Dusky flathead are the largest of the many species of flathead found in Australia, and the most commonly caught.  Dusky flathead have very rarely been caught at sizes up to 12–15 kg and lengths up to 1.3 metres, but average size is 0.5–1.5 kg and 40–50 cm. Typically a fish of estuaries and estuarine lakes, dusky flathead are rarely found in other habitats.
The diet of dusky flathead is typically composed of smaller fish and prawns. According to NSW DPI Fisheries research, dusky flathead grow relatively quickly. In fact, dusky flathead can reach 40cm total length after just three years. Female Dusky Flathead mature at around 55cm total length while males mature much earlier at about 22cm total length. Only female fish attain the larger sizes.  Breeding is reported to occur in mid to late summer around estuary mouths. A recent study (Pollock 2014) shows that the sex of dusky flathead is determined at the juvenile stage, and that there is no sex inversion from male to female.


Pictilabrus lacticlavius lives in rock reefs which are clothed in weed, occurruing to depths of 40 metres (130 ft). This is a carnivorous species and its prey includes a variety of invertebrates including gastropods, amphipods and small shrimps and crabs.
Like many wrasse, P. lacticlaviatus is a protogynous hermaphrodite and shows sexual dichromatism in which the females hold territories which overlap while the males, at least when breeding, guard an exclusive territory. The spawining season depends on locale, occurring earlier in the Spring farther north and later in the cooler waters of the southern parts of its range. They can reach sexual maturity within a year and with a total length of greater than 95 millimetres (3.7 in). In 3 years they can reach a total length of 180 millimetres (7.1 in) and they live for at least 4.8 years and they may live as long as 10 years. They change sex from female to male when they attain a total length of approximately 130–150 millimetres (5.1–5.9 in), which is at an age of around 2 years old in New South Wales and may take between at least 3 and 5 plus years in Tasmania.


Pictilabrus laticlavius, the patrician wrasse, the senator wrasse, the green parrotfish or the purplebanded wrasse is a species of marine ray-finned fish from the family Labridae, the wrasses. It is found in the eastern Indian Ocean and the south western Pacific Oceans off he temperate coasts of southern Australia.


Cynoscion nebulosus, the spotted seatrout, also known as speckled trout, is a common estuarine fish found in the southern United States along coasts of Gulf of Mexico and the coastal Atlantic Ocean from Maryland to Florida. While most of these fish are caught on shallow, grassy flats, spotted seatrout reside in virtually any inshore waters, from the surf of outside islands to far up coastal rivers, where they often come for shelter during cold weather. Contrary to its name, the spotted seatrout is not a member of the trout family (Salmonidae), but of the drum family (Sciaenidae). It is popular for commercial and especially recreational fishing in coastal waters of the southeastern United States.  Adults reach 19-37 inches in length and 3-17 pounds in weight.


Small trout eat large amounts of shrimp and other crustaceans. As they grow larger, their diets shift toward fish, the larger, the better. Studies in Texas and Mississippi show that really big trout strongly prefer to feed on mullet; a large trout will find the largest mullet it can handle and try to swallow it. Often the mullet is half or two-thirds as large as the trout.


It is most abundant in small rivers and large streams in the "barbel zone" where there are riffles and pools. It occurs along the banks of slow-flowing lowland rivers in large lake and even in mountain streams. Chub in lakes undertake spawning migrations into inflowing streams. The adult fish are solitary but the juvenile fish are sociable and occur in shoals. The larvae and juveniles prefer rather shallow habitats along shorelines and these smaller fish have a varied diet of aquatic and terrestrial animals while the large, solitary adults prey mainly on freshwater shrimp and small fishes. In the United Kingdom, chub have been recorded feeding on worms, molluscs, crustaceans, and various insect larvae while large chub eat considerable numbers of small fish, such as chub, eels, common dace, common roach, gudgeon and minnows as well as frogs, crayfish, voles and young water birds. They have also been observed eating berries such as blackberries and elderberry from trees overhanging the water. They feed throughout the year if there are opportunities, even in the coldest days of midwinter.
Spawning happens when the water temperature reaches 14 °C, and lasts from May to September. They spawn in fast-flowing water above gravel substrates but only infrequently will they spawn among submerged vegetation. The females spawn more than once during a season and each female will mate with several males. The males aggregate at spawning sites and will follow the ripe females, often with much splashing, to shallow riffles. Females lay pale yellow sticky eggs which adhere to the gravel, weed and stones in flowing water. Sexual maturity in chub is influenced by environmental factors with males reaching sexual maturity at the age of 2–4 years while females reach it at 4-6 although some individuals may mature much later than this. The fish can live for up to 22 years in the wild, where the age of fish can be assessed through by the number of rings that are visible in scales, these represent seasonal growth patterns.


The chub is distributed throughout most of northern Eurasia, it can be found in the rivers flowing into the North, Baltic, northern Black, White, Barents and Caspian Sea basins, the Atlantic basins south to Adour drainage in France and in Great Britain north to 56 °C, in Scandinavia in southern Finland and southern Sweden north to around Stockholm. In the Mediterranean basin it is found in France from the Var to the Hérault, and may also be present in the Aude, drainages. It is absent as a native species from Ireland and Italy but has been introduced to both countries; in Italy S. cephalus is present and acclimatised since decades, but it seems marginally found here and there (mainly in the Po river basin), never forming well established populations.


It is a stocky fish with a large rounded head. Its body is long and cylindrical in shape and is covered in large greenish-brown scales which are edged with narrow bands of black across the back, paling to golden on the flanks and even paler on the belly. The tail is dark brown or black, the dorsal fin is a greyish-green in colour and all the other fins are orange-red. The dorsal fin has 3 spines and 7-9 soft rays while the anal fin has 3 spines and 7-10 rays. The vertebrae count is 42-48. It can grow to 60 cm standard length but most fish are around 30 cm.


Abudefduf troschelii are found widely throughout the Eastern Pacific and are endemic to this area. They are commonly found in Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, and the United States to name a few. In these places, this species is abundant in coralline and sandy bottoms, but they can also be found at rocky bottoms and tide pools where they are usually found in large aggregations. Furthermore, this species can be found in the pelagic area of the neritic feeding on plankton. This neritic area where A. troschelii are commonly found, is made up of massive corals, deep rocky walls, and shallow exposed reef.


Abudefduf troschelii, the Pacific sergeant major or Panama sergeant major, is a species of damselfish belonging to the family Pomacentridae that can be identified by the pronounced black stripes on the lateral sides of the fish. Its specific name honors the zoologist Franz Hermann Troschel (1810-1882). It is native to the neritic pelagic zone of the shallow water coral reefs in the Eastern Pacific Ocean and they are an omnivorous species feeding on plankton and algae attached to their coral habitat. Abudefduf troschelii is a sister-species of A. saxatilis but have diverged from each other since the uplift of the isthmus of Panama, separated by the rise of the Panama land bridge 3.1 to 3.5 million years ago. Males, like in many other marine species, take care of and defend newborn A. troschelii after they have been hatched by eggs from the female. There are currently no major threats to the species and there is no indication of a current decline in its population size. The IUCN Red List lists this damselfish as being of “least concern”.


There are no real major threats to the overall population size of A. troschelii, but they are in fact a small percent of the yellow snapper (Lutjanus argentiventris) diet. Another predator of this species is the Thalassoma lucasanum, the neotropical pacific wrasse, which forms groups of 30 to 300 individuals that will typically overwhelm the parental defense of A. troschelii embryos, ultimately gaining access to an easy unprotected, solitary food source.


Naso lituratus is a species of fish in the family Acanthuridae, the tangs and unicornfishes. Its common names include barcheek unicornfish, naso tang, and orange-spine unicornfish.
Unique to members of Acanthuridae, including Naso lituratus, are the Epulopiscium bacteria. These bacteria influence the digestion of Naso lituratus, helping them process the algae in their diet.
The Naso lituratus species can be found in the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. This species can be easily recognised by two bright orange forward-hooked spines on the caudal peduncle (the tail base), its orange lips and black face mask. The body is brownish grey with yellow nape and there is a broad black band on the dorsal fin. It reaches about 45 cm in length.
It can be found on coral reefs, often in pairs.


Semotilus atromaculatus,  known as the creek chub or the  common creek chub, is a small minnow, a freshwater fish found in the eastern US and Canada. Differing in size and color depending on origin of development, the creek chub can usually be defined by a dark brown body with a black lateral line spanning horizontally across the body. It lives primarily within streams and rivers. Creek Chubs attain lengths of 2-6 inches with larger specimens of up to 12 inches possible.  The genus name Semotilus derives from the Greek word sema (also known as dorsal fin), and atromaculatus comes from the Latin word "black spots".


The creek chub is described as an opportunist and a carnivore, and consumes many different foods to survive, including fish, insect remains and vegetation, amphipods, adult Coleoptera, Ephemeroptera nymphs, Odonata larvae and Diptera adults and larvae.
Feeding habits are specific to the creeks and rivers where in the chub exists. As a juvenile, it actively feeds throughout the early morning on organisms within the water. As an adult, the creek chub does not feed until the afternoon, being documented to never feed before 1100 hours. Fish often do not leave their shelter until temperatures have increased to a daily maximum. Large chubs actively forage for 1–2 hr, then wait in their environment to feed on drift items.


The creek chub is often preyed on by species ranging from birds to fish, such as loons, kingfishers, brown trout, northern pike and smallmouth bass. Viruses infecting the creek chub have been documented to decrease this species' population. Additionally, the food of the creekchub is limited by other animals, such as trout and other chubs.
Managing creek chub has been recorded to work in small growing ponds. Providing the right conditions, with flowing water through the pond, gives the chub the necessary environment to survive.


Parma microlepis are benthic coastal reef inhabitants and are commonly found on reef, in depths of 1–55 m.


Parma microlepis, commonly known as the white-ear, is a species of fish in the family Pomacentridae. This fish is endemic to Eastern Australia.


This species grows to ~20 cm. The White-ear changes colour as it grows but always has a white mark on its 'ear'. Young juveniles are brightly coloured but as the fish grows the colours fade to the adult colouration of yellowish-brown to grey or black".


Notolabrus gymnogenis are benthic coastal reef inhabitants and are commonly found on reef in New South Wales. Found in depths of 4–53 metres (13–174 ft).


Notolabrus gymnogenis, commonly known as the crimson banded wrasse, is a species of fish in the family Labridae. This colourful fish is endemic to Eastern Australia.


