The ruddy turnstone was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Tringa interpres. The species is now placed together with the black turnstone in the genus Arenaria that was introduced by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760 with the ruddy turnstone as the type species. The genus name arenaria is from Latin arenarius, "inhabiting sand", from arena, "sand". The specific interpres means "messenger"; when visiting Gotland in 1741, Linnaeus thought that the Swedish word Tolk, meaning "interpreter" applied to this species, but in the local dialect the word means "legs" and is used for the redshank.
Two subspecies are recognised:
A. i. interpres (Linnaeus, 1758) – breeds in northeast Canada, Greenland, north Europe to northeast Siberia and west Alaska; winters in west, south Europe, Africa, south, east Asia, Australasia, Pacific islands, west USA and west Mexico
A. i. morinella (Linnaeus, 1766) – breeds in northeast Alaska and north Canada; winters in south USA to South America


It is a fairly small and stocky bird, 22–24 cm (8.7–9.4 in) long with a wingspan of 50–57 cm (20–22 in) and a weight of 85–150 g (3.0–5.3 oz). The dark, wedge-shaped bill is 2–2.5 cm (0.79–0.98 in) long and slightly upturned. The legs are fairly short at 3.5 cm (1.4 in) and are bright orange.
In all seasons, the plumage is dominated by a harlequin-like pattern of black and white. Breeding birds have reddish-brown upper parts with black markings. The head is mainly white with black streaks on the crown and a black pattern on the face. The breast is mainly black apart from a white patch on the sides. The rest of the underparts are white. In flight it reveals a white wingbar, white patch near the base of the wing and white lower back, rump and tail with dark bands on the uppertail-coverts and near the tip of the tail. The female is slightly duller than the male and has a browner head with more streaking.
Non-breeding adults are duller than breeding birds and have dark grey-brown upperparts with black mottling and a dark head with little white. Juvenile birds have a pale brown head and pale fringes to the upperpart feathers creating a scaly impression.
Birds of the subspecies morinella are smaller with darker upperparts and less streaking on the crown.
The ruddy turnstone has a staccato, rattling call and also a chattering alarm-call which is mainly given during the breeding season.


The ruddy turnstone breeds in northern latitudes, usually no more than a few kilometres from the sea. The subspecies A. i. morinella occurs in northern Alaska and in Arctic Canada as far east as Baffin Island. A. i. interpres breeds in western Alaska, Ellesmere Island, Greenland, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Estonia and northern Russia. It formerly bred on the Baltic coast of Germany and has possibly bred in Scotland and the Faroe Islands.
In the Americas, the species winters on coastlines from Washington and Massachusetts southwards to the southern tip of South America although it is scarce in southern parts of Chile and Argentina and is only an unconfirmed vagrant in the Falkland Islands. In Europe, it winters in western regions from Iceland, Norway and Denmark southwards. Only small numbers are found on Mediterranean coasts. In Africa, it is common all the way down to South Africa with good numbers on many offshore islands. In Asia, it is widespread in the south with birds wintering as far north as southern China and Japan (mainly in the Ryukyu Islands). It occurs south to Tasmania and New Zealand and is present on many Pacific islands. Some non-breeding birds remain year round in many parts of the wintering range, with some of those birds still taking on breeding plumage in the spring and summer.


Ruddy turnstones can survive in a wide range of habitats and climatic conditions from Arctic to tropical. The typical breeding habitat is open tundra with water nearby. Outside the breeding season, it is found along coasts, particularly on rocky or stony shores. It is often found on man-made structures such as breakwaters and jetties. It may venture onto open grassy areas near the coast. Small numbers sometimes turn up on inland wetlands, especially during the spring and autumn migrations.
In terms of wintering sites, ruddy turnstones are particularly faithful to specific locations. A study published in 2009 examined turnstones wintering along a stretch of coastline in the Firth of Clyde. It found that 95% of birds resident to the area at the end of winter returned the following autumn. The same study also confirmed ruddy turnstones as one of the longest lived wader species, with annual adult mortality rates of under 15%. Their average lifespan is 9 years with 19 years and 2 months being the longest recorded.


According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the ruddy turnstone population is currently very stable. Environment Canada surveys suggest that they have in fact decreased in abundance relative to the 1970s, and face a variety of threats during migration and winter. They estimate that the Canadian population is 100,000–500,000 adults. The Canadian Wildlife Service estimates that the worldwide population of ruddy turnstones is 449,000, and that 235,000 are breeding in North America while the rest are breeding throughout the Arctic regions. They are very common and widespread. Their remote breeding range and widespread winter range should help them remain a common species.


Silverweed is most often found in sandy or gravelly soils, where it may spread rapidly by its prolific rooting stolons. It typically occurs in inland habitats, unlike A. egedii, which is a salt-tolerant coastal salt marsh plant.


This damselfly ranges in length between about 33 and 40 mm (1.3 and 1.6 in).  Most males have a blue thorax, the plates being separated by a few black lines, and also have a color-tipped abdomen, segments eight, nine and ten being bright blue. The remaining segments are dark brown. However the color of the thorax of Argia apicalis is variable and some males can be greyish-black rather than blue. They can change from one phase to the other and back again over the course of several days, with several intervening variations on the way; neither color phase seems to be particularly related to age or sexual maturity.
Females exhibit three thoracic color phases: brown, turquoise and grayish-black. Again the phase change often takes place in steps, and none of the phases seems to be associated with a particular age or state of maturity.


The common name refers directly to the male's pruinosity, appearing to be covered with a powdery blue or grayish substance. Older males are more pruinose, and may even be more ash white than blue. The scientific name moesta, means sorrowful, and may refer to customs (such as those on Ash Wednesday) of dusting oneself with ashes to express sorrow or mourning.


The dusky dancer (Argia translata) is a damselfly of the family Coenagrionidae, native to eastern and southern North America.


Argiope argentata engages in grooming behavior post prey capture. The duration and intensity of this grooming behavior has a specific connection to the type of prey that was captured. The spider deliberately grooms the tarsal region on each of its eight legs, which is hypothesized to be due to the ability of these structures to respond to chemical changes using chemosensory organs. There is no evidence that A. argentata extends this grooming behavior to the rest of its body.


The act of defecation occurs most frequently after biting the prey or feeding on it, and is a very calculated process. A. argentata consciously widens the space between its abdomen and its web before defecating, to ensure that the web itself is not soiled. A. argentata’s anus is positioned away from the web, so that the defecation itself will be excreted away from the web.


Argiope argentata are relatively harmless to human beings. If thoroughly and intentionally provoked, these spiders might bite out of self defense. Their venom is not toxic to humans and rarely causes any sort of adverse reactions. In fact, the bites of Argiope argentata are relatively comparable to a bee sting - with only minor redness and occasional swelling resulting. Despite being relatively harmless to humans, the bites of A. argentata can prove deadly to smaller animals such as insects and rodents. They are effective ways for the spiders to kill their prey once they have been immobilized.


Argiope spiders are not aggressive. They might bite if grabbed, but other than for defense they do not attack large animals. Their venom often contains a library of polyamine toxins with potential as therapeutic medicinal agents. Notable among these is the argiotoxin ArgTX-636.
A bite by Argiope aurantia is comparable to a bee sting with redness and swelling. For a healthy adult, a bite is not considered an issue. Though they are not aggressive spiders, the very young, elderly, and those with compromised immune systems should exercise caution, just as they would around a beehive or a hornet nest.


This species grows up to three inches in maximum width, and is similar in shape and sculpturing to the Atlantic bay scallop. Both valves of the shell are cupped. The shell near the hinge is extended into "ears", as is the case in all scallops. The shell of the Atlantic calico scallop has about 20 radial ribs, which are sometimes roughened by growth lines.
The exterior coloration of the upper (left) valve of this species is most typically a mottled pattern of purple on a cream background. The lower (right) valve of this scallop is usually whitish with small reddish or purple spotting on the sides. The interior of the shell is white, often with some beige coloration on the "ears" and top edge.
The eye-catching color of the shell of this species gave rise to its popular name; in the US, "calico" was for many years an inexpensive but colorful fabric printed with small flower patterns. The name is no longer in practice within the US.


At the northern extreme of its range in Massachusetts germ and gonial cells complete development in winter and early spring according to Sastry 1970. At the southern extreme the timeline is very different with Barber & Blake 1983 finding cytoplasmic growth stages occurred in July in Tarpon Springs, Florida, almost at the highest water temperature of the year.


L. astrarche Bgstr. (= medon Hufn., agestis Schiff., idas Gerh. (?), nazira Moore) (79 k). Above  similar to the preceding,[ L. anteros ]  deep dark brown, with strongly marked discocellular spot, especially in the male. Typical specimens have this spot black and bear red spots at the outer margin. Underside with numerous ocelli, the hindwing with a pale smear from the apex of the cell to the centre of the outer margin. From Scandinavia to the Sahara and northern India, and from the Canary Isles to the island of Askold in the Pacific, ascending in the mountains up to 10,000 ft. (Doherty). — Besides accidental aberrations in the
usual directions of variation, a number of seasonal and geographical forms have been established. If the spring-brood of the Central European form is regarded as name-typical astrarche, ab. aestiva Stgr. is the name for the second brood, which occurs regularly in the south and more rarely in the north and which connects astrarche with calida Bell. (79 k, 80 a) [A. a. calida (Bellier, 1862) . The latter has a much darker, almost coffee-brown, under-side, with a broader band of red spots.
Egg pale green, flattened, with the top concave and  the surface minutely reticulate (Tutt, Harrison, Gillmer). Larva light green, with a purple dorsal stripe and a similar stripe along the sides, between them oblique pale smears; in spring and summer (in the south throughout the year) on various plants, such as Helianthemum, Centaurea, Erodium, etc. Pupa pale yellowish green, sometimes with a brown dorsal stripe, on or near the ground. The butterflies are on the wing in May and again from July onward, in the south the whole summer until the autumn, in several
broods. They fly everywhere, in fields, on field-paths, on rocky hills, even in gardens, always close to the ground and belong to the very commonest butterflies. During the hours of flight they settle with spread wings on blades of grass, blossoms, or clods of earth, while they sleep with closed wings generally hidden under umbels and the inflorescences of grasses.


