There is evidence to suggest that the presence of Hemidactylus frenatus has negatively impacted native gecko populations throughout tropical Asia, Central America and the Pacific.
Some species which have been displaced include:
Lepidodactylus lugubris
Hemidactylus garnotti
The genus Nactus on the Mascarene Islands (three species in this genus are now considered to be extinct)
As an introduced species, they pose a threat through the potential introduction of new parasites and diseases, but have potential negative impacts which extend beyond this. The primary cause for concern appears to exist around their exclusionary behaviour and out-competition of other gecko species. Mechanistically, three explanations have been derived to justify the capacity of H. frenatus to outcompete other gecko species:
Possessing a smaller body size. They fail to displace native species larger than themselves, such as the robust velvet gecko.
Male H. frenatus displaying higher levels of aggression than females of other gecko species (particularly parthenogenic species with asexual females).
Sexual females displaying an increased capacity to compete in comparison to asexual females.
These differences provide H. frenatus a competitive edge in the limited urban areas they preferentially inhabit, particularly those with high degrees of habitat fragmentation. To compound this, they also are capable of operating on higher densities, which leads to an increase in gecko sightings and biomass in an area, even after reducing native species' density. The common house gecko also displays a higher tolerance to high light levels, which may allow for an increased risk-reward pay off in hunting endeavours. There is also some limited evidence for cannibalism, hunting on other small gecko species, particularly juveniles. Most of this evidence is in laboratory conditions, with several studies failing to find evidence of cannibalism in the wild for this species.
Some males are more territorial than others. Territorial males will display larger heads, with a more pronounced head shape. This increase in head size incurs the cost of a poorer performance in escape sprint time. This suggests selective pressure prioritises the biting force capacity of the male, over their capacity to escape quickly. On the contrary, increases in female head size are met with a proportionate increase in hind limb length and no decrease in speed. Though both sexes use escape sprinting as a survival strategy, males are more likely to need to stop and fight using biting, due to the reduced mobility caused by disproportionate head to hind leg size, which in turn is correlated with localised territorial behaviours.
The success of the common house gecko can also be explained through other elements of competition, such as postural displays and movement patterns. An example of this is how the common house gecko can trigger an "avoidance response" in the mourning gecko, causing it to avoid a specific area where food may become available. Though triggering avoidance in other species, they themselves can tolerate the presence of other gecko species well, regardless of whether those species are smaller or larger, faster or slower, or more physically aggressive or not. This allows them greater access to feeding areas and territories, making them a highly successful invasive species.


The common house gecko is ectothermic ("cold-blooded") and displays a variety of means of thermoregulating through behaviour. Its physiology has ramifications for its distribution and nature of interaction with native species, as well as reproductive success as an introduced species.
Metabolically, the demand of the common house gecko is not significantly variable from other lizard species of a similar size, with oxygen consumption appearing congruent with trends observed in other tropical, subtropical and temperate species of gecko. Thermal independence exists between 26–35 degrees, with some capacity to self regulate temperature. This means that where the environmental temperature is 26–35 degrees, the common house gecko can modify body temperature through behavioural adaptations. Breathing rates of geckos are temperature dependent above this maximal heat, but independent as it grows colder. There are behavioural mechanisms of thermoregulation present, such as the selection of sunlight and the substrates on which they sit.
The common house gecko can be best defined as quinodiurnal. This means they thermoregulate during the daytime and forage at night. An active form of this thermoregulation includes the presence of the Gecko in lighter environments, proximal to cracks in the substrate.  As such, there is a close relationship between activity levels and correlated air temperature. Timing of the circadian rhythm of the common house gecko is further impacted by light levels. This rhythm tends to involve the highest population presence around midnight, with highest activity levels just after sunset, with a gradual reduction until dawn. Daily cycle differences from place to place can generally be explained by environmental factors such as human interaction, and structural features. A peak in hunting activity after dark places them in an ideal spot to take advantage of invertebrate congregation around artificial lighting in the urban environment.
Due to this level of dependence on the environment, drops in temperature may act as a leading indicator for reduced gecko sightings in the medium term. Acute weather events such as rain or wind will result in acute decreases in Gecko sightings within that environment. It is unsure what impact these phenomena may have on the long term on distribution and the capacity of the common house gecko to compete with other gecko species.
There is some weak evidence to suggest a trend towards higher temperature for females, which has an evolutionary advantage of increasing the speed of egg development. However, there is no statistically significant data to support this.
Due to them being a species which is adapted for tropical or subtropical environments, there appear to be few physiological adaptations designed to prevent water loss. This may limit their capacity to thrive in arid or semi-arid environments.


H. frenatus has a similar gonad structure to the remainder of the gecko family. It is possible to differentiate the sex of larger common house geckos, with individuals which are larger than 40 mm (1.6 in) typically displaying differentiated gonads. Differentiated gonads are most clearly seen with a swelling at the entrance to the cloaca caused by the copulatory organs in males. Females lay a maximum of two hard-shelled eggs at any single time, with each descending from a single oviduct.  Up to four eggs can exist within the ovaries in differing stages of development. This shortens the potential turn around between egg-laying events in gravid females. Females produce a single egg per ovary per cycle. This means they are considered monoautochronic ovulatory.
Within the testes, mature sperm are found in the male geckos year-round and are able to be stored within the oviduct of the female. Sperm can be stored for a period of time as long as 36 weeks. This provides a significantly increased chance of colonisation of new habitats, requiring smaller populations to be transplanted for a chance of success. However, longer storage time of sperm within the female is associated with negative survival outcomes and hatching, possibly due to sperm age. Sperm is specifically stored between the uterine and infundibular components of the oviduct. The capacity to store sperm enables a degree of asynchrony between ovulation, copulation and laying of eggs. The capacity to store sperm is useful in island colonisation events, providing females which may be isolated the capacity to reproduce even if they have been separated from a male for some time. In laboratories, one mating event may produce as many as seven viable egg clutches. This eliminates the need for parthenogenesis and allows the young to include both male and female offspring, with one mating event leading to multiple clutches of eggs being laid. This reduced need for asexual reproduction increases the fitness of young through hybrid vigour and increased diversity. As well as this, sexually reproducing geckos are reported to be more robust and have higher survival rates than those which reproduce asexually.
There is a positive correlation between size and viability of eggs, with larger geckos having eggs which were more likely to survive. There is also a correlation between warmer year-round temperatures and consistent food supply with reproductive seasonality, with Geckos with constant food and temperatures being less likely to develop fat deposits on their stomach, and more likely to be constantly reproductive.


Two distinct karyotypes of the common house gecko appear to exist, one with 40 chromosomes and one with 46 chromosomes. This could be explained through an intraspecific variation of karyotype, or the possibility of two distinct species being misidentified. Morphological analysis seems particularly congruent with the suggestion that they indeed are different species. Taxonomic revision may be required as a greater understanding of phylogenetic trees and population structures is developed.


Hemideina thoracica, commonly known as the Auckland tree wētā or tokoriro is a cricket-like insect (within the family Anostostomatidae). It is endemic to New Zealand and is found over most of the North Island, except for the Wellington region and regions 900 metres above sea level. This species is an arboreal, herbivorous generalist however, it is also thought to be polyphagous and is found in all wooded habitats, including forest, scrub and suburban gardens.
H. thoracica is morphologically uniform but chromosomally polymorphic. It comprises at least eight chromosomal races with diploid numbers from 2n=11 (XO) to 2n=23 (XO). There are hybrid zones where some of the chromosomal races meet. Phylogenetically, it is most closely related to the other North Island species (H. crassidens and H. trewicki). The conservation status of H. thoracica is "not threatened" however, the chromosome race on Karikari Peninsular (2n=23/24) is listed as "nationally vulnerable".


Hemideina thoracica was first described by Scottish zoologist Adam White in 1846, but at that time included in the genus Deinacrida. It was later made the type species for the wētā genus Hemideina, described in 1869 by Walker.


The Auckland tree wētā, Hemideina thoracica is endemic to New Zealand and has a wide distribution over the northern two-thirds of the North Island. It is abundant in central and north North Island where it inhabits forest or scrub at lowland elevation. As a nocturnal and arboreal herbivore this species uses tree cavities to rest and conceal itself in during the day before emerging at night to feed. It is parapatric with two other Hemideina spp. in the North Island: H. crassidens and H. trewicki  and in warmer areas it is thought to competitively exclude H. crassidens which is distributed in the lower North Island and north-west of the South Island.


Like other tree wētā Hemideina thoracica forages arboreally at night, eating mostly leaves and some fruit and seeds from a range of different plants. Recently, it has been suggested that this species feeds selectively on a range of plant species and is omnivorous with invertebrates and fruit and seeds included in the diet. Plants are selectively eaten with species such as Mahoe (Melicytus ramiflorus) or Karamu (Coprosma robusta) preferred. However, Auckland tree wētā also feed on small insects and are thought to be polyphagous. H. thoracica inhabiting higher elevation sites have been shown to consume more invertebrates and fewer plant species than those at low elevation habitats.


Hemideina thoracica are large-bodied as adults (3–7 g), being up to 40mm in length. The abdomen is brown and the pronotum pale with dark hieroglyph-like markings. This body colouration makes H. thoracica easily distinguishable from the Wellington tree wētā (H. crassidens) with which it is parapatric. As in other Hemideina spp. spines are present on the hind legs which function in defense. Morphometric analysis of spination patterns has shown that both H. thoracica and H. crassidens lack the mid-tibial ‘1/3 back’ spine which differentiates these species from all other Hemideina spp..  Hemideina thoracica has the thinnest femur and tibia compared with all other New Zealand tree wētā (Hemideina spp). Adults are sexually dimorphic with males having enlarged mandibles used for fighting other males.


Hemideina thoracica is chromosomally polymorphic meaning that differential chromosomal arrangement occurs among populations of this species. Nine distinct chromosome races each comprising a different karyotype have been described and these range in diploid numbers from 2n=11 (XO) to 2n=23 (XO). Five different hybrid zones have been located where, in different combinations six of the nine chromosome races come into contact with one another.  Three of these zones (Mt. Camel, Karikari and Waitangi) involve northern chromosome races which likely originated in the Pliocene, whereas the southern races in the Bream Bay and Taupo zones are likely to be much younger.  Despite having differing chromosome numbers, morphology of H. thoracica is uniform (see 'Morphology' above).


Hemideina thoracica is capable of producing sound using stridulation of the metathoracic legs and the abdomen. Both males and females produce a rasping sound when disturbed by raising and extending the legs above the body followed by a defensive kick while tightly holding the legs against the abdomen. Using abdominal oscillation, males also generate an intraspecific song when in close contact with one another. However, H. thoracica has poor mate recognition systems and forms sterile hybrids with H. crassidens and H. trewicki where they are sympatric in the southern North Island.
As a nocturnal species, H. thoracica occupy cavities during the day and occupancy patterns have been shown to be influenced by both season and sex of previous occupants. Females tend to avoid cavities in which other females reside and are found in cavities alone however, this changes during summer when females form harems Males and females which were previously living apart begin living together in early summer.