Notolabrus gymnogenis feeds mostly on benthic invertebrates, the juveniles mostly prey on amphipods, while the larger individuals prey on decapods, gastropods and bivalves.


This species grows to ~40 cm, and is like many wrasses, its colour changes over different stages of its life. Juveniles are greenish brown with rows of white spots along the sides. Females are reddish to brownish-orange with rows of white spots along the sides. Males are brightly coloured with red dorsal and anal fins, a red band around the rear of the body, a white caudal peduncle and a yellow caudal fin. The largest male recorded had a standard length of 23 centimetres (9.1 in).


The yellowtail damselfish (Microspathodon chrysurus) is a species of damselfish native to tropical areas such as the Caribbean coast of Panama. Damselfish are abundant in coral reef environments. The International Union for Conservation of Nature lists this fish as being of “least concern”. The species is exploited on a minor scale, for fisheries and the aquarium trade. It may be threatened by the invasive lionfish.
Adult and young adult damselfish differ significantly in terms of body color. The difference was so stark that researchers believed the adult and young adult forms were two distinct species. Adults are brown with a yellow caudal fin. Young adults are violet with blue spots in their back and transparent caudal fins.


In regards to feeding habits, adults typically graze on algae while juveniles are carnivorous. M. chrysurus is omnivorous with a gradual change in feeding habits throughout development. This change in diet is related to the distribution of adult and young adult damselfish. Gut content analysis of yellowtail damselfish shows a change is food ingested from young adulthood to adulthood. Young adults primarily feed on animal-like nematocysts and zooxanthellae. Adults tend to tend to be more selective in their feeding habits, eating blue-green algae called cyanophytes. However, if there is an abundance of another food source available those are likely to be ingested by the species.


This species is widespread in the Mediterranean Sea, in the Black Sea and in the Eastern Atlantic Ocean, at depths of 0 to 160 m, more commonly between 0 and 30 m.
It inhabits rocky, sandy bottoms and seagrass beds. On sandy bottoms, it can be often found following species that dig the sand and trying to steal their food.


Diplodus vulgaris can reach a length of about 45 centimetres (18 in) with maximum recorded weight of 1.3 kilograms (2.9 lb). Body is generally grey-silver, with two well-defined vertical black bands, one close to the gills and one in the rear of the body, just before the base of the caudal fin. Another black stripe, less pronounced, is present near the eyes. There are golden lines along the body, typically on the back.
Lips are rather thick. In each jaw, there are 8 narrow, light-brownish incisors. In the western Mediterranean, it reproduces in October and November and in the eastern Mediterranean in December and January.
It is a gregarious species, sometimes forming groups composed even by many specimens. In the shallows, it often creates smaller groups even with other similar species.
Adults feed on benthic invertebrates, crustaceans, worms and mollusks. It is considered an important food fish.


P. lineatus occurs  in the Indian Ocean, in the western Pacific Ocean and sometimes enters freshwaters in East Africa and Madagascar. The species now also occurs in the Mediterranean, having invaded as a Lessepsian migrant through the Suez Canal. P. lineatus is found in coral reefs; and is also found in estuaries, tide pools and open coasts.


Plotosus lineatus can reach a maximum length of 32 cm (13 in). The body is brown with cream-colored or white longitudinal bands.
The most striking feature of this species is in the fins, in fact the second dorsal, caudal and anal are fused together as in eels. In the rest of the body is quite similar to a freshwater  catfish: the mouth is surrounded by four pairs of barbels, four on the upper jaw and four on the lower jaw. The first dorsal and each of the pectoral fins have a highly venomous spine. They may even be fatal.
Juveniles of Plotosus lineatus form dense ball-shaped schools of about 100 fish, while adults are solitary or occur in smaller groups of around 20 and are known to hide under ledges during the day. Adult P. lineatus search and stir the sand incessantly for crustaceans, mollusks, worms, and sometimes fish.
P. lineatus is an oviparous fish; this species has demersal eggs and planktonic larvae. It has evolved long ampullary canals in its electrosensory organs (originally termed "ampullae of Lorenzini").


Paralabrax clathratus is found at depths between 0 and 61 metres (0 and 200 ft). They show a strong association with kelp and are almost always found inhabiting kelp forests. The fish use a variety of micro-habitats within this habitat for feeding, shelter and breeding, for example the juveniles will hide among the blades of kelp and among other seaweed species in the intertidal zone while the adults prefer deeper water, into rocky habitats where their larger size gives them some protection against predation. The kelp bass spawns in the late spring to the early autumn When spawning the adults for aggregations of up to 200 fish, but more commonly numbering around 50 individuals. The aggregations are normally formed around a natural or man-made structure such as the canopy of the kelp forest or piers and occur at depths of 8 to 18 metres (26 to 59 ft). The mating fish break off into smaller groups, a gravid female will swim to the substrate and males will perform courtship displays and rubbing himself against her flanks and nibbling at her fins. While they are mating, the females change colour to dark grey or black on the upper body, and bright white on their underparts, while males also darkens to an overall charcoal colour, broken by black vertical bars and white spots. The males and females release the sperm and eggs at the same time, normally around sunset. After spawning the eggs hatch within 36 hours, There is then a pelagic larval phase which lasts for at least a month before the fish settle. After spawning the eggs hatch Males are sexually mature at between 2 and 4 years old and half of them are mature when they have attained 22 centimetres (8.7 in) in length while females are mature at 2 to 5 years old and half of them are mature at 22.6 centimetres (8.9 in). They maximum recorded life span is 34 years.
This species is largely diurnal and they are typically associated with some sort of cover while shade appears to be important in allowing them to effectively observe prey and to catch it. Individuals are faithful tp their home ranges, which average around 3,000 square metres (32,000 sq ft) and may show curiosity towards new objects. The younger fish are less site faithful than the older individuals and will move greater distances and this may be because their diet changes as they mature. The juveniles are more diurnal as zooplankton are more abundant during the day and their small size means they are subjected to greater predation so they take sanctuary among the kelp during. Sub-adults are more active at night and have a more diverse diet with their preferred prey being more active at night. As adults, kelp bass are fish eaters and are crepuscular feeder. They are normally solitary, will form aggregations in pelagic waters or spawning and to hunt as a group on bait fish. The main prey of juveniles are plankton and small benthic invertebrates, juveniles feed on small crustaceans, brittle stars and small fishes while the adults feed on larger fishes, cephalopods and larger crustaceans. All ages will feed on zooplankton if it is abundant.


Paralabrax clathratus, the kelp bass, bull bass or calico bass, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a sea bass from the subfamily Serraninae, classified as part of the family Serranidae which includes the groupers and anthias. It is found in the eastern North Pacific Ocean where it is an important species for both recreational and commercial fisheries.


Paralabrax clathratus has an elongate, relatively deep, compressed body with a pointed snout and a large mouth. The mouth extends back as far as the centre line of the pupil and the lower mandible protrudes to form part of the snout. There are teeth all over the roof of the mouth. The margins of the preopercle have fine serrations. There is a large spine on the edge of the gill cover. The dorsal fin has 10 spines and 13-14 soft rays, the 3rd and 4th spine are the longest, both being nearly twice the height of the 2nd spine. The anal fin has 3 spines and 7 soft rays. The caudal fin is truncated, although the margin can be wavy. The juvenile fish are light brown in colour, while the adults are brown to olive-green fading ventrally The dorsal part of the head has a mottling of light yellow spots while the dorsal part of the body is patterned with black, white, and/or olive green blotches. Along the back there are rows of white, rectangle shaped spots. The males have an orange tint on their lower jaw and chin. A distinguishing feature of this species from other sea bass is that the kelp bass has piebald or multicoloured spotting under the belly, which is why it is alternatively called calico bass. This species attains a maximum total length of 72 centimetres (28 in) and a maximum published weight of 7.0 kilograms (15.4 lb).


Dicotylichthys punctulatus also known as the Three-bar porcupinefish is a species of porcupinefish endemic to the east coast of Australia, where it is found in coastal and offshore reef environments down to 50 m (160 ft) deep. This species grows to 40 cm (16 in) in standard length, although most only reach 18 cm (7.1 in). This species is the only known member of its genus.


Acanthurus triostegus occurs in the tropical Indo-Pacific region. Its range extends from the East African coast and Madagascar to southwestern Japan, Australia and Central America, including many Pacific island groups. It is found over hard bottoms in lagoons, reef slopes, bays and estuaries. Juveniles are common in tide pools, and larger fish are found at depths down to about 90 m (300 ft).


Enneapterygius atrogulare is a species of triplefin blenny in the genus Enneapterygius. Although it is known as the blackthroat triplefin in the United Kingdom, it is also known as the ring-scale triplefin, black triplefin, eastern white-barred threefin, ringed triplefin, eastern Australian blackhead triplefin or the saddled triplefin in Australia. It is a subtropical, non-migratory blenny found in coral reefs in the western Pacific Ocean, around Australia and Tonga. Blackthroat triplefins swim at a depth range of 0–5 metres, and both juveniles and adults feed primarily on benthic algae, weeds, and invertebrates. Male E. atrogulare can reach a maximum length of 5 centimetres.


This fish is found in the tropical eastern Indian Ocean and the western Pacific Ocean. Its range extends from Christmas Island and the Cocos Keeling Islands to southern Japan, Western, Northern and Eastern Australia, Indonesia, the Philippines and Hawaii. It is associated with reefs, often on outer slopes and in more exposed locations. As an adult, it is a solitary fish or sometimes joins schools, with a depth range of between about 9 and 46 m (30 and 150 ft), but juveniles are found in shallower water in sheltered locations in small groups.


The orange band surgeonfish feeds on detritus and on algae growing on the seabed, as well as the film of diatoms and filamentous algae that grows on sand and other substrates. It often forms schools with parrotfish, tangs and other species of surgeonfish, which all have similar diets; their grazing is important in maintaining biodiversity by keeping rocks free from excessive growth of algae so that coral larvae can find suitable habitat to settle. The fish can change colour from dark to pale almost instantaneously.


