogalum umbellatum (Scientific name)". Canadian Poisonous Plants Information System. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. 2013. Retrieved 2 July 2019.
"star-of-Bethlehem: Ornithogalum umbellatum (Asparagales: Asparagaceae): Invasive Plant Atlas of the United States". The University of Georgia - Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health. October 2018. Retrieved 3 July 2019.
Tsuyuzaki, Shiro (9 July 2018). "Ornithogalum umbellatum L." Plant ecology • Environmental Conservation. Graduate School of Environmental Science, Hokkaido University. Retrieved 6 July 2019.
"Star Of Bethlehem Flower – Pictures of Flowers". Flower Pictures. 23 July 2010. Retrieved 9 July 2019.
"The Transient Blossoms of Sleepydick or Pyrenees' Star of Bethlehem". Paghat's Garden. Retrieved 9 July 2019.
WebMD (2019). "Star Of Bethlehem: Uses, Side Effects, Interactions, Dosage, and Warning". Vitamins & Supplements. Retrieved 10 July 2019.
"Ornithogalum umbellatum Star Of Bethlehem, Dove's Dung". Plant Database. Plants for a Future. 2012. Retrieved 10 July 2019.
Palomo, Eulalia (2018). "How to Grow Star of Bethlehem Plants Indoors". Homeguides: Gardening. San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 12 July 2019.
Badgett, Becca (1 December 2018). "Star Of Bethlehem Plant Care: Tips On Growing Star Of Bethlehem Bulbs". Bulbs. Gardening Know How. Retrieved 13 July 2019.


Orobanche hederae, the ivy broomrape, is, like other members of the genus Orobanche, a parasitic plant without chlorophyll, and thus totally dependent on its host, which is ivy. It grows to 60 cm (2 ft), with stems in shades of brown and purple, sometimes yellow. The flowers are 10–22 mm (0.4–0.9 in) long, cream in colour with reddish-purple veins.


Orobanche is derived from Greek, and means 'bitter vetch strangler'. This name originates from the species Orobanche rapum-genistae, which parasitizes legumes. The name hederae means 'of ivy', in reference to its host plant, Hedera.
Common names in English include ivy broomrape and chokeweed. It is also called erva-toira da hera in Portuguese and orobanche du lierre in French.


Its yellowish to purplish stems are usually strongly swollen at the base and 15–60 cm (5.9–23.6 in) by 0.3–0.8 cm (0.12–0.31 in). They are covered in short soft glandular hairs. Leaves are acute and oblong to lance-shaped. It's calyx (sepals) are 10–15 mm (0.39–0.59 in) with free segments that are entire or unequally bifid. Its dull-cream to reddish purple corolla (petals) is 10–22 mm (0.39–0.87 in). They are almost hairless and upright spreading to more or less patent. Filaments (stalks of the stamen) are inserted 3–4 mm (0.12–0.16 in) above the base of the corolla. They are usually hairless but rarely somewhat hairy below. Fruit are 10–12 mm (0.39–0.47 in) capsules.
In Mediterranean climates it flowers from late April to mid July.


Its native distribution matches that of its host, ivy, so it is mainly found in central and Northern Europe.
In the US, the only place it's been observed is in a patch of ivy at the University of California, Berkeley. It's speculated that a botany student purposely planted it there since ivy is very invasive in California.


O. hederae is usually included in the "Orobanche" section of genus Orobanche. Phylogenetic studies suggest the amethyst broomrape (O. amethystea) is its closest relative. O. amethystea primarily parasitizes field eryngo (Eryngium campestre) which is also in the order Apiales.


The Greek physician Dioscorides wrote that the plant, called Οροβαχνη, can be eaten raw or cooked like asparagus and also stated that cooking the plant with pulses makes the pulses cook faster. While Dioscorides doesn't include medicinal information in his description, Russian and Northern folklore both describe the plant as highly medicinal.


Orobanche minor, the hellroot, common broomrape, lesser broomrape, small broomrape or clover broomrape, is a holoparasitic flowering plant belonging to the family Orobanchaceae.  It is one of about 150 non-photosynthetic plants in the genus Orobanche that parasitize  autotrophic plants.


Orobanche minor grows to 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) and is a perennial. The flowers are hermaphrodite.
Common broomrape grows in a wide variety of soils, namely moist, light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils that are acid, neutral or basic. It can grow in semi-shade or in full sunlight.
The species appears in a wide range of colours from red-brown, yellow-brown to purple. Yellow specimens are also not uncommon and it is this extreme variability that makes identification on the basis of size or colour uncertain.
It is parasitic on various members of the pea (Fabaceae) and daisy (Asteraceae) families. Although widespread, its appearance is sporadic; despite this, it can occur in vast colonies from time to time. The main flowering season in the northern hemisphere is from May until the end of August and from August to January in the southern hemisphere. The species has efficient seed dispersal and is largely inbreeding so that populations preferentially parasitizing a particular species which has its own clear ecological preferences may become effectively isolated and eventually may produce distinct taxa.
The plants are attached to their host by means of haustoria, which transfer nutrients from the host to the parasite. Only the hemiparasitic species possess an additional extensive root system. The root system is reduced as its function is mainly anchorage of the plant.


Common broomrape is one of the most widespread species, and is native to Southern Europe, but has been widely introduced elsewhere, for example in the United States. In New Zealand it is the only species of the genus present where it is regarded as an agricultural pest. In the United Kingdom it is widely recorded in southern England, less common in Wales, rarely recorded in lowland Scotland and absent from the Highlands and outer islands.


Phylogenetic analyses have placed this species in the taxonomically difficult Minores species complex. Four infraspecific taxa of Common broomrape are currently recognised in the United Kingdom: O. minor var. minor, O. minor var. flava, O. minor var. compositarum and O. minor subsp. maritima. Chromosome No.: 2n = 38. The genetic structure of populations of O. minor are under investigation using molecular markers and DNA sequencing to help resolve the taxonomic and nomenclatural problems that have historically been linked with this species.


The common broomrape is highly generalist in its host range, and can infect hundreds of species in families from the Ranunculaceae to the Poaceae (=Gramineae) but with a clear preference for the Fabaceae (=Leguminosae) and Asteraceae (=Compositae). However races occurring on different species of host are genetically divergent and physiologically adapted to their local hosts, and may therefore be in a state of incipient speciation.  Urgent conservation efforts are required as the survival of some intraspecific taxa is very uncertain.


The grey-headed chachalaca is less noisy than plain (O. vetula) or rufous-vented chachalacas (O. ruficauda). Its song is a soft "cha-cha-lac-ah". Flocks give raucous calls described as "kloik, kleeuk kraahk". It also makes a variety of screams, sharp alarm calls, and a quiet purr.


Orthetrum albistylum is a dragonfly species, which occurs from central and south Europe to China and Japan. Its distribution is often patchy but in many areas it is common. The species has recently spread its range northwards to the Baltic Sea coast in Poland. The common name for this species is white-tailed skimmer.
One of the ongoing threats affecting the habitat of Orthetrum albistylum is the production of crops. The water pollution associated with crop production is also having a direct effect on the quality of the habitat of this species.


Orthetrum caledonicum, the blue skimmer, is a common Australian dragonfly in the family Libellulidae.
Males have a powder blue thorax and abdomen pruinescent blue when mature. The females are brownish grey in colour while the teneral are yellow with black markings. They are medium in size, with a body length of 4.5 cm (2 in) and a wingspan of 7 cm (3 in).
The species is widespread throughout mainland Australia and extending to Tasmania. It is also found in New Guinea, New Caledonia, Loyalty Islands and Lesser Sunda Islands. It inhabits a range of still and flowing water habitats including temporary waters.


The Spine-tufted skimmer, or brown-backed red marsh hawk, (Orthetrum chrysis) is a species of dragonfly in the family Libellulidae. It is widespread in many Asian countries.


It is a medium sized dragonfly with dark thorax and blood-red abdomen. It looks very similar to Orthetrum pruinosum in shape and size; but can be distinguished by the color of the abdomen. The abdomen of the female is ochreous brown. It breeds in pools and marshes.


Orthetrum chrysostigma, the epaulet skimmer, is a species of dragonfly in the family Libellulidae. It is found in Algeria, Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ivory Coast, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Liberia, Libya, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and possibly Burundi as well as Canary Islands, Israel, and Portugal. It was recently recorded in the Maltese Islands in 2010.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, dry savanna, moist savanna, subtropical or tropical dry shrubland, subtropical or tropical moist shrubland, rivers, intermittent rivers, shrub-dominated wetlands, swamps, freshwater lakes, intermittent freshwater lakes, freshwater marshes, intermittent freshwater marshes, and freshwater springs. The adults prey on various flying insects. The bodies of adult males are blue, and those of young and females are yellow and brown.


The keeled skimmer, Orthetrum coerulescens, is a species of dragonfly belonging to the family Libellulidae.


The  typical habitats ofOrthetrum coerulescens are pools and streams in acidic heath land, where it is sometimes seen alongside golden-ringed dragonflies.
Pools and streams in wet heathland sites are favoured.


Orthetrum coerulescens can reach a body length of 40–44 millimetres (1.6–1.7 in). These dragonflies have a thorax with pale yellow ante-humeral stripes. In the males the color of these stripes fades with age. The abdomen is rather slim and shows  an evident dorsal keel.  Males have blue-grey eyes and a blue pruinescence on the abdomen, developed with age. Young males are yellow-brown. On the contrary some (androchrome) females at the end of the reproductive cycle assume the bluish color of the male. In the female the abdomen is yellowish-brown, with a thin median black line and small transverse lines to the connections of the various segments. The hyaline wings have yellow costa and a long yellow-brown pterostigma (about 4 mm). They are usually hold well forward at rest.
This species resembles the black-tailed skimmer but is smaller and slimmer and the male has no black tip. Females and immature males lack the black abdominal pattern.