Although one of the "blues", both sexes are brown on the uppersides with a band of orange spots at the border of each wing. They can be mistaken for other female blues but the brown argus never has any blue scales at the base of the wings like other female blues often do. It could also be mistaken for the northern brown argus (Aricia artaxerxes) were it not for the fact that their ranges do not overlap in the UK, unlike on continental Europe. The underside has the typical "blue" pattern of a greyish/brownish ground colour with black spots outlined in white and a row of orange spots along the border. The pattern of the black spots is the best way to distinguish this species from female common, chalkhill and Adonis blues as they lack the black spot found near the base of the forewing which is present on these three species. This species has seen an expansion in its range in recent years and is widely distributed across south-east England and most of the Midlands with colonies occurring in Wales and as far north as Yorkshire. These northern sites have seen a lot of confusion in recent years with genetic studies looking at various colonies to separate the two Aricia species. Until a few years ago, these northern colonies were thought to be the northern brown argus and more colonies may yet be found to be misidentified. Like other blues it is common on the chalk downlands of southern England but will also use other habitats such as woodland clearings, coastal grasslands and heathland.  It is not closely related to the Scotch argus.


Common rock-rose (Helianthemum nummularium) is the favoured food plant on calcareous soils. In other habitats dove's-foot cranesbill (Geranium molle) and common stork's-bill (Erodium cicutarium) are used and possibly other Geranium species as well. Eggs are laid singly on the underside of leaves. The typically slug-like lycid larvae are green with a pale line along each side and always attended by ants. They hibernate as fully-grown larvae and pupate the following spring. There are two broods a year in the southern colonies with adults on the wing in May and June and again in late July till mid-September but further north they are single brooded and fly in June and July.


The black slug (also known as black arion, European black slug, or large black slug) Arion ater L. is a large terrestrial gastropod mollusk in the family Arionidae, the round back slugs. Land slugs lack shells like other terrestrial mollusks (such as snails). Without such shells, slugs produce mucus, that may also contain toxins—to deter predators. Terrestrial slugs produce two other forms of mucus that facilitate locomotion and prevent death from drying. Such mollusks are hermaphroditic. Slugs most often function as decomposers but are also often omnivores. Arion ater is one such slug, decomposing organic matter, preying on other organisms, and consuming vegetative matter including agricultural crops. Native to Europe, the black slug is an invasive species in Australia, Canada (British Columbia, Newfoundland, Quebec), and the United States (Pacific Northwest).


Arion ater varies from 10 to 15 cm(3.9–5.9 in), reaching maturity at about 2.5 cm(1.0 in) and speed up to 4,5 cm/min or 2,54 m/h
The black slug is generally deep black, with some adults being brown or even white. Generally, pigmentation darkens directly with increasing latitude. Young specimens tend to be brown or ivory whitish, turning to grey before becoming characteristically black at maturity. Rust-brown individuals are arguably classified as a separate species Arion rufus (Red Slug). The two can only be distinguished by dissecting the reproductive anatomy.
The foot-fringe is black, the tubercles are large and elongate, and the sole is blackish grey. The atrium and vagina (genitalia) are considerably narrower than is the spermatheca (organ for storing sperm). The oviduct is narrow while the spermatheca is spherical.
The black slug is omnivorous, and its diet includes fungi, carrion, earthworms, leaves, stems, dead plant material and dung. The food is shredded into tiny pieces by the radula and is then digested by enzymes.
Like other terrestrial slugs, the black slug is a hermaphrodite, preferring to find a mate—often several—but can self-fertilize. After mating, the black slug seeks a dark, moist environment such as beneath mosses—occasionally within topsoil—to lay its eggs about 5mm (0.2 in) in diameter. Between August and October, an individual slug lays up to 150 eggs every one to three weeks—clutches diminishing to 20 eggs late in the season. Juveniles hatch after at least twenty-seven days, hatching later under cold temperatures. Maturation takes up to nine months, enabling mating in early summer. Black slugs die shortly after laying its last clutch, rarely surviving into a second year.
The ovotestis (gonad or hermaphrodite gland) produces gametes at the proximal end of the reproductive system. The hermaphrodite duct runs forward, connecting to the albumen gland and the common duct (spermoviduct). The male and female gametes separate before entering the common duct. The male portion of the reproductive tract contains the vas deferens and the epiphallus. Arion slugs lack a penis. The vas deferens connects the spermoviduct to the epiphallus. The epiphallus then opens to the genital atrium. The spermathecal duct (bursa copulatrix duct) is a sac for storing spermatozoa and also enters the atrium. The female portion contains the oviduct, transferring eggs from the common duct to the atrium. The atrium is further subdivided into an upper and lower atrium. A stimulating organ (ligula) can also be found in the atrium. Finally, the atrium opens through the genital pore. The genital pore is located on the animal slightly behind and below the right upper tentacle on the head.
Like other members of the family Arionidae, the black slug has a pneumostome (breathing hole) on the right side of its mantle through which it breathes. This mantle is the part in snails that secretes a shell, but in the black slug, the mantle contains a resilient protective structure of calcareous granules.
Arion ater produces three forms of mucus. The first two aid the animal in locomotion, with a thinner mucus coating the animal laterally, and a thicker, more viscous mucus secreted along the length of the slug. This combination facilitates wave like contractions of the foot that propel the animal forward. The third type of mucus is a vile-tasting substance which helps deter predation. All three forms of mucus help protect the slug from dehydration, as well as to locate and identify other slugs to mate with, or even prey upon.


This species is found in northern Europe (including Great Britain and Ireland), Canada, the Pacific Northwest, and most recently in Australia and some Caribbean countries:
Great Britain: often found in habitats more wooded and less human-dense than those in which A. rufus occurs
Maladeta Mountains, Spain: often an agricultural pest
Ireland, Italy, Germany, Scandinavia,  and Gerês, Portugal
Canada [invasive]: first document in 1941, established pest by 1960
British Columbia
Newfoundland
Quebec (specifically on Mont Bellevue in Sherbrooke)
United States [invasive]: Within its native habitats, this species functions as a decomposer/consumer and often becomes an agricultural pest. This species is well-established in Washington and Oregon, and it is considered to represent a potentially serious threat as a pest, an invasive species which could negatively affect agriculture, natural ecosystems, human health or commerce. Therefore, it has been suggested that this species be given top national quarantine significance in the USA.
Australia [invasive]: The Museum Victoria reports the black slug to have been first documented in Australia in 2001 with multiple reports of these slugs in cultivated gardens and farms since, but as of 2009, the species was still not considered to be an established species in Australia.


The black slug is mainly nocturnal and avoids exposure to sunlight, although in introduced areas, it has been observed to be active all parts of the day and night. It is omnivorous, eating carrion, fungi, animal feces, algae, lichen, and vegetation (living or decaying). These slugs prefer to eat on cloudy days or at night when temperatures are above 10 degrees Celsius. Mucus-production necessitates moist habitats, such as among leaf-litter, mosses, or fallen trees. Consequently, the black slug becomes most active after rainfall. A 1976 study compared black slug assimilation rates to that of similar slugs in the UK. The study determined the black slug feeds at similar rates to other European slugs (in terms of biomass), suggesting the black slug is an equally important decomposer/consumer in forest systems. The study theorized these high assimilation rates might result from abundant enzymes in slug digestive systems: amylase, invertase, cellulase, xylanase, and chitinase. The last might be especially indicative of how these slugs can consume large quantities of fungi such as Armillaria mellea. Microbiota within black slug digestive systems produce these enzymes—such as the bacteria that produce cellulose—enabling the slugs to break down lignocellulose. A recent study further explored Arion ater’s gut microbiome and discovered the black slug to have far more bacteria within its gut than did neighboring, northern European insects, including members of the orders Coleoptera, Isoptera, Orthoptera, and Diptera. This study learned the black slug’s gut microbiome to be functional at a wide range of temperatures and pH levels, and its results suggest that the mycobacterial culture may be uniform throughout the black slug’s gut and that Gammaproteobacteria composes most of this culture. This study contrasted its results to studies of North American black slugs that presented higher levels of cellulolytic activity at a narrower pH range. In summary, Arion ater can digest diverse food material such as cellulose because gut bacteria produce digestive enzymes.
As decomposers/consumers, slugs engage an important niche, contributing to ecosystem health. A 2005 study looked at another Arion slug species and concluded slugs may promote plant biodiversity. This study suggested that slugs promote plant—especially forb—species diversity and that slugs support annual plant species’ fitness, reducing rates of successional change. Additionally, slugs help disperse seeds and spores through their waste, and slugs facilitate nutrient cycling by being an omnivorous consumer (especially a decomposer) and by leaving behind their mucus, which also facilitates decomposition.
Slugs are common agricultural and horticultural pests. They consume abundant vegetative matter, especially seedlings. Additionally, many people find slugs to be unsightly.
Most animals prefer not to prey upon the black slugs because of the taste of its mucus and because this mucus can make them slippery and consequently difficult to capture; however, this slug does have some natural predators, including the hedgehog, badger, shrew, mole, mouse, frog, toad, snake, carnivorous beetle, and some birds. When picked up or touched, the black slug will contract to a hemispherical shape and begin to rock from side to side. This defensive behavior confuses predators, and is unique in the family Arionidae.