The orange band surgeonfish is a deep-bodied, laterally-compressed oval fish, rather over twice as long as it is deep, with a maximum length of 35 cm (14 in), although a more typical length is 25 cm (10 in).  Both dorsal and anal fins are long and low, extending as far as the caudal peduncle. The dorsal fin has nine spines and 23 to 25 soft rays while the anal fin has three spines and 22 to 24 soft rays. The tail fin is crescent-shaped, the points growing longer as the fish gets older. The adult fish is greyish-brown; a sharp vertical line usually separates the paler front half of the fish from the darker hind portion. There is a distinctive orange bar, surrounded by a purplish-black margin, immediately behind the top of the gill cover, and blue and orange lines at the bases of the fins. Like all surgeonfish, this species has a pair of scalpel-like scales that project upward from the caudal peduncle. Larger males develop a convex snout which clearly differentiates them from females. Juvenile fish are yellow.


Atlantic blue tangs inhabit coral reefs and inshore grassy and rocky areas, where there is a high prevalence of algae. They are herbivorous, and their diet consists only of filamentous algae, detritus and plankton. They eat the algae from the reefs in which they reside, as well as off the bodies of surrounding fish. By eating the algae off of other fish, the blue tang serve as cleaners for them. With the decline in the Diadema antillarum (sea urchin) population, the blue tang population increased since the algal resources that the two animals usually competed for were more abundant.
Juvenile blue tangs eat continuously and feed heavily. This heavy feeding requirement is due to their poor utilization of food resources. The blue tang's stomach and intestinal lining are proficient at absorbing crushed cellular content, but are not very effective at processing cellulose. This digestive system inefficiency leads blue tangs to spend more time and resources on foraging on a very abundant and fast-growing food source in close proximity. This close proximity to an abundant food source allows for continuous foraging.


Acanthurus coeruleus is a surgeonfish found commonly in the Atlantic Ocean. It can grow up to 39 centimetres (15 in) long. Common names include Atlantic blue tang, blue barber, blue doctor, blue doctorfish, blue tang, blue tang surgeonfish, yellow barber, and yellow doctorfish.


While not under human threat,  the Atlantic blue tang is caught for commercial fishing, but maintains little importance to Caribbean industry.  It is also used, though rarely, as bait.  It is also common in the aquarium trade.
The fish is of low commercial value, giving off a pungent stench. Ciguatera poisoning may occur if the flesh is consumed. The adult fish's caudal spine is sharp, and is only out when the fish experiences excitement of some form. These fins can cut very deep into human skin and have been known to result in infections, mainly characterized by swelling and discoloration. Pain from such infections can last for long periods of time, sometimes for hours. Some species of the genus Acanthurus are even thought to possess poison glands on their caudal spines.


Gunther's wrasse is a marine species which inhabits rocky and coral reefs generally in shallow water up to 20m in depth. The species feeds on small benthic crustaceans.


The species is exclusively known from subtropical eastern Australia, occurring in Queensland as far north as Lindeman Island, and in New South Wales as far south as Botany Bay.


A. strigatus are benthic coastal reef inhabitants and are commonly found on reef and under made structures such as wharfs, in depths of 0–55 m.


A. strigatus are omnivorous.  The A. strigatus primarily feed on zooplankton.


This species grows to ~20 cm. It has a silver body with dark brown to black stripes, and yellow fins.


Cyprinus rubrofuscus, the Amur carp, is a species of cyprinid fish, and is the wild form of the well-known koi. It is widespread in the fresh waters of eastern Asia, native to China, Vietnam and Laos from the Amur to Red River basins, and has also been introduced outside its native range. It is known for its muddy flavor and boniness, hence, it is not commonly eaten by locals except when stewed.
In the past, it was considered a subspecies of the common (or European) carp, often under the scientific name C. carpio haematopterus (a synonym), but the two differ in genetics and meristics, leading recent authorities to recognize them as separate species. Although earlier studies also have found minor differences between northern ("haematopterus") and southern ("viridiviolaceus") populations in Eastern Asia in both meristics and genetics, later studies have found that they are not monophyletic. However, any phylogenetic structure is difficult to establish because of widespread translocations of carp between different regions. The parent species of the domesticated koi carp is an East Asian carp, possibly C. rubrofuscus (not C. carpio).


Rhaebo haematiticus (formerly Bufo haematiticus) is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae. It is found in eastern Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, northwestern Venezuela (Serranía del Perijá), and northwestern Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 1,300 m (4,300 ft) asl. Its natural habitats are primary tropical moist forest and submontane humid forest. It is a nocturnal, leaf-litter species that during the breeding seasons is found along small streams and large rivers. It tolerates some habitat degradation but only occurs close to forest. Threats to it are habitat loss caused by agriculture, wood extraction, and cattle ranching, and locally oil pollution and dams.


Eleutherodactylus cystignathoides, also known as the Rio Grande chirping frog, Mexican chirping frog, or lowland chirping frog, is a small eleutherodactylid frog. It is found from the southern United States in Texas, and in the northeastern Mexico in the states of Nuevo León, Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosí, Hidalgo, and Veracruz. Its range in Texas has expanded because of transport in potted plants, and there is also a likely introduced population in Louisiana.


Eleutherodactylus cystignathoides occurs at low elevation coastal plains and at low to moderate elevations in foothills. Individuals can be found in moist shaded vegetation, palm groves, thickets, ditches, resacas, lawns, and gardens. Many records are from urban settings. They can hide under cover objects during the day. They have been observed to utilize arboreal perches 0.2–1.5 m (7.9–59.1 in) above the ground.
This species is quite common throughout its range and no major threats to it are known; rather, they appear to thrive in the presence of humans. Its Mexican range includes Sierra del Abra-Tamchipa and El Cielo Biosphere Reserves.


Adult males measure 16–24 mm (0.6–0.9 in) and adult females 16–26 mm (0.6–1.0 in) in snout–vent length. The snout is pointed and the body is flat and elongated. Tympanum is visible. The finger tips are slightly expanded. Dorsal skin is weakly pustular, that of venter is smooth to areolate. Dorsal coloration is variable (brown, gray, or yellow-green) and includes dark spots. Ventral skin is translucent. The hind limbs have dark crossbars.


Reproduction is terrestrial and direct, without a free-living larval stage. Under laboratory conditions, eggs are laid just under the soil surface. Clutch size is 5–13 eggs measuring 3–3.5 mm (0.12–0.14 in) in diameter. The eggs hatch as froglets that measure approximately 5–8.5 mm (0.20–0.33 in).


Scinax ruber is a species of frog in the family Hylidae. It is known in English as the red snouted treefrog or red-snouted treefrog, sometimes also Allen's snouted treefrog, the latter referring to the now-synonymized Scinax alleni. This widespread species is found in much of Amazonian and northern coastal South America and into Panama, as well as in some Caribbean islands as introduced populations. It is a complex containing several cryptic species.


S. ruber is abundant in temporary waterbodies during the rainy season, and occupies a wide range of habitats, from open environments to moist forests, as well as gardens and parks. It occurs from sea level to 2,600 m (8,500 ft) above sea level. It is a nocturnal and arboreal species that generally breeds in small temporary pools, but can also use roadside ditches.
This common and widespread species is not facing any major threats and is classed by the IUCN as of "least concern". It is adaptable and also present in many protected areas.


Adult males measure 29–41 mm (1.1–1.6 in) and adult females 37–44 mm (1.5–1.7 in) in snout–vent length. The snout is rounded and non-acuminate. The tympanum is distinct. Dorsal skin is smooth to finely tuberculate. The dorsum is tan to dull green usually with wide creamy tan to yellow dorsolateral stripe with dark borders that extends from the eyelid to the sacrum. Also a discontinuous tan middorsal is usually present. The flanks are cream with yellow spots, usually edged with black in groin. The posterior surfaces of thighs are brown mottled with yellow or orange mottling. The iris is bronze with black reticulations. The ventrer is yellow.


S. ruber is widespread from sea level to around 2,600 metres throughout the Amazon Basin and the Guiana Shield in South America (in Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela). It is also found in central Panama and the eastern lowlands of Darien Province in Panama, as well as in Trinidad and Tobago. It is an introduced species on Martinique, Puerto Rico, and Saint Lucia. It is considered an invasive species on Martinique, threatening native frogs.


The Sierran chorus frog or Sierran treefrog (Pseudacris sierra) has a range from the West Coast of the United States from Central California inland through Idaho. They live from sea level to more than 10,000 feet in many types of habitats, reproducing in aquatic settings. They occur in shades of greens or browns and can change colors over periods of hours and weeks.


The naming of this frog has a very confusing history. These frogs have long been known as Pacific chorus frogs Pseudacris regilla. Then, in 2006, Recuero et al. split that taxonomic concept into three species. Recuero et al. attached the name Pseudacris regilla with the northern piece, renaming the central piece the Sierran tree frog (Pseudacris sierra) and the southern piece the Baja California tree frog (Pseudacris hypochondriaca). Because the paper provided no maps or discussion of how to diagnose the species, it has been an extremely controversial taxonomic revision, but has been incorporated into Amphibian Species of the World 6.0 (as Pseudacris sierra). The taxonomic confusion introduced by this name change means that much of the information about Pseudacris sierra is attached to the name Pseudacris regilla.


Gastrophryne olivacea, the Great Plains narrow-mouthed toad or western narrow-mouthed toad, is a species of microhylid frog found throughout much of the south-central United States from Nebraska south through Texas, and into northern Mexico. Though not a true toad, it is often referred to as such because it is terrestrial.


This toad is found in a wide range of habitats, but most frequently on moist ground or in leaf litter, and under rocks or fallen logs. They breed throughout the spring and summer in pools of water left by rainfall. Their primary diet is ants.


Great Plains narrow-mouthed toads are a small (1.5 in), flat-bodied species, with a sharply pointed snout. They are typically olive green to grey-brown in color, sometimes with black blotching. Their undersides are lighter colored.  Their skin secretions can cause severe, burning pain if they get into eyes.


Salamandrina perspicillata, the northern spectacled salamander, is a species of salamander in the family Salamandridae found only in Italy.
The IUCN Red List follows Mattoccia et al. (2005) and Canestrelli et al. (2006) in separating Salamandrina perspicillata from Salamandrina terdigitata which is found further south.


Incilius nebulifer, also known as the coastal plains toad or Gulf coast toad, is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae. It is found on the coast of Gulf of Mexico from Veracruz in Mexico to Mississippi in the United States. It was removed from the synonymy of Incilius valliceps in 2000.
It occurs in a wide range of habitats, both natural and human-altered: coastal prairies, barrier beaches, towns, etc. Breeding takes place in various kinds of pools, including roadside and irrigation ditches. This widespread and common toad is not threatened.


