Its central range helps to distinguish it from the other blue damselflies with which it is easily confused,
especially the similar looking vivid dancer.
The Apache dancer is larger, but with an overall length of 34-40mm the springwater tends to be larger than
the other similar blue dancers including the lavender dancer.
The stripe on the side of the thorax is forked in the Aztec dancer and variable dancer.


The springwater dancer's preferred habitat of shallow springs is reflected in its common name.
The scientific name, plana, means flat or wandering, but the significance is unknown.


Argia vivida, the vivid dancer, is a species of narrow-winged damselfly in the family Coenagrionidae. This species is commonly found in springs and forests Central America and North America. Argia vivida inhabit areas of diverse temperatures due to thermoregulation. The species is also considered the state insect of Nevada.
Argia vivida vary in color, although they are typically associated with the bright blue coloration. Other variations include red, brown, or grey depending on the type of morph and temperature. Mating occurs in mornings and afternoons, and eggs are oviposited just below the surface of the water. Larvae and adults feed on larvae from small invertebrates and small flying insects, respectively.
The IUCN conservation status of Argia vivida is "LC", least concern, with no immediate threat to the species' population. The population is stable.


Female dimorphism occurs in two populations of Argia vivida from British Columbia, Canada. They are described as varying from a blue color morph and red color morph. Physiological color changes occur in males and both female morphs as a result of changing temperatures throughout the day. The two phases of color changes are denoted as the "bright phase" and "dark phase." Individuals transition to the bright phase as shade temperatures rise over 25°C; males and blue-morph females transition to a lighter shade of blue with pale blue or blue-grey markings, while red-morph females transition to a red-brown or brown with tan or grey-tan markings. At lower temperatures around 18°C, the dark phase occurs; males and blue-morph females transition to a darker blue shade, while red-morph females transition to a grey-brown to brown shade.


Mates are encountered in two ways, morning matings or afternoon matings. In the morning, the males bask at sunspots and attempt to gain the attention of females by darting out at them. Successful males and females will then engage in copulation, tandem flight, and finally oviposition. In the afternoon, unmated males move towards the water and wait for an available female released from a previous mating pair. These new pairs begin the mating cycle once again but throughout a more brief time period than the morning matings.


Upon mating, females lay their eggs on sources of vegetation just below the surface of the water. Egg development requires cold temperatures of at least 11°C but can fluctuate from 0-33°C. In thermal springs, the life cycle takes approximately 1 year to complete, but may extend for up to 2 to 3 years in cooler springs. Argia vivida finally emerge as adults anytime between April through October depending on the current temperature.


Because Argia vivida larvae are aquatic, they typically feed on small invertebrates found in the water such as larvae from mosquitoes and mayflies.


Adult Argia vivida typically feed on a variety of soft-bodied, small flying insects including mosquitoes, flies, mayflies, and even small moths. In some cases, adults will also eat insects from plants such as small aphids.


Argia vivida exhibit thermoregulation by living in habitats that allow for different thermal regimes throughout the day. At night, individuals typically settle in forest trees to maintain their body temperatures and slow the radiant loss of heat. During the day, they move away from the trees into sunspots available in thinned forest for thermal basking. Therefore, an ideal habitat for the species consists of a forest containing dense trees in addition to cleared patches or thinned forest to best suit their thermoregulation requirements.
In fuel-modified forests, Argia vivida still roost in trees at night but prefer cleared fuel treatment sections of the forest compared to thinned forest for the purposes of basking and foraging.