It has been suggested that Auckland tree wētā have a polygynandrous mating system whereby both males and females mate with multiple partners. This species is a hemimetabolous insect whose eggs hatch in Spring with a minimum of eight instars required to reach adulthood. Females lay eggs in the soil and provide no maternal care.


The conservation status of Hemideina thoracica is "not threatened" however, the chromosome race on Karikari Peninsular (2n=23/24) is listed as "nationally vulnerable". Artificial refuges have been used to monitor populations of H. thoracica and H. crassidens and could potentially be used in conservation management of these species by providing available habitat.


Hemizonia congesta, known by the common name hayfield tarweed, is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae, native to western North America.


Hemizonia congesta is a spindly, thin-stemmed annual herb growing erect to 10–80 centimetres (3.9–31.5 in) in height. Like other tarweeds the stem and foliage are glandular and have an odor reminiscent of tar. Most of the long, narrow, pointed leaves are located on the lower portion of the stem below the branching flower stalks.
The inflorescences are covered in glandular hairs and hold daisy-like flower heads. Each head has a center of yellowish dark-tipped disc florets and a fringe of bright yellow to white ray florets, often with purplish striping on the undersides. The ray florets are toothed or lobed on the tips, with the middle tooth thinner than the others.


There are many Hemizonia congesta subspecies, which can vary in appearance. They include:
Hemizonia congesta subsp. calyculata — Mendocino tarplant
Hemizonia congesta subsp. clevelandii
Hemizonia congesta subsp. congesta
Hemizonia congesta subsp. leucocephala — hayfield tarplant
Hemizonia congesta subsp. luzulifolia
Hemizonia congesta subsp. tracyi — Tracy's tarplant


Hemizonia congesta is native to California and Oregon, where it is a common member of the flora of a number of habitats, particularly in grasslands and fields. It is a native plant in the Central Valley (California), and the California Coast Ranges.


Hepatica acutiloba, the sharp-lobed hepatica, is a herbaceous flowering plant in the buttercup family Ranunculaceae. It is sometimes considered part of the genus Anemone, as Anemone acutiloba, A. hepatica, or A. nobilis.
Each clump-forming plant grows 5 to 19 cm (2.0 to 7.5 in) tall, flowering in the early to mid spring. The flowers are greenish-white, white, purple or pinkish in color, with a rounded shape. After flowering the fruits are produced in small, rounded columned heads, on pedicels 1 to 4 mm long. When the fruits, called achenes, are ripe they are ovoid in shape, 3.5 -4.7 mm long and 1.3-1.9 mm wide, slightly winged and tend to lack a beak.
Hepatica acutiloba is native to central eastern North America where it can be found growing in deciduous open woods, most often in calcareous soils.


Hepatica americana, the round-lobed hepatica, is a herbaceous flowering plant in the buttercup family Ranunculaceae. It is native to the eastern United States and Canada.
It is sometimes considered part of the genus Anemone, as Anemone americana, A. hepatica, or A. nobilis.


Heracleum sosnowskyi, or Sosnowsky's hogweed, is a monocarpic perennial herbaceous flowering plant in the carrot family Apiaceae. Its native range includes the central and eastern Caucasus regions of Eurasia and extends into the southern Caucasus region called Transcaucasia. The native ranges of Heracleum sosnowskyi and Heracleum mantegazzianum, a close relative, overlap in the Caucasus region. Sosnowsky's hogweed is now a common weed in the Baltic States, Belarus, Russia, Ukraine, and Poland.
Early botanists considered H. sosnowskyi to be a subspecies of H. mantegazzianum. Sosnowski's hogweed was described as a separate species by Ida P. Mandenova in 1944. The species is named in honor of the Russian botanist Dmitrii Ivanovich Sosnowsky (1885–1952), who found the species in Georgia in 1936.


Heracleum sosnowskyi is 3–5 m in height, with a straight, firm stem that can reach a diameter of 12 cm. The leaves are 50–60 cm long. The root is very firm, up to 30 cm diameter. The inflorescence is a big umbel found at the end of every stem. It blooms during July through September and produces thousands of seeds. They are easily distributed by the wind, but especially by the water.
Sosnowsky's hogweed is a monocarpic perennial, that is, after a mature plant flowers and produces seed, the entire plant including the root will die.


In Europe, Sosnowsky's hogweed is included since 2016 in the list of Invasive Alien Species of Union concern (the Union list). This implies that this species cannot be imported, cultivated, transported, commercialized, planted, or intentionally released into the environment in the whole of the European Union.


All parts of H. sosnowskyi contain phototoxic furanocoumarins. It is dangerous for humans because even small drops of plant's juice cause skin photosensitivity and burns. The plant is less dangerous for animals that have thick hair to protect them from the sun.


The plant was common only in the Caucasus area, until it started to be used as a silage plant in other parts of the Soviet Union. As a result, it quickly spread in many areas of Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine. It is now a highly invasive plant in the Baltic States, Russia, Poland, and Belarus. Many river valleys and roadsides are occupied by large stands of this weed. It is difficult to eradicate because the seeds remain viable for many years and the roots are difficult to remove. Herbicides are widely used in a fight against it, but the plant can later resprout from the roots.
The plant is also used as a shield-hedge along the roads, preventing farm animals from escaping and wild animals from getting in.
The decision to use the plant for silage was made in 1947, under Stalin's rule, so when the species later proved to be highly invasive and difficult to remove, people started to call it "Stalin's revenge".


Heracleum sphondylium, commonly known as hogweed, common hogweed or cow parsnip, is a herbaceous perennial or biennial plant, in the umbelliferous family Apiaceae that includes fennel, cow parsley, ground elder and giant hogweed. It is native to Europe and Asia. The common name eltrot may also be applied, but is not specific to this species. Umbelliferous plants are so named because of the umbrella-like arrangement of flowers they produce. The North American species Heracleum maximum (also called "cow parsnip") is sometimes included as a subspecies of H. sphondylium.
The plant provides a great deal of nectar for pollinators. It was rated in the top 10 for most nectar production (nectar per unit cover per year) in a UK plants survey conducted by the AgriLand project which is supported by the UK Insect Pollinators Initiative.


The species name sphondylium, meaning "vertebrate", refers to the shape of the segmented stem. It was described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753.


Heracleum sphondylium is a tall, roughly hairy biennial usually reaching up to 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) in height. The hollow, ridged stem with bristly hairs arises from a large tap root. The leaves can reach  50 centimetres (20 in) of length. They are once or twice pinnate, hairy and serrated, divided into 3–5 lobed segments.
Hogweed has 5-petalled pinkish or white flowers, arranged in umbels usually less than 30 cm of diameter with 15 to 30 rays. The peripheral flowers have a radial symmetry (zygomorphic). The terminal umbels are flat-topped and the outermost petals are enlarged. Flowering typically occurs between June and October.
The flowers are pollinated by insects, such as beetles, wasps and especially flies. The small fruits are schizocarps, flattened and winged, elliptical to rounded and glabrous, up to 1 cm long. The seed dispersal is by wind (anemochory).
The characteristic 'farm yardy' smell or the observation that pigs would eat the foliage and roots of hogweed is perhaps the origin of its common name. The leaves are commonly mined by the larvae of the leaf miner Phytomyza spondylii.
Heracleum sphondylium is smaller than dangerous Heracleum mantegazzianum (giant hogweed) and Heracleum sosnowskyi (Sosnowsky's hogweed), and should not be confused. However, it contains some of the same phytophototoxic compounds (furanocoumarins), albeit at lower concentrations, and there is evidence that the sap from common hogweed can also produce phytophotodermatitis (burns and rashes) when contaminated skin is exposed to sunlight. Care therefore needs to be used when cutting or trimming it, to prevent 'strimmers rash'.
The small picture-winged fly Euleia heraclei is, as its name suggests, found on hogweed.


Heracleum sphondylium has a Eurasian distribution, growing throughout Europe and eastwards to central Asia. Its native range just extends into North Africa. The species has been introduced to suitable habitats elsewhere, such as Canada and the U.S. In particular, H. sphondylium is recorded as introduced to Ontario by the Database of Vascular Plants of Canada but reports of H. sphondylium in Canada are rare.


The plant is common in grassland, herb-rich meadows, in hedges, meadows and woods, road verges and railway embankments, waste and cultivated ground.  It grows especially well on moist, improved nitrogen-rich soils. It can occur in mountain areas up to 2,500 m (8,200 ft) of altitude.


In the 18th century, people on the Kamchatka Peninsula distilled a spirit called raka from a "sweet grass" that was most likely H. sphondylium. The raka was flavored with blue-berried honeysuckle (Lonicera caerulea).
Borscht derives from an ancient soup originally cooked from pickled stems, leaves and umbels of common hogweed. The young shoots are considered excellent eating by many foragers.
In eastern European countries and especially Romania, H. sphondylium is used as an aphrodisiac and to treat gynecological and fertility problems and impotence. It is also sometimes recommended for epilepsy. However, there are no clinical studies to prove its efficacy at treating any of these problems.
The seeds can be dried and used as a spice, with a flavour similar to that of cardamom.


This species has variable characteristics and many forms have been described. The following names are accepted by The Plant List:
H. sphondylium var. akasimontanum (Koidz.) H. Ohba
H. sphondylium subsp. algeriense (Coss. ex Batt. & Trab.) Dobignard
H. sphondylium subsp. alpinum (L.) Bonnier & Layens
H. sphondylium subsp. aurasiacum (Maire) Dobignard
H. sphondylium subsp. embergeri Maire
H. sphondylium subsp. granatense (Boiss.) Briq.
H. sphondylium var. lanatum (Michx.) Dorn
H. sphondylium subsp. montanum (Schleich. ex Gaudin) Briq. (synonyms: Heracleum lanatum, Heracleum maximum)
H. sphondylium var. nipponicum (Kitag.) H. Ohba
H. sphondylium subsp. orsinii (Guss.) H.Neumayer
H. sphondylium subsp. pyrenaicum (Lam.) Bonnier & Layens
H. sphondylium subsp. sibiricum (L.) Simonk. (synonym: Heracleum sibiricum L.)
H. sphondylium subsp. suaveolens (Litard. & Maire) Dobignard
H. sphondylium subsp. ternatum (Velen.) Brummitt
H. sphondylium subsp. transsilvanicum (Schur) Brummitt
H. sphondylium subsp. trifoliolatum (Blanch.) Kerguélen
H. sphondylium var. tsaurugisanense (Honda) H. Ohba
H. sphondylium subsp. verticillatum (Pančić) Brummitt


The water parsnip (Sium suave), western water hemlock (Cicuta douglasii) and spotted water hemlock (Cicuta maculata) all have white flowers in large compound umbels, which can lead to misidentification. All water hemlock and poison hemlock are highly poisonous, but water parsnip is not. Both have clusters of small white flowers shaped like umbrellas, and have the same habitat near the shore line of lakes and rivers. Water parsnip has leaves only once compound, and water hemlock has leaves which are three times compound. Water hemlock has a large swelling at the stem base, and has bracts at the base of each small flower cluster, not at the base of the main flower head. The water parsnip has small bracts at the base of flowers and main flower head as well.  The cow parsnips (Heracleum lanatum, Heracleum maximum) are also confused in this group with similar flower groupings. However, the cow parsnips have large, broad leaves, and an unpleasant odour.