Pelophylax nigromaculatus (formerly Rana nigromaculata), is a species of true frog found in East Asia, first described in 1861. This widespread and common frog has many common names, including dark-spotted frog,  black-spotted pond frog, and black-spotted frog.


The dark-spotted frog is a relatively low-altitude species, not being found above 2200 m.  It ranges across a variety of habitats, from deserts and bushland to meadows and forests, and is typically found in or near stagnant or slow-moving water.  Although relatively tolerant of human interference, it is increasingly threatened by hunting and water pollution.


Adult males measure about 62 mm (2.4 in) and females 74 mm (2.9 in) in snout–vent length. The dorsal colouration varies from grey to greyish-olive, olive, and green. There are usually large dark spots, a light mid-dorsal line, and two lines on dorso-lateral folds. The belly is white. The toes are webbed. Males have a paired vocal sac and nuptial pads on the first finger.
Mating season occurs soon after hibernation. Maturation probably occurs at an age of two years, and the total life span may reach 13 years. The clutch size has been reported as 1800–3000 or 600–5000 eggs. The eggs are laid in shallow water.


Pristimantis achatinus (common names: Cachabi robber frog, pastures rainfrog) is a species of frog in the family Craugastoridae.
It is found from eastern Panama through Colombia to western Ecuador.
Its natural habitats are both lowland and montane habitats: forest clearings, road cuts in forest, and banana, cacao and coffee plantations, as well as in forested areas. It is mostly terrestrial, sometimes occurring off the ground in vegetation. It is a very common frog.


Leptodactylus savagei, or Savage's thin-toed frog, is a species of leptodactylid frog which ranges from eastern Honduras, through Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama to Colombia adjacent to Panama, with a seemingly disjunct population present in the area of Santa Marta in northern Colombia, at elevations from close to the sea level to 660 m (2,170 ft).
These frogs are nocturnal and terrestrial.


This frog has a brown or bronze back, sometimes with reddish brown spots. It has brown spots in the lips and frequently a black stripe over the tympanum. The rear part of the thigh is brownish, however, it can has reddish colours.
The males have an internal vocal sac and one of more corneous spines on the thumps and sometimes on the chest that helps the male to grasp the female during the amplexus.
Males can reach a snout–vent length of 142 mm (5.6 in) and females of 146 mm (5.7 in).


Duttaphrynus melanostictus is commonly called Asian common toad, Asian black-spined toad, Asian toad, black-spectacled toad, common Sunda toad, and Javanese toad. It is probably a complex of more than one true toad species that is widely distributed in South and Southeast Asia.
The species grows to about 20 cm (8 in) long. Asian common toads breed during the monsoon, and their tadpoles are black. Young toads may be seen in large numbers after monsoon rains finish.


Asian common toads breed in still and slow-flowing rivers and temporary and permanent ponds and pools. Adults are terrestrial and may be found under ground cover such as rocks, leaf litter, and logs, and are also associated with human habitations. The larvae are found in still and slow-moving waterbodies.
They are often seen at night under street lamps, especially when winged termites swarm. They have been noted to feed on a wide range of invertebrates, including scorpions. Tadpoles grown in sibling groups metamorphosed faster than those that were kept in mixed groups. Tadpoles have been shown to be able to recognize kin. The 96h LC50 of commercial grade malathion for the tadpoles is 7.5 mg/l and sublethal levels of exposure can  impair swimming.


D. melanostictus was introduced to the Indonesian island of Bali in 1958, Sulawesi in 1974, then subsequently to Ambon, Lombok, Sumba, Sumbawa, Timor and Indonesian New Guinea at Manokwari on the Vogelkop Peninsula. The species is now common at Sentani in far eastern Papua Province. The absence of resistance to toad toxins in native snake and varanid predators means that these species could suffer severe declines from the inadvertent spread of the Asian common toad via human traffic, and the currently near threatened New Guinea quoll is also almost certain to be further affected in the lower-altitude portion of its range.


The Asian common toad has been detected in Australia at least four times since 2000. The most recent incursion, in 2015, was in suburban Sydney.
The Asian common toad has been described as one of Australia's “10 most unwanted” species, and “potentially more damaging than the cane toad”.
It may cause serious ecological problems due to “competition with native species, its potential to spread exotic parasites and pathogens and its toxicity”. Like cane toads, the Asian common toad secretes toxins from glands in their backs to deter predators. These toxins would beyond reasonable doubt severely affect native predators, such as snakes, goannas and quolls.
The recent rate of incursions suggests a high likelihood of establishment in Australia. So, experts are calling for the Australian government to develop a “high-priority contingency plan” that includes stronger environmental quarantine and surveillance strategies.


Eurycea longicauda, commonly known as the long-tailed salamander or longtail salamander, is a species of lungless salamander native to the Appalachian Region of the eastern United States. It is a "cave salamander" that frequents twilight zones of caves and also inhabits springs and surrounding forest.


Eurycea longicauda inhabit streamsides, spring runs, ponds, cave mouths, and abandoned mines. With wet weather, they may venture into wooded terrestrial habitats. They hide in rock crevices or under rocks, logs, etc. Eggs are laid in underground crevices associated with aquatic environments, but in caves they may also be attached to objects in or above water.
The overall population size of this species is large (probably more than 100,000). Some local populations may have been impacted by strip mining and acid drainage from coal mining, but there are no major threats overall. Its range overlaps with several protected areas.


E. l. melanopleura reproduces in November to February. The eggs measure 7 mm (0.28 in) in diameter. The larvae hatch in January–March at about 10 mm (0.39 in) snout–vent length (SVL). They metamorphose seven months later at 23–28 mm (0.91–1.10 in) SVL. Males become sexually mature between 31–43 mm (1.2–1.7 in) SVL and females 33–43 mm (1.3–1.7 in) SVL. The largest males and females are  55 mm (2.2 in) SVL.


Microhyla fissipes (commonly known as the ornate chorus frog) is a microhylid frog from East and Southeast Asia, from southern and central China and Taiwan to the Malay Peninsula. It was previously considered to be the same species as Microhyla ornata of South Asia; thus the common names ornate narrow-mouthed frog or ornamented pygmy frog can refer to either species.


Microhyla fissipes is a common and widespread species. It can be found in many habitat types including lowland scrub forests, grassland, agricultural land, pastureland and urban areas. Sub-fossorial in habit, it is also found in forest floor leaf-litter. It is mostly nocturnal, only active diurnally during the rainy season. It breeds in rain pools and other bodies of still water. It tolerates habitat modification and can also occur in non-intensively farmed agricultural land. In the Peninsular Malaysia, it inhabits upper hill and montane forest where they can be found on low vegetation or around puddles or waterlogged areas.


As microhylids in general, Microhyla fissipes is a small frog: males reach 22–27 mm (0.87–1.06 in) and females 25–28 mm (0.98–1.10 in) in snout-vent length. Tadpoles are correspondingly small, about 22 mm (0.87 in) in total length.


This species is native in central, southern and southwestern China (including Hong Kong and Hainan) and Indo-China peninsula. It is closely related to Polypedates leucomystax and always included in P. leucomystex species complex, along with P. mutus and P. braueri.
Previously, P. megacephalus was thought to distribute above the Red River of Vietnam and in Northeast India, while P. leucomystex was generally found south of the Red River and in western Yunnan. However, recent genetic studies revealed that the natural barriers between these species are the Isthmus of Kra and the Tenasserim Range, where P. megacephalus can be found above the isthmus and east of the range.
This frog is listed as Least Concern in view of its wide distribution in Asia and its tolerance of a broad range of habitats. It also because of its presumed large population.


The species is endemic to Taiwan, where it is known by the name brown tree frog. Buergeria robusta is a common and widespread species found at low to medium altitudes. These frogs live mainly near the creeks or streams. They are locally threatened by habitat loss; they are also collected for consumption.
The genetic landscape of Buergeria robusta presents high congruence to the topography of Taiwan; populations on the eastern and western sides of the Central Mountain Range showed a prominent genetic divergence.


Buergeria robusta are medium to large-sized treefrogs. Their body is stocky; males grow to 4–5 cm (1.6–2.0 in) in snout-vent length and females to 7–8 cm (2.8–3.1 in). The skin of the dorsum is smooth. The colour varies with the environment from brown or gray to greenish and to even yellow.
Breeding season is from February to September, when males can be found sitting and calling on tops of rocks. Eggs are deposited directly in water, without making a foam nest.


Rhinella diptycha, sometimes referred to as Cope's toad, Schneider's toad, cururu toad, or rococo toad, is a toad found in northern Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, eastern Bolivia, and eastern and southern Brazil. It is one of three rather similar species sometimes referred to as "cururu toads" in Brazil, the others being R. jimi and R. marina (cane toad). Like those, R. diptycha is a large toad, females up to 25 cm (9.8 in) in snout–to–vent length and males up to 18 cm (7.1 in).
Rhinella diptycha is a widespread and very common species that occurs in a variety of habitats but most commonly in open and urban ones. It breeds in permanent and temporary ponds, preferring ones without much vegetation. Its natural habitats include dry savanna, freshwater marshes, and intermittent freshwater marshes. It is threatened by habitat loss. It is sometimes kept as a pet, but pet trade is not occurring at levels that would constitute a threat.


The Asian giant toad (Phrynoidis asper), sometimes referred to as the river toad, is a species of true toad native to Mainland Southeast Asia and the Greater Sundas. It is a medium-large toad, but it is easily confused with its larger relative, the giant river toad (P. juxtasper).


Phrynoidis asper is generally a dark grey, green, black or brown in color, and is heavily covered in tubercles. Females can reach up to 14 cm (5.5 in) in snout–to–vent length and males up to 10 cm (3.9 in). They can be commonly found near stream and rivers.


Agalychnis dacnicolor, the Mexican leaf frog, is a species of frog in the family Phyllomedusidae. It is endemic to Mexico.
The adult grows up to 100 mm in length, with an overall dorsal colour of green with scattered white spots. The underbelly is white with legs and digits of orange. This species has enlarged toes and golden eyes, and females are larger than males. They eat mainly insects and are nocturnal, spending the day in sheltered burrows or under stones or logs.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests, intermittent rivers, intermittent freshwater marshes, water storage areas, and ponds. It is not considered a threatened species by the IUCN.
Breeding takes place near ponds and swamps. The eggs are laid in clumps above the water on foliage. The tadpoles fall into the water after hatching.