Male: Upperside: forewing rich orange yellow, hindwing paler yellow, with the following black markings: Forewing: cell with a basal short transverse streak, a medial broad oval loop, its outer margin sinuous; a broad transverse streak beyond cell not reaching the median nervure; a broad streak along the discocellulars; a zigzag discal series of large spots, angulated outwardly in interspace 4, inwardly in interspace 2, a minute spot at base of interspace 1; a somewhat diffuse large postdiscal spot below the costa in interspace 6; a postdiscal sinuous series of round spots, those in interspaces 1 and 4 very small; an inner complete subterminal sinuous series of round spots; an outer subterminal line, widening on the veins, and a terminal slender line. Hindwing: a basal, transverse, obscure narrow mark in cell, another above it in interspace 7, a transverse lunule across the middle of the cell; a small spot outwardly bordering the lower discocellular; a discal series of transverse spots from interspaces 1 to 7, sinuous posteriorly; a postdiscal series of five spots in interspaces 2 to 6; a subterminal series of somewhat lunular spots; finally, a narrow band on term en traversed posteriorly by a series of blue, anteriorly by a series of ochraceous lunules. Underside forewing pale terracotta red, shading into ochraceous towards the apex, the apex broadly suffused with that colour; markings as on the upperside, with the following exceptions: subcostal spot in interspace 6, upper two spots of postdiscal series, upper four spots of the inner subterminal series, and the anterior portions of the outer subterminal and of the terminal line olivaceous brown; the upper two postdiscal spots centred with white, with a white spot on each side; the upper four spots of the sub terminal series connate (united), forming a short curved band. Hindwing variegated with ochraceous, olivaceous-brown and silvery-white markings, the last for the most part narrowly margined on the outer side by short black lines; the veins prominently pale ochraceous; the medial silvery markings form a well-marked sinuous discal series, followed by a curved postdiscal series of five olivaceous round spots; each spot and the olivaceous-brown quadrate patch near base of cell with a minute white central spot; a slender black subterminal line widening at the veins, as on the forewing, followed by an ochraceous narrow lunular band and an outer slender black anteciliary line; the subterminal black line margined on the inner side by a series of: slender white lunules, bordered inwardly by a series of broad olivaceous-brown markings in the interspaces. Antennae brown above, ochraceous red beneath; head, thorax and abdomen olivascent tawny; beneath, palpi, thorax and abdomen pale ochraceous.
Female similar. Differs from the male as follows: Upperside: apical half of forewing from about the middle of the costa obliquely to just above the tornus black, inwardly suffused with purple, crossed by a broad white band from costa to the subterminal series of black spots; four preapical white spots, the upper three bordering on each side and above a very obscure ocellus scarcely visible on the black background, an inner and an outer subterminal transverse series of slender white lunules. Underside: forewing markings similar to those on the upperside, but the apex of the wing beyond the white oblique band ochraceous green. Hindwing as in the male, but the markings slightly broader. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen as in the male, the abdomen paler beneath.
Wingspan: 80–98 mm (3.1–3.9 in).
Var. taprobana, Moore, is a slightly darker race from Ceylon, with markings similar in both sexes to those of hyperbius. Moore, however, states that taprobana is an intermediate between the south Indian form (castetsi) and typical hyperbius specimens from Ceylon that do not differ from upper India, Assam, and Burmese specimens, except in the very slightly darker ground colour on the upperside.
Race castetsi, Oberthur: The females of this remarkable form seem to be locally dimorphic. Male closely resembles the male of hyperbius but differs as follows: Upperside: ground colour a richer brighter shade of orange yellow; black markings similar but distinctly smaller, of a deeper black: subterminal transverse series of slender lunules traversing the terminal black margin on the hindwing of the same shade of orange yellow as the ground colour, not blue on the posterior half of the wing. Underside: the olivaceous brown at apex of forewing and variegating the hindwing more of a greenish golden tint. A sex-mark of specialized raised scales along middle of vein 1 on the upperside of the forewing very prominent.
Female Nilgiri form: resembles the female of typical hyperbius differs as follows: Upperside: ground colour pale golden yellow; basal half of both forewings and hindwings shaded with metallic green in the forewing; in some specimens this tint is slightly olivaceous; black markings and the white oblique band on the apical area of the forewing as in hyperbius, but proportionately smaller, the purplish-blue shading along inner margin of the white band much less conspicuous, as is also the bluish tint; on the white preapical spots and subterminal markings on the forewing and on the posterior half of the subterminal line of limules on the hindwing. Underside as in hyperbius but the ground colour on the forewing a paler shade of terracotta red; the olivaceous brown variegating the hindwing of a distinctly greener tint.
Female typical form as described from Trichinopoly. Similar to the male differs as follows: Upperside: ground colour pale golden yellow; basal half of the wings suffused with dark olivaceous green; black markings as in the male but larger; on the forewing the spots of the subterminal series very large, coalescent or nearly coalescent with one another and with the dentate spots on the veins in the inner terminal line; the upper two spots also of the postdiscal series very large and coalescent, the upper of the two joining on above and below to the inner postdiscal lunate spot in interspace 6, thus enclosing a prominent lunule of the ground colour. Underside as in the male but paler.