Orthetrum triangulare is an Asian freshwater dragonfly species. The common name for this species is blue-tailed forest hawk.  Two subspecies of Orthetrum triangulare are currently recognised, the nominate subspecies and O. t. malaccense.


It is a medium sized dragonfly with dark face and bluish eyes. Its thorax is also black with a broad apple green stripe on both sides. Segments 1-2 and 8-10 in the abdomen are black and the remaining segments are pruinosed with azure blue. It is usually found in marshes associated with hill streams where it breeds.


Orthetrum villosovittatum, known as the fiery skimmer, is a species of dragonfly in the family Libellulidae.
Its range is from the Moluccas, New Guinea and neighbouring islands as well as Australia.
In Australia it is found in Victoria through eastern New South Wales and Queensland, north inland Queensland, Cape York Peninsula and north Northern Territory.
It is a common species through most of its range.
Orthetrum villosovittatum is a medium-sized dragonfly with a wingspan of 60–85 mm.
Mature males have dark greyish to greenish-brown thoraxes and red abdomens, with the abdomen constricted at segment four. Young males have an amber and black colouring. Females are ochre-coloured.
Orthetrum villosovittatum inhabits boggy seepages, streams and swamps.


Orthodera ministralis, common name garden mantis or Australian green mantis, is a species of praying mantis from Australia.


They have a green body with their thorax being broader than their head and abdomen. Inside of their front legs have a blue to purple spot. Adult males feature wings and females only have wing buds, which cover their abdomen. Body measures up to 4 cm in length.


The garden mantis inhabits the whole of Australia, particularly gardens, and can often be found hidden in leafy scrub from ground to eye level. It feeds on small insects by ambushing them. They remain motionless for lengthy periods so they can ambush prey as it moves near them. The females lay eggs as a single mass within a sturdy, woody case.


Orthodera novaezealandiae, known as the New Zealand mantis or the New Zealand praying mantis, is a species of praying mantis which is, as both the scientific name and common names suggest, indigenous and endemic to New Zealand.


O. novaezealandiae nymphs are pale, translucent green with a dark stripe running from head to end of abdomen. As adults, they are bright green and grow to between 35 mm and 40 mm in length.(see note ) As in most mantis species, sexual dimorphism means the female is larger.
The New Zealand mantis has a triangular head with slightly oversized compound eyes that give it excellent binocular vision (although they do have a blind spot). Its wings differ from those of other species in the "development of the archedictyon and the absence of cross-veins in the forewing".
"A very active little Mantis", O. novaezealandiae is well adapted as a predator. Its specialized forelimbs are long and equipped with extremely sharp spikes to trap prey. Blue eyespots on the underside of the insect's forelegs helps in differentiating this species from Miomantis caffra, an introduced species from South Africa that became established in New Zealand during the 1970s.
The ootheca of the New Zealand mantis has eggs arranged in two rows, quite different from the messier egg mass of Miomantis caffra. Oothecae are generally arranged facing north towards the sun, on the warm faces of branches and tree trunks.


O. novaezealandiae prefer open, shrubby terrain where its similarity to leafy vegetation may be used as camouflage to ambush prey. It can reach high numbers in the branches of small manuka and kanuka trees in open meadow-like habitats where grass-dwelling prey such as small moths are abundant. It hides well from predators and is near or at the top of the invertebrate food chain in its habitat. As an endemic species of New Zealand that eats pests and has a very large appetite, O. novaezealandiae is a beneficial insect to those involved in agriculture and they are used in many gardens.
The New Zealand mantis is vulnerable to the use of pesticides, both directly and through the effects of a diminished food supply, and their ootheca are sometimes attacked by parasitic wasps. Male O.novaezealandiae appear to be attracted to females of the introduced species M. caffra, which can result in their fatality due to the sexually-cannibalistic behavior of the latter species.
The only two species of mantis in New Zealand are this native species and the previously mentioned introduced species M. caffra discovered as established in the Auckland suburb of New Lynn in 1978. O. novaezealandiae is taxonomically very close to, and has sometimes been considered conspecific and synonymous with, the Australian species O. ministralis.


The New Zealand mantis is bred in captivity. Special care must be taken to prevent this small, quick-moving species from escaping. Nymphs are especially fast and can leap relatively far as well. It can be kept at room temperature (25–30 °C or 77–86 °F) but does prefer warmth. Their enclosure should be sprayed with water a few times a week, and when they are young their enclosure should be kept at around 50%–60% humidity. Captive O. novaezealandiae can be fed on a diet of small crickets and flies. Nymphs can be reared easily on fruitflies such as Drosophila melanogaster.


Orthosia hibisci, the speckled green fruitworm moth, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. It is found in most of North America, except in desert regions. The habitat consists of moist forests, riparian, agricultural and urban areas.
The wingspan is 30–38 mm. The colour ranges from pale buff-grey to dark red-brown. The forewing pattern is also highly variable, from almost non-patterned to strongly banded forms. Adults are on wing from late March to April in one generation per year.
The larvae feed on various hardwood plants, including species in the families Aceraceae, Ericaceae, Betulaceae, Rhamnaceae, Rosaceae, Caprifoliaceae, Fagaceae and Salicaceae.


The common tailorbird (Orthotomus sutorius) is a songbird found across tropical Asia. Popular for its nest made of leaves "sewn" together and immortalized by Rudyard Kipling as Darzee in his Jungle Book, it is a common resident in urban gardens. Although shy birds that are usually hidden within vegetation, their loud calls are familiar and give away their presence. They are distinctive in having a long upright tail, greenish upper body plumage and rust coloured forehead and crown. This passerine bird is typically found in open farmland, scrub, forest edges and gardens.  Tailorbirds get their name from the way their nest is constructed. The edges of a large leaf are pierced and sewn together with plant fibre or spider silk to make a cradle in which the actual nest is built. Tailor birds in Punjab used to lay shiny red eggs but became extinct about 1975 because they lay eggs in fields used to grow fodder crops.


The scientific name sutorius means "cobbler" rather than "tailor" while Orthotomus means "straight-cutting".
The species was earlier placed in the family Sylviidae but more recent molecular studies place the species within the family Cisticolidae, along with Prinia and Cisticola.
A number of subspecies are recognized within its widespread range in South Asia and Southeast Asia.
O.s. sutorius: Lowlands of Sri Lanka
O.s. fernandonis: Highlands of Sri Lanka
O.s. guzuratus: Indian peninsula, West to Pakistan
O.s. patia: The Terai of Nepal along the Himalayan foothills until Myanmar. A small population of O. s. patia is also found in the northern Eastern Ghats (Wangasara).
O.s. luteus: Hills of Northeast India
O.s. inexpectatus and O.s. maculicollis: Thailand, Laos and Vietnam, Malaysia, Cambodia and Vietnam
O. s. inexpectatus and O. s. maculicollis: South east China, including the island of Hainan
O. s. longicauda: Tonkin in Vietnam
O. s. edela: Java


The common tailorbird is a brightly coloured bird, with bright green upperparts and creamy underparts. They range in size from 10 to 14 centimetres (3.9 to 5.5 in) and weigh 6 to 10 grams (0.21 to 0.35 oz). They have short rounded wings, a long tail, strong legs and a sharp bill with curved tip to the upper mandible. They are wren-like with a long upright tail that is often moved around. The crown is rufous and the upperparts are predominantly olive green. The underside is creamy white. The sexes are identical, except that the male has long central tail feathers in the breeding season, although the reliability of sexing data accompanying museum specimens used in determining this sexual dimorphism has been questioned. Young birds are duller. When calling, the dark patches on the sides of the neck become visible. These are due to the dark pigmented and bare skin that are present in both sexes and sometimes give the appearance of a dark gorget.


Like most warblers, the common tailorbird is insectivorous. The song is a loud cheeup-cheeup-cheeup with variations across the populations. The disyllabic calls are repeated often. Tailorbirds are found singly or in pairs, usually low in the undergrowth or trees, sometimes hopping on the ground. They forage for insects and have been known to feed on a range of beetles and bugs. They are attracted to insects at flowers and are known to favour the inflorescences of mango. They also visit flowers such as those of Bombax, Salmalia for nectar and are sometimes covered in pollen, giving them a golden-headed appearance.
The birds roost alone during the non-breeding season but may roost side-by-side during the breeding season, sometimes with the newly fledged juvenile sandwiched between the adults. The roost sites chosen are thin twigs on trees with cover above them and were often close to human habitation and lights.