Arion ater has been introduced to southeastern Australia and to North America, where it occurs in Newfoundland, southern British Columbia, the Pacific Northwest of the United States and some parts of Alaska. In the past two decades, its mating with the non-native (at northern latitudes) pest species Arion vulgaris (or Spanish slug) has resulted in a more resilient hybrid exhibiting increased tolerance to cold.
These slugs might endanger sensitive ecosystems, especially as an invasive species, and it is yet unclear how drastically these slugs might alter plant community compositions. The black slug is a voracious seedling predator. Terrestrial slugs are considered to be especially dangerous because they alter plant species abundance, adult plant fecundity, and the production of plant defensive compounds. Black slugs are of special concern in fragmented ecosystems and areas with high shrub and tree cover. In Alaska, the black slug threatens seedling populations of lilies and orchids after already having diminished sensitive populations of deltoid balsamroot and yellow montane violet in BC Canada.
There is much debate concerning black slug effect upon plant species diversity. Slug impacts change over successional stages, and Alaska conservationists observed the black slug's impact on species diversity depends upon community composition. If a system is composed of sensitive species, the black slug will likely have a negative impact by pressuring said species. If a system presents more evenness with less sensitive species, the black slug may promote species diversity and encourage healthy succession rates.
Around the 1970s, the black slug came to Alaska via nursery plants, potting soil, or among shipments containing wood pallets. The Alaska National Heritage Project published an invasive ranking for the black slug, providing a recent case study of the species as an invasive. They ranked the species based upon distribution, biological characteristics, ecological impacts, and feasibility of control. These categories were assigned points, and Arion ater received a 62/100, awarding it a qualitative score of “moderately invasive.” This report stated the black slug can often be found in disturbed soils or areas with well-irrigated soils such as lawns. Frequent sightings along roads suggest the black slug might move more easily along human traffic corridors; however, the black slug is believed to migrate little during its one-year life span. Arion ater’s biology awarded it its highest risk factor. Again, the black slug is a prolific, omnivorous consumer, capable of inhabiting a wide range of conditions with high fecundity. Its effect upon local ecology received a moderate score; while the black slug puts pressure on native systems, it does not appear to catalyze entire regime shifts within the habitats where it has invaded. Greatest concern appears to be its possible pressure on early successional plants and native slugs. The black slug often feeds upon seedlings, diminishing plants’ reproductive success, but the black slug does not appear to be feeding selectively, endangering one plant species over another. And the black slug's effect on native-Alaska slugs is unknown, but the black slug might be displacing the banana slug in BC, Canada; however, such displacement might not have implications beyond those for the banana slugs. Slugs facilitate seed and spore dispersal through fecal matter. The black slug facilitates nutrient cycling by decomposing decaying and fecal matter; additionally, slug mucus left behind in the soil helps cycle nutrients, and Arion ater may merely step into this niche in place of native slugs. Arion ater has spread in Alaska in the following places: Anchorage, Cordova, Yakutat, Gustavus, Juneau, Sitka, Tenakee Springs, Ketchikan, and Kodiak Island, and in some of these areas, the black slug threatens lilies and orchids. It is unlikely complete removal can be achieved given high fecundity, but fencing and educating the public to hand pick black slugs might mitigate associated invasion risks.
Conservationists within the Pacific Northwest and BC Canada are concerned about competition between Arion ater and native slugs such as the banana slug (Ariolimax californicus, A. columbianus, and A. dolichophallus). The University of British Columbia's zoology department published a study on this interaction in 2015. They determined the two slugs to be functionally different but proposed further studies to determine whether black slugs are displacing native slugs. Their study found black slugs were more abundant and consumed a greater quantity of mushrooms than native banana slugs but could not determine reasons for differences in population sizes. They theorized the greater abundance of black slugs could be because the black slug displaced banana slugs or because the black slug might be invading areas with previously low banana slug numbers; however, there is no data for banana slug population sizes prior to the arrival of Arion ater. This complicates determining whether alien slugs have a negative or negligible effect upon native slug numbers. Additionally, this study could not determine whether high fungi-consumption resulted from dietary preference or from higher concentrations of alien slugs amidst Douglas fir forests, which promote fungal growth. The study also concluded that black and banana slugs compete for under-story berries. The study demonstrated neither native nor alien slugs consume conifer or fern seedlings. It also demonstrated no significant difference between metabolic rates. However, they concluded the black slug may eat more because of its shorter life span (one compared to several years), requiring faster consumption rates to reach sexual maturity. The study demonstrated both slugs benefit ecosystems by dispersing seeds and spores. This study demonstrates the two slugs to be functionally different; however, this study proposed further research on the following to determine if black slugs are displacing banana slugs: interactions between Arion ater and fungal communities and comparative studies looking at seed dispersal rates to determine their effect on native, fruit-bearing plant communities.


The Garry Oak Ecosystem Recovery Team suggests the following control strategies, stating chemical controls should only be used as a last resort in protecting endangered species or critical habitat. Hand collecting is most effective at dusk or dawn when slugs feed most actively. Traps are also effective. Commercial traps can be used, or homemade traps can be made using beer. Fences can be used to protect small areas and can be commercial (often electrical) or easily homemade with sawdust, crushed eggshells, ground oyster shells, soap, cinders, or diatomaceous earth. Such fences are especially effective at protecting important seedlings or home gardens. European nematodes (Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita) parasitize slugs, and in European agriculture, these nematodes have been mass-produced as a biological control; however, European nematodes are neither native to North America nor commercially available. In addition to nematodes, there may be other biological control methods. Sciomyzids (marsh flies) larvae kill slugs and live in environments similar to slugs. Additionally, carabid beetles consume slug eggs. Large carabid beetles, such as Abax parallelepipedus predate slugs.
The slug mite, Riccardoella limacum, is known to parasitize several dozen species of mollusks, including many slugs, such as Agriolimax agrestis, Arianta arbustrum, Arion ater, Arion hortensis, Limax maximus, Milax budapestensis, Milax gagates, and Milax sowerbyi. Any use of beneficial organisms presents risks of new invaders or of disrupting native population dynamics. Again, conservation groups like the GOERT view chemical treatments as an effective last resort. For example, metaldehyde baits are very effective, but such baits are toxic to humans and native slugs. Iron phosphate baits are less toxic than metaldehyde and carbonyl baits. Iron phosphate, however, degrades rapidly and must be reapplied regularly.
Alaska conservations (as previously mentioned) believe widespread watch programs to be crucial. By informing the public and by funding conservation efforts, we might be able to slow the spread of invasive slugs, preventing any possible competition between native and invasive slugs and protecting sensitive species from seedling predation.


The red slug (Arion rufus), also known as the large red slug, chocolate arion and European red slug, is a species of land slug in the family Arionidae, the roundback slugs.


It is familiar from gardens and parks as well as disturbed agricultural landscapes, but also from a diversity of natural habitats including woodland, meadows, margins of water bodies, coastal habitat, and moorland.  However, in much of its range A. rufus has declined dramatically over the last decades due to replacement by the externally similar Arion vulgaris.


A. felis consumes a wide range of food.  It is an opportunistic consumer that uses mud and sand flats as hunting grounds. It is  also mainly a secondary consumer, ingesting primarily detritus, meio-, and macrobenthic fauna, and fish.  Its diet primarily consists of algae, seagrasses, cnidarians, sea cucumbers, gastropods, polychaetes, shrimp, and crabs. It can occasionally be a tertiary consumer.
Its diet depends on its size and location.  Younger hardhead catfish tend to eat small crustaceans, like amphipods, shrimp, blue crabs, mollusks, and annelids.  Juveniles that are still under the protection of the male mouthbrooder feed predominately on planktonic crustaceans close by to the mouth of the parent.  The adults primarily consume larger fish.


Significant evidence suggests correlation between the fish's activity patterns and seasonal changes.  Under controlled conditions of photoperiod, temperature, and water quality, hardhead catfish display nonrandom oscillations in angular orientation of locomotive activity.  There appears to be annual, bimodal cycles for all three of these variables.  The cycles match with the seasonal inshore-offshore migrations of hardhead catfish. Photoperiod appears to be the exogenous cue that triggers the cyclic changes in behavior.  The presence of this seasonal behavior indicates that  a circadian neural mechanism  may exist in hardhead catfish.


Furthermore, hardhead catfish are the first indicator that Osteichthyes possibly could use directional hearing to detect obstacles.  Emissions of low-frequency sounds were related to the detection and avoidance of close obstacles.  Individuals within the group that produced sound avoided obstacles, whereas silent individuals crashed into obstacles frequently.  Many fish have been associated with sound production for alarm, territorial, and courtship purposes, but sound probing of surroundings seems to be only be seen in hardhead catfish.  So far, no evidence exists for far-field echolocation, such as seen in bats or toothed whales.  The signal parameters have low frequency and amplitude, so  far-field reverberations are unlikely to be useful.  If echolocation exists, it is likely only useful in the near field by the catfish.


Like other members of the Ariidae, hardhead catfish are paternal mouthbrooders.  After spawning, the male carries the eggs in his mouth until they hatch.  Several nonfunctioning eggs within the brood attach to the larger, viable eggs.  These nonfunctioning eggs may be used as food for the male mouthbrooder, since mouthbrooders do not feed while they are taking care of the brood.   Oral incubations continue through the yolk-sac larval state, for a total length around 8–11 weeks.  Under laboratory conditions, offspring can hatch in roughly 30 days.  The offspring are roughly 6–8 cm long and slowly adapt to adult behavior, such as opportunistic bottom-feeding and scavenging. At absorption of the yolk sac, juveniles begin to show adult characteristics.  The parental male can choose to carry the young after they have hatched until they are larger and capable of surviving on their own.


Hardhead catfish are voracious feeders and will bite on almost any natural bait. Hardhead catfish are also known to steal bait.  Shrimp is a particularly effective bait to use.  When fishing for this species in fresh water, assorted meats tend to work best as bait. For example: bacon, chicken, cuts of steak, and smaller fish. Hardhead catfish are generally regarded as an undesirable catch by most anglers, largely due to the risk associated with handling the venomous fish, as well as its 'fishy' taste as opposed to desirable game fish.
Hardhead catfish are edible, but like all catfish, require some effort to clean. It is one of the 30 most recreationally harvested species in the five-county area (Volusia, Brevard, Indian River, St. Lucie, Martin) encompassing the Indian River Lagoon in central Florida. From 1997 to 2001, 361,022 hardhead catfish were harvested within 200 miles of the shore in the IRL region.
Hardheads are also harvested for industrial purposes in commercial bottom-trawling operations. Annual harvests vary greatly, but from 1987 to 2001, 1.04 million pounds of marine catfishes (including both the hardhead catfish and the gafftopsail catfish) were harvested in the IRL region. The harvest was valued at $777,497.


Arizona elegans is a species of medium-sized colubrid snake commonly referred to as the glossy snake or the faded snake, which is endemic to the southwestern United States and Mexico. It has several subspecies. Some have recommended that A. elegans occidentalis be granted full species status.


The genus Armases is defined by a primarily equatorial smooth carpace, which can be either slightly wider than long or vice versa. A distinct row of hair is present on the lower margin and second walking legs do not have any pubescence. Armases can be distinguished from members of other genera such as Sesarma or Sarmatium by the way its carapace has laterally parallel margins on each side of its body. This gives Armases cinereum its characteristic square shape and is the namesake for squareback marsh crab.
Armases cinereum, like most decapod crabs is vertically compressed with the majority of its body being composed of the carpace; the eyes are located at the top of eye stalks, the abdomen and thorax are positioned under the carpace, and there are four legs on each side of the carpace with one claw per side positioned anterior of the legs.