The Himalayas, in the outer ranges from Campbellpur in the Punjab to Sikkim; Oudh; Agra; Manbhum in Bengal; Assam, the Khasi Hills; Upper Burma; extending to China and Taiwan; Sumatra; Java. Can also be found in southern Japan. In Australia, range restricted to northern NSW and southern Queensland.
The species was observed for the first time in the United Arab Emirates in January 2020, in Wadi Wurayah National Park, in the Hajar Mountains within the Emirate of Fujairah: a few Indian fritillaries were found flying with members of a physically similar species, the Plain tiger (Danaus chrysippus). It is thought that they came there as opportunistic migrants because of the suitable conditions created by abundant rainfall in the country since October 2019, and that they would not stay for the summer.


Argyria lacteella, the milky urola moth, is a moth in the family Crambidae. It was described by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1794. It is found in North America, from Maryland south to Florida and west to Texas. In the south, the range extends through Costa Rica to Brazil. It is also found on Cuba, Puerto Rico and Bermuda.
Adults are on wing from spring to fall.


Aricia cramera, the southern brown argus, is a butterfly of the family Lycaenidae. It is a butterfly of Southern Europe and North Africa and can be found from Morocco and Tunisia up to Spain and Portugal, on Mediterranean islands including Menorca and on the Canary Islands.
The wingspan ranges to up to 30 mm. The butterfly flies from May to September depending on the location.
The larvae feed on Erodium, Helianthemum and Geranium species.


In specimens [ of astrarche ] from the Canaries the red  macular band of the upperside is occasionally quite uncommonly broad and of even width, so that it forms a regular band, only transected by the black veins; this is ab. cramera Eschsch. (= canariensis Black.) (80 a). I also caught very extreme specimens of this form on the slopes of the Aures Mts. in Algeria, although only singly; on the other hand I met on the Canaries with specimens of astrarche which certainly did not belong to cramera, but rather to calida.


The jade clubtail (Arigomphus submedianus) is a dragonfly in the Gomphidae family.
Its total length is 51 to 55mm.


Arisaema triphyllum, the jack-in-the-pulpit, bog onion, brown dragon or Indian turnip, is a herbaceous perennial plant growing from a corm. It is a highly variable species typically growing 30–65 centimetres (12–26 in) in height with three-part leaves and flowers contained in a spadix that is covered by a hood. It is native to eastern North America, occurring in moist woodlands and thickets from Nova Scotia west to Minnesota, and south to southern Florida and Texas.


The leaves are trifoliate, with groups of three leaves growing together at the top of one long stem produced from a corm; each leaflet is 8–15 centimetres (3.1–5.9 in) long and 3–7 centimetres (1.2–2.8 in) broad. Plants are sometimes confused with poison-ivy especially before the flowers appear or non-flowering plants.
The inflorescences are shaped irregularly and grow to a length of up to 8 cm. They are greenish-yellow or sometimes fully green with purple or brownish stripes. The spathe, known in this plant as "the pulpit" wraps around and covers over and contain a spadix ("Jack"), covered with tiny flowers of both sexes. The flowers are dioecious and sequential hermaphrodites. In small plants, most if not all the flowers are male; as plants age and grow larger the spadix produces more female flowers. This species flowers from April to June. It is pollinated by fungus gnats, which it attracts by smell and are trapped by the flower. They manage to escape from the male inflorescences, but cannot do so when they fall inside a female inflorescence. Other insects are known to visit the flowers as well, such as gall gnats and beetles.
In addition the plant is not self-pollinating since the male flowers on a specific plant have already matured and died before the female flowers of that same plant are mature. So the female flowers need to be pollinated by the male flowers of a different plant. This inhibits inbreeding and contributes to the health of the species.
The fruits are smooth, shiny green, 1 cm wide berries clustered on the thickened spadix. The fruits ripen in late summer and fall, turning a bright red color before the plants go dormant. Each berry produces 1 to 5 seeds typically, the seeds are white to light tan in color, rounded, often with flattened edges and a short sharp point at the top and a rounded bottom surface. If the seeds are freed from the berry they will germinate the next spring, producing a plant with a single rounded leaf. Seedlings need three or more years of growth before they become large enough to flower.
It is hardy to USDA plant hardiness zone 3.