The breeding season is March to December peaking from June to August in India, coinciding with the wet season. In Sri Lanka the main breeding periods are March to May and August to September, although they can breed throughout the year.
Although the name is derived from their nest construction habit, the nest is not unique and is also found in many Prinia warblers. The nest is a deep cup, lined with soft materials and placed in thick foliage and the leaves holding the nest have the upper surfaces outwards making it difficult to spot. The punctures made on the edge of the leaves are minute and do not cause browning of the leaves, further aiding camouflage. The nest lining of a nest in Sri Lanka that was studied by Casey Wood was found to be lined with lint from Euphorbia, Ceiba pentandra and Bombax malabaricum species. Jerdon wrote that the bird made knots, however no knots are used. Wood classified the processes used by the tailorbird in nest as sewing, rivetting, lacing and matting. In some cases the nest is made from a single large leaf, the margins of which are rivetted together. Sometimes the fibres from one rivet are extended into an adjoining puncture and appearing more like sewing. The stitch is made by piercing two leaves and drawing fibre through them. The fibres fluff out on the outside and in effect they are more like rivets. There are many variations in the nest and some may altogether lack the cradle of leaves. One observer noted that the birds did not utilize cotton that was made available while another observer, Edward Hamilton Aitken, was able to induce them to use artificially supplied cotton. The usual clutch is three eggs.
The incubation period is about 12 days. Both male and female feed the young. Mortality of eggs and chicks is high due to predation by rodents, cats, crow-pheasants, lizards and other predators. The young birds fledge in about 14 days. The female alone incubates according to some sources, while others suggest that both sexes incubate; however, both parents take part in feeding and sanitation. The males are said to feed the incubating female. An unusual case of a pair of tailorbirds adopting chicks in an artificially translocated nest belonging to a different pair has been recorded. Nests are sometimes parasitized by the Plaintive Cuckoo (Cacomantis merulinus).


Sen, S.N. (1947). "An early nest of the Tailor Bird [Orthotomus sutorius (Pennant)]". J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 47 (1): 159–160.
Green, E.E. (1899). "Birds tapping at window-panes". J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 12 (2): 415.
Fernando, H.F. (1913). "Note on "Orthotomus sutorius" – the Indian Tailor Bird". Spolia Zeylanica. 8 (32): 300–302.


The European rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes nasicornis) is a large flying beetle belonging to the subfamily Dynastinae.


Oryctes nasicornis afghanistanicus Endrödi, 1938
Oryctes nasicornis chersonensis Minck, 1915
Oryctes nasicornis corniculatus Villa & Villa, 1833
Oryctes nasicornis edithae Endrödi, 1938
Oryctes nasicornis grypus (Illiger, 1803)
Oryctes nasicornis hindenburgi Minck, 1915
Oryctes nasicornis holdhausi Minck, 1914
Oryctes nasicornis illigeri Minck, 1915
Oryctes nasicornis kuntzeni Minck, 1914
Oryctes nasicornis latipennis Motschulsky, 1845
Oryctes nasicornis mariei (Bourgin, 1949)
Oryctes nasicornis nasicornis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Oryctes nasicornis ondrejanus Minck, 1916
Oryctes nasicornis polonicus Minck, 1916
Oryctes nasicornis przevalskii Semenow & Medvedev, 1932
Oryctes nasicornis punctipennis Motschulsky, 1860
Oryctes nasicornis shiraticus Endrödi & Petrovitz, 1974
Oryctes nasicornis transcaspicus Endrödi, 1938
Oryctes nasicornis turkestanicus Minck, 1915


Oryctes nasicornis reach a length of 20–42 millimetres (0.79–1.65 in), with a maximum of 47 millimetres (1.9 in). It is one of the largest beetles  found in Europe. Elytra are reddish brown with a glazed appearance, while head and pronotum are slightly darker. The underside of the body and the legs are covered with long red hair. It is a sexually dimorphic species. The male's head is topped by a long curved horn (hence its common name), while the females have no horns.
Dim, from the 1998 Disney/Pixar animated film A Bug's Life, is a European rhinoceros beetle voiced by (Brad Garrett).


Oryctes nasicornis inhabits the Palaearctic region, excluding the British Isles. It is the only representative of the Dynastinae family found in Northern Europe. It is widespread in the Mediterranean basin up to Pakistan, the Near East and North Africa.


The rhinoceros beetle lives on wood, and the large larvae can be found in rotting wood stumps and around sawdust. At the margin of its distribution, the beetle is often found in connection with sawmills and horse racing tracks.


The larvae grow in decaying plants feeding on woody debris (xylophagy), generally non-resinous. They can reach a length of 60–100 millimetres (2.4–3.9 in). The development period lasts 2 to 3 or 4 years. The adult size can be influenced by the quality and abundance of food.
The mammoth wasp (Megascolia maculata) is a parasite of European rhinoceros beetle larvae. A female wasp lays one egg inside the beetle larva; when the egg hatches, the wasp larva will feed on the beetle larva.
The adult beetle emerges at the end of March, April or May, and lives several months until autumn. It occurs mainly during the months of June and July and it is very active, flying at dusk and by night, attracted by the lights. These beetles do not feed, consuming during the few weeks of adult life reserves accumulated during the larval stages.


Osmorhiza berteroi is a species of flowering plant in the family Apiaceae known by the common name mountain sweet cicely.


Osmorhiza berteroi forms a species complex together with O. depauperata and O. purpurea. Until recently these were all treated as O. chilensis, but a revision resulted in the 3 species being split, and also revealed that O.chilensis, published in December 1830 by Hooker and Arnott was a junior synonym of O.berteroi, published in September of the same year by De Candolle.
Studies of both chloroplast and nuclear DNA confirm that the various populations of O.berteroi are monophyletic
.


It has an amphitropical distribution being native to both temperate parts of North and South America. In the Northern Hemisphere it is found boreal zones from Alaska to Newfoundland, extending south to South Dakota, and in mountain ranges adjacent to the Pacific coast from the Alaska panhandle to California and Arizona. In South America it occurs in Magellanic forests in Argentina and Chile.
The amphitropical distribution is believed to have arisen recently (in the past 1 million years), probably by seeds attached to the feathers of migratory birds. In contrast the east-west disjunct distribution are most likely relict populations of a once continuous range.


It grows in wooded and forested areas. In the Great Lakes area O. berteroi is found in hardwood forests dominated by Sugar Maple


Osmorhiza berteroi is a short-lived perennial. It usually flowers in late Spring (June in Minnesota, October to December in Chile). It is insect-pollinated, with seed being distributed by animals, typically by attaching to the fur of mammals (epizoochory).


The larvae of a prodoxid moth restricted to California, Greya reticulata, feed on fruits of O. berteroi.


It is an aromatic perennial herb producing a branching stem which may exceed a meter tall. The plentiful green leaves have blades up to 20 centimeters long which are divided into three leaflets (trifoliate), which are toothed or lobed. The blade is borne on a long petiole. The inflorescence is a compound umbel of many tiny white flowers at the tip of a stemlike peduncle. There are 4–10 florets on each umbellule with the central florets only possessing anthers. The narrow, elongated fruit is ribbed and bristly, measuring up to 2.5 centimeters long.


Osmorhiza berteroi occurs alongside several other species of Osmorhiza throughout its range, but is most likely to be confused with O. depaurerata. The two species are very similar and most easily separated by examining the seeds


Osmorhiza berteroi was used as a source of food by several groups of Native Americans in all parts of its native range. These included the Selknam people in what is now Chile, and tribes of the Great Plains, such as the Cheyenne and Blackfoot. The root was eaten, and also used as a medicinal treatment for coughs and colds.


It is not threatened in most parts of its range. However some disjunct populations in eastern North America are isolated, and the typical habitat is fragmented and prone to destruction.


It can be used as ground cover in shady places. Hardy in USDA zones 5–9.


Claytosmunda is a genus of fern. It has only one extant species, Claytosmunda claytoniana (synonym Osmunda claytoniana), the interrupted fern, native to Eastern Asia, Eastern United States, and Eastern Canada.
The specific epithet is named after the English-born Virginian botanist John Clayton. "Interrupted" describes the gap in middle of the blade left by the fertile portions after they wither and eventually fall off.
The plant is known from fossils to have grown in Europe, showing a previous circumboreal distribution. Fragmentary foliage resembling Claytosmunda has been found in the fossil record as far back as the Triassic.


Claytosmunda claytoniana fronds are bipinnate, 40–100 cm (16–39 in) tall and 20–30 cm (8–12 in) broad, the blade formed of alternate segments forming an arching blade tightening to a pointed end. The lower end is also slightly thinner than the rest of the frond because the first segments are shorter. Three to seven short, cinnamon-colored fertile segments are inserted in the middle of the length, giving the plant its name.
In their absence, the plant in all its stages appears similar to Osmundastrum cinnamomeum (cinnamon fern). The base of the segments distinguishes the two species: where O. cinnamomeum has typical felt-like hairs, the few hairs present on C. claytoniana are extremely short, usually requiring a magnifying glass to see well.
Like other species in the family Osmundaceae, it grows a very large rhizome, with persistent stipe bases from previous years. It forms small, dense colonies, spreading locally through its rhizome, and often forming fairy rings.


The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, as Osmunda claytoniana. In 2005, it was recognized as being somewhat different from other species in the genus by being placed in a separate subgenus, Osmunda subgenus Claytosmunda. In 2016, the subgenus was raised to a new genus, Claytosmunda, as part of the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification (PPG I). The change of genus is recognized in some taxonomic databases. Others place the species in the genus Osmundastrum. The oldest known species of Claytosmunda is C. beardmorensis, from the Middle Triassic of Antarctica. Claytosmunda when considering fossils is paraphyletic, as some of the fossils are likely to be more closely related to modern Osmunda and Plenasium than they are to the modern C. claytoniana.


In eastern North America it occurs in: the Great Lakes region; eastern Canada – in southern Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec (north to tree line); and east to Newfoundland; eastern United States – upper New England south through the Appalachian Mountains and Atlantic seaboard,  into the Southeastern United States in Georgia and Alabama; and west across the Southern United States to Mississippi River, and back up the Mississippi embayment through the Midwestern United States to the Great Lakes.


Claytosmunda claytoniana is found in humid zones, mostly in forests, but also in more open habitats and biomes, although rarely in bogs. The interrupted fern is often found alongside ostrich, cinnamon, and sensitive ferns.