Herpetogramma bipunctalis, the southern beet webworm moth or two-spotted herpetogramma,  is a species of moth in the family Crambidae. It is found from New England to Florida, west to Texas and north to Illinois. In the south, the range extends through Central America and the Caribbean to South America.
The wingspan is about 23 mm. The forewings are light yellowish-brown with two black discal spots. The hindwings are similar in colour, but have only one discal spot and an irregular median line.
The larvae feed on various aquatic plants, including Alternanthera philoxeroides.


Herpetogramma licarsisalis, the grass webworm or pale sod-webworm, is a moth in the subfamily Spilomelinae of the family Crambidae.
It is distributed in most of the Old World tropics, including South Africa, Zimbabwe, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Togo, Sierra Leone, Sudan, Ethiopia, Egypt, Réunion, Madagascar, Saudi Arabia, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Borneo, the Philippines, New Caledonia, Australia, and New Zealand. It is an introduced species in many other parts of the world, including Hawaii, continental Spain and the Canary Islands, Portugal, Great Britain, Turkey, Cyprus, India and Sri Lanka.
The flat, elliptical eggs are deposited singly or in masses on the leaf blade's upper surface along the midrib. The caterpillars hatch after 4-6 days and undergo five instars in the following 14 days. First instar larvae are characterised by a black head capsule, whereas later instars have a brown head capsule. Mature larvae are green to brown, sometimes with a rose tint. Full-grown larvae are about 20 mm long. Pupation occurs in a loosely-woven hibernaculum and takes about 7.3 days. After eclosion from the pupa, the adult moths live for about 13 days. The moth's wingspan is about 24 mm. The species is strictly nocturnal, with all major developmental steps (mating, egg laying, hatching of the young larvae, larval feeding, moulting, pupation and eclosion) taking place at night.
The species is a pest of turf and pastures in some parts of its distribution range. The larvae feed on various grasses of the family Poaceae such as Cenchrus clandestinus, Cynodon dactylon, Echinochloa crus-galli, Ischaemum, Lolium perenne, Oryza sativa, Panicum, Paspalum dilatatum, Pennisetum, Sorghum and Zea mays, as well as on Acanthus ebracteatus in the Acanthaceae, Gomphrena globosa in the Amaranthaceae, Nephelium lappaceum in the Sapindaceae, Senna siamea in the Fabaceae, and the king fern Angiopteris evecta in the Marattiaceae. The larvae live in a tube made of the leaves of their food plant lined with silk.


The larvae feed on the leaves of grasses. Full-grown larvae reach a length of 25 mm. They have a greyish-green or yellowish-green body and a brown head.
The adult's wingspan is about 18 mm. The forewings are medium to dark greyish brown with blackish antemedial and postmedial lines and two dark spots in the median area. The hindwings are similar but slightly paler.


Hesperia comma, the silver-spotted skipper or common branded skipper, is a butterfly of the family Hesperiidae. It is known as silver-spotted skipper in Europe and common branded skipper in North America where the butterfly Epargyreus clarus, a spread-winged skipper, also has the common name of "silver-spotted skipper".


Often confused with the large skipper Ochlodes venata, this species is easily distinguished by the numerous white spots on the underside hindwings, and the tips of the upper forewings tend to be darker than those of the large skipper. Also their flight periods rarely overlap; in Britain the large skipper has all but finished when the silver-spotted takes to the wing in August. The silver-spotted skipper prefers warm calcareous sites and has a wide distribution as far south as North Africa, northwards throughout Europe to the Arctic and eastwards across Asia to China and Japan. It also has subspecies in North America. In the UK it is rare and restricted to chalk downlands of southern England.


Females lay single eggs during August and September on the leaf blades of sheep's fescue Festuca ovina, the only foodplant, and occasionally on nearby plants. The females are very fussy where they lay; most eggs in the UK are laid in short turf, up to 4 cm, and often next to patches of bare ground. This species overwinters as an egg and hatches in March. Like other skippers the larvae construct small tent-like structures from leaf blades and silk from which to feed. They enter the pupal stage after 14 to 15 weeks at the base of the foodplant. Pupation takes 10 to 14 days, and as with most butterflies the males emerge first.


Concerted conservation efforts in the UK, backed by government agencies, have seen this once-threatened species thriving in certain areas. Numbers have increased by some 1500% over the last twenty years; the number of sites has increased from just 68, with 202 new sites established. Conservation schemes have focussed on providing the silver-spotted skipper with suitable habitats, with positive results.


Barnett LK and Warren MS. Species action plan. Silver-spotted Skipper Hesperia comma. Butterfly conservation October 1995.
Captain's European Butterfly guide Archived 2019-04-18 at the Wayback Machine
Hesperia comma page The Butterflies of Norway site]
Cirrus Digital Imaging Silver-spotted skipper aka Epargyreus clarus: reference photographs - North America
Jim Asher et al. The Millennium Atlas of Butterflies of Britain and Ireland Oxford University Press
Article from The Times, 15 May 2006
The Butterfly Monitoring Scheme
Butterfly Conservation Armenia


Hesperia leonardus, the Leonard's skipper, is a butterfly of the family Hesperiidae. There are three subspecies. Next to the nominate species, these are the Pawnee skipper (ssp. pawnee), which is found in North America from western Montana and south-eastern Saskatchewan east to Minnesota, south to central Colorado and Kansas. Leonard's skipper ranges from Nova Scotia and Maine west through southern Ontario and the Great Lakes region to Minnesota, south to North Carolina, Louisiana and Missouri and the Pawnee montane skipper (ssp. montana) is endemic to the South Platte River drainage of Colorado.
The wingspan is 32–45 mm. There is one generation with adults on wing from August to October.
The larvae feed on various grasses, including Andropogon scoparius, Bouteloua gracilis, and Agrostis. Adults feed on flower nectar from various flowers, including Liatris punctata, thistles, asters, and teasel.


Hesperocallis is a genus of flowering plants that includes a single species, Hesperocallis undulata, known as the desert lily or ajo lily.
It is found in the desert areas of southwestern North America, in Northwestern Mexico, California, and Arizona.  The plant grows in Mojave Desert and Sonoran Desert habitats.


In the APG III system, adopted here, Hesperocallis is placed in the family Asparagaceae, subfamily Agavoideae, since recent molecular systematic studies (Pires et al. 2004) have confirmed a close relationship with Agave. Other classifications have included the species in its own family, Hemerocallidaceae, or placed it in the Hostaceae (Funkiaceae); both families are submerged into the Agavoideae in the APG III system. As with many of the 'lilioid monocots', prior to the use of molecular evidence in classification, it was placed in the Liliaceae.


The bulbs of the desert lily are eaten by native peoples.


Hesperotettix viridis, known generally as the snakeweed grasshopper or meadow purple-striped grasshopper, is a species of spur-throated grasshopper in the family Acrididae. It is found in North America.


Hesperotettix viridis brevipennis (Thomas, 1874)
Hesperotettix viridis nevadensis  (short-winged snakeweed grasshopper)
Hesperotettix viridis pratensis Scudder, 1897 (purple-striped grasshopper)
Hesperotettix viridis viridis (Thomas, 1872) (snakeweed grasshopper)


Hesperoyucca whipplei (syn. Yucca whipplei), the chaparral yucca, our Lord's candle, Spanish bayonet, Quixote yucca or foothill yucca, is a species of flowering plant closely related to, and formerly usually included in, the genus Yucca. It is native to southwest communities of North America.


It produces a stemless cluster of long, rigid leaves which end in a sharp point. The leaves are 20–90 centimetres (8–35+1⁄2 inches), rarely to 125 cm (49 in), long and 0.7–2 cm (1⁄4–3⁄4 in) wide, and gray-green in color. The leaf edges are finely saw-toothed.
The single inflorescence grows extremely fast, and reaches 0.9–3 metres (3–10 ft) tall, bearing hundreds of elliptical (bell-shaped) white to purplish flowers 3 cm (1+1⁄4 in) in diameter on a densely branched panicle up to 70 cm (28 in) broad, covering the upper half of the inflorescence. The fruit is a dry winged capsule, which splits open at maturity to release the seeds.
The plant takes several (usually 5+) years to reach maturity and flower, doing so in April–May, at which point it usually dies. Most subspecies produce offshoots from the base, so that although the parent plant flowers and dies, a cluster of clones around its base continue to grow and reproduce. It may also grow back from its base after much of its foliage has been scorched off by the wildfires that frequent its range.


The taxonomy of H. whipplei is complex and controversial. Hesperoyucca was described as a genus by George Engelmann as long ago as 1892, but it has taken recent DNA analysis to confirm that they are genetically distinct from Yucca.
Among those botanists who have treated (or still treat) it as a species of Yucca, six subspecies have been recognised; others have regarded them as varieties.
Hochstätter's subspecies are:
Yucca whipplei ssp. whipplei
Yucca whipplei ssp. caespitosa
Yucca whipplei ssp. intermedia
Yucca whipplei ssp. percursa
Yucca whipplei ssp. newberryi
Yucca whipplei ssp. eremica
The plant treated as the subspecies Y. whipplei subsp. newberryi has been shown to be genetically distinct, and is often treated as a distinct species, Hesperoyucca newberryi. It is native further east, in Arizona, and differs in the capsules being unwinged or with only slight wings.


It is native to southern California in the United States and Baja California in Mexico, where it occurs mainly in chaparral, coastal sage scrub, and oak woodland plant communities at altitudes of 0–2,500 metres (8,200 feet).


It is pollinated by the California yucca moth (Tegeticula maculata), a relationship which has become a classic example of symbiosis. The female yucca moth collects up to a dozen sacks of pollen grains called pollinia and forms them into a massive ball. She then flies to another plant and lands on the ovary of a flower. Standing with her head near the stigma, she inserts her ovipositor into the ovary wall and lays a single egg. She then rubs her pollen mass against the central stigmatic depression, ensuring pollination. The pollinated ovary will now produce many seeds, ensuring an ample food supply for the larva. Although many associations of Yucca and yucca moth exist, Tegeticula muculata and Hesperoyucca whipplei form an exclusive relationship.