Gastrophryne carolinensis, the eastern narrow-mouthed toad, is a species of microhylid frog. It is a relatively small, toad-like amphibian found in damp, shady habitats. The species is highly fossorial, and feeds primarily on ants. These North American microhylids (Family: Microhylidae) are distinguished from true toads (genus Bufo), and other anurans by their moist, smooth skin, their lack of eardrums or tympana, their distinguishable squat body shape, and the unique fold of skin superior to their eyes. It is found in the United States, from southern Maryland to the Florida Keys, west to Missouri and Texas. While not a true toad, it is so called because it is terrestrial.


The eastern narrow-mouthed toad is relatively small, growing to a maximum length of 53 mm (2.1 in). It has an oval-shaped body and a narrow head with a pointed snout. They vary in color from brown and grey to green, often with black and white spotting.
Gastrophryne carolinensis toads have a typical teardrop-shaped body that is characteristic of members of the family Microhylidae. Though its morphology lacks a tympanum (eardrum), the subgular vocal sac is clearly visible.
The skin of G. carolinensis is smooth and without ridges or warts. Yet, the skin is extremely tough, which most likely protects them from the ants upon which they feed. Directly behind the eyes, resting on the toads neck, is a distinctive skin fold evolved for protection from ant bites while feeding.
The color of the toad can change depending on its activities and environment. The colors on its sides are generally faded, but its dorsum is dark and broad with various light or dark spots, mottling, or patches that cover the light strip along its middorsal area. Its abdomen is generally highly mottled, but its ventral surface is nearly light or unmarked. The venters of certain narrow-mouthed toads in the Great Plains are generally unmarked, or virtually so, while those of eastern toads are strongly pigmented.
Its legs are generally stubby, short, and heavy, and the tips of the toes are round and tapered. As with the Leptodactylidae, the toes are absent of webbing or toe pads. However, the heels on the back feet have one "spade" or tubercle for digging.
The sex of the eastern narrow-mouthed toad can easily be determined by the characteristic sexual dimorphism. The color of the throat region for males is dark and highly pigmented, while the female throat is absent of this discriminate coloring.
G. carolinensis has a call that is said to sound like a bleating sheep or an electric buzzer; it is somewhat similar to the call of Anaxyrus fowleri.


The species' population is currently large throughout most of its range, and also in many suburban locations. Additionally, the species introduced to Grand Cayman is equally abundant. Though this particular species of microhylids experienced a severe population bottleneck effect in the past, its succeeding expansion has allowed its current population trend to remain stable.
Adults range from 22 to 35 mm (0.9–1.4 inches) in body length; females usually attain larger sizes than males and exceed a little over 1.25 inches. Adult males are at an inch or less in length. A male can be distinguished from a female during breeding season due to the visibility of a dark-pigmented vocal sac on his throat. Breeding males also exhibit enlarged tubercles on the chin, as well as a visible anterior edge of the lower jaw.


Gastrophryne carolinensis reproduces in aquatic habitats, and may breed in either temporary or permanent waters. The toad species will breed in deep water only if it is covered with a dense mat of floating vegetation or debris. They may also breed in ephemeral aquatic habitats such as temporary ponds, roadside ditches, borrow pits, deep wheel ruts in roads, and shallow drainage ditches. These variable breeding locations indicate that this species exhibits opportunistic breeding behaviors when choosing a breeding site.
The male toads call for mating at reproductive maturity. They generally call from the edge of the water when concealed by plant debris. Though more rare, they have also been observed to call while floating in the water with their fore limbs resting on stem or twig. Many times, they will also extend their hind limbs. They can also call the female while sitting on a bank, or on rainy nights while buried in the damp sand with only their head and vocal sac exposed. If they are reproducing in ephemeral aquatic habitats, the male toad calling will position himself to be completely underwater with only his head exposed. The males will also utilize any type of vegetation in its surroundings in order to hide while calling.  If alarmed, the male will dive deep into the water then re-emerge after several minutes.
The mating call sounds like a high-pitched, penetrating, nasal, sheep-like bleat. It may also have a buzzing quality, and lasts for 1.0 to 1.5 seconds. Unlike other frog and toad species, G. carolinensis does not exhibit the typical trill sound in their mating call.
In the south, April to October rains initiate their breeding season, or midsummer in areas farther to the north. They congregate to breeding ponds depending on the heavy spring and early summer rains. The G. carolinensis species is particularly successful at breeding in ephemeral bodies of water. When the male amplexes the female, special glands in the sternal region of males secretes a sticky substance to allow adhesion of breeding pairs, and also presumably to help him resist other males’ attempts to dislodge him. Breeding grasp (amplexus) for the toad species is axillary (behind the forelimbs).
The female spawns clear marble-like eggs on the surface of the water, which is deposited as a mosaic structure. The egg mass is round or squarish, with 10 to 150 eggs deposited as clusters in each mass. The female deposits over 800 tiny eggs that hatch within 1.5 to 3.0 days.


The Eastern narrowmouth toad is preyed upon by a variety of organisms. Their first reaction is to burrow out of sight or find a hiding area nearby. However, Gastrophryne carolinensis has been observed using irritating and noxious integumentary secretions as a defense mechanism to discourage predators when caught.  In a study on the unpalatability of their skin, Eastern Narrowmouth Toads were refused by predator species significantly more than the studies control frog species.


Odorrana swinhoana is a species of frog in the family Ranidae. It is endemic to Taiwan and widely distributed in hilly areas below 2,000 m (6,600 ft). It is named for Robert Swinhoe, a British naturalist and diplomat. Its common names include Swinhoe's brown frog, Bangkimtsing frog, brown-backed odorous frog, Taiwan odorous frog, and Taiwan sucker frog.


Odorrana swinhoana occur in hill streams in broadleaf forests. They forage on both terrestrial and aquatic prey, primarily on insects and arachnids, but also gastropods, crustaceans, and chilopods. Breeding takes place in small mountainous, shady, rocky creeks. Males call day and night, usually hidden in crevices among the rocks. The eggs are attached to rocks under the water.
It is a common species that is not facing serious threats, although agriculture and infrastructure development represent some threats. It is present in a number of protected areas.


Odorrana swinhoana are medium to large-sized frogs, reaching a maximum snout-vent length of 12 cm (4.7 in). They can live up to 11 years. Sizes vary by location; males from a low-lying location measured on average 58 and 73 mm (2.3 and 2.9 in) in snout–vent length, respectively, and from a highland location 73 and 85 mm (2.9 and 3.3 in), respectively. The dorsum is bright green and the flanks are brown or green, broken up by white or dark mottling. The dorsal skin is finely pebbled. The venter is white. The finger tips bear well developed discs. The toes have well developed webbing.
The tadpoles are adapted to running water and have a ventral sucking disc. The back is green.


Bufo bankorensis (vernacular names: Central Formosa toad, Bankor toad) is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae. It is endemic to Taiwan and widely distributed at elevations up to 3,000 m (9,800 ft) above sea level. There has been doubts about its separatedness from Bufo gargarizans from China and even other species, but it is currently considered a valid species.


Bufo bankorensis are found in a range of habitats at elevations up to 3,000 m (9,800 ft): broadleaf forests, cultivated fields, mixed forests, and orchards. They can be seen foraging on insects under street lights during rainy nights. Breeding can take place in both streams and pools. One study found that a temperate population could breed throughout the year, while a subtropical population only bred during the cooler part of year, from September to March.
While Bufo bankorensis is a very common species, habitat loss remains a threat to it. It is also collected for food and traditional medicine.


Bufo bankorensis is a large toad that can reach 15 cm (5.9 in), even 20 cm (7.9 in) in snout–vent length. Females are larger than males. The snout is short. Dorsolateral ridge is absent. The tympanum is not prominent. The parotoid glands are kidney-shaped. Skin is rough and covered with pointed tubercles of various size. Coloration is light brown color with orange, yellow, or black markings.


The green frog (Lithobates clamitans or Rana clamitans) is a species of frog native to eastern North America. The two subspecies are the bronze frog and the northern green frog.


Green frogs live wherever shallow freshwater ponds, road-side ditches, lakes, swamps, streams, and brooks are found. Green frogs can be found in vernal pools and other temporary bodies of water, but will usually not breed in them. This species is very opportunistic and is quick to colonize new water bodies such as swimming pools and artificial ponds. Most often seen resting along the shore, they leap into the water when approached. By inhabiting an ecotone, in this case the terrestrial and aquatic habitat boundary, green frogs (and other aquatic ranid frogs), by employing a simple leap, leave behind their many and faster terrestrial enemies that cannot similarly cross that boundary.


This species is a mid-sized true frog. Adult green frogs range from 5–10 cm (2.0–3.9 in) in body length (snout to vent, excluding the hind legs). The typical body weight of this species is from 28 to 85 g (0.99 to 3.00 oz). The sexes are sexually dimorphic in a few ways: mature females are typically larger than males, the male tympanum is twice the diameter of the eye, whereas in females, the tympanum diameter is about the same as that of the eye, and males have bright yellow throats. The dorsolateral ridges, prominent, seam-like skin folds that run down the sides of the back, distinguish the green frog from the bullfrog, which entirely lacks them.
Green frogs usually have green heads while the body is brown, gray, or dark green. The green head can be more or less prominent on certain individuals, with some frogs only having green on the side of their heads while other frogs are green all the way down their back. The belly is white with black mottling. Male green frogs in breeding condition have yellow throats. Green frogs are darker colored on colder days to help absorb heat. Green frogs can sometimes be blue due to a genetic mutation known as axanthism that prevents the frog from producing yellow pigments (yellow and blue pigments together make the color green).


Green frogs breed in permanent bodies of water. Males call from and defend territories. The distinctive call sounds like a plucked banjo string, usually given as a single note, but sometimes repeated.
The breeding season is from April to August.
Actual mating involves amplexus, whereby the male grasps the female with his forelimbs posterior to her forelimbs. The female releases her eggs and the male simultaneously releases sperm which swim to the egg mass. Fertilization takes place in the water. A single egg clutch may consist of 1000 to 7000 eggs, which may be attached to submerged vegetation.
Green frog tadpoles are olive green and iridescent creamy-white below. Metamorphosis can occur within the same breeding season or tadpoles may overwinter to metamorphose the next summer. Males become sexually mature at one year, females may mature in either two or three years.
Research show that wild green frogs, both living in contaminated suburban backyard ponds and also in relatively pristine forested ponds, can switch sexes. This sex reversal appears to be a natural condition but it is currently unknown whether these wild sex-reversed green frogs are able to breed.