Unlike those of the ostrich fern, the interrupted fern's fiddleheads are not readily edible, due to their bitter taste and a tendency to cause diarrhea. The base of the stipe and very young buds are edible. Overuse may kill the crown.


Claytosmunda claytoniana is cultivated as an ornamental plant for use in traditional, native plant, and wildlife gardens; for woodlands and natural landscaping; and for habitat restoration projects. Their spreading colonizing habit can be used for some slope stabilization and erosion control measures.


Osmunda regalis, or royal fern, is a species of deciduous fern, native to Europe, Africa and Asia, growing in woodland bogs and on the banks of streams. The species is sometimes known as flowering fern due to the appearance of its fertile fronds.


The name Osmunda possibly derives from Osmunder, a Saxon name for the god Thor.  The name "royal fern" derives from its being one of the largest and most imposing European ferns. The name has been qualified as "old world royal fern" in some American literature to distinguish it from the closely related American royal fern, O. spectabilis. However this terminology is not found in British literature.


Osmunda regalis produces separate fertile and sterile fronds. The sterile fronds are spreading, 60–160 cm (24–63 in) tall and 30–40 cm (12–16 in) broad, bipinnate, with 7-9 pairs of pinnae up to 30 cm (12 in) long, each pinna with 7-13 pairs of pinnules 2.5-6.5 cm long and 1–2 cm broad. The fertile fronds are erect and shorter, 20–50 cm tall, usually with 2-3 pairs of sterile pinnae at the base, and 7-14 pairs of fertile pinnae above bearing the densely clustered sporangia.
In many areas, O. regalis has become rare as a result of wetland drainage for agriculture.


The oldest known fossils of Osmunda date to the Paleocene, Osmunda likely derives from fossil species currently assigned to Claytosmunda.


There are three to four varieties as traditionally construed:
Osmunda regalis var. regalis. Europe, Africa, southwest Asia. Sterile fronds to 160 cm tall.
Osmunda regalis var. panigrahiana R.D.Dixit. Southern Asia (India).
Osmunda regalis var. brasiliensis (Hook. & Grev.) Pic. Serm. Tropical regions of Central and South America; treated as a synonym of var. spectabilis by some authors.
Osmunda regalis var. spectabilis (Willdenow) A.Gray. Eastern North America. Sterile fronds to 100 cm tall. Now accepted as a separate species, Osmunda spectabilis.


There are three very similar species, Osmunda spectabilis, Osmunda lancea and Osmunda japonica.  Recent genetic analysis (Metzgar et al., 2008) has shown that the New World varieties are in a clade that is sister to the Old World varieties of Osmunda regalis.  If this is true, then O. lancea and O. japonica should either be regarded as varieties of O. regalis, or, conversely, O. regalis var. spectabilis should be regarded as a separate species, Osmunda spectabilis Willdenow.  The var. brasiliensis would then be Osmunda spectabilis Willdenow var. brasiliensis Hooker & Greville.


Osmunda regalis is widely cultivated in temperate regions. The species and the cultivar 'Cristata' have both gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. Osmunda plants should be planted in preferably acidic, moist soil, associating well with other large moisture-loving plants such as Rodgersia and Gunnera. However, it tolerates a range of soil and climatic conditions.


The roots, along with those of other species of Osmunda, are used for the production of osmunda fibre, used as a growing medium for cultivated orchids and other epiphytic plants.
According to Slavic mythology, the sporangia, called "Perun's flowers", have assorted magical powers, such as giving their holders the ability to defeat demons, fulfill wishes, unlock secrets, and understand the language of trees.  However, collecting the sporangia is a difficult and frightening process.  In earlier traditions, they must be collected on Kupala night; later, after the arrival of Christianity, the date is changed to Easter eve.  Either way, the person wanting to collect Perun's flowers must stand within a circle drawn around the plant and withstand the taunting or threats of demons.
The young shoots of the fern are, along with the similar shoots of many other fern species, known in some places as fiddleheads, and eaten as food, thought to have an asparagus-like taste.


Osmundastrum is genus of leptosporangiate ferns in the family Osmundaceae with one living species, Osmundastrum cinnamomeum, the cinnamon fern. It is native to the Americas and eastern Asia, growing in swamps, bogs and moist woodlands.
In North America it occurs from southern Labrador west to Ontario, and south through the eastern United States to eastern Mexico and the West Indies; in South America it occurs west to Peru and south to Paraguay. In Asia it occurs from southeastern Siberia south through Japan, Korea, China and Taiwan to Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam. Osmundastrum cinnamomeum has a fossil record extending into the Late Cretaceous of North America, approximately 70 million years ago, making it one of the oldest living plant species. The fossil records of the genus extend into the Triassic.


Osmundastrum cinnamomeum is a deciduous herbaceous plant that produces separate fertile and sterile fronds. The sterile fronds are spreading, 30–150 cm (0.98–4.92 ft) tall and 15–20 cm (5.9–7.9 in) broad, pinnate, with pinnae 5–10 cm (2.0–3.9 in) long and 2–2.5 cm (0.79–0.98 in) broad, deeply lobed (so the fronds are nearly, but not quite, bipinnate). The fertile spore-bearing fronds are erect and shorter, 20–45 cm (7.9–17.7 in) tall; they become cinnamon-colored, which gives the species its name. The fertile leaves appear first; their green color slowly becomes brown as the season progresses and the spores are dropped. The spore-bearing stems persist after the sterile fronds are killed by frost, until the next season. The spores must develop within a few weeks or fail.
The Osmundastrum cinnamomeum fern forms huge clonal colonies in swampy areas. These ferns form massive rootstocks with densely matted, wiry roots. This root mass is an excellent substrate for many epiphytal plants. They are often harvested as osmunda fiber and used horticulturally, especially in propagating and growing orchids. Cinnamon Ferns do not actually produce cinnamon; they are named for the color of the fertile fronds.


Traditionally, this plant has been classified as Osmunda cinnamomea L. However, recent genetic and morphological evidence (Metzgar et al. 2008; Jud et al. 2008) clearly demonstrate that the cinnamon fern is a sister species to the entire rest of the living Osmundaceae.  Cladistically, it is either necessary then to include all species of the Osmundaceae, including Todea and Leptopteris in the genus Osmunda, or else it is necessary to segregate the genus Osmundastrum.  O. cinnamomeum is the sole living species in the genus, although it is possible that some additional fossils should be assigned to Osmundastrum.
Formerly, some authors included the interrupted fern, Osmunda claytoniana, in the genus or section Osmundastrum, because of its gross apparent morphological similarities. However, detailed morphology and genetic analysis have proven that the interrupted fern is actually a true Osmunda. This is borne out by the fact that it is known to hybridize with the American royal fern, Osmunda spectabilis to produce Osmunda × ruggii in a family in which hybrids are rare, while Osmundastrum cinnamomeum has no known hybrids.
Osmundastrum cinnamomeum is considered a living fossil because it has been identified in the geologic record as far back as 75 million years ago. The oldest member of the genus is O. indentatum from the Triassic of Tasmania, Australia.

The Asian and American populations of cinnamon fern are generally considered to be varieties of a single species, but some botanists classify them as separate species.  The Asian taxon is thus named Osmundastrum asiaticum.


According to the Native American Ethnobotany Database, cinnamon fern has been historically used by first nations tribes (Abnaki, Menominee) as a food source.  The Iroquois and Cherokee tribes used the fern for a wide variety of medicinal purposes including as a cold remedy, gynecological aid, venereal aid, and as a remedy to snake bites.


The European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis), also known as the European corn worm or European high-flyer, is a moth of the family Crambidae which includes other grass moths. It is a pest of grain, particularly maize (Zea mays). The insect is native to Europe, originally infesting varieties of millet, including broom corn. The European corn borer was first reported in North America in 1917 in Massachusetts, but was probably introduced from Europe several years earlier. Since its initial discovery in the Americas, the insect has spread into Canada and westward across the United States to the Rocky Mountains.
The adult European corn borer is about 25 millimetres (0.98 in) long with a 26–30 millimetres (1.0–1.2 in) wingspan. The female is light yellowish brown with dark, irregular, wavy bands across the wings. The male is slightly smaller and darker.
European corn borer caterpillars damage corn by chewing tunnels through many parts of the plant. This decreases agricultural yield.


The European corn borer is native to Europe and was introduced to North America in the early 20th century. This moth plagues corn crops in France, Spain, Italy, and Poland. In North America, the European corn borer is found in eastern Canada and every U.S. state east of the Rocky Mountains.


The European corn borer progresses through four developmental stages. These are the egg, larva, pupa, and adult. The insect is referred to as a borer in its larval stage and as a moth in its adult stage. The adult moths lay their eggs on corn plants. Larva hatch from the eggs. Larvae have five instars or sub-stages of development. The larval stage is followed by a period of diapause or hibernation in a pupa. During the pupal stage, the borers progress through metamorphosis in a suspended chrysalis. Following this intense period of development, an adult moth emerges from the pupa. The length of the pupal stage is determined by environmental factors such as temperature, number of hours of light, and larval nutrition, in addition to genetics.
The bivoltine populations of European corn borers undergo the pupal stage twice, first in May and June and then again in July and August. During the winter, the European corn borer stays in its larval stage. Temperatures exceeding 50 degrees Fahrenheit (10 °C) induce the other developmental stages. The North American corn crop grows during these warmer months and provides a food source for the borers.


The European corn borer is about 1 inch (2.5 cm) long with a 0.75- to 1-inch (1.9-2.5 cm) wingspan. The female is light yellowish brown with dark, irregular, wavy bands across the wings. The male is slightly smaller and darker. The tip of its abdomen protrudes beyond its closed wings. They are most active before dawn. The adults spend most of their time feeding and mating. Males and females of different strains have been found to produce differing sex pheromones.