Hesperoyucca whipplei is used in xeriscaping in Southern California, but reportedly is difficult to grow outside of its native range (although it is widely available from specialist nurseries in the United Kingdom). It is extremely drought tolerant and thrives in clay soils.
It has been used extensively by Native Americans. Yucca species such as Y. whipplei have been documented to have been used as a fiber and food source by Native Americans in the Southwest cultural region, prior to European settlement. Archaeological evidence shows that use of yucca species extends to approximately 5,000 years ago within groups such as the Serrano of the San Bernardino Mountains and San Gabriel Mountains of the transverse mountain ranges of Southern California. The Serrano harvested the hearts of the plant during the spring growing season. Yucca whipplei grows on the rocky slopes and washes of the chaparral area of the transverse mountains of Southern California up to approximately 1,200 m (4,000 ft) above mean sea level. Harvested plants were chosen based on the growth of the stalk; the hearts were the preferred portion of the plant, and would be harvested before the stalk was fully developed. The heart contains the sugars stored to rapidly grow a stalk to flower, and become bitter as the stalk grows in height. The hearts would then be roasted in stone lined pits (earth oven) over several hours in a manner similar to that of agave species. Once cooked, the hearts would be removed and allowed to cool before eating. Uneaten portions could be dried for storage. Though slightly bitter, the stalk and flowers can be harvested and used as food sources as well. The stalks can be prepared roasted in a manner similar to the hearts, while the petals were often parboiled.
The long leaves of species such as the Y. whipplei are made of strong fibers which can be pounded and scraped to expose long threads which run the length of the leaf. The leaves could be processed in many ways to remove the outer layer of leaf material which could be processed into threads and cords, used for basketry, blankets, and sandals. Green leaves can be heated over coals or directly on flames to heat the leaves. Cooking the leaves removes some of the saponins and allows for easier scraping. Ethnographic accounts dating to 1938 describes the preparation of leaves for fibers as any one of the following: boiling or pit roasting of live leaves to be scraped clean or the pounding or soaking of dry leaves expose fibers. Shells or stone scrapers were often employed to remove outer leaf material from the fibers. Once exposed, these fibers were often soaked in water to soften fiber. The fibers could then be twisted into cordage, used as materials in a basket, or woven into sandals.
Other groups made use of different varieties of yucca species found throughout the American Southwest. Archaeological evidence shows use of Yucca shidigera (Mojave yucca) near the area of the Mexico–United States border dating as early as 5,000 years ago. Residues of yucca were found on some stone tools in a cave site in Texas indicate that yucca was used to secure stone tools to other materials. Ethnographic evidence of the Mogollon has shown the use of the leaves with green leaf matter intact and woven into sandals. The green leaves are fire heated and no scraping or further processing occurs to remove fibers, though the spine is removed from the tip. The whole green leaves are then tightly woven to shape the bed of the sandal, and secured to the foot with cordage ties.


The American rubyspot (Hetaerina americana) is a damselfly of the family Calopterygidae.
Males have a lustrous red head and thorax. The abdomen of both genders is brilliant green.
The female may have either green or copper colored marks on the thorax.
During mating, a male uses claspers at the end of his abdomen to grab a female behind the head, and the female bends her abdomen to engage segments 2–3 of the male, where sperm is stored, forming a "wheel" or "valentine". The male forcefully expels sperm stored by the female from prior matings before injecting his own.


The name highlights this damselfly's status as the most widespread of the North American rubyspots.
It is reported from all of the lower 48 US states except Washington and Idaho, and is also found in Mexico and southern and eastern Canada.


Toyon typically grows from 2–5 m (rarely up to 10 m in shaded conditions) and has a rounded to irregular top. Its leaves are evergreen, alternate, sharply toothed, have short petioles, and are 5–10 cm in length and 2–4 cm wide. In the early summer it produces small white flowers 6–10 mm diameter in dense terminal corymbs. Flowering peaks in June.
The five petals are rounded. The fruit is a small pome, 5–10 mm across, bright red and berry-like, produced in large quantities, maturing in the fall and persisting well into the winter.


The plant has been used as a treatment for Alzheimer's by indigenous people of California and recent research has found a number of active compounds that are potentially beneficial to Alzheimer's treatment. These include icaricide compounds, which protect the blood-brain barrier and prevent infiltration of inflammatory cells into the brain.


The genera Photinia, Aronia, Pourthiaea, and Stranvaesia have historically been variously combined by different taxonomists. The genus Heteromeles as originally published by Max Joseph Roemer was monospecific, including Photinia arbutifolia Lindl. (1820), as H. arbutifolia (Lindl.) M. Roem, but the name was illegitimate (superfluous) because it included the type of the genus Photinia. This has since been corrected by conservation, and the name is therefore often written as Heteromeles M. Roem. nom. cons. (1847).


Heteromeles arbutifolia var. arbutifolia (Lindl.) M.Roem. – Autonym
Heteromeles arbutifolia var. cerina (Jeps.) A.E.Murray – Representative of the yellow fruiting specimens of the plant. Sporadic in distribution, and not accepted by most taxonomical authorities.
Heteromeles arbutifolia var. macrocarpa (Munz) Munz (Island Christmas berry or island toyon) – A very rare insular variety limited to the Channel Islands of San Clemente and Santa Catalina and the Mexican Pacific island of Guadalupe. Characterized by shorter, broader, significantly larger leaves with revolute margins and little teeth, and floriferous inflorescences with larger fruits (8 to 10 mm). It is more susceptible to fungal infections of Spilocaea than the common toyon.


Toyon pomes are acidic and astringent, and contain a small amount of cyanogenic glycosides, which break down into hydrocyanic acid on digestion. This is removed by mild cooking. Most fruits from plants in the family Rosaceae, including apples, apricots, peaches, cherries, and plums, contain cyanide.
Some pomes, though mealy, astringent and acid when raw, were eaten fresh, or mashed into water to make a beverage.
A 2016 study found 5g of the dried berries (used as a treatment for Alzheimer's) to be safe. The study also found no cyanogenic compounds in the plant.


Toyon can be grown in domestic gardens in well-drained soil, and is cultivated as an ornamental plant as far north as Southern England. It can survive temperatures as low as -12 °C. In winter, the bright red pomes (which birds often eat voraciously) are showy.
Like many other genera in the Rosaceae tribe Maleae, toyon includes some cultivars that are susceptible to fireblight. It survives on little water, making it suitable for xeriscape gardening, and is less of a fire hazard than some chaparral plants.
They are visited by butterflies, and have a mild, hawthorn-like scent. The fruit are consumed by birds, including mockingbirds, American robins, cedar waxwings and hermit thrushes. Mammals including coyotes and bears also eat and disperse the pomes.


In the 1920s, collecting toyon branches for Christmas became so popular in Los Angeles that the State of California passed a law forbidding collecting on public land or on any land not owned by the person picking any plant without the landowner's written permission (CA Penal Code § 384a).
Toyon was adopted as the official native plant of the city of Los Angeles by the LA City Council on April 17, 2012.


Heterotheca villosa, called the hairy goldenaster, is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae found in central and western North America.


The plant grows to 50 centimetres (20 inches) in height and the leaves are 1.5–3 cm (5⁄8–1+1⁄8 in) in average length. Blooming from May to October, the flower head is about 2.5 cm (1 in) wide, with yellow ray and disk florets. The seeds have white bristles at the tip. The species is somewhat difficult to identify, with a number of close relatives and many varieties.
Varieties
Heterotheca villosa var. ballardii (Rydb.) Semple - northern Great Plains in US and Canada
Heterotheca villosa var. depressa (Rydb.) Semple - Wyoming
Heterotheca villosa var. foliosa (Nutt.) V.L.Harms - Rockies, Black Hills, northern Cascades, etc.
Heterotheca villosa var. minor (Hook.) Semple - Rockies, Cascades, Sierra Nevada, etc.
Heterotheca villosa var. nana (A.Gray) Semple - Rockies + other mountains from South Dakota to Arizona
Heterotheca villosa var. pedunculata (Greene) V.L.Harms ex Semple - Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, Utah
Heterotheca villosa var. scabra (Eastw.) Semple - Mexico, southwestern USA
Heterotheca villosa  var. sierrablancensis  Semple - New Mexico
Heterotheca villosa var. villosa - northern Great Plains, Columbia Plateau, etc.


The species is widespread across central and western North America, from Ontario west to British Columbia and south as far as Illinois, Kansas, Nuevo León, Guanajuato, and northern Baja California. It grows on plains, rocky slopes and cliffs, at low elevations and in coniferous forests.


Palpi minute and hardly reaching beyond the frons. Antennae of male bipectinate (comb like on both sides) usually to apex. Forewings with vein 3 from near angle of cell. Veins 7, 8, 9 and 10 stalked and vein 11 anastomosing (fusing) with vein 12 and then with vein 10. Hindwings with frenulum absent. The outer margin angled at vein 4. Veins 6 and 7 absent.


A saxifrage with basal, oval to round leaves. these are often lobed or toothed. Flowers are in a spike on an erect leafless stem which can reach up to 35 inches in height. Flowers are bell-shaped and can be pale yellow, cream, green or pink.


Heuchera cylindrica is native to rocky areas in the woods, cliff-side ledges, slopes and sub-alpine meadows in the Pacific Northwest. It prefers soil rich in humus, that receives plenty of moisture, but is well drained. It can thrive in sunny or partly shady habitats. The species is widespread and locally common, so it is considered ecologically secure.


Hexagenia limbata, the giant mayfly, is a species of mayfly in the family Ephemeridae. It is native to North America and India ( punjab) where it is distributed widely near lakes and slow-moving rivers. The larvae, known as nymphs, are aquatic and burrow in mud and the adult insects have brief lives. They are often referred to as fish flies around the Great Lakes as they tend to cause the areas around water to smell like rotten fish.


The mature adult stage of Hexagenia limbata can be as much as 27 mm (1.1 in) long. The females tend to be slightly larger than the males but have smaller eyes. The forewings are long and membranous while the hind wings are much smaller and have dark margins. The tip of the abdomen bears two long cerci or tails. When the insect is at rest, the wings are folded vertically above the back. The color and body markings are somewhat variable but this insect is usually some shade of yellow, pale brown or white.


Hexagenia limbata is the most widely distributed mayfly in North America. It is known from most of Canada and all the states in the United States except Alaska and Arizona. It is at its most common in the Great Lakes region. Its habitat is lakes and slow-moving rivers with muddy bottoms in which the nymphs can burrow. Adults can be found congregating in swarms near the water or resting in vegetation.