Arisaema triphyllum was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1763. It is generally considered to be a single species with three subspecies – the diploids A. t. subsp. stewardsonii and A. t. subsp. pusillum and the tetraploid A. t. subsp. triphyllum, which originated as a hybrid of the first two. However, the three are reproductively isolated in the wild, which would argue for treating them as species.  The main reason for considering them subspecies seems to be the difficulty in distinguishing them, especially based on herbarium specimens.
Within the genus Arisaema, A. triphyllum is classified in the section Pedatisecta and is most closely related to Asian species such as A. amurense. It is not a close relative to the other American Arisaema species (A. dracontium and A. macrospathum), which are in a different section of Arisaema.


The oxalic acid in jack-in-the-pulpit is poisonous if ingested. The plant contains calcium oxalate crystals as raphides in all parts, and because of this, consumption of the raw plant material results in a powerful burning sensation.  It can cause irritation of the mouth and digestive system, and on rare occasions the swelling of the mouth and throat may be severe enough to affect breathing. Care is needed to avoid confusion with poison ivy, which has three leaflets per leaf somewhat similar in appearance.


If the plant is cooked it can be eaten as a root vegetable. The calcium oxalate crystals produce a peppery flavor. If the plant is sliced then dried it can be eaten like potato chips or ground into a flour.
A preparation of the root was reported to have been used by Native Americans as a treatment for sore eyes.  Preparations were also made to treat rheumatism, bronchitis, and snakebites, as well as to induce sterility.
One account from the Meskwaki people states that they would chop the herb's corm and mix it with meat and leave the meat out for their enemies to find.  The taste of the oxalate would not be detectable because of the flavored meat, but consuming the meat reportedly caused their enemies pain and death.  They have also reportedly used it to determine the fate of the sick by dropping a seed in a cup of stirred water; If the seed went around four times clockwise, the patient would recover, if it went around less than four times they would not.


Aristida purpurea is a species of grass native to North America which is known by the common name purple three-awn.


This grass is fairly widespread and can be found across the western two thirds of the United States, much of southern Canada and parts of northern Mexico. It is most abundant on the plains.


This is a perennial bunchgrass, growing erect to under a meter-3 feet in height, and the flower glumes often assumes a light brown to reddish-purple color. There are several varieties with overlapping geographical ranges. This is not considered to be a good graze for livestock because the awns are sharp and the protein content of the grass is low.


The vine is endemic to northern California.   It is native to the Sacramento Valley, northern Sierra Nevada foothills, San Francisco Bay Area, Northern Inner California Coast Ranges, southeastern Klamath Mountains.
The plant grows along riparian streambank areas, in chaparral, oak woodland, and mixed evergreen forest habitats.  It is found below 700 metres (2,300 ft) in elevation.


Aristolochia californica is a deciduous vine. It grows from rhizomes, to a length usually around 5 feet (1.5 m), but can reach over 20 feet (6.1 m). The twining trunk can become quite thick in circumference at maturity.
It sends out new green heart-shaped leaves after it blooms.  The bloom period is January through April.
The plant produces large green to pale brown curving pipe-shaped flowers, with purple veins and a yellow to red lining. The U shaped flowers produce winged capsular green fruits.


Like the other members of the family Aristolochiaceae, A. californica is highly toxic, producing a group of secondary metabolites known as aristolochic acids. Aristolochic acids are compounds that are composed of nitrophenanthrene carboxylic acids that have been utilized for medicinal purposes, being used in Chinese herbal medicines and usually included as a part of some weight-loss regimens. However, due to several warnings of the toxic effects of aristolochic acids by the US Food and Drug Administration and regulatory authorities of other countries, the sale and usage of aristolochic acids in medicine has been banned in multiple countries. The reasoning for this is that aristolochic acids act as a carcinogen and a nephrotoxin, inducing urothelial cancers and kidney failure. It has also been found that it may even act as a mutagen.


Aristolochia clematitis, the (European) birthwort, is a twining herbaceous plant in the family Aristolochiaceae, which is native to Europe. The leaves are heart shaped and the flowers are pale yellow and tubular in form. The plant seeks light by ascending the stems of surrounding plants.


It was formerly used as a medicinal plant, though it is poisonous, and is now occasionally found established outside of its native range as a relic of cultivation. It is now thought to be the cause of thousands of kidney failures in Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina  and Croatia. The initial hypothesis that seeds from the plant is were unintentionally consumed through contaminated flour has come to be questioned. Urinary tract malignancies among those who have consumed the plant are also reported. The link between kidney failure and aristolochic acid, which the plant contains, was discovered after a clinic for obesity in Belgium used herbal products based on another plant of the same genus as a diuretic. After a few months, some of the patients experienced kidney failure.