Armillaria mellea typically infects hardwood trees and conifers but sometimes will infect non-woody monocots and a few herbaceous plants. There are few signs, and the ones that do exist are often hard to find. The most prominent sign is honey-colored mushrooms at the base of the infected plant. Additional signs include white, fan-shaped mycelia and black rhizomorphs with diameters between 1/32nd of an inch and 1/8th of an inch. These usually are not as noticeable because they occur beneath the bark and in the soil, respectively. The symptoms are much more numerous, including slower growth, dieback of branches, yellowing foliage, rotted wood at base and/or roots, external cankers, cracking bark, bleeding stem, leaf wilting, defoliation, and rapid death. Leaf wilting, defoliation, and dieback occur after the destruction of the cambium.


Armillaria mellea infects both through basidiospore and penetration of host species by rhizomorphs which can grow up to 10 feet long to find new, living tissue to infect. However, infection of living host tissue through basidiospores is quite rare. Two basidiospores must germinate and fuse to be viable and produce mycelium. In the late summer and autumn, Armillaria mellea produces mushrooms with notched gills, a ring near the cap base, and a white to golden color. They don't always appear, but when they do they can be found on both living and dead trees near the ground. These mushrooms produce and release the sexually created basidiospore which is dispersed by the wind. This is the only spore-bearing phase. The fungus overwinters as either rhizomorphs or vegetative mycelium. Infected wood is weakened through decay in roots and tree base after destruction of the vascular cambium and underlying wood.


Armillaria mellea prefers moist soil and lower soil temperatures but it can also withstand extreme temperatures, such as forest fires, due to the protection of the soil. It is found in many kinds of landscapes, including gardens, parks, vineyards, tree production areas, and natural landscapes.


Trees become infected by Armillaria mellea when rhizomorphs growing through the soil encounter uninfected roots. Alternatively, when infected roots come into contact with uninfected ones the fungal mycelium may grow across. The rhizomorphs invade the trunk, growing between the bark and the wood and causing wood decay, growth reduction and mortality. Trees that are already under stress are more likely to be attacked but healthy trees may also be parasitized. The foliage becomes sparse and discoloured, twig growth slows down and branches may die back. When they are attacked, the Douglas-fir, western larch and some other conifers often produce an extra large crop of cones shortly before dying. Coniferous trees also tend to ooze resin from infected areas whereas broad-leaved trees sometimes develop sunken cankers. A growth of fruiting bodies near the base of the trunk confirms the suspicion of Armillaria root rot.
In 1893, the American mycologist Charles Horton Peck reported finding Armillaria fruiting bodies that were "aborted", in a similar way to specimens of Entoloma abortivum. It was not until 1974 that Roy Watling showed that the aborted specimens included cells of both Armillaria mellea and Entoloma abortivum. He thought that the Armillaria was parasitizing the Entoloma, a plausible hypothesis given its pathogenic behaviour. However, a 2001 study by Czederpiltz, Volk and Burdsall showed that the Entoloma was in fact the microparasite. The whitish-grey malformed fruit bodies known as carpophoroids were the result of E. abortivum hyphae penetrating the Armillaria and disrupting its normal development.
The main part of the fungus is underground where a mat of mycelial threads may extend for great distances. The rhizomorphs of A. mellea are initiated from mycelium into multicellular apices of rhizomorphs, which are multicellular vegetative organs that exclude soil from the interior of the rhizomorph tissues. The rhizomorphs spread through far greater distances through the ground than the mycelium. The rhizomorphs are black in this species. The fungal body is not bioluminescent but its mycelia and rhizomorphs are luminous when in active growth. A. mellea producing rhizomorphs is parasitic on woody plants of many species, including especially shrubs, hardwood and evergreen trees. In one example, A. mellea spread by rhizomorphs from an initially infected tree killed 600 trees in a prune orchard in 6 years. Each infected tree was immediately adjacent to an already infected one, the spread by rhizomorphs through the tree roots and soil. (Piper and Fletcher, 1903, Wash. Age. Exp. Sat. But., 59:  1-14); cited in Rhizomorph Development in A. mellea, Ph.D. thesis, by Philip Snider(1957), Farlow Herbarium Library Harvard Univ., 20 Divinity Ave., Cambridge, Mass.


Armillaria mellea mushroom are considered good edibles, though not preferred by some, and the tough stalks are usually excluded. Some individuals have reported "allergic" reactions that result in stomach upsets. Some authors suggest not collecting mushrooms from the wood of various trees, including hemlock, buckeye, eucalyptus, and locust. The mushrooms have a taste that has been described as slightly sweet and nutty, with a texture ranging from chewy to crunchy, depending on the method of preparation. Parboiling mushrooms before consuming removes the bitter taste present in some specimens, and may reduce the amount of gastrointestinal irritants. According to one guide, they must be cooked before eating. Drying the mushrooms preserves and intensifies their flavour, although reconstituted mushrooms tend to be tough to eat. The mushrooms can also be pickled and roasted.


Armillaria mellea has been reported in almost every state with the continental United States. It is one of the most common causes of death in trees and shrubs in both natural and human cultivated habitats, and cause steady and substantial losses.


Armillaria mellea infects new hosts through rhizomorphs and basidiospores. It is rare for basidiospores to be successful in infecting new hosts and often colonize woody debris instead, but rhizomorphs, however, can grow up to ten feet long in order to find a new host.


Horseradish (Armoracia rusticana, syn. Cochlearia armoracia) is a perennial plant of the family Brassicaceae (which also includes mustard, wasabi, broccoli, cabbage, and radish). It is a root vegetable, cultivated and used worldwide as a spice and as a condiment. The species is probably native to southeastern Europe and western Asia.


Horseradish grows up to 1.5 meters (5 feet) tall, with hairless bright green unlobed leaves up to 1 m (3 ft 3 in) long that may be mistaken for docks (Rumex). It is cultivated primarily for its large, white, tapered root. The white four-petalled flowers are scented and are borne in dense panicles. Established plants may form extensive patches and may become invasive unless carefully managed.
Intact horseradish root has little aroma. When cut or grated, enzymes from within the plant cells digest sinigrin (a glucosinolate) to produce allyl isothiocyanate (mustard oil), which irritates the mucous membranes of the sinuses and eyes. Once exposed to air or heat, horseradish loses its pungency, darkens in color, and develops a bitter flavor.


Horseradish has been cultivated since antiquity. Dioscorides listed horseradish equally as Persicon sinapi (Diosc. 2.186) or Sinapi persicum (Diosc. 2.168), which Pliny's Natural History reported as Persicon napy; Cato discusses the plant in his treatises on agriculture, and a mural in Pompeii shows the plant. Horseradish is probably the plant mentioned by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History under the name of Amoracia, and recommended by him for its medicinal qualities, and possibly the wild radish, or raphanos agrios of the Greeks. The early Renaissance herbalists Pietro Andrea Mattioli and John Gerard showed it under Raphanus. Its modern Linnaean genus Armoracia was first applied to it by Heinrich Bernhard Ruppius, in his Flora Jenensis, 1745, but Linnaeus himself called it Cochlearia armoracia.
Both root and leaves were used as a traditional medicine during the Middle Ages. The root was used as a condiment on meats in Germany, Scandinavia, and Britain. It was introduced to North America during European colonization; both George Washington and Thomas Jefferson mention horseradish in garden accounts. Native Americans used it to stimulate the glands, stave off scurvy, and as a diaphoretic treatment for the common cold.
William Turner mentions horseradish as Red Cole in his "Herbal" (1551–1568), but not as a condiment. In The Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes (1597), John Gerard describes it under the name of raphanus rusticanus, stating that it occurs wild in several parts of England. After referring to its medicinal uses, he says:
[T]he Horse Radish stamped with a little vinegar put thereto, is commonly used among the Germans for sauce to eat fish with and such like meats as we do mustard.


The word horseradish is attested in English from the 1590s. It combines the word horse (formerly used in a figurative sense to mean strong or coarse) and the word radish.
In Central and Eastern Europe, horseradish is called khren, hren and ren (in various spellings like kren) in many Slavic languages, in Austria, in parts of Germany (where the other German name Meerrettich is not used), in North-East Italy, and in Yiddish (כריין transliterated as khreyn). It is common in Ukraine (under the name of хрін, khrin), in Belarus (under the name of хрэн, chren), in Poland (under the name of chrzan), in the Czech Republic (křen), in Slovakia (chren), in Russia (хрен, khren), in Hungary (torma), in Romania (hrean), in Lithuania (krienai), and in Bulgaria (under the name of хрян).


The distinctive pungent taste of horseradish is from the compound allyl isothiocyanate. Upon crushing the flesh of horseradish, the enzyme myrosinase is released and acts on the glucosinolates sinigrin and gluconasturtiin, which are precursors to the allyl isothiocyanate. The allyl isothiocyanate serves the plant as a natural defense against herbivores. Since allyl isothiocyanate is harmful to the plant itself, it is stored in the harmless form of the glucosinolate, separate from the enzyme myrosinase. When an animal chews the plant, the allyl isothiocyanate is released, repelling the animal. Allyl isothiocyanate is an unstable compound, degrading over the course of days at 37 °C (99 °F). Because of this instability, horseradish sauces lack the pungency of the freshly crushed roots.
Cooks may use the terms "horseradish" or "prepared horseradish" to refer to the mashed (or grated) root of the horseradish plant mixed with vinegar. Prepared horseradish is white to creamy-beige in color. It can be stored for up to 3 months under refrigeration, but eventually will darken, indicating less flavour. The leaves of the plant are edible, either cooked or raw when young, with a flavor similar but weaker than the roots.
On Passover, many Ashkenazi Jews (outside of Israel) use grated horseradish as a  choice for Maror (bitter herbs) at the Passover Seder.


Horseradish sauce made from grated horseradish root and vinegar is a common condiment in the United Kingdom, in Denmark (with sugar added, too) and in Poland. In the UK, it is usually served with roast beef, often as part of a traditional Sunday roast, but can be used in a number of other dishes, including sandwiches or salads. A variation of horseradish sauce, which in some cases may substitute the vinegar with other products like lemon juice or citric acid, is known in Germany as Tafelmeerrettich. Also available in the UK is Tewkesbury mustard, a blend of mustard and grated horseradish originating in medieval times and mentioned by Shakespeare (Falstaff says: "his wit's as thick as Tewkesbury Mustard" in Henry IV Part II). A similar mustard, called Krensenf or Meerrettichsenf, is common in Austria and parts of Germany. In France, sauce au raifort is used in Alsatian cuisine. In Russia, horseradish root is usually mixed with grated garlic and small amount of tomatoes for color (Khrenovina sauce).
In the US, the term "horseradish sauce" refers to grated horseradish combined with mayonnaise or salad dressing. In Denmark it is mixed with whipping cream and as such used on top of traditional Danish open sandwiches with beef (boiled or steaked) slices. Prepared horseradish is a common ingredient in Bloody Mary cocktails and in cocktail sauce, and is used as a sauce or sandwich spread. Horseradish cream is a mixture of horseradish and sour cream and is served au jus for a prime rib dinner.