Menemerus bivittatus is a spider in the family Salticidae commonly known as the gray wall jumper. It is a pantropical species and is usually found on the walls of buildings or on tree trunks where it stalks its prey.


Menemerus bivittatus is native to Africa, but has been widely introduced, resulting in a cosmopolitan distribution. In America, the species is found in Florida, Texas, and California (USA) and south as far as Paraguay, including some Caribbean islands, Colombia, and Venezuela. It is often seen on the outside of man-made structures.


The female gray wall jumper builds an eggsac in a crack or other concealed position in which she lays 25 to 40 eggs in a purse-like silken case. She guards the eggs until they hatch in about three weeks time after which the young spiders disperse.
Both young and old spiders feed mainly on small flies which alight on walls. They do not build a web but instead, stalk their prey before launching an attack by leaping on the victim. They have high visual acuity and their large eyes are able to focus on objects and detect different colours. They use their highly coordinated jumping ability to capture their prey and to move from one place to another. They are capable of capturing insects such as crane flies that are at least twice their own size.
Male spiders of this species possess a stridulatory apparatus which consists of several long bristles on the palpal femur and a series of horizontal ridges on the outer side of the chelicerae. Sound is generated when the spider rubs these ridges up and down against the palpal teeth. This is believed to be part of a courtship display by the male.
In India, this common spider is found on the outer walls of buildings and on tree trunks. It moves actively about in search of small insect prey, often vibrating its hairy palps as it walks. In Gambia, spiders of this species have been observed loitering near and observing the entrances to nests of stingless bees. It is difficult for the spider to catch the bees as they fly out of the entrance but the bees are more vulnerable when returning to the nest.


Gray wall jumpers are dorso-ventrally flattened and are covered with short dense, grayish-white hairs. There are tufts of dark brown bristles near the large, forward-facing eyes. The spiders are about nine millimetres long, the male being slightly smaller than the female. The male has a blackish longitudinal dorsal stripe with a brownish-white stripe on either side of the abdomen. The carapace and chelicerae are also black and white and the legs have transverse bandings of the same colours. The female is generally paler and more brown, with a larger carapace and abdomen. Her carapace is edged with two black bands and a thin white stripe and her abdomen is edged with broad black stripes on each side which unite at the posterior end. Her legs are banded but are paler than those of the male. Immature spiders resemble the female.


These spiders are typically found on spruce and pine trees, under bark, in moor- and heathland, and around buildings.


Marpissa muscosa lives in the Palaearctic.
Though rare in England, it is found throughout the country, more in the south and east. The species is widespread in northern Europe.


Marpissa muscosa is a species of jumping spider.
On average, females have body length ranging from 7.5–14mm, whereas males have a body length ranging from 6–8.1mm. Both sexes are coloured grey to brown. The whole spider has a furry appearance and is flattened in shape.
The species builds a kind of nest under the bark of dead trees. Up to 100 of these nests can occur side by side. As other species of Marpissa spiders, it demonstrates a social hierarchy: weaker animals will acknowledge their inferiority by strutting their front legs and slowly retreating from the scene. Early environmental conditions shape personality types in the developing spiders.


Olios giganteus is a large species of crab spider in the family Sparassidae. It is found in the United States and Mexico.


The species, originally found throughout north and west Asia, is an introduced species in North America, first documented there in the 1950s or 1960s. Their success can be attributed to colonizing man-made structures, which provide refuge and camouflage for the mottled brown-and-grey spiders. This species also capitalizes on the artificial lighting found on many buildings, which attracts prey at night, thereby providing these visually-acute spiders with extended foraging opportunities.


Attulus fasciger is a species of spider from the family Salticidae native to northern and western Asia but now introduced to North America.


The spider is brownish-black coloured, has 8 eyes, and is 3–4 millimetres (0.12–0.16 in) in size. The sexes are similar in size but the  males have a small, but more slender abdomen compared to the female, with larger black palps.


Helpis minitabunda  is a jumping spider. A widespread species in the east and south east of Australia, New Zealand, and in Papua New Guinea, usually found on foliage in moist areas.
Common names include threatening jumping spider and bronze jumping spider. The specific epithet minitabunda is derived from Latin, meaning "threatening". The male may show fearless or threatening behaviour when approached.
Unusually for spiders, the male is larger than the female. Male body length to 10 mm, females to 8 mm. The front two pairs of legs are particularly long. The male head has a flat topped caput covered with creamy white hairs. Below are large protruding chelicerae. The demeanor of the female is more cryptic than the male. The pre-mating courtship dance between male and female may last from two to three hours. Helpis minitabunda is an invasive species in New Zealand.


These spiders prefer open and warm areas. They can usually be found in dry, rocky or sandy habitats, with low and open vegetation.


Philaeus chrysops occurs in the Palearctic, from Portugal to South China and Korea. They are rather common in most of Europe, especially in the southern countries. They are not reported in Ireland, Iceland and some other northern regions , like Scandinavia, Estonia, Latvia and Northern European Russia. Outside Europe, they are present in North Africa, the Near East, Turkey, the Caucasus, Central Asia, Iran, Afghanistan, China, Mongolia and Korea.


These spiders can be found in the warm spring and summer months. The young spiders become adults around July. Like the other jumping spiders, this species does not use the canvas to capture prey. Philaeus chrysops hunts freely, quickly jumping on prey and blocking it with claws and pedipalps. Hunting takes place only during the day, in the hot hours.  When the adult male has found a female, it will start a courtship, shaking forelegs in the air and drumming on the ground with the abdomen and pedipalps. After the mating, females lay the eggs in a cocoon, watching them until hatching.


Normal body length is 7–12 millimetres (0.28–0.47 in), but 5 mm small males do occur. Unusual for spiders, the males are often bigger. The sexes differ extremely Sexual dimorphism: males are very colorful with a glaringly red opisthosoma (chrysops means "golden eye" in Greek). The males have a dark brown or blackish cephalothorax, usually with two broad longitudinal white stripes behind the rear eyes. The abdomen is bright orange-red on the back and the sides, with a longitudinal black stripe in the center and black shoulders. The long, slender legs are dark with the patellae and most of the tibiae of the first two pairs bright orange-red.
The cephalothorax of the female is similar to the male, but with much smaller white stripes. The back of her abdomen is largely covered with a very broad rather irregular brown band with two longitudinal whitish stripes and a few whitish marks near the sides. The remainder of the abdomen and the sides may be orange-brown or pale brown, the legs light brown with dark brown rings.


Pelegrina galathea, commonly known as the peppered jumper, is a species of jumping spider (family Salticidae). It is endemic to North America, occurring from Canada to Costa Rica. It is normally found in sunlit, grassy areas.


Plexippus paykulli is generally found living on and around man-made structures, in particular on buildings, although it has also been recorded from citrus groves and cotton fields. The female creates an eggsac about 3 centimetres (1.2 in) in diameter in a concealed location under floorboards, in a crack or under eaves. In this a lens-shaped silken case is made into which 35 to 60 eggs are deposited. The female guards these until the spiderlings emerge and disperse some three to four weeks later.
This spider does not spin a web but builds a silken retreat in an elevated position such as the edge of the ceiling from which it makes hunting forays. It has very acute eyesight and approaches its target prey stealthily, leaping on it when close enough. Prey species that have been recorded as being part of the diet include Diptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, Odonata, Orthoptera and Aranea. In one study, these spiders hunted and consumed individuals of sixteen species of arthropods from fourteen families and six orders. They are reported as being a predator of mosquitoes in African houses, and of insect pests such as the cotton jassid in India and Bangladesh. They are highly agile and can cover many times their own body length in a single jump. In a building where the only available prey were German cockroaches, Blattella germanica, the spiders not only survived but also bred on this monophagous diet. They are able to successfully kill prey twice their own size. Large arthropods are injected with venom but are usually overpowered by brute strength before the venom has immobilized them. There have been records of the prey flying, jumping or running away with the spider clinging to it until the victim was eventually overpowered. A study investigated the way in which these spiders stalked their prey. It was found that a mobile prey like a fly was stalked in a different manner to an immobile one such as a maggot. On a camouflaged background, the spider approached with greater stealth and jumped from a shorter distance to attack a mobile prey. This gave the spider a greater likelihood of a successful outcome without prior detection.
It was concluded based on a study that the protein fractions of Plexippus paykulli venom had bio-insecticide potential.


Plexippus paykulli is a species of jumping spider. It is native to south east Asia but has spread to other parts of the world and globe. In the United States it is called the pantropical jumping spider. It is usually associated with buildings and may be found near light sources catching insects attracted by the light. It is named in honor of Gustaf von Paykull.


Plexippus paykulli is robust, with a high carapace. It is covered with short greyish hairs with sometimes dramatic accents of red in the male. Females are 9 to 12 mm (0.35 to 0.47 in) in body length, while males are 9 to 11 mm (0.35 to 0.43 in). The sexes are easy to tell apart as the males have a black carapace and abdomen with a broad white central stripe, another broad white stripe on either side and a pair of white spots near the posterior end of the abdomen. The stripe continues to the anterior eyes so the face appears to have three white stripes on a black background. The female is brownish grey, the carapace being darker especially around the eyes, with a broad tan stripe that extends onto the abdomen where it breaks into two chevrons. There are two white spots on either side of the posterior end of the abdomen. Immature spiders resemble the females.


Rickenella fibula or Omphalina fibula is a species of fungus belonging to the genus Rickenella. It is orange to yellow and occurs among moss. The cap is quite small, with a diameter usually less than 1 centimetre (3⁄8 in). The stipe is relatively long. It has little odor or taste, and is regarded as nonpoisonous.
According to molecular analysis, the species is more closely related to certain polypores and crust fungi than other gilled mushrooms. A similar species is Rickenella swartzii.


This lichen is fruticose, with very long stems and short, even side branches.  It is considered the longest lichen in the world. The stems are usually 15 to 30 cm in length but are sometimes much longer. It is pale green to silvery-yellow. It has a distinct central cord, which is white.
U. longissima may grow to be 20 feet in length. It predominantly reproduces asexually through fragmentation. Spore-producing structures are rarely observed. It can double its length each year.