Aristotelia serrata, commonly known as wineberry or in the Māori language makomako or just mako, is a small tree in the family Elaeocarpaceae, in the genus Aristotelia, found in the North Island, South Island and Stewart Island of New Zealand.


Aristotelia serrata, also known as wineberry, is a small deciduous fast-growing tree or shrub. The tree can reach up to 10m tall, with a trunk diameter up to 30 cm. The bark is pale brown, smooth and patterned with flat lenticels. Branches are long, slender and spreading, branchlets have a reddish-brown color when pubescent.


Aristotelia serrata leaves have distinguishable traits. Leaves are thin, deeply and sharply serrated, light or dark green on adaxial surface, often pinkish green on abaxial surface, veins distinct on both surfaces, size between 5-12 x 4–8 cm. The leaves, are disposed in opposite or subopposite pairs. They have drawn-out, pointed tips and prominent veins forming an obvious net-like vein pattern on both sides. The margins are strikingly toothed, with larger, narrowly pointed, irregular, jagged teeth bearing smaller teeth. Some trees have red-purple twigs and leaf undersides; others are just green. The leaves have long stalks, and each leaf stalk has a pair of small, narrow stipules, sometimes a few teeth, at its base. In the axils of the leafstalks are pointed buds, which can grow out into leafy shots or inflorescences.


Flowers occur in an inflorescence of numerous cymes, flowers of all shades intermixed, coloured in cream through pink to dark red. Flowers has 4 to 6 mm diam; petals 3-lobed; stigma with 3-4 lobes; stamens numerous, arising from a glandular disc. Flower has 6–10 cm long, on slender pubescent pedicels with around 5-10mm long. Flowers have 4 ovate sepals around 3 mm long; 4 petals, 3-lobed, often deeply, 9mm long. Stamens occur on glandular disk, minutely pubescent. Ovary 3-4 celled, styles 3-4. The flowers are very numerous, in much-branched clusters. They have petals with rounded, incised lobes at the ends and look like small versions of  Elaeocarpus flowers. They are almost colourless when they open; then they change to pink, red, and dark red, providing a colorful display. Wineberry has male and female flowers on different plants, with some bisexual flowers among the males. Female flowers are borne in large panicles, on short shoots just above leaves or old leaf scars, on 2 year old wood of the upper leafy branchlets.


The fruit is a berry that is 4-5mm in diameter, black, containing 8 angular seeds. With 4 locules and axile placentation. They are red through dark red to almost black.


Endemic to New Zealand, wineberry is found throughout the South Island of New Zealand and lower North Island. It is common in moist forest and scrub land within the lowland, montane, and subalpine climates. Wineberry can also be found on Stewart Island.


Taking advantage of ecological disturbances such as natural tree falls A. serrata is plentiful in regenerating forest and damp river margins. Forest clearings which are followed by the colonization of wineberry are often due to land slip, storm damage, natural tree fall, forest clearings, and forest fire.


Wineberry is a quick growing deciduous tree. Gradually losing leaves during the winter it may become fully bare prior to new leaves and flower development in spring. Wineberry is an attractive tree, with pinkish foliage and rose coloured flowers in the spring. Berries ripen in the summer. As the flowers of the Wineberry mature they turn from white to red, there are both female and male flowers on different plants with some bisexual flowers among the males.


Wineberry acts as a host to numerous associated plant species and is fed on by native birds and insects. Associated plants include a range of mosses to herbaceous plants such as Orthotrichum cyathiforme, Orthotrichum calvum, Macroacoma tenue, Leptophyllopsis laxa, and Lleostylus micranthus. The berries of A. serrata are susceptible to frugivory by both birds and mammals. Kererū are known to feed on the fruit of wineberry. In order to conserve kererū populations it is suggested by the Department of Conservation that wineberry be planted as a food source.  The berries of the wineberry are not the only parts eaten: kawakawa looper (Cleora scriptaria) larvae can be found feeding on its leaves.


Aristotelia serrata has a multitude of uses by both European settlers and Māori. Māori used makomako medicinally by boiling its leaves as an application to burns and infected wounds. The berries serve as food and are often eaten by children, and can be squeezed to make a thick sweet drink. Wineberry can be used in a variety of way to create dyes: the plant contains tannins, and the bark can provide a blue-black dye. European settlers burnt the shoots of the wineberry, changing the wood to charcoal for the production of gunpowder.