Hibiscus denudatus (common names: paleface, rock hibiscus) is a perennial shrub of the mallow family, Malvaceae. It is in the rosemallow genus, Hibiscus.
It is found in the southwest of North America in the southwestern United States and northern Mexico in the states of extreme southeast California, southern Nevada, southern Arizona and New Mexico, southwest Texas, Baja California-north, Sonora, Chihuahua, and Coahuila. It can be found in the Colorado and Sonoran Deserts, and in the east to the Chihuahuan Desert.
In California, Rock Hibiscus is exclusive to the southeast, the Colorado Desert-(northwestern Sonoran Desert) and neighboring Baja California state, Mexico.


The form of the plant is somewhat straggly vertical branches reaching 2–4 feet (1.5 m), and not always a wide, full shrub. The leaves are small to 1½ in and about the same in width, and finely toothed. The leaves are a medium yellow green, hairy-surfaced, and elliptical to ovoid in shape.
The flower is a pale white, hence the name paleface, or pale light lavender to light pink. The petals can be rice paper thin, and on some plants nearly translucent; the flower petals are broad and roundish, also overlapping; the entire flower is a broad cup shape. One vertical branch will often have a terminal flower, and axial flowers along the branch. The flowers will bloom depending on seasonal temperatures starting in January to the end of late summer/fall in October.
The plant can be found in desert washes, also rocky slopes, and mesas, up to 2,000 feet (610 m) elevation. In the southwest Arizona deserts in the western Sonoran Desert, it can be found in the desert washes with desert lavender which has a similar color and shaped leaf; the desert lavender often blooms before Rock Hibiscus.


Hibiscus laevis (syn. Hibiscus militaris), the halberd-leaf rosemallow, is a herbaceous perennial flower native to central and eastern North America. Their showy, creamy-white or pink flowers are large, up to 15 centimetres (6 in) across, and are hard to miss. These flowers require exposure to sunlight to open up properly, and then last only a single day.
The unbranched stems of this plant are round and hairless, frequently growing to 2 metres (6 ft) tall and sometimes taller. The root system includes a taproot.
The hairless leaves are alternate, 8 to 15 centimetres (3 to 6 in) long, divided into 3–5 pointed lobes (cleft) and have serrate or crenate edges. They are simple and pointed at the tip. The leaves with three lobes resemble a medieval halberd because the middle lobe is much larger than the two side lobes. The five-lobed leaves also look like halberds or daggers.
Flowers are solitary or occur in small clusters at the tops of the upper stems. They are fairly large, about 13 centimetres (5 in) across when fully open. They are mostly white or light pink, but the inside throat of the flower is often maroon or a rich purplish pink color. Each flower has five petals with five hairless green sepals below. There are numerous stamens, all attached to a central column. The pistils have superior ovaries and five stigmas protruding from the central column in the flower. The fruit is an ovoid capsule containing many seeds.
The blooming period can occur from mid-summer to early fall (June to September) and lasts about a month. Each flower lasts only a single day. This plant spreads by reseeding itself. The stalks die down in the winter and grow back in the spring.
This plant prefers full or partial sun and moist conditions. It can grow in sand or clay with sufficient moisture, and can tolerate poor drainage. They are frequently found along streams, ponds and lakes and in marshy areas, roadside ditches, and sometimes in shallow standing water.
The seeds of this plant are eaten by waterfowl and bobwhite quail.


This is a popular garden plant. It can be propagated by seed, or by crown divisions during winter dormancy, and some success can be achieved by hard-wood stem cuttings. Numerous hybrids of the native North American Hibiscus species have been released by the commercial nursery trade. In cultivation the species or the hybrids can be used in bog gardens or other water features. They are attractive and have wildlife value for nectar-feeders and birds.


In Canada this plant is listed as a species of special concern under the Species at Risk Act.


Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, known colloquially as Chinese hibiscus, China rose, Hawaiian hibiscus, rose mallow and shoeblack plant, is a species of tropical hibiscus, a flowering plant in the Hibisceae tribe of the family Malvaceae. It is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant in the tropics and subtropics, but its native range is Vanuatu.


Hibiscus rosa-sinensis is a bushy, evergreen shrub or small tree growing 2.5–5 m (8–16 ft) tall and 1.5–3 m (5–10 ft) wide, with glossy leaves and solitary (axillary), symmetrical, typically red flowers in summer and autumn. The five-petaled flowers are 10 cm (4 in) in diameter, with prominent orange-tipped red anthers. Cultivars and hybrids have flowers in a variety of colors as well as red: white, pink, orange, peach, yellow, blue, and purple. Some plants have double flowers.
At the bottom of every hibiscus bud is the calyx, which is green in color. The pointed ends of the calyx are called the sepals. When the hibiscus begins to bloom, the flower's petals begin to grow.
Each hibiscus flower has both male and female parts. The ovary and other female parts of the flower lie in the main structure of the hibiscus: the pistil, which is long and tubular.  The five "hairy" spots at the top of the pistil make up the stigma, which is where pollen is collected. In the middle of the pistil is the style, which is the tube down which pollen travels to the ovary. The ovary lies at the bottom of the blossom, and each hibiscus has only one superior ovary. The male part of the flower, called the stamen, consists of stem-like filaments and anthers. Each filament ends with the pollen-producing anther.
The hibiscus plant has a branched taproot. The plant's stem is aerial, erect, green, cylindrical, and branched. The leaf is simple and petiolate, with alternate phyllotaxy. The leaf shape is ovate, the tip is acute, and the margin is serrated. Venation is unicostate reticulate, meaning the leaves' veins are branched or divergent. Free lateral stipules are present.


Hibiscus rosa-sinensis was first described in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus in Species Plantarum. The specific epithet rosa-sinensis literally means "rose of China", although the plant is not closely to true roses, nor is it from China. The genus Hibiscus is in the tribe Hibisceae and the subfamily Malvoideae of the family Malvaceae.


Despite its size and colorful hues which are typically attractive to nectarivore birds, the flowers of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis are not visited regularly by hummingbirds when grown in the Neotropics. Generalist species, like the sapphire-spangled emerald (Amazilia lactea), or long-billed species, like the stripe-breasted starthroat (Heliomaster squamosus) are occasionally seen to visit the flowers. In the subtropical and temperate Americas, hummingbirds are regularly attracted to hibiscus.
The endangered Papilio homerus butterfly, the largest in the western hemisphere, is known to feed on the nectar of the Hibiscus rosa-sinensis.


Hibiscus rosa-sinensis is one of many plant species with a genetic characteristic known as polyploidy, a condition in which the species has more than two complete sets of chromosomes. A result of polyploidy is that the phenotype of a plant's offspring may be quite different from the parent plant, or indeed any ancestor, essentially allowing possibly random expression of any (of all) of the characteristics of previous generations. Because of this characteristic, H. rosa-sinensis has become popular with hobbyists who cross and recross varieties, creating new varieties. Competitions are held to exhibit and judge the many resulting new seedlings and often strikingly unique flowers.


The flowers of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis are edible and are used in salads in the Pacific Islands. The flower is used as an accessory, particularly as a hairpiece. It is also used to shine shoes in certain parts of India, hence the common name "shoeblack plant." In Indonesia, these flowers are called "kembang sepatu", which literally means "shoe flower". The flower can also be used as a pH indicator; when used, the flower turns acidic solutions to a dark pink or magenta color and turns basic solutions to green. Red hibiscus flowers are also used for worship; in Hinduism, they are used for the worship of Devi, and in the Bengal area of eastern India, they are used to worship Kali. The hibiscus also has an important part in tantra.  In several countries the flowers are dried to use in a beverage, usually tea.
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis is considered to have a number of medical uses in Chinese herbology. Traditional uses in China have been to make a black shoe-polish from its flower petals, or to make a woman's black hair dye. The flowers are also used in parts of China to color various intoxicating liquors. The plant may have some potential in cosmetic skin care; for example, an extract from the flowers of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis has been shown to function as an anti-solar agent by absorbing ultraviolet radiation.


Hibiscus rosa-sinensis is widely grown as an ornamental plant throughout the tropics and subtropics. As it does not tolerate temperatures below 10 °C (50 °F), in temperate regions it is best grown under glass. Plants grown in containers may be placed outside during the summer months and moved into shelter during the winter months.
Numerous cultivars exist, with flower colors ranging from white through yellow and orange to scarlet and shades of pink, with both single and double sets of petals. The cultivar 'Cooperi' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


Hibiscus rosa-sinensis is the national flower of Malaysia, called bunga raya in Malay. This can be translated in a number of ways, including "great flower" or "celebratory flower." Introduced into the Malay Peninsula in the 12th century, it was nominated as the national flower in the year 1958 by the Ministry of Agriculture amongst a few other flowers, namely ylang ylang, jasmine, lotus, rose, magnolia, and medlar. On July 28, 1960, it was declared by the government of Malaysia that Hibiscus rosa-sinensis would be the national flower. The red of the petals symbolizes the courage, life, and rapid growth of the Malaysian people, and the five petals represent the five Rukun Negara of Malaysia. The flower can be found imprinted on the notes and coins of the Malaysian ringgit.
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis is an unofficial national flower in Haiti, where it has been used as a symbol for the promotion of tourism. The flower is also the symbol of the Fusion of Haitian Social Democrats political party. It is known in Haitian Creole language as choeblack or rose kayenn.
The yellow variety of the hibiscus is the official flower of Hawaiʻi, where it is often hybridized and is worn ornamentally in the hair and in lei. In Hawaiian, hibiscus is called aloalo.


In March 1987, DPR Korea issued a postage stamp depicting Hibiscus rosa-sinensis.
On October 7, 2012, Sri Lanka issued a stamp set of four, one of which depicted a Hibiscus rosa-sinensis flower.


Cultivars with flowers of many colours are used as ornamental plants. Some have double petals or have differently shaped petals.


Hibiscus syriacus is a species of flowering plant in the mallow family, Malvaceae. It is native to Korea, and south-central and southeast China, but widely introduced elsewhere, including much of Asia. It was given the epithet syriacus because it had been collected from gardens in Syria. Common names include the rose of Sharon, (especially in North America), Syrian ketmia, shrub althea, and rose mallow (in the United Kingdom). It is the national flower of South Korea and is mentioned in the South Korean national anthem.


Hibiscus syriacus is a hardy deciduous shrub. It is upright and vase-shaped, reaching 2–4 m (7–13 feet) in height, bearing large trumpet-shaped flowers with prominent yellow-tipped white stamens. The flowers are often pink in color, but can also be dark pink (almost purple), light pink or white.  Individual flowers are short-lived, lasting only a day.  However, numerous buds produced on the shrub's new growth provide prolific flowering over a long summer blooming period.  The soil in which the Hibiscus thrives on is a moist, but well-drained, mixture of sand, clay, chalk, and loam. Hibiscus syriacus is highly tolerant of air pollution, heat, humidity, poor soil and drought. The species has naturalized very well in many suburban areas, and might even be termed slightly invasive, so frequently it does seed around.