The fully grown larva is 0.75 to 1 inch (1.9-2.5 cm) in length. Larva vary in color from light brown to pinkish gray and have conspicuous small, round, brown spots on each segment along the body. As they grow they reach between 2 and 20 mm. The larva feed on the corn whorl and burrow into the stalk and ear. They have high mortality directly after emergence, but as soon as a feeding site is established, they have better survival rates. Total development before pupation lasts 50 days on average.


Diapause, also known as hibernation, in European corn borers is induced by temperature and changes in daylight length. At higher temperatures, shorter photoperiods are sufficient to induce diapause. At 13.5 hours of light followed by 10.5 hours of dark, 100% of European corn borer larva entered diapause regardless of temperature with the range of 18 to 29 degrees Celsius. At high temperatures and long photoperiods, fewer larva enter diapause.


Female corn borer moths lay clusters of eggs on corn leaves, usually on the undersides. The egg masses, or clusters, are laid in an overlapping configuration and are whitish yellow. As the larvae develop inside their eggs, the eggs become more and more transparent and the black heads of the immature caterpillars become visible. The caterpillars hatch by chewing their way out of the eggs.
A female moth can lay two egg masses per night over 10 nights. The number of eggs per egg mass decreases each day. The female lays white eggs which become pale yellow and finally translucent before hatching. The eggs hatch within three to seven days of laying.


The original European corn borers introduced to North America in the early 20th century established a population in New York. This population produced one brood per year. A second population was introduced in Massachusetts and spread to Long Island and the Hudson River Valley. This second population produces two broods per year.


If presented with the opportunity, female European corn borers, like most moths, mate with multiple males in a reproductive strategy known as polyandry. Polyandry confers several benefits to the females.  For example,  multiple matings increase female fecundity and longevity, because female moths receive both nutritional resources and multiple spermatophores from males. Furthermore, mating with multiple males ensures that the female receives enough sperm to completely fertilize her eggs. Additionally, it increases the reproductive fitness of females, because it increases the genetic diversity of the female's offspring, and thus increasing the likelihood they will mate and pass on her genes.


Female calling behavior in European corn borers involves the extrusion of the pheromone gland and release of sex pheromones. This calling behavior is influenced by the moth's circadian rhythm and tends to occur at night. Higher humidity also induces the calling behavior, while desiccation, or drying out, decreases the calling behavior. Both male and female European corn borers produce sex pheromones.
There are two strains of European corn borers that are defined by their sex pheromone communication variant. These are the Z and E strains, named after the stereochemistry of the predominant isomer of 11-tetradecenyl acetate that they produce. The E variant of pheromone has a trans- configuration of hydrogen molecules around its double bond, while the Z variant has a cis- configuration. The Z strain produces a 97:3 ratio of Z to E isomer pheromone while the E strain produces a 4:96 ratio of Z to E isomer pheromone. A mixture of isomers is much more efficient in attracting the moth than a single component. The Z and E strains can mate and produce intermediate variants.


Production of the specific pheromone blend in females is controlled by a single autosomal factor. Heterozygous females produce more E isomer than Z. The response to these pheromones in the olfactory cells of male European corn borers is also controlled by a single autosomal factor with two alleles. Analysis of the electrophysiological signaling of olfactory cells showed that those with two E alleles responded strongly to the E isomer and weakly to the Z isomer. The opposite effect was found in homozygous Z males. Males heterozygous for this autosomal factor exhibited similar neurological responses to both isomers of pheromone. Finally, response to the pheromone is controlled by two factors, a sex-linked gene on the Z chromosome and another on an autosome. In species of Lepidoptea, sex is determined through the ZW sex-determination system where males are homozygous ZZ and females are heterozygous ZW.


During her adult life of 18 to 24 days, a female can lay a total of 400 to 600 eggs. The female European corn borer moth first lays eggs in June. The eggs are laid on the underside of corn plant leaves near the midvein. Around 90% of the eggs are laid on the leaf just below the primary ear leaf, and an equal number of eggs are laid above and below this leaf, with a slight bias towards the lower leaves. The egg masses are all laid within five leaves of the central ear leaf. Brood sizes range from 15 to 30 eggs and egg masses are about 6 mm in diameter. The period of egg laying is about 14 days with an average of 20 to 50 eggs per day.


The male European corn borer produces a spermatophore ejaculate that contains spermatozoa to fertilize the female and protein to nourish the female, a nuptial gift. The cost of producing a spermatophore is relatively low compared to the female investment in oviposition. Males mate an average of 3.8 times during their life. The average refractory period between matings for the male is 1.6 days. With each successive mating, the volume of the spermatophore decreases. This decreased spermatophore volume is associated with a decrease in female fecundity and fertility. Females who mate with males that have already mated are less likely to deposit all of their eggs.


The European corn borer lives and feeds primarily on field corn, but also eats sweet corn, popcorn, and seed corn. The first generation of corn borers which develops during the late spring feeds on the leaves and stalks of corn plants. In addition, the second generation feeds on the ear of corn, the leaf sheath, and the ear shank. If a third generation is produced, it will feed on the ear, the leaf sheath, and the ear shank.
When corn is not abundant or near the end of the harvest season, European corn borers will infest lima beans, peppers, potatoes, and snap peas. Rarely, these moths will live on other grains, soybeans, or flowers.


The European corn borer gets its name from its habit of boring holes into all components of the corn plant. The damage to the leaves reduces photosynthesis. Damage to the corn stalk decreases the amount of water and nutrients the plant can transport to the ear. European corn borers also eat the ear—which reduces crop yield—and the ear shank which often results in the ear falling to the ground, making it unharvestable.


Biological control agents of corn borers include the hymenopteran parasitoid of the genus Trichogramma, the fungus Beauveria bassiana and the protozoa Nosema pyrausta.
Bt corn, a variety of genetically modified corn, has had its genome modified to include a synthetic version of an insecticidal gene from the Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki. As a result, the corn variety produces a protein that kills the larvae of Lepidoptera, the taxonomic order which includes the European corn borer.
Immature corn shoots accumulate a powerful antibiotic substance, DIMBOA, that serves as a natural defense against a wide range of pests and is also responsible for the relative resistance of immature corn to the European corn borer.


When planting Bt corn, farmers must plant an area of refuge corn. A refuge area is an area of crops that do not contain the insecticidal genes. This refuge area is necessary is to prevent the European corn borer and other pests from developing resistance to the Bt gene. Insects who feed on the non-Bt crops will not develop resistance, but will continue to mate with any moths that survive after eating the genetically-modified corn. It is rare for an insect to survive after eating Bt corn, but when these resistant individuals mate with moths from the refuge area, the offspring they produce will still be susceptible to the toxin. Studies on the dispersal of European corn borers found that planting refuge corn within a half-mile of Bt crops prevents resistance.


The presence of European corn borers on corn crops and the damage caused by them increases the likelihood of stalk rot caused by the pathogen Fusarium graminearum. The tunneling done by European corn borers makes it easier for F. graminearum to infect corn stalks and increases the amount of necrotic stalk tissue. The presence of F. graminearum in corn infested by European corn borers also speeds the development of larva.


With the increase in temperature associated with climate change, it is predicted that the habitable region of the European corn borer will expand. Additionally, an increase in the number of generations is expected. The CLIMEX model, which models organisms' response to climate change, predicts that the area of arable land affected by the European corn borer in Europe will increase by 61%.


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University of Kentucky Extension Service Bt Corn - What it is and how it works
"Crop Refuge Area". www.bt.ucsd.edu. Retrieved December 1, 2017.
Showers, William B.; Hellmich, Richard L.; Derrick-Robinson, M. Ellison; Hendrix, William H. (August 1, 2001). "Aggregation and Dispersal Behavior of Marked and Released European Corn Borer (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) Adults". Environmental Entomology. 30 (4): 700–710. doi:10.1603/0046-225x-30.4.700. ISSN 0046-225X. S2CID 30095323.
Chiang, H. C.; Wilcoxson, R. D. (October 1, 1961). "Interactions of the European Corn Borer and Stalk Rot in Corn". Journal of Economic Entomology. 54 (5): 850–852. doi:10.1093/jee/54.5.850. ISSN 0022-0493.
Kocmánková, E.; Trnka, M.; Eitzinger, J.; Dubrovský, M.; Štěpánek, P.; Semerádová, D.; Balek, J.; Skalák, P.; Farda, A. (2011). "Estimating the impact of climate change on the occurrence of selected pests at a high spatial resolution: a novel approach". The Journal of Agricultural Science. 149 (2): 185–195. doi:10.1017/s0021859610001140. ISSN 1469-5146. S2CID 85787181.


Black vine weevil (Otiorhynchus sulcatus) is an insect native to Europe but common in North America as well. It is a pest of many garden plants.


The adult weevil is matte black with fused wing covers, and is unable to fly. It feeds at night on the outer edges of leaves, causing the leaves to have a notched margin. Broadleaved evergreen plants such as Camellia, Rhododendron, Euonymus and Bergenia are particularly prone to damage, although a wide range of different garden plants is susceptible to attack.
Female weevils have the ability to reproduce parthenogenetically with fertilisation of eggs required to produce males, though no males have been observed. This form of parthenogenesis is known as thelytoky. Grubs grow up to 1 cm in length, have a slightly curved, legless body, creamy-white in colour, with a tan-brown head. They live below the soil surface, and feed on roots and cambium at the base of the trunk. They cause most damage to herbaceous plants, particularly those growing in containers, where root growth is restricted. Severe infestations can result in complete root destruction and hence plant death.