Bondarzewia berkeleyi, commonly known as Berkeley's polypore, or stump blossoms, is a species of polypore fungus in the family Russulaceae. It is a parasitic species that causes butt rot in oaks and other hardwood trees. A widespread fungus, it is found in Africa, Asia, Europe, and North America.
Elias Magnus Fries described the species as Polyporus berkeleyi in 1851. It was moved to the genus Bondarzewia in 1941.
The fan- or shelf-shaped caps grow in overlapping clumps from the bases of oak trees, each capable of growing to 25.5 cm (10 in) diameter. They are various shades of white to pale grey, cream, beige or yellow. The pore surface is white, as is the spore print. The round spores are 7–9 by 6–8 μm and have marked amyloid ridges. The tough white flesh can be up to 3 cm (1.2 in) thick and has a mild taste, which can be bitter in older specimens. The outer edges that cut easily with a knife are quite tender.  Although Bondarzewia berkeleyi has been compared to eating shoe leather, some field guides list it as edible. It may be able to be used to strengthen other flavors in dishes, much like tofu. It can also reportedly be used as a meat substitute. Other field guides list it as inedible.
In China it has been recorded from Guangdong and Hunan provinces. The fruit bodies appear over July to October in the United States. A survey of host trees in North Carolina found that it almost always grew on oaks, being recorded from the white oak (Quercus alba),  scarlet oak (Q. coccinea),  southern red oak (Q. falcata),  chestnut oak (Q. prinus) and eastern black oak (Q. velutina), as well as bird cherry (Prunus pensylvanica).


Like G. lucidum, G. tsugae is non-poisonous but generally considered inedible, because of its solid woody nature; however, teas and extracts made from its fruiting bodies supposedly allow medicinal use of the compounds it contains, although this is controversial within the scientific community. A hot water extraction or tea can be very effective for extracting the polysaccharides; however, an alcohol or alcohol/glycerin extraction method is more effective for the triterpenoids.
The fresh, soft growth of the "lip" of G. tsugae can be sautéed and prepared much like other edible mushrooms. While in this nascent stage it is not woody, it can still be tough and chewy.


Like G. lucidum, G. tsugae is purported to have medicinal properties including use for dressing a skin wound. Phylogenetic analysis has begun to better differentiate between many closely related species of Ganoderma; however, there is still disagreement as to which have the most medicinal properties. In addition, variations within the same species as well as the growth substrate and environmental conditions all the way through to preparation can have a substantial effect on the medicinal value of the product.


In contrast to Ganoderma lucidum, to which it is closely related and which it closely resembles, G. tsugae tends to grow on conifers, especially hemlocks.


Parasola plicatilis is a small saprotrophic mushroom with a plicate cap (diameter up to 35 mm). It is a widely distributed species in Europe and North America. This ink cap species is a decomposer which can be found in grassy areas, alone, scattered or in small groups. The fruiting bodies grow at night after rain, and will self decompose after spore dispersion is achieved. Otherwise, they are quickly dried up in morning sunlight, or will eventually collapse beneath the weight of their caps.
Though nonpoisonous, the species is inedible.
The overall body resembles a cocktail umbrella. The cap is papery, and the species has no veil. Two similar species, P. hemerobia and P. leiocephala, have similar microscopic features but appear in different habitats and have unique spores.


Ramaria stricta, commonly known as the strict-branch coral is a coral fungus of the genus Ramaria. It has a cosmopolitan distribution, and grows on dead wood, stumps, trunks, and branches of both deciduous and coniferous trees. Its fruit body is up to 10 cm (3+7⁄8 in) tall, made of multiple slender, compact, and vertical parallel branches. Its color is typically light tan to vinaceous-brown. All parts of the mushroom will bruise when handled. There are several lookalike corals that can usually be distinguished from R. stricta by differences in coloration, bruising reaction, or microscopic features. The fungus is inedible due to its unpleasant odor and bitter taste.


The fruitbody of Phlebia radiata is resupinate—flattened against its substrate like a crust. It is wrinkled, orange to pinkish in color, and has a waxy texture. It is circular to irregular in shape, reaching a diameter up to 10 cm (3.9 in), although neighbouring fruitbodies may be fused together to form larger complexes up to 30 cm (12 in) in diameter. The soft texture of the flesh hardens when the fruitbody becomes old. The fungus is inedible.
In mass, the spores are white. Microscopic examination reveals additional spore details: they are smooth, allantoid (sausage-shaped) to elliptical, and inamyloid, measuring 3.5–7 by 1–3 µm.
Similar species include Botryobasidium vagum, Meruliporia incrassata, Piloderma bicolor, and Serpula lacrymans.


Phlebia radiata, commonly known as the wrinkled crust, is a common species of crust fungus in the family Meruliaceae. It is widespread in the Northern Hemisphere. It grows as a wrinkled, orange to pinkish waxy crust on the decaying wood of coniferous and deciduous trees, in which it causes a white rot. The fungus was first described scientifically in 1821 by Elias Magnus Fries.


Podaxis pistillaris is a very distinctive relative of the puffballs. It grows to 15 cm high and has a hard, woody stem. The large cap, which protects the blackish spore-bearing tissue, splits, and usually falls away at maturity, allowing the spores to be dispersed by wind. Large numbers may appear after soaking rains. It thrives in deserts and semi-deserts of Australia and other countries, often found on termite mounds in South Africa. In the Hawaiian Islands, it is frequently encountered along roadsides and in disturbed areas on the dry sides of the islands, especially in the Kona area of Hawaii and the Kihei area of Maui.
Older synonyms for this species include Lycoperdon pistillare L. (1771)  and Scleroderma pistillare (L.) Pers. (1801).


A. pantherina contains the psychoactive compound muscimol, but is used as an entheogen much less often than its much more distinguishable relative Amanita muscaria. The average potency of the A. pantherina is greater than that of A. muscaria, but it is unclear by how much. The ibotenic acid concentration is usually higher in A. pantherina, particularly dark brown specimens. A. pantherina var. pantherinoides is considered inedible and possibly poisonous. Varieties multisquamosa and velatipes are considered poisonous.


The panther cap is an uncommon mushroom, found in both deciduous, especially beech and, less frequently, coniferous woodland and rarely meadows throughout Europe, western Asia in late summer and autumn. It has also been recorded from South Africa, where it is thought to have been accidentally introduced with trees imported from Europe, Asia and on Vancouver Island, in British Columbia, Canada. It is common in urban areas from winter to spring.
It is an ectomycorrhizal fungus, living in root symbiosis with a tree, deriving photosynthesised nutrients from it and providing soil nutrients in return.


Cap: 5–18 cm wide, hemispheric at first, then convex to plano-convex, deep brown to hazel-brown to pale ochraceous brown, densely distributed warts that are pure white to sordid cream, minutely verruculose, floccose, easily removable. Viscid when wet, with a short striate margin. The flesh is white, unchanging when injured.
Gills: adnexed to free, close to crowded, white becoming greyish, truncate.
Spores: white in deposit, smooth, broadly ellipsoid to ellipsoid to elongate, inamyloid, infrequently globose. 8–14 x 6–10 µm.
Stipe: 5–15 cm long × .6–3 cm wide, subcyclindric, somewhat narrowing upward, white, becoming slightly tannish in age, stuffed then hollow, finely floccose becoming smooth above the ring, and with small appressed squamules or creamy floccose material below. The volva is white, becoming grey with age, forming one or sometimes two narrow hoop-like rings just above the bulbous base. The flesh is white, unchanging when injured.
Odour: Unpleasant or like raw potatoes
Other than the brownish cap with white warts, distinguishing features of Amanita pantherina include the collar-like roll of volval tissue at the top of the basal bulb, and the elliptical, inamyloid spores.
Contrary to the Amanita rubescens the panther cap  does not color red/pink ("blush") when the flesh is damaged, hence its name "false blusher". This is a key feature in differentiating both species.


Cyclophora packardi, Packard's wave moth or Packard's wave, is a moth in the  family Geometridae. It is found in North America, from Maine to Florida, west to Texas and north to Iowa and Ohio.
The wingspan is 17–23 mm. The wings are yellowish to orangish-brown. Adults are on wing from April/May to September.
The larvae possibly feed on Comptonia and/or Quercus species.


Polites themistocles, the tawny-edged skipper, is a North American butterfly in the family Hesperiidae.


Most of the day, males perch on grass blades or stems to await females.  Females lay their greenish white eggs on or near the host plant.  The larva lives in a nest by tying leaves together with silk.  The variable brown larva is indistinguishable from closely related larvae.  The overwintering stage is the pupa.  The tawny-edged skipper has one brood per year in the northeast and northwest and two or three broods per year in the deep south.


This skipper flies from June to early August in the north and west, May to August in the east, and May to early November in the deep south.


Eumarozia malachitana, the sculptured moth, is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae. It is found in eastern North America, where it has been recorded from Alabama, Arkansas, California, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, New Jersey, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Ontario, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia and West Virginia.
The wingspan is 11.5–16 mm. Adults are on wing in July and from September to October.
The larvae feed on Ostrya virginiana, Diospyros virginiana, Pyrus communis, Cassia, Gomphrena and Manilkara species.


Upperside opaque black. Forewings and hindwings crossed from above the tornal area on the hindwing to near the apex of the forewing by a semi-hyaline broad pale blue medial band which is broadest in the middle, more or less greenish and macular anteriorly; the portion of the band that crosses interspaces 6, 7 and 8 on the hindwing white; beyond the band on the hindwing there is a sub-terminal line of blue slender lunules. Underside similar, ground colour dark brown. Hindwing: a short comparatively broad sub-basal band from costa to sub-costal vein, and the postdiscal area between the medial blue band and the sub-terminal lunules velvety black traversed by the pale veins and transversely, except in interspaces 6 and 7, by narrow crimson lines; lastly, a crimson spot near the tornal angle with an admarginal yellowish-white spot below it. Antenna, head, thorax and abdomen brown, the head and thorax suffused with greenish grey; beneath: the palpi, thorax and abdomen touched with dingy white, the abdomen with two whitish lateral lines.
Male has abdominal fold within grey, furnished with a tuft of long, somewhat stiff white hairs.
Race teredon, Felder. (South India and Sri Lanka) is distinguishable in both sexes by the narrower medial band that crosses both forewing and hindwing. Colour brighter, the contrast between the green of the upper and the blue of the lower portion of the medial band more vivid. Hindwing more produced posteriorly at apex of vein 3, where it forms an elongate tooth or short tail.
Variously reported with wingspans between 55 and 75 mm, the common bluebottle has black upper wings and brown lower wings. Both forewings and hindwings are marked by a central spot in the form of a blue or blue-green triangle, with apex pointing toward the body.