In Europe, there are two varieties of chrain. "Red" chrain is mixed with red beetroot and "white" chrain contains no beetroot. Chrain is a part of Christian Easter and Jewish Passover tradition (as maror) in Eastern and Central Europe.
In parts of Southern Germany like Franconia, "kren" is a component of the traditional wedding dinner. It is served with cooked beef and a dip made from lingonberry to balance the slight hotness of the Kren.
In Poland, a variety with red beetroot is called ćwikła z chrzanem or simply ćwikła.
In Russia, a very popular ingredient for pickles (cucumbers, tomatoes, mushrooms).
In Ashkenazi European Jewish cooking, beetroot horseradish is commonly served with gefilte fish.
In Transylvania and other Romanian regions, red beetroot with horseradish is used as a salad served with lamb dishes at Easter called sfecla cu hrean.
In Serbia, ren is an essential condiment with cooked meat and freshly roasted suckling pig.
In Croatia, freshly grated horseradish (Croatian: Hren) is often eaten with boiled ham or beef.
In Slovenia, and in the adjacent Italian regions of Friuli Venezia Giulia and nearby Italian region of Veneto, horseradish (often grated and mixed with sour cream, vinegar, hard-boiled eggs, or apples) is also a traditional Easter dish.
In the Italian regions of Lombardy, Emilia-Romagna, and Piedmont, it is called "barbaforte (strong beard)" and is a traditional accompaniment to bollito misto; while in northeastern regions like Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, Veneto and Friuli-Venezia Giulia, it is still called "kren" or "cren". In the southern region of Basilicata it is known as "rafano" and used for the preparation of the so-called "rafanata", a main course made of horseradish, eggs, cheese and sausage.
Horseradish is also used as a main ingredient for soups. In Poland, horseradish soup is a common Easter Day dish.


In a 100-gram amount, prepared horseradish provides 48 calories and has high content of vitamin C with moderate content of sodium, folate and dietary fiber, while other essential nutrients are negligible in content. In a typical serving of one tablespoon (15 grams), horseradish supplies no significant nutrient content.
Horseradish contains volatile oils, notably mustard oil.


The main constituents of Arnica montana are essential oils, fatty acids, thymol, pseudoguaianolide sesquiterpene lactones and flavanone glycosides. Pseudoguaianolide sesquiterpenes constitute 0.2–0.8% of the flower head of Arnica montana. They are the toxin helenalin and their fatty esters. 2,5-Dimethoxy-p-cymene and thymol methyl ether are the primary components of essential oils from both the plant's roots and rhizomes. The quality and chemical constitution of the plant substance Arnicae flos can be monitored by near-infrared spectroscopy.


The demand for A. montana is 50 tonnes per year in Europe, but the supply does not cover the demand. The plant is rare; it is protected in Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, and in some regions of Switzerland. France and Romania produce A. montana for the international market. Changes in agriculture in Europe during the last decades have led to a decline in the occurrence of A. montana. Extensive agriculture has been replaced by intensive management.


Arnoglossum plantagineum also known as tuberous Indian-plantain,  groovestem Indian plantain or Prairie Indian plantain, is a North American species of Arnoglossum in the sunflower family.  The Latin specific epithet plantagineum refers to the leaves of the plant which are similar to those of a plantain.


Arnoglossum plantagineum grows in sunny areas with moist to wet soils in wet and mesic prairie, fens, and sedge meadows, and seems to have little tolerance for disturbed habitats such as those grazed by cattle, sprayed with herbicides, or those subject repeated haying. In Minnesota it is found with other declining plants species such as Asclepias sulliavantii and Parthenium integrfolium.


This beetle is characterised by very long antennae (like all other cerambycids) and a somewhat coppery or greenish metallic tint. The  typical form, characterised by a pronotum with a metallic color, is widespread in Europe, except for most of Spain and Southern Italy. In such regions, in North and East Africa, and in Asia to Japan, the species is represented by some subspecies characterised by  a more or less red pronotum. The antennae are longer than the entire head and body length in male and as long as body in females. Nevertheless, the Oriental subspecies have usually shorter antennae.
The musk beetle can  be found in Great Britain locally, for example at Caldicot and Wentloog Levels otherwise known as Gwent Levels SSSI


The most extensive study done of the color patterning of Arothron meleagris is by Jinxiang and Tyler in 1986. In this study, A. meleagris has three distinctive color variations. The first most common color variation that it possesses is a background color consisting of dark brown with many white, and much less commonly, black or dark brown, spots on its whole body. The spots located on the rear of A. meleagris are more minuscule compared to the spots on its sides, a characteristic that is especially prevalent on those that are located in the Indian Ocean. A majority of the specimens of A. meleagris have pale fins that are dark brown in color with white spots not unlike to the ones found on its body. Additionally, the width of its pectoral fin can vary differently for each pufferfish, with some possessing a dark brown color on the bottom base half of the pectoral fin.
Another color variation it possesses that is as common is a yellow background color covered with black spots around its body. In regards to its fins, Jinxiang and Tyler note that "The distal edges of the dorsal, anal, and pectoral fins are whitish, while more basally these fins are yellow, with the rays light brownish toward the more distal portion of the basal region.". Additionally, the caudal fin is either yellow or a mix of yellow and light brown, with the areas near its gills having a light brown color.
The third color variation is a mix of the two patterns. A portion of A. meleagris' back in the third color variation is brown in color, scattered with unique white spots while its sides, belly  and head are yellow in color covered with several black spots There are light brown patches on its mouth , gill openings and on the bottom bases of the dorsal and caudal fins, both of which are covered with white spots. The color yellow also makes up its anal and pectoral fins, with a light brown color covering its rays. Some of the other instances of the third color variation include the heads and bodies of A. meleagris being bright yellow in color while its fins are covered in brown and scattered with white spots.
In a study done by Jinxiang and Tyler, with around 124 specimens of A. meleagris examined, 79% of them are found to possess the first pattern, with 11% having the third pattern and 10% of them being found to have the second pattern. Based on the sample size, the study indicates that the first pattern is the most common color variation found in them, followed by the third and then the second pattern being the rarest.
Apart from the three most common color variations, there exists several other rarer color patterns found in A. meleagris. In a report done by Hector Reyes Bonilla and Arturo Hernandez-Velasco an abnormal specimen of  A. meleagris was found at Cabo Pulma Reef, in the southwestern gulf of California, Mexico. White spots, a common characteristic across the bodies of the Arothron meleagris, was not found in the abnormal specimen. Instead, the specimen displayed a color variation of white lines across a black-purple background Other features of the specimen include a circular black line around its eye, a black belly and a white reticula. Additionally, its posterior area contained a white line while both its dorsal and anal fin had black stripes over a yellow background.
Since A. meleagris belongs to the Tetradontids family, it has a tough skin that is enveloped in minuscule spiked scales, a beak-like dental plate separated by a median line, and a gill opening similar to an incision anterior to the pectoral fin's base. It also has the ability to create and store toxins like tetrodotoxin and saxitoxin in its liver, gonads and skin. The level of toxicity also differs depending on the season and geographic location that it is located in. Additionally, among its members in Tetradontids family, A. meleagris have the smallest vertebrate genomes that have been discovered so far.


Arrhenatherum elatius, with the common names bulbous oat grass, false oat-grass, tall oat-grass, tall meadow oat, onion couch and tuber oat-grass, is a species of perennial grass, native to Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa.
This bunchgrass is often used as an ornamental grass and is sometimes marketed as "cat grass".
It is native to Europe but can be found elsewhere as an introduced species. It is found especially in prairies, at the side of roads and in uncultivated fields. The bulbous subspecies can be a weed of arable land. It is palatable grass for livestock and is used both as forage (pasture) and fodder (hay and silage).


This coarse grass can grow to 150 centimeters (59 in) tall. The leaves are bright green, broad, slightly hairy, and rough. The ligule is 3 centimeters (1.2 in) long and smooth edged. The panicle is up to 30 centimeters (12 in), and the bunched spikelets have projecting and angled awns up to 17 millimeters (0.67 in) long, green or purplish. The panicles often remain into winter. The spikelets are oblong or gaping. It flowers from June to September.  The roots are yellow.
Two subspecies have been described:
Arrhenatherum elatius subsp. elatius, the more common variety.
Arrhenatherum elatius subsp. bulbosum (also called Arrhenatherum tuberosum), onion couch or tuber oat-grass, distinguished by the presence of corms at the base of the stem, by which it propagates. It occurs in vegetated shingle and arable land.


Arrhenatherum elatius is a principal species in two UK National Vegetation Classification habitat communities: the very widespread MG1 (Arrhenatherum elatius grassland) and the much rarer MG2 (Arrhenatherum elatius - Filipendula ulmaria tall-herb grassland). This means that it can be found with species such as Dactylis glomerata (also known as cock's-foot and orchard grass), and Filipendula ulmaria (also known as meadow-sweet).
It is found on road verges, along hedges and riverbanks.
It can colonise and stabilise limestone scree, bare calcareous cliffs, maritime shingle and coastal dunes.


The dusky woodswallow (Artamus cyanopterus) is a bird species of  forests and woodlands in temperate and subtropical regions, extending into tropical areas around the Atherton Tableland, in eastern and southern Australia.
The global population of the species has as yet not been formally confirmed, but it has been officially rated in the range of 'Least Concern', according to the BirdLife International in 2004. As such, the bird could be described as common in its local habitat.
The name "woodswallow" is a misnomer as they are not closely related to true swallows. Instead, they belong to the family Artamidae, which also includes butcherbirds, currawongs and the Australian magpie.


The diet of the bird can be varied. They eat various forms of foliage and other grassy material that they find on the ground on in trees and shrubs. Dusky woodswallows have been seen eating termites, butterflies and other insects. They also eat nectar from flowers. One notable aspect of their feeding habits is the way they hunt flying insects, which is done by picking them up on their wing. They do, however, also eat their prey from the ground, and they often find inconspicuous places to perch while waiting for prey, such as utility lines and the like. They have also been observed engaging in kleptoparasitism, working as a group to rob a restless flycatcher of its prey.