The branches are thin and gray, white-lenticeled, with raised leaf scars and small buds. Stems and branches do not branch very much unless pruned, resulting in many long, straight stems that originate from about 1.5–4 cm (0.5–1.5 inches) above the ground, giving rise to the shrub's overall vase shape. The leaves appear unusually late in the season, in May. They are usually green or yellowish green, alternate, broadly ovate, palmately veined, and 7.5 cm (3 inches) long. They have three distinct lobes with coarsely-toothed margins.


H. syriacus has 5-petaled flowers (to 7.5 cm or 3 inches diameter) in solid colors of white, red, purple, mauve, violet, or blue, or bicolors with a different colored throat, depending upon the cultivar. Extending from the base of these five petals is the pistil at the center, with the stamen around it. These basic characteristics give the H. syriacus flower and its many variants their distinctive form. The plant can bloom continuously from July through September, usually at night. With maturity, flexible plant stems become weighted under the load of prolific summer flowers, and bend over halfway to the ground.


Most modern cultivars are virtually fruitless. The fruits of those that have them are green or brown, ornamentally unattractive 5-valved dehiscent capsules, which persist throughout much of the winter on older cultivars. They will eventually shatter over the course of the dormant season and spread their easily germinating seeds around the base of the parent plant, forming colonies with time.


Hibiscus syriacus is fairly easily propagated from either seeds, with variable results, or by layering or cuttings, cloning the original.


Hibiscus syriacus, also known as the Korean rose, is the national flower of South Korea. The flower appears in national emblems, and Korea is compared poetically to the flower in the South Korean national anthem. The flower's name in Korean is mugunghwa (Hangul: 무궁화; Hanja: 無窮花) or mokkeunhwa (Hangul: 목근화; Hanja: 木槿花). The flower's symbolic significance stems from the Korean word mugung, which means "eternity" or "inexhaustible abundance". Various state emblems of South Korea contain Hibiscus syriacus; it is generally considered by South Koreans to be a traditional symbol of the Korean people and culture.


Hibiscus syriacus has been grown as a garden shrub in Korea since time immemorial; its leaves were brewed into an herbal tea and its flowers eaten. Later on it was introduced and grown in the gardens of Europe as early as the 16th century, though as late as 1629 John Parkinson thought it was tender and took great precautions with it, thinking it "would not suffer to be uncovered in the Winter time, or yet abroad in the Garden, but kept in a large pot or tubbe in the house or in a warme cellar, if you would have them to thrive." (sic) By the end of the 17th century, some knew it to be hardy: Gibson, describing Lord Arlington's London house noted six large earthen pots coddling the "tree hollyhock", as he called it, "that grows well enough in the ground". By the 18th century the shrub was common in English gardens and in the North American colonies, known as Althea frutex and "Syrian ketmia".


Hibiscus tiliaceus, commonly known as the sea hibiscus or coast cottonwood, is a species of flowering tree in the mallow family, Malvaceae, with a pantropical distribution along coastlines. It has also been introduced to Florida and New Zealand. It has been debated whether this species is native or introduced to Hawaii.


Common names include sea hibiscus, beach hibiscus, coastal (or coast) hibiscus, coastal (or coast) cottonwood, green cottonwood, native hibiscus, native rosella, cottonwood hibiscus, kurrajong, sea rosemallow, balibago (Tagalog), malabago or malbago (Cebuano – Southern), maribago (Cebuano – Northern), lambago (Cebuano - Cagayan de Oro), waru (Javanese), baru or bebaru (Malay), dhigga (Maldivian), pagu (Chamorro), hau (Hawaiian),  fau (Samoan), purau (Tahitian), and vau tree. The specific epithet, "tiliaceus", refers to its resemblance of the leaves to those of the related Tilia species.


Hibiscus tiliaceus has a worldwide distribution. In the Old World and Oceania, it is a common coastal plant in most of tropical Africa, South Asia (including the Maldives), Southeast Asia, parts of East Asia (as far north as central Japan, where it reaches its northernmost extent), eastern and northern Australia, and much of the Pacific Islands, including Hawaii (where its establishment status is uncertain). It has also been introduced to New Zealand. A separate variety, var. pernambucensis (formerly considered a separate species, H. pernambucensis), is native to the tropical New World, including Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean, and much of South America. This variety has also been introduced to Florida.
It is uncertain if the species is native to Hawaii, as it may have been introduced by the Polynesians. It is considered native by Plants of the World Online, but the IUCN considers it of uncertain status. Hibiscus tiliaceus can be found at elevations from sea level to 800 m (2,600 ft) in areas that receive 900–2,500 mm (35–98 in) of annual rainfall. It is commonly found growing on beaches, by rivers and in mangrove swamps. Sea hibiscus is well adapted to grow in coastal environment in that it tolerates salt and waterlogging and can grow in quartz sand, coral sand, marl, limestone, and crushed basalt. It grows best in slightly acidic to alkaline soils (pH of 5–8.5).Cotton Tree, Queensland, Australia is named for the plant.


Hibiscus tiliaceus reaches a height of 4–10 m (13–33 ft), with a trunk up to 15 cm (5.9 in) in diameter. The flowers of H. tiliaceus are bright yellow with a deep red center upon opening. Over the course of the day, the flowers deepen to orange and finally red before they fall. The branches of the tree often curve over time. The leaves are heart shaped and deep red in the var. rubra.


The wood of H. tiliaceus has a specific gravity of 0.6. It has been used in a variety of applications, such as seacraft construction, firewood, and wood carvings. It is easy to plane and turns well, so it is regarded by many as a high quality furniture wood. Plant fibers taken from the stems have traditionally been used in rope making, while its bark has been used like cork, in sealing cracks in boats. The bark and roots may be boiled to make a cooling tea to cool fevers, and its young leafy shoots may be eaten as vegetables. Native Hawaiians used the wood to make ʻiako (spars) for waʻa (outrigger canoes), mouo (fishing net floats), and ʻau koʻi (adze handles). Kaula ʻilihau (cordage) was made from the bast fibers.  Hau would be used to make ʻama (canoe floats) if wiliwili (Erythrina sandwicensis) was unavailable.
Hibiscus tiliaceus is widely used in Asian countries as a subject for the art of bonsai, especially Taiwan. The finest specimens are taken from Kenting National Park. Lending itself to free grafting, the leaf size is reduced fairly quickly.  Its leaves are also used in cooking, as trays for steamed rice cakes (粿).
In Indonesia H. tiliaceus is also used for fermenting tempeh. The undersides of the leaves are covered in downy hairs known technically as trichomes to which the mold Rhizopus oligosporus can be found adhering in the wild. Soybeans are pressed into the leaf, and stored. Fermentation occurs resulting in tempeh.


Cyanidin-3-glucoside is the major anthocyanin found in flowers of H. tiliaceus. Leaves of H. tiliaceus displayed strong free radical scavenging activity and the highest tyrosinase inhibition activity among 39 tropical plant species in Okinawa. With greater UV radiation in coastal areas, it is possible that leaves and flowers of natural coastal populations of H. tiliaceus have stronger antioxidant properties than planted inland populations.


The booted eagle (Hieraaetus pennatus, also classified as Aquila pennata) is a medium-sized mostly migratory bird of prey with a wide distribution in the Palearctic and southern Asia, wintering in the tropics of Africa and Asia, with a small, disjunct breeding population in south-western Africa. Like all eagles, it belongs to the family Accipitridae.


The booted is a small eagle, comparable to the common buzzard in size though more eagle-like in shape. Males grow to about 510–770 g (1.12–1.70 lb) in weight, with females about 840–1,025 g (1.852–2.260 lb) with a length of 40 cm and a wingspan of 11–132 cm. There are two relatively distinct plumage forms. Pale birds are mainly light grey with a darker head and flight feathers. The other form has mid-brown plumage with dark grey flight feathers. It was found in a study investigating polymorphism that these discrete colour morphs follow a Mendelian inheritance pattern, where the paler allele is dominant. In South Africa, 20% of the population is the dark colour morph. Booted eagles are typically seen in pairs or as solitary individuals. However, the study found that the darker morphs are much more common in the eastern populations such as in Russia.
The call is a shrill kli-kli-kli.


The booted eagle has breeding populations in many different regions in both the northern and southern hemisphere. These include southern Europe, North Africa and across Asia, and also in western South Africa and Namibia.
The northern populations are migratory spending November to February in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, while the small southern African populations is sedentary. This is a species of wooded, often hilly countryside with some open areas. It breeds in rocky, broken terrain but migrants will use almost any type of habitat other than dense forest. The birds of the Palearctic breeding population tend to nest in coniferous or deciduous woodlands and often in trees.


It is believed that there may be three separate groups of booted eagles in Sothern Africa. There is evidence of a population which breeds in the south-western Cape region of South Africa, arriving in early August, laying eggs in September, and leaving in March of the following year.  From about April to July the birds migrate northwards, some possibly overwintering in Namibia. A small breeding population in Northern Namibia has also been observed. The third group is a non-breeding population thought to migrate south from Eurasia and North Africa in summer, however no empirical evidence of this has been documented. These booted eagle populations are not sub-specifically distinct from those in Palearctic regions.
In South Africa, booted eagles also occur in hilly and open landscapes and in contrast to their Northern Hemisphere conspecifics, typically breed strictly on rocky cliffs in ravines and gorges. However, evidence has been found in South Africa of birds nesting in trees such as Euphorbias. This bird is most common in the low stature shrublands of the Fynbos and Karoo, and more specifically the ecotone between the two biomes.


The booted eagle typically hunts on the wing, stooping quickly with wings folded in and feet extended.
It hunts small mammals, reptiles and birds. In Southern Africa, it has been noted that birds are the most common prey of booted eagles. It has been suggested that frogs comprise an important part of the booted eagle diet, however this has not been observed in the Southern African populations. Studies conducted in south-western South Africa observed that booted eagles ate birds, lizards, and rodents.


This eagle lays 1–2 eggs in a nest built from sticks and lined with green leaves in a tree or on a crag, or it takes over the disused nest of another large bird such as a black kite or grey heron. The female incubates the egg for around 45 days and is fed by the male, after hatching she guards the nest and the young while the male provides all the food. The chick fledges after 70–75 days. Booted eagles are monogamous and perform exhibit courtship rituals of sophisticated flight demonstrations.