Often form thickets after felling of forest.


There may exist two varieties for the same species, one with light green leaves and bright red fruits, and the other with dark green leaves, purplish below and dark fruits.


Arizona elegans is a species of medium-sized colubrid snake commonly referred to as the glossy snake or the faded snake, which is endemic to the southwestern United States and Mexico. It has several subspecies. Some have recommended that A. elegans occidentalis be granted full species status.


The glossy snake and its many subspecies are all similar in appearance to gopher snakes. However, they are smaller than gopher snakes, with narrow, pointed heads, and a variety of skin patterns and colors. They appear "washed-out" or pale, hence the common name, "faded snakes".
Most subspecies are ca. 75–130 cm (ca. 30-50 inches) in total length. The maximum recorded total length for the species is 142 cm (56 in).
They are shades of tan, brown, and gray with spotted patterns on their smooth, glossy skin, and a white or cream-colored unmarked ventral surface. Coloration often varies in relation to the color of the soil in a snake's native habitat.


Glossy snakes are oviparous. Adults breed in the late spring and early summer. Clutches average from 10 to 20 eggs. The eggs hatch in early summers and the newly hatched young are approximately 25 cm (9.8 in) in total length.


Armeria maritima, the thrift, sea thrift or sea pink, is a species of flowering plant in the family Plumbaginaceae. It is a compact evergreen perennial which grows in low clumps and sends up long stems that support globes of bright pink flowers. In some cases purple, white or red flowers also occur. It is a popular garden flower and has been distributed worldwide as a garden and cut flower.  It does well in gardens designed as xeriscapes or rock gardens. The Latin specific epithet maritima means pertaining to the sea or coastal.


Armeria maritima subsp. azorica, Franco
Armeria maritima subsp. californica, synonym: California Seapink
Armeria maritima subsp. elongata,  synonym: Tall Thrift, Gaston Bonnier.
Armeria maritima subsp. maritima
Armeria maritima subsp. purpurea, synonym: Armeria purpurea W.D.J.Koch, (W.D.J.Koch) Á.Löve and D.Löve
Armeria maritima subsp. sibirica, synonym: Siberian Sea Thrift, Turczaninow ex Boissier


Armeria maritima sensu lato has a circumpolar distribution can be found in the wild in coastal areas across the Northern Hemisphere. It can grow in dry, sandy, saline conditions such as coastal cliffs, grassland and salt marshes, salted roadsides and inland on mountain rocks. It is a common sight in British salt marshes, where it flowers April to October.
Armeria maritima has a great copper-tolerance, and is able to grow in soils with copper concentrations of up to 6400 mg/kg.  One mechanism proposed is that not much copper is transported up the shoot of the plant, and is excreted from decaying leaves. Some of the physiology and metabolism of this species has been described, of particular note is how the metabolism of this species is altered with elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations.


Pollination is by various insects including bees and Lepidoptera.


Armeria maritima is a common species in the UK, however there are several subspecies and in England, subspecies elongata (Tall Thrift) has vulnerable conservation status and is designated as a species of principal importance for biodiversity conservation under the NERC Act (2006).


The cultivar 'Vindictive' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


The British threepence coin issued between 1937 and 1952 had a design of thrift on the reverse. In British slang, thrifty means to have bought a lot for very little money and the phrase is though to be the reason why thrift was used as the emblem for the threepence coin (not worth very much money).
As part of a 2002 marketing campaign, the plant conservation charity Plantlife chose sea thrift as the county flower of the Isles of Scilly.
Thrift was mentioned in Sir John Betjeman's poem 'A Bay in Anglesea'.
Pink Thrift was a memorable part of the description of Kirrin Castle around which many of the adventures of Enid Blyton's Famous Five took place: "The  coarse  green  grass  sprang  everywhere, and pink thrift grew its cushions in holes and crannies."


Horseradish (Armoracia rusticana, syn. Cochlearia armoracia) is a perennial plant of the family Brassicaceae (which also includes mustard, wasabi, broccoli, cabbage, and radish). It is a root vegetable, cultivated and used worldwide as a spice and as a condiment. The species is probably native to southeastern Europe and western Asia.