Larvae can be controlled using parasitic nematodes, for example Steinernema kraussei and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora (a 'cruiser' species), which can be bought from some garden centres and by mail order.   They are simply mixed with water, and watered onto the soil.
Adults may also be controlled using products based on the fungi Metarhizium brunneum and Beauveria bassiana.


The swallow-tailed moth (Ourapteryx sambucaria) is a moth of the family Geometridae. The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae. It is a common species across Europe and the Near East.


This is a large (wingspan 50–62 mm), impressive moth, remarkably butterfly-like. All parts of the adult are bright white to pale yellow marked with faint buffish fascia. The species gets its common name from pointed projections on the termen of the hindwing with brownish spots at their base. It flies at night in June and July  and is attracted to light, sometimes in large numbers. Prout gives an account of the variations.  The  egg is orange, with about 16 longitudinal keels and between them transverse lineations. The larva
is grey-brown, the colouring arranged in a succession of scarcely noticeable longitudinal lines.
The brown, twig-like larva feeds on a variety of trees and shrubs including elder, hawthorn, honeysuckle and ivy. The species overwinters as a larva.
The flight season refers to the British Isles. This may vary in other parts of the range.


This is a perennial herb growing from a system of small bulbs and spreading via stolons. There is no stem. The leaves arise on long petioles from ground level, each made up of three widely heart-shaped leaflets about 4.5 centimeters wide.
The inflorescence is an array of several flowers, each with five pink petals (some varieties have white flowers).


It is known on most other continents as an introduced species and a noxious weed and invasive species, as it infests many types of agricultural crops.
In south-eastern Australia, it is found in gardens, on roadsides, disturbed sites and is most likely a garden escape. It is spread by conveyance of soils containing the plant’s bulbils, as well as by runoffs, ants, and by larger animals like dogs and birds.


Oxalis montana is a species of flowering plant in the family Oxalidaceae known by the common names mountain woodsorrel, wood shamrock, sours and white woodsorrel. It may also be called common woodsorrel, though this name also applies to its close relative, Oxalis acetosella.
This species is a perennial herb native to eastern North America, including eastern Canada and the north-central and eastern United States, and Appalachian Mountains. The Latin specific epithet montana refers to mountains or coming from mountains.


Oxalis montana is a perennial herb which grows in patches connected by subterranean rhizomes. There are no stems, just clumps of leaves growing to about 10 centimetres (3.9 inches) in maximum height.
The leaves are each made up of three heart-shaped leaflets. The leaflets move, folding and unfolding, in response to sunlight.
There are two types of flowers, blooms that open and cleistogamous flowers that remain closed and self-pollinate. The flower color is variable. Environmental factors may cause variation; flowers growing at higher elevations have less color in the veins on the petals, while the veins of those at lower elevations have a deeper pink-purple coloration. The fruit is a capsule. The plant reproduces sexually by seed and asexually by sprouting large colonies from the rhizome. Some populations produce no flowers in a given season and reproduce only vegetatively.


This plant is a climax species, occurring in mature forests and tolerant of shade. It is a dominant herb in a number of ecosystems, such as the forests of the Appalachian Mountains. It occurs there in the understory of red spruce (Picea rubens) and balsam or Fraser fir (Abies balsamea or A. fraseri).
It is also dominant in northern hardwood forest habitat and its ecotones, in the understory of red or sugar maple (Acer rubrum or A. saccharum), yellow birch (Betula lutea), and American beech (Fagus grandifolia). Other dominant understory species growing with it include false lily-of-the-valley (Maianthemum canadense), goldthread (Coptis groenlandica), starflower (Trientalis borealis), and woodferns (Dryopteris spp.).
This plant's extensive root network helps it stabilize the soil. It can grow on flat ground or steep slopes. The climate is often cool and moist, with high humidity and precipitation, including fog drip, and areas of long-lasting snowpack. Wildfire is uncommon.


The species is sour in flavor, and can be added to soup or salad. It contains oxalic acid, which can be poisonous in high quantities.


Oxalis oregana is a short, herbaceous perennial with erect flowering stems 5–15 cm tall. The three leaflets are heart-shaped, 1–4.5 cm long with purplish undersides, on 5–20 cm stalks. The inflorescence is 2.4–4 cm in diameter, white to pink with five petals and sepals. The hairy five-chambered seed capsules are egg-shaped, 7–9 mm long; seeds are almond-shaped. It spreads by a scaly rhizome varying the size of patches they can be seen in throughout moist forest under canopies.


Oxalis oregana photosynthesizes at relatively low levels of ambient sunlight (1/200th of full sunlight). When direct sunlight strikes the leaves they fold downwards; when shade returns, the leaves reopen. Taking only a few minutes, this movement is observable to the eye.


The leaves of Oxalis oregana were eaten by the Cowlitz, Quileute and Quinault peoples. Like spinach, they contain mildly toxic oxalic acid, which is named after the genus. They are safe to eat in small amounts for those with no oxalate-related conditions.


Oxalis purpurea is a species of flowering plant in the woodsorrel family known by the common name purple woodsorrel. It is native to southern Africa, including South Africa, but it is known on most continents as an introduced species. It is cultivated as an ornamental plant. This perennial herb grows from bulbs and produces a few basal leaves and flowers. The leaf is made up of three hairy leaflets of various shapes which are dark green in color, turning streaked and spotted with brown as they dry. The solitary flower arises on a stemlike peduncle and has five petals which may exceed two centimeters in length. The flower may be white to pink or purple-red.
Like a number of other oxalis species, O. purpurea is considered a weed in many places, including southern Australia (eastern New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania), the south-eastern and southern parts of South Australia, and in the south-western and western parts of Western Australia.


Oxalis stricta, called the common yellow woodsorrel (or simply yellow woodsorrel), common yellow oxalis, upright yellow-sorrel, lemon clover, or more ambiguously and informally "sourgrass", "sheep weed", or "pickle plant", is a herbaceous plant native to North America, parts of Eurasia, and a rare introduction in Britain. It tends to grow in woodlands, meadows, and in disturbed areas as both a perennial and annual. Erect when young, this plant later becomes decumbent as it lies down, and branches regularly. It is not to be confused with similar plants in the same genus which are also often referred to as "yellow woodsorrel".


Commonly considered a weed of gardens, fields, and lawns, it grows in full sun or shade. The alternate leaves of this plant are divided into three heart-shaped leaflets (a typical trait of other species of Oxalis) that can grow up to 2 cm wide. These leaves curl up at night (exhibiting nyctinasty), and open in the day to perform photosynthesis. The mature seed capsules open explosively when disturbed (a very similar trait to that of the mature seed capsules or fruits of plants found in the genus Impatiens) and can disperse seeds up to 4 meters (about 13 feet) away. The flowers of the plant are hermaphroditic, blooming from July to October.
O. stricta generally requires dry or moist, alkaline soils, preferring sandy and loamy dirt to grow in. It requires well-drained soil and can grow in nutritionally poor grounds.


All parts of the plant are edible, with a distinct tangy flavor (common to all plants in the genus Oxalis). However, it should only be eaten in small quantities, since oxalic acid is an antinutrient and can inhibit the body's absorption supply of calcium.
The leaves and flowers of the plant are sometimes added to salads for decoration and flavoring. These can also be chewed raw (along with other parts of the plant,  but not the root) as a thirst-quencher. The green pods are pleasant raw, having a juicy crisp texture and a tartness similar to rhubarb in flavor.
The leaves can be used to make a flavored drink that is similar in taste to lemonade, and the whole plant can be brewed as herbal tea that has an aroma somewhat like that of cooked green beans.
The juices of the plant have been extracted from its greens as a substitute to common vinegar.
Oxalis stricta contains large amounts of vitamin C.


A poultice of the plant has been used to treat swellings.


It is native plant in much of the United States, from the Rocky Mountains east to the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico coasts, and through Eastern Canada.  It has a tendency to cluster in open places in damp woods and on stream banks, and in moist prairies.
The plant is listed as a threatened or endangered species in five eastern U.S. states.


Oxalis violacea emerges in early spring from an underground bulb and produces leaf stems 7–13 cm (2+3⁄4–5 in) tall and flower clusters on stems 9–23 cm (3+1⁄2–9 in) tall. The three-part leaves have heart-shaped leaflets. It is similar in appearance to small clovers such as the shamrock.
The plant bears lavender to white flowers with white to pale green centers above the foliage, during April or May, rarely to July, and, with rain, sometimes produces additional flowers without leaves from August to October.


Oxalis violacea was used as a medicinal plant by  Native Americans, including the Cherokee and Pawnee peoples.


All parts of the plant are edible; flowers, leaves, stems, and bulb. Oxalis is from the Greek word meaning sour, and this plant has a sour juice.  It is used in salads.  Moderate use of plant is advisable, as it should not be eaten in large quantities due to a high concentration of oxalic acid, ("salt of lemons") which can be poisonous.
It was a traditional food source of the Native American Apache, Cherokee, Omaha, Pawnee, and Ponca peoples.


Oxalis violacea is cultivated as an ornamental plant, for use as a flowering groundcover or perennial plant in traditional and native plant gardens, and for natural landscaping projects. It spreads rapidly by runners and bulbs. In gardens the plant prefers partial shade and moisture.


Oxybasis glauca (syn. Chenopodium glaucum), common name oak-leaved goosefoot, is a species of goosefoot plant native to Europe. It has been introduced and become an invasive weed in North America. This invader of European origin also appears in trampled communities in North Korea.