The population of eagles which breed in the Cape region of South Africa typically do so shortly after arriving in August. The breeding pairs nest on cliff ledges, this is one of the ways in which this population differs to the Palearctic booted eagles. It has been observed that the incubation period for this population is about 40 days, and the nestling period around two months. It was found in a study conducted in South Africa that typical to the species, booted eagles nested on cliffs at an average height of 60m. The clutch size was also comparable with Palearctic populations, with pairs generally successfully raising two chicks according to existing evidence.  The eggs are typically a conspicuous white colour sometimes with red speckles. The dimensions of the eggs are consistent with those of Palearctic populations. The nests of the booted eagles in Southern Africa also appear to be less rigid than those of their Palearctic counterparts.


Populations of booted eagles migrate to parts of North Africa during European winter and breed there. A study conducted in Algeria determined that these birds typically incubate their eggs for a period of 33 to 38 days. Similarly to Populations further North and South, it was most likely for clutches to consist of two eggs (67.6%).


The booted eagle typically flies at relatively low heights, making it conspicuous. However, the dark morph can be confused with other local medium sized birds of prey. In South Africa, 20% of the population is the dark colour morph.


Based on recent genetic research some authors reclassified this species to the genus Aquila, along with some or all other Hieraaetus species. As it is the type species of Hieraaetus, should any of the hawk-eagles have been retained in a distinct genus then a new name for that group would have been necessary. However, DNA research has shown it forms a monophyletic clade with Ayres's hawk eagle, Wahlberg's eagle, little eagle and the pygmy eagle and this clade is often treated as forming the genus Hieraeetus and most reference lists currently use H. pennata.
Along with the little eagle, this bird is one of the closest living relatives of the extinct Haast's eagle of New Zealand.
Although some authors name a number of subspecies most now treat it as a monotypic species.
Aquila minut described by Brehm (1831) is this bird. The fossil bird described under the same name by Milne-Edwards (1871) is preliminarily known as Hieraaetus edwardsi, but might belong in Aquila.


Hieracium umbellatum (commonly called Hieracium canadense), the Canadian hawkweed, Canada hawkweed, narrowleaf hawkweed, or northern hawkweed, is a flowering plant in the family Asteraceae.


Its pointed leaves have toothed margins, where the teeth can appear almost hooked. The flowers of the plant are yellow.


There are many named infraspecific taxa of Hieracium umbellatum:
Hieracium canadense Michx. forma lepagei Vict.
Hieracium canadense Michx. forma pilosius Lepage
Hieracium canadense Michx. forma rufescens Lepage
Hieracium canadense Michx. var. angustifolium Torr. & A.Gray p.p.
Hieracium canadense Michx. var. columbianum (Rydb.) H. St.John
Hieracium canadense Michx. var. divaricatum Lepage
Hieracium canadense Michx. var. fasciculatum (Pursh) Fernald
Hieracium canadense Michx. var. hirtirameum Fernald
Hieracium canadense Michx. var. kalmii  (L.) Scoggan
Hieracium canadense Michx. var. latifolium Torr. & A.Gray
Hieracium canadense Michx. var. scabrum Schwein.
Hieracium canadense Michx. var. subintegrum Lepage
Hieracium kalmii L. var. canadense (Michx.) Reveal
Hieracium kalmii L. var. fasciculatum (Pursh) Lepage
Hieracium kalmii L. var. subintegrum (Lepage) Lepage
Hieracium scabriusculum Schwein. forma chrysostylum Lepage
Hieracium scabriusculum Schwein. forma phaeostylum Lepage
Hieracium scabriusculum Schwein. forma xanthostylum Lepage
Hieracium scabriusculum Schwein. var. columbianum (Rydb.) Lepage
Hieracium scabriusculum Schwein. var. perhirsutum Lepage
Hieracium scabriusculum Schwein. var. saximontanum Lepage
Hieracium scabriusculum Schwein. var. scabrum (Schwein.) Lepage
Hieracium subnudum L. var. canadense  (Michx.)(Michx.) DC.
Hieracium sylvaticum Salisb., nom. illeg. hom., non (L.) L.
Hieracium umbellatum L. subsp. canadense (Michx.) Guppy
Hieracium umbellatum L. subsp. scabriusculum (Schwein.) Á. & D. Löve
Hieracium umbellatum L. var. canadense (Michx.) Breitung
Hieracium umbellatum L. var. commune Fr.
Hieracium umbellatum L. var. coronopifolium Bernh. ex Kom.
Hieracium umbellatum L. var. mongolicum Fr.
Hieracium umbellatum L. var. scabriusculum (Schwein.) Farw.
Hieracium laevigatum subsp. canadense (Michx.) Zahn
Hieracium umbellatum L. var. canadense (Michx.) Breitung
Hieracium canadense Michx. var. canadense
Hieracium canadense Michx. var. fasciculatum (Pursh) Fernald
Hieracium scabriusculum Schwein. var. columbianum (Rydb.) Lepage
Hieracium umbellatum subsp. monticola (Jord.) Nyman


Hieracium venosum (Robin's plantain, rattlesnakeweed, or rattlesnake hawkweed) is a species of hawkweed in the tribe Cichorieae within the family Asteraceae. It is widespread and common in south-central Canada (Ontario) and the eastern United States (from Michigan east to Maine and south as far as Florida and Mississippi). Its common name comes from the fact that environments it is found in are typically also a home to rattlesnakes.
Hieracium venosum is a hairy herb up to 45 cm (18 inches) tall, with most of the leaves crowded around the base of the stem. One plant can produce as many as 20 flower heads, each with 30–45 yellow ray flowers but no disc flowers. It is a perennial that blooms from May to September, and prefers shady conditions with dry, sandy soil.


Males are about 45-65 mm long and females around 65-75 mm long.  Individuals can vary from green to brown in color. Although this species is fairly large for mantises in general, it is among the smallest members of the genus Hierodula, of which many species can reach 110-150 mm.


Hilaria rigida (formerly Pleuraphis rigida) is a species of clumping perennial grass that is widespread in California deserts. It is commonly known as big galleta. It is a monocot in the Hilaria genus of the grass family (Poaceae).
It can be recognized after seed dispersal by the wiry, wavy inflorescence stalks (flexuose) that continue to stick out of the clump of leaf blades. The stems are unusual among grasses in that they are solid, even between the nodes, whereas most grasses have hollow stems.
The clumps help stabilize sand dunes. According to botanist Philip A. Munz, "it is said to be one of the most valuable forage grasses of the desert". Clumps can live more than 100 years.


Big galleta is found in sand dunes, bajadas, scrublands, woodlands, and deserts. It prefers dry, open, sandy to rocky slopes and flats. It occurs on all soil types, but has poor growth in clay soils. It is tolerant of arid environments such as desert floors, and it is the dominant grass in some desert scrub regions. It is found on plains, in sand dunes, and on rocky hillsides. It grows from sea level to about 1,600 m (5,200 ft). In the Mojave Desert, it grows up to 1,220 m (4,000 ft).
It is common in creosote bush scrub, joshua tree woodland, and blackbrush scrub plant communities, and areas with sandy soils, such as the Kelso sand dunes. In the eastern Mojave Desert, it is more common than its relative, galleta grass (Pleuraphis jamesii).
It is a common native to the Mojave Desert and Sonoran Desert to Sonora, Mexico. It can be found in California, Arizona into northern Mexico, Colorado, Utah, less commonly, but also in other parts of Mexico and rarely in sand dunes in Utah's Washington and Kane Counties.


Hilaria rigida is a long-lived, shrubby or bushy, clumping perennial grass producing coarse, erect stems reaching 1 m (3.3 ft) in maximum height. It spreads from hard, woody rhizomes to form grayish, hairy, open, erect hummocks and clumps. The clumps can live to more than 100 years old. Its primary means of reproduction is by rhizomes, possibly also by tillering. It has a bush-like appearance because it is highly branched at the base. Clumping results from spread by tillers or short rhizomes. Clumps of leaves are 3 to 4 ft (0.91 to 1.22 m) wide. Seeds fall when mature, but their stalks persist, sticking out from the clumps like zigzagging wires, by which the plant can be identified at a distance.
It is drought tolerant and very fast growing after rains. It typically undergoes two major growth periods, one after winter rains, the other after summer monsoons. It is reported to be more effective than many other desert plants at extracting water from the soil during dry periods.


Roots are shallow and radiate outward from the base of the plant.
Fuzzy to wooly stems are stiff, heavy, and coarse, from 12 to 40 in (300 to 1,020 mm) long. The stems are unusual among grasses in that they are solid, even between the nodes, whereas most grasses have hollow stems. They can be either erect or lying on the ground (decumbent). Stems have nodes that are lined with long, sometimes curly hairs.
Leaf blades are coarse and firm, fairly wide, and almost straight, from grayish to blue-green, sometimes with light wooly fuzz, and have curly hairs and edges that are rolled upward. They are from 1.0 to 2.5 in (2.5 to 6.4 cm) long. Leaves are attached either to the base of the plant or along the upright stems that bear the heads of seeds.


The inflorescence is a series of hairy or brush-like rectangular spikelets, occur in clusters of three, between 2 and 3 in (5.1 and 7.6 cm). The grass produces relatively few viable seeds and spreads mostly by its tillers and sometimes via rhizomes. The inflorescence stalk persists after the seeds drop, sticking out of the clump of leaf blades like stiff, wavy wires.
It blooms between December and January according to some sources, from May to June in the Mojave Desert according to others, and from February through June in the Mohave Desert according to others. The variation may result from a paucity of information on germination characteristics (as of 2014).
Seedlings rarely become established. The head of seeds is a spike of seeds with much chaff.
Spikes are 1.5 to 4.0 in (3.8 to 10.2 cm) long.


The hummocky, clumpy form of the grass helps it stabilize loose and blowing sand when it grows in desert dune habitat. It acts as a nurse plant to seedlings of other species, such as cholla and barrel cactus, in turn receiving protection from herbivory by growing next to the spiny plants. It is not palatable to elk and waterfowl.
Associated plant species include Larrea tridentata (creosote bush), Ambrosia dumosa (white bursage), Coleogyne ramosissima (blackbrush), Yucca brevifolia (joshua trees), Yucca species, Krameria erecta (range ratany), Krascheninnikovia (winterfat), Encelia farinosa (brittle bush), Ephedra species, Lycium andersonii (wolfberry), and Sphaeralcea (globemallow).


Big galleta is heavily grazed and is valuable as a fair to good forage crop for sheep and cattle. Botanist Philip A. Munz commented that "it is said to be one of the most valuable forage grasses of the desert". It resprouts after grazing followed by rains, and coarseness and clumping help protect it from trampling.
It is used for erosion control and in revegetation efforts.


Himantoglossum hircinum, the lizard orchid, is a species of orchid in the genus Himantoglossum found in Europe and North Africa.