The nest of the dusky woodswallow consists of twigs, roots and other similar foliage matted together to form a bowl shape, which is lined with grass. It is positioned safely, behind bark, and/or high in a tree branch, and sometimes in a hollowed out tree stump. The nest is made during the period from August to January, and with the help of several birds. The mated pair will then guard the nest, while others will help them take care of the babies. The female lays white eggs, of which there are usually no more than three or four. While the incubation period lasts for sixteen days, the amount of time taken for fledgling can be this long to around twenty days.
The typical clutch is three to four in size, but this may vary.


The White-breasted Woodswallow's plumage is dark grey on the head and neck, with white underparts, giving the species its common and scientific names, in contrast to the related great woodswallow whose upper side is a more glossy black. The stout bill of a woodswallow is bluish-grey with a black tip. White breasted woodswallows can also be identified by their short, black tail and grey feet. Their completely black tail makes them the only woodswallow lacking white on its tail. Males and females are identical in appearance. Juvenile woodswallows have a more brownish plumage around their head and mantle that is usually heavily striated. Juveniles have a buff tint on their chest and a brownish bill with a dark tip. White breasted woodswallows can grow to a maximum known size of 18 cm and weigh between 35–45 grams. All 9 subspecies of Artamus leucorynchus are differentiated by small differences in color, overall size, wing length and bill size.


Despite having a bifurcated (divided) brush-tipped tongue, which is usually associated with nectar feeders, Woodswallows are insectivores primarily feeding on insects caught on the wings in flight or from a perch, and occasionally feeding on the nectar of flowers. Although they mostly feed on insects caught in flight, Woodswallows also tend to forage on the ground or in the tree canopy. Feeding can often be communal when the catch is too large for one bird.
The white-breasted woodswallow has large, pointed wings and is very agile in powered and gliding flight. They are fast-flying and are one of few passerines that can soar. Even with their small statue, White breasted Woodswallows prove to be aggressive birds whom are quite territorial with groups mobbing larger birds as a form of defense. Out of breeding season, Woodswallows are quite nomadic, chasing flying insects and roosting in large flocks. White breasted Woodswallow are generally seen in flocks of 10-50 birds, sometimes up to 100 to a flock. Flocks tend to cluster together in the evening to roost. Woodswallows are social bird, well known for their habit of huddling up together tightly in flocks, usually along a branch or powerline. This behaviour is done as means of maintaining heat and conserving energy.


A. absinthium is a herbaceous perennial plant with fibrous roots. The stems are straight, growing to 0.8–1.2 m (2 ft 7 in – 3 ft 11 in) (and rarely over 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in)) tall, grooved, branched, and silvery-green.
Leaves are spirally arranged, greenish-grey colored above, white below, covered with silky silvery-white trichomes, and bearing minute oil-producing glands. The basal leaves are up to 250 mm (10 in) long, bi- to tripinnate with long petioles, with the cauline leaves (those on the stem) smaller, 50–100 mm (2–4 in) long, less divided, and with short petioles. The uppermost leaves can be both simple and sessile (without a petiole).
Flowers are pale yellow, tubular, and clustered in spherical bent-down heads (capitula), which are in turn clustered in leafy and branched panicles. Flowering occurs from early summer to early autumn; pollination is anemophilous. The fruit is a small achene. Seed dispersal occurs by gravity.
A. absinthium grows naturally on uncultivated arid ground, on rocky slopes, and at the edge of footpaths and fields. Although once relatively common, it is becoming increasingly rare in the UK, where it has recently been suggested to be an archaeophyte rather than a true native.


The plant can easily be cultivated in dry soil. It should be planted under bright exposure in fertile, midweight soil. It prefers soil rich in nitrogen, and can be propagated by ripened cuttings taken in spring or autumn in temperate climates, or by seeds in nursery beds. Growing the plant with others tends to stunt their growth; accordingly, it is not considered to be a good companion plant. A. absinthium also self-seeds generously. It is naturalised in some areas away from its native range, including much of North America and Kashmir Valley of India.
This plant, and its cultivars 'Lambrook Mist' and 'Lambrook Silver' have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. These two short cultivars are very similar and more silver than typical British absinthium material and probably derive from southern Europe. 'Lambrook Silver' is the earliest of these cultivars, having been selected in the late 1950s by Margery Fish, who developed the garden at East Lambrook Manor. 'Lambrook Mist' was selected about 30 years later by Andrew Norton, a subsequent owner of the garden. Both gained their Awards of Garden Merit during the RHS Artemisia Trial 1991–3.
Cultivar 'Silver Ghost' is a taller, silver plant, which flowers much later (August–September) than typical absinthium (June–July) in UK, so holds its silver appearance for longer. This and a more feathery-leaved cultivar 'Persian Lace' were selected by National Collection Holder John Twibell in the 1990s.


Wormwood herb contains bitter substances from the group of sesquiterpene lactones; absinthin, at 0.20 to 0.28%, is the main component of these bitter substances. Essential oils make up 0.2 to 0.8% and contain (-) - thujone, (+) - isothujone, thujyl alcohol and its esters, chamazulene and other mono- and sesquiterpenes. In Bailen et al 2013 and Gonzalez-Coloma et al 2013 the Gonzalez-Coloma group discovered a chemotype that does not produce β-thujone but does contain terpenoids not seen elsewhere.


It is an ingredient in the spirit absinthe, and is used for flavouring in some other spirits and wines, including bitters, bäsk, vermouth, and pelinkovac. As medicine, it is used for dyspepsia, as a bitter to counteract poor appetite, for various infectious diseases, Crohn's disease, and IgA nephropathy.
In the Middle Ages, wormwood was used to spice mead, and in Morocco, it is used with tea, called sheeba.
Wormwood was traditionally relatively common as a bittering spice in farmhouse brewing in Denmark, and to some extent Estonia. In 18th-century England, wormwood was sometimes used instead of hops in beer.
Wormwood clippings and cuttings are added to chicken nesting boxes to repel lice, mites, and fleas. Bailen et al 2013 and Gonzalez-Coloma et al 2013 find the unique terpenoids of the Gonzalez-Coloma chemotype make this strain especially promising for insect control. As of 2020 a company named EcoflorAgro is investing heavily into increasing the planted area of this strain, hoping to commercialize it to a degree attempted – but never achieved due to unreliable supply – for other botanical insecticides before.


Artemisia comes from Ancient Greek ἀρτεμισία, from Ἄρτεμις (Artemis). In Hellenistic culture, Artemis was a goddess of the hunt, and protector of the forest and children. The name absinthum comes from the Ancient Greek ἀψίνθιον, meaning the same. An alternative derivation is that the genus was named after Queen Artemisia, who was the wife and sister of Mausolus, ruler of Caria.
The word "wormwood" may come from Middle English wormwode or wermode. Webster's Third New International Dictionary attributes the etymology to Old English wermōd (compare with German Wermut and the derived drink vermouth), which the OED (s.v.) marks as "of obscure origin". Some sources state the word "wormwood" comes from the ancient use of the plant as antihelminthic (expelling parasitic worms from the body by either stunning or killing them), documented in Natural History by Pliny (first century AD).


A. absinthium has many folk names: absint-alsem (Dutch), absinth, absinthe, absinthium vulgate, Absinthkraut, agenjo, ajenjo común, artenheil, assenzio vero (Italian), Bitterer Beifuß, botrys, eberreis, echter Wermut, gengibre verde (Spanish), Heilbitter, green muse, grüne Fee, la fée verte, Magenkraut, rihan (Arabic), Schweizertee, wermod (Saxon), wor-mod (Old English), ”malört” (Swedish) and others.


In the Bible, the Book of Revelation tells of a star named Wormwood that plummets to Earth and turns a third of the rivers and fountains of waters bitter.
Nicholas Culpeper insisted that wormwood was the key to understanding his 1651 book The English Physitian. Richard Mabey describes Culpeper's entry on this bitter-tasting plant as "stream-of-consciousness" and "unlike anything else in the herbal", and states that it reads "like the ramblings of a drunk". Culpeper biographer Benjamin Woolley suggests the piece may be an allegory about bitterness, as Culpeper had spent his life fighting the Establishment, and had been imprisoned and seriously wounded in battle as a result.
William Shakespeare referred to wormwood in Romeo and Juliet: Act 1, Scene 3. Juliet's childhood nurse said, "For I had then laid wormwood to my dug" meaning that the nurse had weaned Juliet, then aged three, by using the bitter taste of wormwood on her nipple.
John Locke, in his 1689 book titled An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, used wormwood as an example of bitterness, writing, "For a child knows as certainly before it can speak the difference between the ideas of sweet and bitter (i.e. that sweet is not bitter), as it knows afterwards (when it comes to speak) that wormwood and sugarplums are not the same thing."
Edwin Arlington Robinson relates in a poem how Cliff Klingenhagen gave a guest a glass of wine while drinking a glass of wormwood himself. He concludes, "I have spent / Long time a-wondering when I shall be / As happy as Cliff Klingenhagen is."


In 1971, scientists demonstrated the plant extracts had antimalarial activity in primate models, and in 1972, the active ingredient, artemisinin (formerly referred to as arteannuin), was isolated and its chemical structure described. Artemisinin may be extracted using a low boiling point solvent, such as diethylether, and is found in the glandular trichomes of the leaves, stems, and inflorescences, and is concentrated in the upper portions of plant within new growth.
The first isolation of artemisinin from the herb occurred from a military project known as Project 523, following the study of traditional medicine pharmacopoeias performed by Tu Youyou and other researchers within the project. A. annua contains diverse phytochemicals, including polyphenols such as coumarins, flavones, flavonols, and phenolic acids which have unknown biological properties in vivo. Other phytochemicals include 38 sesquiterpenes. Dihydroartemisinin is the active metabolite of artemisinin, and artesunate is a water-soluble derivative of artemisinin.


Research to develop antimalarial drugs led to the discovery of artemisinin in the 1970s by Chinese scientist, Tu Youyou, who shared the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. An improved extract was obtained by using a low-temperature, ether-based extraction method, further showing the artemisinin derivative, artemether, to be an effective antimalarial drug.
Artemisinin is a sesquiterpene lactone with an endoperoxide bridge and has been produced as an antimalarial drug. The efficacy of tea, made with either water or urine and A. annua, for the treatment of malaria is dubious, and is discouraged by the World Health Organization (WHO). Research has found that artemisinin is not soluble in water and the concentrations in these infusions are considered insufficient to treat malaria. A 2012 review stated that artemisinin-based remedies are the most effective drugs for the treatment of malaria. A 2013 review suggested that although Artemisia annua may not cause hepatotoxicity, haematotoxicity, or hyperlipidemia, it should be used cautiously during pregnancy due to a potential risk of embryotoxicity at a high dose.
The WHO has approved riamet (Coartem), a combination of lumefantrine (120 mg) and artemether (an artemisinin derivative extracted with ether, 20 mg) in repeat treatments over two days, producing efficacy of up to 98% against malaria.