Horseradish grows up to 1.5 meters (5 feet) tall, with hairless bright green unlobed leaves up to 1 m (3 ft 3 in) long that may be mistaken for docks (Rumex). It is cultivated primarily for its large, white, tapered root. The white four-petalled flowers are scented and are borne in dense panicles. Established plants may form extensive patches and may become invasive unless carefully managed.
Intact horseradish root has little aroma. When cut or grated, enzymes from within the plant cells digest sinigrin (a glucosinolate) to produce allyl isothiocyanate (mustard oil), which irritates the mucous membranes of the sinuses and eyes. Once exposed to air or heat, horseradish loses its pungency, darkens in color, and develops a bitter flavor.


Horseradish has been cultivated since antiquity. Dioscorides listed horseradish equally as Persicon sinapi (Diosc. 2.186) or Sinapi persicum (Diosc. 2.168), which Pliny's Natural History reported as Persicon napy; Cato discusses the plant in his treatises on agriculture, and a mural in Pompeii shows the plant. Horseradish is probably the plant mentioned by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History under the name of Amoracia, and recommended by him for its medicinal qualities, and possibly the wild radish, or raphanos agrios of the Greeks. The early Renaissance herbalists Pietro Andrea Mattioli and John Gerard showed it under Raphanus. Its modern Linnaean genus Armoracia was first applied to it by Heinrich Bernhard Ruppius, in his Flora Jenensis, 1745, but Linnaeus himself called it Cochlearia armoracia.
Both root and leaves were used as a traditional medicine during the Middle Ages. The root was used as a condiment on meats in Germany, Scandinavia, and Britain. It was introduced to North America during European colonization; both George Washington and Thomas Jefferson mention horseradish in garden accounts. Native Americans used it to stimulate the glands, stave off scurvy, and as a diaphoretic treatment for the common cold.
William Turner mentions horseradish as Red Cole in his "Herbal" (1551–1568), but not as a condiment. In The Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes (1597), John Gerard describes it under the name of raphanus rusticanus, stating that it occurs wild in several parts of England. After referring to its medicinal uses, he says:
[T]he Horse Radish stamped with a little vinegar put thereto, is commonly used among the Germans for sauce to eat fish with and such like meats as we do mustard.


The word horseradish is attested in English from the 1590s. It combines the word horse (formerly used in a figurative sense to mean strong or coarse) and the word radish.
In Central and Eastern Europe, horseradish is called khren, hren and ren (in various spellings like kren) in many Slavic languages, in Austria, in parts of Germany (where the other German name Meerrettich is not used), in North-East Italy, and in Yiddish (כריין transliterated as khreyn). It is common in Ukraine (under the name of хрін, khrin), in Belarus (under the name of хрэн, chren), in Poland (under the name of chrzan), in the Czech Republic (křen), in Slovakia (chren), in Russia (хрен, khren), in Hungary (torma), in Romania (hrean), in Lithuania (krienai), and in Bulgaria (under the name of хрян).


Horseradish is perennial in hardiness zones 2–9 and can be grown as an annual in other zones, although not as successfully as in zones with both a long growing season and winter temperatures cold enough to ensure plant dormancy. After the first frost in autumn kills the leaves, the root is dug and divided. The main root is harvested and one or more large offshoots of the main root are replanted to produce next year's crop. Horseradish left undisturbed in the garden spreads via underground shoots and can become invasive. Older roots left in the ground become woody, after which they are no longer culinarily useful, although older plants can be dug and re-divided to start new plants. The early season leaves can be distinctively different, asymmetric spiky, before the mature typical flat broad leaves start to be developed.


Widely introduced by accident, "cabbageworms", the larvae of Pieris rapae, the small white butterfly, are a common caterpillar pest in horseradish. The adults are white butterflies with black spots on the forewings that are commonly seen flying around plants during the day. The caterpillars are velvety green with faint yellow stripes running lengthwise down the back and sides. Fully grown caterpillars are about 25-millimetre (1 in) in length. They move sluggishly when prodded. They overwinter in green pupal cases. Adults start appearing in gardens after the last frost and are a problem through the remainder of the growing season. There are three to five overlapping generations a year. Mature caterpillars chew large, ragged holes in the leaves leaving the large veins intact. Handpicking is an effective control strategy in home gardens.


In the United States, horseradish is grown in several areas such as Eau Claire, Wisconsin, and Tule Lake, California. The most concentrated growth occurs in the Collinsville, Illinois region.
30,000 metric tonnes of horseradish are produced in Europe annually, of which Hungary produces 12,000, making it the biggest single producer.