Oxycarenus lavaterae, common name lime seed bug, is a species of ground bug of the family Lygaeidae, subfamily Oxycareninae.


Historically it was mainly found in the Mediterranean Basin, including North Africa, but beginning in the 1970s, it has been found further north, into the Benelux counties, Central Europe and Eastern Europe.


Oxycarenus lavaterae can reach a length of 4.5–5.4 millimetres (0.18–0.21 in) in adult females, and 4.2–5 millimetres (0.17–0.20 in) in males. Adult bugs are mostly red, white and black colored. The head, the entire prothorax, the scutellum and the antennae are black. The upper part of the abdomen is brick-red, while the connexivum is blackish. The front wings are colorless and transparent and reach the top of the abdomen or are a little longer. The nymphs can be easily recognized by their black head and the red-colored abdomen. The wing pads of the nymphs are completely black.


There are usually two annual generations. These bugs are found on and feed upon plants in the family Malvaceae, such as Lavatera (hence the species name), Althea, Hibiscus, and Malva. They are considered an invasive pest in some countries.
In warmer countries Oxycarenus lavaterae hibernates as adults. These bugs form large aggregates on trunks and branches of the trees to overwinter, typically on lime trees (Tilia)(Tilia americana, Tilia cordata, Tilia parviflora, Tilia platyphyllos), less frequently on  other plants (Populus, Platanus, Aesculus hippocastanum).


Oxydendrum arboreum, /ˌɒksɪˈdɛndrəm ɑːrˈbɔːriəm/ the sourwood or sorrel tree, is the sole species in the genus Oxydendrum, in the family Ericaceae. It is native to eastern North America, from southern Pennsylvania south to northwest Florida and west to southern Illinois; it is most common in the lower chain of the Appalachian Mountains. The tree is frequently seen as a component of oak-heath forests.


Sourwood is a small tree or large shrub, growing to 10–20 m (33–66 ft) tall with a trunk up to 50 cm (20 in) diameter. Occasionally on extremely productive sites, this species can reach heights in excess of 30 meters and 60 cm diameter. The leaves are alternately arranged, deciduous, 8–20 cm (3.1–7.9 in) long and 4–9 cm (1.6–3.5 in) broad, with a finely serrated margin; they are dark green in summer, but turn vivid red in fall. The flowers are white, bell-shaped, 6–9 mm ( 1/4 to 1/3 inch) long, produced on 15–25 cm (5.9–9.8 in) long panicles. The fruit is a small woody capsule. The roots are shallow, and the tree grows best when there is little root competition; it also requires acidic soils for successful growth. The leaves can be chewed (but should not be swallowed) to help alleviate a dry-feeling mouth.


The bark is gray with a reddish tinge, deeply furrowed and scaly. Branchlets at first are light yellow green, but later turn reddish brown. The wood is reddish brown, with paler sapwood; it is heavy, hard, and close-grained, and will take a high polish. Its specific gravity is 0.7458, with a density of 46.48 lb/cu ft.
The winter buds are axillary, minute, dark red, and partly immersed in the bark. Inner scales enlarge when spring growth begins.
Leaves are alternate, four to seven inches long, 1.5 to 2.5 inches wide, oblong to oblanceolate, wedge-shaped at the base, serrate, and acute or acuminate. Leaf veins are feather-veined, the midrib is conspicuous. They emerge from the bud revolute, bronze green and shining, and smooth; when full grown, they are dark green, shining above, and pale and glaucous below. In autumn, they turn bright scarlet. Petioles are long and slender, with stipules wanting. They are heavily laden with acid.
In June and July, cream-white flowers are borne in terminal panicles of secund racemes seven to eight inches long; rachis and short pedicels are downy. The calyx is five-parted and persistent; lobes are valvate in bud. The corolla is ovoid-cylindric, narrowed at the throat, cream-white, and five-toothed. The 10 stamens are inserted on the corolla; filaments are wider than the anthers; anthers are two-celled. The pistil is ovary superior, ovoid, and five-celled; the style is columnar; the stigma is simple; the disk is ten-toothed, and ovules are many.
The fruit is a capsule, downy, five-valved, five-angled, and tipped by the persistent style; the pedicels are curving.


The sourwood is perfectly hardy in the north and a worthy ornamental tree in lawns and parks. Its late bloom makes it desirable, and its autumnal coloring is particularly beautiful and brilliant. The leaves are heavily charged with acid, and to some extent have the poise of those of the peach. The leaves are also a laxative.
It is renowned for nectar, and for the honey which is produced from it.  Juice from its blooms is used to make sourwood jelly. The shoots were used by the Cherokee and the Catawba to make arrowshafts.


Oxyopes scalaris, the western lynx spider, is a species of lynx spider in the family Oxyopidae. It is found in North America.


Oxypolis rigidior, known as cowbane, common water dropwort, stiff cowbane, or pig-potato, is a species of flowering plant in the carrot family native to eastern North America. It is a perennial wildflower found in wet habitats. Oxypolis rigidior is poisonous to mammals.


Oxypolis rigidior is 2–6 foot tall perennial herb of eastern North America. Its leaves are compound, odd-pinnate with 7-11 leaflets, and have variable shape. Umbels of 3 mm white flowers appear August to October. Flat fruits with conspicuous "wings" appear October through November.
The variable leaf shape may make identification challenging. Water hemlock, a related very poisonous species, which sometimes even shares the common name "cowbane", is similar, as is the closely related Savanna cowbane (Oxypolis ternata).


Two varieties have been described, O. rigidior var. rigidior and O. rigidior var. ambigua.


Oxyria digyna (mountain sorrel, wood sorrel, Alpine sorrel or Alpine mountain-sorrel) is a species of flowering plant in the buckwheat family (Polygonaceae). It is native to arctic regions and mountainous parts of the Northern Hemisphere.


Mountain sorrel is a perennial plant with a tough taproot that grows to a height of 10 to 30 cm (4 to 12 in). It grows in dense tufts, with stems that are usually unbranched and hairless. Both flowering stems and leaf stalks are somewhat reddish. The leaves are kidney-shaped, somewhat fleshy, on stalks from the basal part of the stem. Flowers are small, green and later reddish, and are grouped in an open upright cluster. The fruit is a small nut, encircled by a broad wing which finally turns red. Forming dense, red tufts, the plant is easily recognized. Oxyria digyna grows in wet places protected by snow in winter. Oxyria (from Greek) means "sour".


Mountain sorrel is common in the tundra of the Arctic. Further south, it has a circumboreal distribution, growing in high mountainous areas in the Northern Hemisphere such as the Alps, the Sierra Nevada, and the Cascade Range. It typically grows in alpine meadows, scree, snow-bed sites and beside streams.
On the coast of Norway, the pollen of this plant has been found in peat bogs that are 12,600 years old, indicating that it must have been one of the first plants to colonise the area after the retreating ice age glaciers.
Deer and elk favor the plant.


Oxytropis campestris, the field locoweed, is a plant native to Northern Europe, the mountains of Central & Southern Europe, the Northwestern United States and all of Canada, sometimes grown as an ornamental plant.
It is found in prairies, woods, and meadows, and  prefers gravelly and rocky slopes, where it grows most abundantly.  The plant has numerous variants. It is a larval host plant of the small blue butterfly


Oxytropis campestris blooms flowers from May to July.  These are racemes that are capitate or oblong, 4 to 15 cm in length.  The plants have 8 to 32 flowers that rise from a scape. The actual flowers have five lobes and form a calyx tube. They are of a cream to yellowish color, but sometimes of pink, blue, or purple, with hairs that are usually black.  The keel petals are pointed, and often have purple blotches.
The plant also produces fruit which matures from July to September. These are legumes which are oblong-ovate 1.5 to 2 cm in length. They are mostly sessile and dehiscent from the tip. The fruit is membranous and contains many seeds.
The plant grows perennially, with an acaulescent forb reaching 20 to 50 cm in height and has a taproot.
Leaves grow alternately in a pinnate fashion and are usually 8 to 40 cm long.  The leaves are dimorphic, with primary leaves short ovate leaflets, and secondary leaves with 11 to 33 leaflets.  These secondary leaflets are 1 to 2.5 cm long.


The Oxytropis campestris plant is poisonous and may cause loco disease in livestock.  From this it derives the common name field locoweed or some other variations.  It is therefore worthless as food and is consumed only when other forage is not available.


Though this plant is common in general, one variety, var. chartacea, is a rare taxon limited to two counties in the state of Wisconsin. It is federally listed as a threatened species of the United States.


The ruddy duck (Oxyura jamaicensis) is a duck from North America and one of the stiff-tailed ducks. The genus name is derived from Ancient Greek oxus, "sharp", and oura, "tail", and jamaicensis is "from Jamaica".


The ruddy duck was formally described in 1789 by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in his revised and expanded edition of Carl Linnaeus's Systema Naturae. He placed it with the other ducks, geese and swans in the genus Anas and coined the binomial name Anas jamaicensis. Gmelin based his description on the "Jamaica shoveler" that had been described in 1785 by the English ornithologist John Latham from a specimen that he had received from Jamaica. The ruddy duck is now placed with five other species in the genus Oxyura that was introduced in 1828 by the French naturalist Charles Lucien Bonaparte. The genus name is derived from Ancient Greek oxus, meaning "sharp", and oura meaning "tail". The specific epithet jamaicensis means "from Jamaica". The Andean duck was formerly considered to be conspecific with the ruddy duck but with the two species split, the ruddy duck is monotypic: no subspecies are recognised.