Artemisia campestris is a common and widespread species of plants in the sunflower family, Asteraceae. It is native to a wide region of Eurasia and North America. Common names include field wormwood, beach wormwood, northern wormwood, Breckland wormwood, boreal wormwood, Canadian wormwood, field sagewort and field mugwort.
Artemisia campestris is a branching, aromatic plant up to 150 cm (5 ft) tall. It grows in open sites on dry sandy soils, in steppes, rocky slopes, and waste areas.


The herbaceous perennial is native to the Western United States in California and areas of Idaho, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington; and in northwestern Baja California, Mexico.
The plant prefers direct sunlight and moist soils, but tolerates shady areas and dry soils. It occupies hardiness zones 6a to 10b and occurs at elevations ranging from 0–3080 meters. A. douglasiana is often found in ditches and streambanks.


Its seeds are foraged by a variety of native birds and its leaves are used as nesting material by some native bees.
Artemisia douglasiana is used by Native American tribes as a medicinal plant to relieve joint pain and headaches, and to treat abrasions and rashes (including poison ivy). It is also used to treat women's reproductive issues, including irregular menstruation and is occasionally used as an abortifacient.
This plant also has ceremonial and spiritual purposes for many tribes.  It is commonly carried to ward off spirits of the dead and was smoked or drunk as a tea to induce vivid dreams.
It is also planted by contemporary herbalists for both medicinal and spiritual uses.


Artemisia douglasiana is cultivated as an ornamental plant by specialty native plant nurseries, for planting in wildlife gardens, natural landscaping design, and habitat restoration and erosion control projects.


Tarragon is one of the four fines herbes of French cooking, and is particularly suitable for chicken, fish, and egg dishes. Tarragon is the main flavoring component of Béarnaise sauce. Fresh, lightly bruised sprigs of tarragon are steeped in vinegar to produce tarragon vinegar. Pounded with butter, it produces an excellent topping for grilled salmon or beef.
Tarragon is used to flavor a popular carbonated soft drink in the countries of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia (where it originally comes from) and, by extension, Russia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan. The drink, named Tarkhun, is made out of sugar, carbonated water and most importantly tarragon leaves which give it it's signature green color.
Tarragon is one of the main ingredients in Chakapuli, Georgian national dish.
In Iran, tarragon is used as a side dish in sabzi khordan (fresh herbs), or in stews and in Persian style pickles, particularly khiar shoor (pickled cucumbers).
In Slovenia, tarragon is used in a variation of the traditional nut roll sweet cake, called potica. In Hungary a popular kind of chicken soup is flavored with tarragon.


In Swedish and Dutch the plant is commonly known as dragon. The use of Dragon for the herb or plant in German is outdated. The species name, dracunculus, means "little dragon", and the plant seems to be so named due to its coiled roots. See Artemisia for the genus name derivative.


Artemisia pycnocephala is a North American species of sagebrush in the sunflower family, known by the common names beach wormwood, sandhill sage, and coastal sagewort.
This plant is native to the western United States coastline extending from central Oregon to southern California.


Artemisia pycnocephala is native to Oregon's and California's Coastal Strand plant community where it enjoys rocky and sandy soil. According to The University of California @ Berkeley  and Jepson Herbaria, this plant prefers to grow under 200 m. The plant's range within the State of California stretches primarily from  Del Norte County to San Luis Obispo County, with isolated populations reported from Los Angeles and San Diego Counties.


The sagebrush sparrow (Artemisiospiza nevadensis) is a medium-sized sparrow of the western United States and northwestern Mexico.  It used to be placed in the genus Amphispiza, but evidence from 2007 and 2009 suggested it be placed in its own genus.


Sagebrush sparrows are indeed often tied to sagebrush habitats, although they can also be found in brushy stands of saltbush, chamise, and other low shrubs of the arid interior west.
The species breeds in the interior of the Western United States (between the Rocky Mountains and the coastal ranges such as the Cascades).  It winters in the Mexican-border states and northern Sonora and Chihuahua.
The habitat of sagebrush sparrows is frequently threatened by bush encroachment or the invasion of herbaceous plants.


Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) is a species of flowering tree in the mulberry and jackfruit family (Moraceae) believed to be a domesticated descendant of Artocarpus camansi originating in New Guinea, the Maluku Islands, and the Philippines. It was initially spread to Oceania via the Austronesian expansion. It was further spread to other tropical regions of the world during the Colonial Era. British and French navigators introduced a few Polynesian seedless varieties to Caribbean islands during the late 18th century. Today it is grown in some 90 countries throughout South and Southeast Asia, the Pacific Ocean, the Caribbean, Central America and Africa. Its name is derived from the texture of the moderately ripe fruit when cooked, similar to freshly baked bread and having a potato-like flavor.
The trees have been widely planted in tropical regions, including lowland Central America, northern South America, and the Caribbean. In addition to the fruit serving as a staple food in many cultures, the light, sturdy timber of breadfruit has been used for outriggers, ships, and houses in the tropics.
Breadfruit is closely related to Artocarpus camansi (breadnut or seeded breadfruit) of New Guinea, the Maluku Islands, and the Philippines, Artocarpus blancoi (tipolo or antipolo) of the Philippines, and Artocarpus mariannensis (dugdug) of Micronesia, all of which are sometimes also referred to as "breadfruit". It is also closely related to the jackfruit.


Breadfruit trees grow to a height of 26 metres (85 feet). The large and thick leaves are deeply cut into pinnate lobes. All parts of the tree yield latex, which is useful for boat caulking.
The trees are monoecious, with male and female flowers growing on the same tree. The male flowers emerge first, followed shortly afterward by the female flowers. The latter grow into capitula, which are capable of pollination just three days later. Pollination occurs mainly by fruit bats, but cultivated varieties produce fruit without pollination. The compound, false fruit develops from the swollen perianth, and originates from 1,500 to 2,000 flowers visible on the skin of the fruit as hexagon-like disks.
Breadfruit is one of the highest-yielding food plants, with a single tree producing up to 200 or more grapefruit-sized fruits per season, requiring limited care. In the South Pacific, the trees yield 50 to 150 fruits per year, usually round, oval or oblong weighing 0.25–6 kg. Productivity varies between wet and dry areas. Studies in Barbados indicate a reasonable potential of 16–32 short tons per hectare (6.5–12.9 short ton/acre). The ovoid fruit has a rough surface, and each fruit is divided into many achenes, each achene surrounded by a fleshy perianth and growing on a fleshy receptacle. Most selectively bred cultivars have seedless fruit, whereas seeded varieties are grown mainly for their edible seeds. Breadfruit is usually propagated using root cuttings.
Breadfruit is closely related to the breadnut. It is similar in appearance to its relative of the same genus, the jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus).
Breadfruit has hundreds of varieties and thousands of common names varying according to its geographic distribution, and is cultivated in some 90 countries.
The closely related Artocarpus camansi can be distinguished from A. altilis by having spinier fruits with numerous seeds. Artocarpus mariannensis can be distinguished by having dark green elongated fruits with darker yellow flesh, as well as entire or shallowly lobed leaves.


Breadfruit is propagated mainly by seeds, although seedless breadfruit can be propagated by transplanting suckers that grow off the surface roots of the tree. The roots can be purposefully injured to induce the growth of suckers, which are then separated from the root and planted in a pot or directly transplanted into the ground. Pruning also induces sucker growth. Sucker cuttings are placed in plastic bags containing a mixture of soil, peat and sand, and kept in the shade while moistened with liquid fertilizer. When roots are developed, the transplant is put in full sun until time for planting in the orchard.
For propagation in quantity, root cuttings are preferred, using segments about 10 centimetres (2 in) thick and 20 centimetres (9 in) long. Rooting may take up to 5 months to develop, with the young trees ready for planting when they are 60 centimetres (2 ft) high.


According to DNA fingerprinting studies, the wild seeded ancestor of breadfruit is the breadnut (Artocarpus camansi) which is native to New Guinea, the Maluku Islands, and the Philippines. It was one of the canoe plants spread by Austronesian voyagers around 3,000 years ago into Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia, where it was not native.
A. camansi was domesticated and selectively bred in Polynesia, giving rise to the mostly seedless Artocarpus altilis. Micronesian breadfruit also show evidence of hybridization with the native Artocarpus mariannensis, while most Polynesian and Melanesian cultivars do not. This indicates that Micronesia was initially colonized separately from Polynesia and Melanesia through two different migration events which later came into contact with each other in eastern Micronesia.


Breadfruit is an equatorial lowland species. It has been spread from its Pacific source to many tropical regions.
In 1769, Joseph Banks was stationed in Tahiti as part of the Endeavour expedition commanded by Captain James Cook. The late-18th-century quest for cheap, high-energy food sources for slaves in British colonies prompted colonial administrators and plantation owners to call for breadfruit to be brought to the Caribbean. As president of the Royal Society, Banks provided a cash bounty and gold medal for success in this endeavor, and successfully lobbied for a British Naval expedition. After an unsuccessful voyage to the South Pacific to collect the plants by as commander of HMS Bounty, in 1791, William Bligh commanded a second expedition with Providence and Assistant, which collected seedless breadfruit plants in Tahiti and transported these to St. Helena in the Atlantic and St. Vincent and Jamaica in the West Indies.
The plant grows best below elevations of 650 m (2,130 ft), but is found at elevations of 1,550 m (5,090 ft). Preferred soils are neutral to alkaline (pH of 6.1–7.4) and either sand, sandy loam, loam or sandy clay loam. Breadfruit is able to grow in coral sands and saline soils. The breadfruit is ultra-tropical, requiring a temperature range of 16–38 °C (61–100 °F) and an annual rainfall of 2,000–2,500 millimetres (80–100 inches).


Breadfruit is 71% water, 27% carbohydrates, 1% protein and negligible in fat (see table). In a 100 gram amount, raw breadfruit is a rich source (35% of the Daily Value, DV) of vitamin C, and a moderate source (10% DV each) of thiamin and potassium, with no other nutrients in significant content.