Himantoglossum hircinum is a perennial herbaceous plant, reaching a height of 115 centimetres (45 in). It persists in the soil as a pair of ovoid/subglobose tubers, with short roots. Its leaves are 5-20cm long, with basal leaves larger than aerial leaves and the plant is glabrous. Flowers are green-white with a long twisting/coiled labellum which may be tinged with a variety of colours; white, green, purple or brown. Flowers strongly smell of male goats.
A similar looking species called Himantoglossum adriaticum is found in Eastern Europe.


This orchid grows in dry meadows, rocky areas, and open woods. It tends to grow on south-facing grassy slopes, among Bromus and Brachypodium grasses. In France it is often found on roadsides. In the United Kingdom it grows to a maximum altitude of 850m.
This species is found across Europe, from Spain eastwards to the Balkans and in western North Africa. It is usually rare but can sometimes be found in great numbers in suitable habitats. Examples of sites for this species include among sand dunes at Sandwich Bay in the United Kingdom, Massif Central in France and the Mugello Valley in Italy.


Himantoglossum hircinum is a food-deceptive orchid species, meaning the flowers generally provide no nectar to their pollinators. The Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland states however that some plants have been found to provide nectar to pollinators, and that it remains unclear which species are the principal pollinators of the lizard orchid, although they suggest Andrena bees.
It has been suggested that H. hircinum is a mycorrhizal generalist, though some have questioned this, due to the species' limited distribution, and the issue remains unresolved.


This is a rare species with protected status in the United Kingdom and Germany and possibly other countries.


The 'lizard' in the plant's English common-name refers to the shape and colour of the flowers. The Latin genus Himantoglossum means 'strap-tongue', after the shape of the flower labellum and the species epithet 'hircinum' means 'of goats', after the smell the flowers produce. In German the plant is known as 'Bocks Riemenzunge', which translates as 'buck's (ie. goat's) strap-tongue'. The French name 'l'orchis bouc' means 'buck (ie. goat) orchid'.


The black-winged stilt (Himantopus himantopus) is a widely distributed very long-legged wader in the avocet and stilt family (Recurvirostridae). The scientific name H. himantopus is sometimes applied to a single, almost cosmopolitan species. Alternatively, it is restricted to the form that is widespread in Europe, Asia and Africa, which equals the nominate group of Himantopus himantopus sensu lato (whereas the black-necked, H. mexicanus, and white-backed stilt, H. melanurus, both inhabit the Americas, and the pied stilt, H. leucocephalus, inhabit southeast Asia to Australia and New Zealand). Most sources today accept 1–4 species. The scientific name Himantopus comes from the Greek meaning "strap foot" or "thong foot".


The taxonomy of this bird is still somewhat contentious. It is one of four distinct species which sometimes are considered subspecies of H. himantopus.  H. himantopus sensu lato, is made up of one species and 5–7 subspecies, and is sometimes referred to as common stilt. The name black-winged stilt refers to H. himantopus sensu stricto, with two subspecies H.h. himantopus from the Palearctic and southern Asia, and H.h. meridionalis from the Afrotropical region.


The breeding habitat of all these stilts is marshes, shallow lakes and ponds. Some populations are migratory and move to the ocean coasts in winter; those in warmer regions are generally resident or short-range vagrants. In Europe, the black-winged stilt is a regular spring overshoot vagrant north of its normal range, occasionally remaining to breed in northern European countries. Pairs successfully bred in Britain in 1987, and after a 27-year hiatus there were two instances of successful breeding in Southern England in 2014. 13 young were fledged in southern England in 2017. Four chicks were successfully fledged in northern England in 2022; this is believed to be the most northerly breeding success for the black-winged stilt.
These birds pick up their food from sand or water. They eat mainly insects and crustaceans.
The nest site is a bare spot on the ground near water. These birds often nest in small groups, sometimes with avocets.
The black-winged stilt is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds applies.


The black-necked stilt (Himantopus mexicanus) is a locally abundant shorebird of American wetlands and coastlines. It is found from the coastal areas of California through much of the interior western United States and along the Gulf of Mexico as far east as Florida, then south through Central America and the Caribbean to Brazil, Peru and the Galápagos Islands, with an isolated population, the Hawaiian stilt, in Hawaii. The northernmost populations, particularly those from inland, are migratory, wintering from the extreme south of the United States to southern Mexico, rarely as far south as Costa Rica; on the Baja California peninsula it is only found regularly in winter. Some authorities, including the IUCN, treat it as a subspecies of Himantopus himantopus.


It is often treated as a subspecies of the common or black-winged stilt, using the trinomial name Himantopus himantopus mexicanus. However, the AOS has always considered it a species in its own right, and the scientific name Himantopus mexicanus is often seen. Matters are more complicated though; sometimes all five distinct lineages of the common stilt are treated as different species. The white-backed stilt from much of South America (H. melanurus when the species is recognized) is parapatric and intergrade to some extent with its northern relative where their ranges meet in northern Brazil and central Peru, would warrant inclusion with the black-necked stilt when this is separated specifically, becoming Himantopus mexicanus melanurus. Similarly, the Hawaiian stilt, H. m. knudseni, belongs to the (North) American species when this is considered separate; while it rarely has been treated as another distinct species, the AOS, BirdLife International and the IUCN do not.


Measurements:
Length: 13.8–15.3 in (35–39 cm)
Weight: 5.3–6.2 oz (150–180 g)
Wingspan: 28.1–29.7 in (71–75 cm)
They have long pink legs and a long thin black bill. They are white below and have black wings and backs. The tail is white with some grey banding. A continuous area of black extends from the back along the hind neck to the head. There, it forms a cap covering the entire head from the top to just below eye-level, with the exception of the areas surrounding the bill and a small white spot above the eye. Males have a greenish gloss to the back and wings, particularly in the breeding season. This is less pronounced or absent in females, which have a brown tinge to these areas instead. Otherwise, the sexes look alike.
Downy young are light olive brown with lengthwise rows of black speckles (larger on the back) on the upperparts – essentially where adults are black – and dull white elsewhere, with some dark barring on the flanks.
Where their ranges meet in northern Brazil and central Peru, the black-necked and white-backed stilts intergrade. Such individuals often have some white or grey on top of the head and a white or grey collar separating the black of the hindneck from that of the upper back.
The black-necked stilt is distinguished from non-breeding vagrants of the black-winged stilt by the white spot above the eye. Vagrants of the northern American form in turn are hard to tell apart from the resident Hawaiian stilt, in which only the eye-spot is markedly smaller. But though many stilt populations are long-distance migrants and during their movements can be found hundreds of miles offshore, actual trans-oceanic vagrants are nonetheless a rare occurrence.


The black-necked stilt is found in estuarine, lacustrine, salt pond and emergent wetland habitats; it is generally a lowland bird but in Central America has been found up to 8,200 ft (2,500 m) ASL and commonly seen in llanos habitat in northern South America. It is also found in seasonally flooded wetlands. Use of salt evaporation ponds has increased significantly since 1960 in the US, and they may now be the primary wintering habitat; these salt ponds are especially prevalent in southern San Francisco Bay. At the Salton Sea, the black-necked stilt is resident year-round.
This bird is locally abundant in the San Joaquin Valley, where it commonly winters. It is common to locally abundant in appropriate habitat in southern California from April to September.
It also breeds along lake shores in northeastern California and southeastern Oregon as well as along the Colorado River. In North America outside California, the black-necked stilt rarely breeds inland, but it is known as a breeding bird in riparian locales in Arizona and elsewhere in the southern USA. In Arizona, black-necked stilts may be seen along artificially created lakes and drainage basins in the Phoenix metropolitan area, in remnant riparian habitat.
In the San Francisco Bay Area, specific locations where one would expect to see this bird are Richardson Bay (especially, according to mudflat bird sightings, the mouth of Pickleweed Creek), mudflats of Belmont Slough, mudflats of Seal Slough in San Mateo, salt ponds in Hayward, California, exposed bay muds on the Burlingame estuarine shore, and Heron's Head Park at India Basin.
For flocks that summer in the northern Central Valley of California, a migration occurs to the San Joaquin Valley to consolidate with flocks that were already summering there. In coastal areas flocks both summer and winter in these estuarine settings.
Fall migration of the northernly birds takes place from July to September, and they return to the breeding grounds between March and May. Usually, the entire population breeding at any one site arrives, mates, incubates eggs for about a month, and protects and broods the young until they are capable of sustained flight (at 27–31 days old) and leaves again migrating in flocks of about 15 individuals sometimes juveniles congregating in small groups and other times siblings with family groups. There is some seasonal movement of the tropical populations, but this is not long-range and poorly understood.
The parasitic cyclocoeline flatworm Neoallopyge americanensis was described from the air sacs of a black-necked stilt from Texas. Its genus is presently monotypic and seems to be closely related to the similar genus Allopyge, found in Old World cranes.


The black-necked stilt forages by probing and gleaning primarily in mudflats and lakeshores, but also in very shallow waters near shores; it seeks out a range of aquatic invertebrates – mainly crustaceans and other arthropods, and mollusks – and small fish, tadpoles and very rarely plant seeds. Its mainstay food varies according to availability; inland birds usually feed mainly on aquatic insects and their larvae, while coastal populations mostly eat other aquatic invertebrates. For feeding areas they prefer coastal estuaries, salt ponds, lakeshores, alkali flats and even flooded fields. For roosting and resting needs, this bird selects alkali flats (even flooded ones), lake shores, and islands surrounded by shallow water.


This stilt chooses mudflats, desiccated lacustrine verges, and levees for nest locations, as long as the soil is friable. Reproduction occurs from late April through August in North America, with peak activity in June, while tropical populations usually breed after the rainy season. The nests are typically sited within 1 km (0.62 mi) of a feeding location, and the pairs defend an extensive perimeter around groups of nests, patrolling in cooperation with their neighbors. Spacing between nests is approximately 65 ft (20 m), but sometimes nests are within 7 ft (2.1 m) of each other and some nests in the rookery are as far as 130 ft (40 m) from the nearest neighbor. The black-necked stilt is actually classified as semicolonial since the nests are rarely found alone and colonies usually number dozens, rarely hundreds of pairs. The nests are frequently established rather close to the water edge, so that their integrity is affected by rising water levels of ponds or tides. This is particularly a hazard in the case of managed salt ponds where water levels may be altered rapidly in the salt pond flooding process.
The clutch size generally is 3–5 eggs with an average of four. For 22–26 days both sexes take turns incubating the eggs. The young are so precocial that they are seen swimming within two hours after hatching and are also capable of rapid land velocity at that early time. In spite of this early development the young normally return to the nest for resting for one or two more days. They fledge after about one month but remain dependent on their parents for some more weeks. Birds begin to breed at 1–2 years of age.