These are small, compact ducks with stout, scoop-shaped bills, and long, stiff tails they often hold cocked upward. They have slightly peaked heads and fairly short, thick necks. Male ruddy ducks have blackish caps that contrast with bright white cheeks. In summer, they have rich chestnut bodies with bright blue bills. In winter, they are dull gray-brown above and paler below with dull gray bills. Females and first-year males are brownish, somewhat like winter males but with a blurry stripe across the pale cheek patch. In flight, ruddy ducks show solidly dark tops of the wings.


Their breeding habitat is marshy lakes and ponds. They nest in dense marsh vegetation near water. The female builds the nest out of grass, locating it in tall vegetation to hide it from predators. A typical brood contains 5 to 15 ducklings. Pairs form each year.
They are migratory and winter in coastal bays and unfrozen lakes and ponds.
These birds dive and swim underwater. They mainly eat seeds and roots of aquatic plants, aquatic insects and crustaceans.


Ruddy ducks were imported into the UK in 1948 by conservationist Sir Peter Scott. As a result of escapes from wildfowl collections in the late 1950s, they became established in Great Britain, from where they spread into Europe. By the year 2000, the population had increased to around 6,000 individuals. This duck's aggressive courting behavior and willingness to interbreed with the endangered native white-headed duck (Oxyura leucocephala), of southern Europe, caused concern amongst Spanish conservationists. Due to this, a controversial scheme to extirpate the ruddy duck as a British breeding species started; there have also been culling attempts in other European countries. By early 2014, the cull had reduced the British population to about 20–100, down from a peak of about 5500 in 2000.
In Europe, the Ruddy duck is included since 2016 in the list of Invasive Alien Species of Union concern (the Union list). This implies that this species cannot be imported, bred, transported, commercialized, or intentionally released into the environment in the whole of the European Union.


Pachodynerus erynnis, known generally as the red-marked pachodynerus or red and black mason wasp, is a species of stinging wasp in the family Vespidae.


The Australian golden whistler (Pachycephala pectoralis) or golden whistler, is a species of bird found in forest, woodland, mallee, mangrove and scrub in Australia (except the interior and most of the north) Most populations are resident, but some in south-eastern Australia migrate north during the winter. Its taxonomy is highly complex and remains a matter of dispute, with some authorities including as many as 59 subspecies of the golden whistler (one of the highest numbers of subspecies in any bird), while others treat several of these as separate species.


The Australian golden whistler was originally described in the genus Muscicapa by the English ornithologist John Latham in 1801.


The taxonomy of the golden whistler complex is difficult, and remains a matter of dispute. Some authorities include a wide range of – often strikingly different – taxa from Indonesia, East Timor, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Fiji as subspecies of P. pectoralis, in which case the combined species simply is known as the golden whistler (a common name sometimes also used exclusively for the Australian species).
Presently, six remaining subspecies are recognized:
P. p. pectoralis - (Latham, 1801): Found in eastern Australia
Norfolk golden whistler (P. p. xanthoprocta) - Gould, 1838: Originally described as a separate species. Found on Norfolk Island (Australia).
Lord Howe golden whistler (P. p. contempta) - Hartert, 1898: Originally described as a separate species. Found on Lord Howe Island (Australia).
P. p. youngi - Mathews, 1912: Found in south-eastern Australia
P. p. glaucura - Gould, 1845: Originally described as a separate species. Found in Tasmania and the Bass Strait Islands (Australia)
P. p. fuliginosa - Vigors & Horsfield, 1827: Originally described as a separate species. Found in south-central Australia
Some authorities also consider the following related species as subspecies of the Australian golden whistler:
Rusty-breasted (fulvous-tinted) whistler from south-western Wallacea, Bali and Java in Indonesia.
Yellow-throated whistler from central and south-eastern Wallacea.
Baliem whistler from west-central New Guinea.
Black-chinned whistler from North Maluku in Indonesia.
Bismarck whistler from the Bismarck and Louisiade Archipelagos in Papua New Guinea.
Oriole whistler from the Solomons (except Santa Cruz Islands), and the islands of Bougainville and Buka in far eastern Papua New Guinea.
Fiji whistler from central and northern islands in Fiji.
White-throated whistler from southern islands in Fiji, and the central and northern Santa Cruz Islands in the Solomons.
Additionally, all except the nominate subspecies of the Melanesian whistler  are sometimes included as subspecies of P. pectoralis (in which case P. caledonica is known as the New Caledonian whistler). Historically even the New Caledonian, Tongan and Samoan whistler have been treated as subspecies of P. pectoralis. Strong published evidence in favour of either treatment is limited, and further study is warranted to resolve the situation.


The male has a bright yellow underside and nape, olive-green back and wings, a black head and chest-band, and a white throat. A notable exception is the Norfolk golden whistler (P. p. xanthoprocta) where the plumage of the male is female-like. In Australia females are overall dull brownish-grey, though some have yellowish undertail coverts. Both sexes have a black bill, dark legs and red-brown eyes.
Australian golden whistlers have a strong, musical voice.


The Australian golden whistler can be found in almost any wooded habitat, especially dense forests. It eats berries, insects, spiders, and other small arthropods. They usually feed alone and obtain food from the lower to middle tree level, or they may alternatively take part in mixed-species feeding flocks.


The Australian golden whistler is considered to be of least concern, and it is generally described as common to fairly common.
The Norfolk golden whistler (P. p. xanthoprocta) declined for many years due to habitat loss and fragmentation and possibly also due to introduced predators such as the black rat. Most of the population is now restricted to the Norfolk Island National Park. This has resulted in it being listed as vulnerable by the Australian Government. Another island subspecies, the Lord Howe golden whistler (P. p. contempta) remains common, but was listed as vulnerable by the Australian Government due to its small range. It is not listed anymore.


The rufous whistler (Pachycephala rufiventris) is a species of whistler found in New Caledonia and Australia. Predominantly a reddish-brown and grey bird, it makes up for its subdued plumage with its song-making ability. Like many other members of the Pachycephalidae, it has a variety of musical calls.


The rufous whistler was originally described in the genus Sylvia by the English ornithologist John Latham in 1801. It was subsequently classified within the genera Turdus, Laniarius, and Lanius before being classified in its present genus, Pachycephala. Alternate names for the rufous whistler include the rufous-bellied whistler and white-bellied whistler. The latter name should not be confused with the species of the same name, Pachycephala leucogastra. Some authorities have considered the black-headed, drab, and cinnamon-breasted whistlers to be subspecies of the rufous whistler.


Rufous whistlers are large-headed and stocky. They have short beaks and long tails (almost as long as the rest of the bird) which are very narrow and have sharp, forked tips.
The species is sexually dimorphic. While females are typically dull brown or grey with streaked underbodies, males are predominantly dark-grey with white throats and (in most cases) a black mask that covers most of their head and some of their neck.
These birds are between 16 and 18 centimetres (6.3–7.1 inches) in size, on average, and their normal weight is approximately 25 grams (0.9 ounces).
The rufous whistler has a variety of musical calls which consist of a lengthy series of ringing notes.


The rufous whistler can be found in forested areas, woodland, and shrubland, but also in gardens and farmland. It migrates seasonally, moving south in the spring and north in the autumn. In New Caledonia the species does not undertake migrations but is instead resident in areas of open forest and savannah.


Breeding in monogamous pairs, both males and females incubate their eggs and care for their young. The period of incubation is about 13 days on average. The female alone constructs the nest, which usually consists of a combination of twigs, vines, grass and other matter formed in a cup-like shape and attached to a tree branch using strands from spider webs.
The breeding season for rufous whistlers is between the months of July and February.


While rufous whistlers primarily feed on insects, they also eat seeds, fruit and occasionally, leaves and grasses. They never forage for food on the ground which is unusual for whistlers which typically do not forage at particularly high levels.


Pachycereus pecten-aboriginum (commonly known as hairbrush or Indian comb) is a columnar cactus plant native to Mexico. They can grow up to 15 m (49 ft) high. The trunk of this species is 1.2 to 5.0 m tall and the fruits are large and burr-like. The specific name, pecten-aboriginum, is from the Latin, and means "native combs". It was inspired by the use of the fruits as hair combs.


P. pecten-aboriginum is endemic to Mexico. Its range extends throughout the western states from Baja California to Chiapas. It grows in the Chihuahuan and Sonoran Deserts, the thorn forest of Sinaloa, and the southern Sonoran plains.


P.  pecten-aboriginum is found on slopes and plains, and in valleys and arroyos. Its habitat includes thornscrubs, tropical deciduous forests, and Sonoran desert scrub. It grows on flat land and hills and in canyons. It is abundant in the subtropical scrub of southern Sonora, particularly in the foothills and lower mountains.


P.  pecten-aboriginum is a tree up to 15 m tall. The erect or ascending branches are up to 25 cm (9.8 in) in diameter. The immature stems are up to 22 cm wide with 10 or 11 ribs. Mature stems are up to 17.5 cm wide with 10 to 12 ribs. The areoles bear rigid, sharp, white to gray spines, which may be curved on mature stems.
The flower is white and about 5.0 to 7.5 cm long. It opens in the evening and closes by midday. The ovary is coated in velvety brown hairs. The floral bracts are linear with long-attenuated tips covering the development of flower buds. Flowering occurs January through March.
The fruit is densely covered with long, golden yellow spines up to 6 cm long. It ripens by June and July. It splits at maturity to reveal a thin layer of firm, red, juicy pulp and shiny black seeds, each about 0.5 cm long.


P.  pecten-aboriginum is a diploid plant. Its floral biology differs across its range. In Tehuacán, it is pollinated at night by nectar-feeding bats. In the Sonoran desert, the flowers stay open longer in the day to attract both nocturnal and diurnal pollinators.