Breadfruit is a staple food in many tropical regions. Most breadfruit varieties produce fruit throughout the year. Both ripe and unripe fruit have culinary uses; unripe breadfruit is cooked before consumption. Before being eaten, the fruit are roasted, baked, fried or boiled. When cooked, the taste of moderately ripe breadfruit is described as potato-like, or similar to freshly baked bread.
One breadfruit tree can produce 200 kilograms (450 lb) each season. Because breadfruit trees usually produce large crops at certain times of the year, preservation of harvested fruit is an issue. One traditional preservation technique is to bury peeled and washed fruits in a leaf-lined pit where they ferment over several weeks and produce a sour, sticky paste. So stored, the product may endure a year or more, and some pits are reported to have produced edible contents more than 20 years later. Fermented breadfruit mash goes by many names such as mahr, ma, masi, furo, and bwiru, among others.
Breadfruit can be eaten once cooked, or can be further processed into a variety of other foods. A common product is a mixture of cooked or fermented breadfruit mash mixed with coconut milk baked in banana leaves. Whole fruits can be cooked in an open fire, then cored and filled with other foods, such as coconut milk, sugar and butter, cooked meats, or other fruits. The filled fruit can be cooked further so the flavor of the filling permeates the flesh of the breadfruit.
In addition to being edible raw, breadfruit can be ground into flour and the seeds can be cooked for consumption.


The seedless breadfruit is found in Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia, where it is called sukun. It is commonly made into fritters and eaten as snacks. Breadfruit fritters are sold as local street food.
In the Philippines, breadfruit is known as rimas in Tagalog and kolo in the Visayan languages. It is also called kamansi (also spelled camansi), along with the closely related Artocarpus camansi, and the endemic Artocarpus blancoi (tipolo or antipolo). All three species, as well as the closely related jackfruit, are commonly used much in the same way in savory dishes. The immature fruits are most commonly eaten as ginataang rimas (cooked with coconut milk).
In the Hawaiian staple food called poi, the traditional ingredient of mashed taro root can be replaced by, or augmented with, mashed breadfruit. The resulting "breadfruit poi" is called poi ʻulu.


In Sri Lanka, it is cooked as a curry using coconut milk and spices (which becomes a side dish) or boiled. Boiled breadfruit is a famous main meal. It is often consumed with scraped coconut or coconut sambol, made of scraped coconut, red chili powder and salt mixed with a dash of lime juice. A traditional sweet snack made of finely sliced, sun-dried breadfruit chips deep-fried in coconut oil and dipped in heated treacle or sugar syrup is known as rata del petti. In India, fritters of breadfruit, called jeev kadge phodi in Konkani or kadachakka varuthath in Malayalam are a local delicacy in coastal Karnataka and Kerala. In Seychelles, it was traditionally eaten as a substitute for rice, as an accompaniment to the mains. It would either be consumed boiled (friyapen bwi) or grilled (friyapen griye), where it would be put whole in the wood fire used for cooking the main meal and then taken out when ready. It is also eaten as a dessert, called ladob friyapen, where it is boiled in coconut milk, sugar, vanilla, cinnamon and a pinch of salt.


In Belize, the Mayan people call it masapan.
In Puerto Rico, breadfruit is called panapén or pana, for short, although the name pana is often used to refer to breadnut, seeds of which have traditionally been boiled, peeled and eaten whole. In some inland regions it is also called mapén and used to make pasteles and alcapurrias. Breadfruit is often served boiled with a mixture of sauteed bacalao (salted cod fish), olive oil and onions. Mostly as tostones where about 1 inch chunks are fried, lighty flattered and fried again. Mofongo de panapén fried breadfruit mashed with olive oil, garlic, broth, and chicharrón. Rellenos de panapén the breadfruit version of papa rellena. Dipping sauce made from boiled ripe breadfruit similar to chutney using spices, sesame seeds, herbs, lentil, coconut milk, and fruit. Both ripe and unripe are boiled together and mashed with milk and butter to make pastelón de panapén, a dish similar to lasagna. Ripe breadfruit is used in desserts: flan de pana (breadfruit custard). Cazuela, a crustless pie with ripe breadfruit, spices, raisins, coconut milk,  and sweet potatoes. Breadfruit flour is sold all over Puerto Rico and used for making bread, pastries, cookies, pancakes, waffles, crepes, and almojábana.
In the Dominican Republic, it is called buen pan or "good bread". Breadfruit isn't popular in Dominican cookery and is used mainly for feeding pigs.
In Barbados, breadfruit is boiled with salted meat and mashed with butter to make breadfruit coucou. It is usually eaten with saucy meat dishes.
In Trinidad and Tobago, breadfruit is boiled, then fried and eaten with saucy meat dishes like curried duck.
In Jamaica, breadfruit is boiled in soups or roasted on stove top, in the oven or on wood coal. It is eaten with the national dish ackee and salt fish. The ripe fruit is used in salads or fried as a side dish.


On Puluwat in the Caroline Islands, in the context of sacred yitang lore, breadfruit (poi) is a figure of speech for knowledge. This lore is organized into five categories: war, magic, meetings, navigation, and breadfruit.
According to an etiological Hawaiian myth, the breadfruit originated from the sacrifice of the war god Kū. After deciding to live secretly among mortals as a farmer, Kū married and had children. He and his family lived happily until a famine seized their island. When he could no longer bear to watch his children suffer, Kū told his wife that he could deliver them from starvation, but to do so he would have to leave them. Reluctantly she agreed, and at her word, Kū descended into the ground right where he had stood until only the top of his head was visible. His family waited around the spot he had last been, day and night, watering it with their tears until suddenly, a small green shoot appeared where Kū had stood. Quickly, the shoot grew into a tall and leafy tree that was laden with heavy breadfruits that Kū's family and neighbors gratefully ate, joyfully saved from starvation.
Though they are widely distributed throughout the Pacific, many breadfruit hybrids and cultivars are seedless or otherwise biologically incapable of naturally dispersing long distances. Therefore, it is clear that humans aided distribution of the plant in the Pacific, specifically prehistoric groups who colonized the Pacific Islands. To investigate the patterns of human migration throughout the Pacific, scientists have used molecular dating of breadfruit hybrids and cultivars in concert with anthropological data. Results support the west-to-east migration hypothesis, in which the Lapita people are thought to have traveled from Melanesia to numerous Polynesian islands.
The world's largest collection of breadfruit varieties was established by botanist Diane Ragone, from over 20 years' travel to 50 Pacific islands, on a 4 hectares (10 acres) plot outside of Hana, on the isolated east coast of Maui (Hawaii).


The jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus), also known as jack tree, is a species of tree in the fig, mulberry, and breadfruit family (Moraceae). Its origin is in the region between the Western Ghats of southern India, all of Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and the rainforests of the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia.
The jack tree is well-suited to tropical lowlands, and is widely cultivated throughout tropical regions of the world. It bears the largest fruit of all trees, reaching as much as 55 kg (120 pounds) in weight, 90 cm (35 inches) in length, and 50 cm (20 inches) in diameter. A mature jack tree produces some 200 fruits per year, with older trees bearing up to 500 fruits in a year. The jackfruit is a multiple fruit composed of hundreds to thousands of individual flowers, and the fleshy petals of the unripe fruit are eaten. The ripe fruit is sweet (depending on variety) and is more often used for desserts. Canned green jackfruit has a mild taste and meat-like texture that lends itself to being called a "vegetable meat".
Jackfruit is commonly used in South and Southeast Asian cuisines. Both ripe and unripe fruits are consumed. It is available internationally canned or frozen and in chilled meals as are various products derived from the fruit such as noodles and chips.


The inflorescences are formed on the trunk, branches or twigs (cauliflory). Jackfruit trees are monoecious, having both female and male flowers on a tree. The inflorescences are pedunculated, cylindrical to ellipsoidal or pear-shaped, to about 10–12 cm (3+15⁄16–4+3⁄4 inches) long and 5–7 cm (2–3 inches) wide. Inflorescences are initially completely enveloped in egg-shaped cover sheets which rapidly slough off.
The flowers are small, sitting on a fleshy rachis. The male flowers are greenish, some flowers are sterile. The male flowers are hairy and the perianth ends with two 1 to 1.5 mm (3⁄64 to 1⁄16 in) membrane. The individual and prominent stamens are straight with yellow, roundish anthers. After the pollen distribution, the stamens become ash-gray and fall off after a few days. Later all the male inflorescences also fall off. The greenish female flowers, with hairy and tubular perianth, have a fleshy flower-like base. The female flowers contain an ovary with a broad, capitate, or rarely bilobed scar. The blooming time ranges from December until February or March.
The ellipsoidal to roundish fruit is a multiple fruit formed from the fusion of the ovaries of multiple flowers. The fruits grow on a long and thick stem on the trunk. They vary in size and ripen from an initially yellowish-greenish to yellow, and then at maturity to yellowish-brown. They possess a hard, gummy shell with small pimples surrounded with hard, hexagonal tubercles. The large and variously shaped fruit have a length of 30 to 100 cm (10 to 40 inches) and a diameter of 15 to 50 cm (6 to 20 inches) and can weigh 10–25 kg (22–55 pounds) or more.
The fruits consist of a fibrous, whitish core (rachis) about 5–10 cm (2–4 inches) thick. Radiating from this are many 10-centimeter-long (4 in) individual fruits. They are elliptical to egg-shaped, light brownish achenes with a length of about 3 cm (1+1⁄8 inches) and a diameter of 1.5 to 2 cm (9⁄16 to 13⁄16 inch).
There may be about 100–500 seeds per fruit. The seed coat consists of a thin, waxy, parchment-like and easily removable testa (husk) and a brownish, membranous tegmen. The cotyledons are usually unequal in size, and the endosperm is minimally present. An average fruit consists of 27% edible seed coat, 15% edible seeds, 20% white pulp (undeveloped perianth, rags) and bark and 10% core.
The fruit matures during the rainy season from July to August. The bean-shaped achenes of the jackfruit are coated with a firm yellowish aril (seed coat, flesh), which has an intense sweet taste at maturity of the fruit. The pulp is enveloped by many narrow strands of fiber (undeveloped perianth), which run between the hard shell and the core of the fruit and are firmly attached to it. When pruned, the inner part (core) secretes a sticky, milky liquid, which can hardly be removed from the skin, even with soap and water. To clean the hands after "unwinding" the pulp an oil or other solvent is used. For example, street vendors in Tanzania, who sell the fruit in small segments, provide small bowls of kerosene for their customers to cleanse their sticky fingers. When fully ripe, jackfruit has a strong pleasant aroma, the pulp of the opened fruit resembles the odor of pineapple and banana.