The adult common bluebottle feeds on nectar from a variety of flowering herbs. The larvae feed primarily on the leaves of trees in the families Lauraceae, Myrtaceae, Sapotaceae, and Rutaceae. In particular, G.s. sarpedon and G.s. teredon often feed on leaves of the cinnamon bark tree (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) or of the Indian laurel (Litsea sebifera).
The list of larval food plants also include Alseodaphne semecarpifolia, Cinnamomum camphora, Cinnamomum macrocarpum, Cinnamomum malabathrum, Litsea chinensis, Polyalthia longifolia, Miliusa tomentosa, Persea macrantha and Michelia doltospa.
The larvae of G. s. choredon, native to Australia, feed on many native Australian species of genera Cryptocarya and Litsea; and virtually all subspecies feed on leaves of the camphor tree, Cinnamomum camphora, which is native to China but has been naturalized throughout south-east Asia.


Graphium sarpedon, the common bluebottle or blue triangle in Australia, is a species of swallowtail butterfly that is found in South and Southeast Asia, as well as eastern Australia. There are approximately sixteen subspecies with differing geographical distributions.


Ypthima huebneri, the common fourring, is a species of Satyrinae butterfly found in Asia.


Upperside rich orange yellow, forewing has costal margin dusky black on the basal half flecked with brown; two oval black spots in cell, a quadrate subcostal black patch just beyond the discocellulars, a second more oblique irregular black patch beyond this, and three large oval discal black spots, with a smaller dusky patch beyond the lowest spot. Hindwing uniform, with a large subcostal black patch. Forewings and hindwings with a common sinuous transverse subterminal black band, and a terminal dusky band flecked with golden brown; the black subterminal band on the hindwing with an outer border of blue lunules margined outwardly by a slender black line; the forewing just below the costa, between the black patches beyond the cell and between the outer black patch and subterminal band, prominently pale yellow. In the female, an incomplete series of yellow lunules also borders the subterminal black band on the outer side.
Underside dull ochraceous brown, the basal half of both forewings and hindwings and a broad terminal margin darker brown; the wings entirely and thickly covered with slender transverse dark brown striae; irregular cell-marks on the forewing and a transverse highly sinuous subterminal band of dark blue lunules on both wings: these lunules defined by slender black lines on both sides. Bases of the wings with a clothing of long stiff black hairs, which are blunt at their apices, and on the forewing extend along the basal half of the costal margin, projecting outwards beyond it. Antennae, head and thorax very dark brown, abdomen fulvous (tawny); beneath very hairy; palpi, thorax and abdomen dark brown, the abdomen towards the apex paler.
Wingspan of 63–68 mm.


Nymphalis xanthomelas, the scarce tortoiseshell, is a species of nymphalid butterfly found in eastern Europe and Asia. This butterfly is also referred as yellow-legged tortoiseshell or large tortoiseshell (however, in Europe, "large tortoiseshell" is usually reserved for Nymphalis polychloros).


Ponometia erastrioides, the small bird-dropping moth or small bird lime moth, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. It is found in North America, where it has been recorded from the eastern United States and south-central Canada (Quebec, Ontario, Saskatchewan). The habitat consists of fields, waste places and riparian areas.
The wingspan is 16–20 mm. The forewings are white with large diagonal blackish patch in the distal half. The hindwings are whitish, basally with greyish-brown shading distally. Adults are on wing from May to September.
The larvae feed on Ambrosia species. They are tan to nearly black or sometimes pale green. Full-grown larvae reach a length of 25 mm.


Prosotas dubiosa, the tailless lineblue or small purple lineblue, is a blue butterfly (Lycaenidae) found in Asia to Australia. The species was first described by Georg Semper in 1879.


Anthopleura xanthogrammica, or the giant green anemone, is a species of intertidal sea anemone of the family Actiniidae.
Other common names for this anemone include green surf anemone, giant green sea anemone,  green anemone, giant tidepool anemone, anemone, and rough anemone.


Generally, A. xanthogrammica is found along the low to mid intertidal zones of the Pacific Ocean, from Alaska to southern California and sometimes downwards to Panama, where cold water swells can occur.


Main predators of A. xanthogrammica include: the leather seastar Dermasterias imbricata, the nudibranch Aeolidia papillosa and the snail Epitonium tinctum (both feed on the tentacles), and the snails Opalia chacei and Opalia funiculata and the sea spider Pycnogonum stearnsi (that feed on the column).
The anemone feeds on sea urchins, small fish, and crabs, but detached mussels seem to be the main food source. There are rare instances where the giant green anemone has consumed seabirds. It is not known whether the birds were alive or dead when engulfed by the anemone.


The column width  and height can reach a maximum of 17.5 and 30 cm, respectively. The crown of tentacles can be as wide as 25 cm in diameter, while the column, itself, tends to be widest at the base in order to offer a more stable connection to the rocks.
It has a broad, flat oral disk surface and no striping, banding, or other markings.


Because it is widely known, L. terrestris goes under a variety of common names. In Britain, it is primarily called the common earthworm or lob worm (though the name is also applied to a marine polychaete). In North America, the term nightcrawler (or vitalis) is also used. In Canada, it is also called the dew worm, or "Grandaddy Earthworm". In several Germanic languages, it is called variants of "rain worm", for example in German Gemeiner Regenwurm ("common rain worm") or in Danish Stor regnorm ("large rain worm"). In the rest of the world, many references are just to the scientific name, though with occasional reference to the above names.
Although this is not the most abundant earthworm, even in its native range, it is a very conspicuous and familiar earthworm species in garden and agricultural soils of the temperate zone, and is frequently seen on the surface, unlike most other earthworms. It is also used as the example earthworm for millions of biology students around the world, even in areas where the species does not exist. However, 'earthworm' can be a source of confusion since, in most of the world, other species are more typical. For example, through much of the unirrigated temperate areas of the world, the "common earthworm" is actually Aporrectodea (=Allolobophora) trapezoides, which in those areas is a similar size and dark color to L. terrestris.


Lumbricus terrestris is a large, reddish worm species thought to be native to Western Europe, now widely distributed around the world (along with several other lumbricids). In some areas where it is an introduced species, some people consider it to be a significant pest for out-competing native worms.
Through much of Europe, it is the largest naturally occurring species of earthworm, typically reaching 20 to 25 cm in length when extended.


Lumbricus terrestris is a detritivore that eats mainly dead leaves on the soil floor and A-horizon mineral soil. Preference is associated with high concentrations of calcium and likely nitrogen. As a result, basswood, ash and aspen are most favored, followed by sugar maple and maple varieties. Oak is less palatable due to its low concentration of calcium, but will be eaten if no higher calcium leaves are available.
While they generally feed on plant material, they have been observed feeding on dead insects, soil micro-organisms, and feces.


Arenaeus cribrarius, the speckled swimming crab, is a species of swimming crab in the family Portunidae.


The crabs can be found from Massachusetts, U.S. to areas in Argentina. They are common in shallow water on sand in ocean beaches, but can be found in depths up to two hundred feet (61 m) deep. They are typically found in temperate or tropical waters between eleven and twenty-nine degrees Celsius with a salinity between twenty-eight and thirty-five PSU. Arenaeus cribrarius often bury themselves entirely in sand, but leave a gap for water to pass to their gills. The crabs maintain the gap by clearing the sand with their claws and hairs around their mouth area. Arenaeus cribrarius is a nocturnal and solitary organism, which only interacts with other crabs of its species when it wants to breed.


The Speckled swimming crab eats primarily detritus, but have also been recorded eating fish, mollusks, and other crustaceans. They ambush prey that go near their buried bodies. Speckled swimming crabs have been recorded capturing sea turtle hatchlings. Sea turtles are the primary predator to Arenaeus cribrarius. The crabs use their coloration and spines to ward off such predators.


In some parts of the world Arenaeus cribrarius is important in fisheries, particularly along the Brazilian coast. The crab is harvested for its meat and residual proteins are used to produce fertilizers and feed for livestock. Along with the consumption of meat, the Speckled swimming crab is harvested for its byproducts. Chitin can be extracted from the crab and used in products like adhesives, cosmetics, photographic emulsions, and anticoagulants.


They share a very similar overall shape with the Atlantic Blue Crab. The carapace of a Speckled swimming crab is light brown, light maroon, or olive with many white or tan irregular round spots. The males tend to be more colorful. The carapace can reach lengths between 4.5 and 6 inches wide (~120-150mm). Each side of the carapace consists of nine lateral teeth with the last extending outward. Between the eye sockets there are six partially fused frontal teeth.
Arenaeus cribrarius has ten legs since it is a part of the order decapoda. The first four pairs of legs have yellow tips and are used for walking. These are referred to as broad pereopods. They fifth pair of pereopods are used for swimming. They are a wide flattened paddle shape. Overall, Arenaeus cribrarius can weigh as much as forty-five grams (1.6 ounces).


Lepas anatifera, commonly known as the pelagic gooseneck barnacle or smooth gooseneck barnacle, is a species of barnacle in the family Lepadidae. These barnacles are found, often in large numbers, attached by their flexible stalks to floating timber, the hulls of ships, piers, pilings, seaweed, and various sorts of flotsam.


Lepas anatifera has a cosmopolitan distribution and is found in tropical and subtropical seas worldwide. Because it frequently is attached to objects carried into colder seas by currents, such as the North Atlantic Drift, it often is found well away from its place of origin and in waters too cold for it to reproduce. In this way, it has been documented in Norway, the Shetland Islands, the Faeroe Islands, Iceland, and Spitsbergen.


The body or capitulum of Lepas anatifera is supported by a long, flexible stalk or peduncle. There are five smooth, translucent plates, edged with scarlet and separated by narrow gaps. The plates have growth lines parallel with their margins and a few faint radial sculpture lines. Inside the capitulum, the barnacle has a head, a thorax, and a vestigial abdomen. A number of brown, filamentous cirri or feeding tentacles project from between the plates. The peduncle is tough and a purplish-brown colour. The capitulum may grow to a length of 5 centimetres (2.0 in) and the peduncle varies between 4 centimetres (1.6 in) and 80 centimetres (31 in).