The distinctive pungent taste of horseradish is from the compound allyl isothiocyanate. Upon crushing the flesh of horseradish, the enzyme myrosinase is released and acts on the glucosinolates sinigrin and gluconasturtiin, which are precursors to the allyl isothiocyanate. The allyl isothiocyanate serves the plant as a natural defense against herbivores. Since allyl isothiocyanate is harmful to the plant itself, it is stored in the harmless form of the glucosinolate, separate from the enzyme myrosinase. When an animal chews the plant, the allyl isothiocyanate is released, repelling the animal. Allyl isothiocyanate is an unstable compound, degrading over the course of days at 37 °C (99 °F). Because of this instability, horseradish sauces lack the pungency of the freshly crushed roots.
Cooks may use the terms "horseradish" or "prepared horseradish" to refer to the mashed (or grated) root of the horseradish plant mixed with vinegar. Prepared horseradish is white to creamy-beige in color. It can be stored for up to 3 months under refrigeration, but eventually will darken, indicating less flavour. The leaves of the plant are edible, either cooked or raw when young, with a flavor similar but weaker than the roots.
On Passover, many Ashkenazi Jews (outside of Israel) use grated horseradish as a  choice for Maror (bitter herbs) at the Passover Seder.


Horseradish sauce made from grated horseradish root and vinegar is a common condiment in the United Kingdom, in Denmark (with sugar added, too) and in Poland. In the UK, it is usually served with roast beef, often as part of a traditional Sunday roast, but can be used in a number of other dishes, including sandwiches or salads. A variation of horseradish sauce, which in some cases may substitute the vinegar with other products like lemon juice or citric acid, is known in Germany as Tafelmeerrettich. Also available in the UK is Tewkesbury mustard, a blend of mustard and grated horseradish originating in medieval times and mentioned by Shakespeare (Falstaff says: "his wit's as thick as Tewkesbury Mustard" in Henry IV Part II). A similar mustard, called Krensenf or Meerrettichsenf, is common in Austria and parts of Germany. In France, sauce au raifort is used in Alsatian cuisine. In Russia, horseradish root is usually mixed with grated garlic and small amount of tomatoes for color (Khrenovina sauce).
In the US, the term "horseradish sauce" refers to grated horseradish combined with mayonnaise or salad dressing. In Denmark it is mixed with whipping cream and as such used on top of traditional Danish open sandwiches with beef (boiled or steaked) slices. Prepared horseradish is a common ingredient in Bloody Mary cocktails and in cocktail sauce, and is used as a sauce or sandwich spread. Horseradish cream is a mixture of horseradish and sour cream and is served au jus for a prime rib dinner.


In Europe, there are two varieties of chrain. "Red" chrain is mixed with red beetroot and "white" chrain contains no beetroot. Chrain is a part of Christian Easter and Jewish Passover tradition (as maror) in Eastern and Central Europe.
In parts of Southern Germany like Franconia, "kren" is a component of the traditional wedding dinner. It is served with cooked beef and a dip made from lingonberry to balance the slight hotness of the Kren.
In Poland, a variety with red beetroot is called ćwikła z chrzanem or simply ćwikła.
In Russia, a very popular ingredient for pickles (cucumbers, tomatoes, mushrooms).
In Ashkenazi European Jewish cooking, beetroot horseradish is commonly served with gefilte fish.
In Transylvania and other Romanian regions, red beetroot with horseradish is used as a salad served with lamb dishes at Easter called sfecla cu hrean.
In Serbia, ren is an essential condiment with cooked meat and freshly roasted suckling pig.
In Croatia, freshly grated horseradish (Croatian: Hren) is often eaten with boiled ham or beef.
In Slovenia, and in the adjacent Italian regions of Friuli Venezia Giulia and nearby Italian region of Veneto, horseradish (often grated and mixed with sour cream, vinegar, hard-boiled eggs, or apples) is also a traditional Easter dish.
In the Italian regions of Lombardy, Emilia-Romagna, and Piedmont, it is called "barbaforte (strong beard)" and is a traditional accompaniment to bollito misto; while in northeastern regions like Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, Veneto and Friuli-Venezia Giulia, it is still called "kren" or "cren". In the southern region of Basilicata it is known as "rafano" and used for the preparation of the so-called "rafanata", a main course made of horseradish, eggs, cheese and sausage.
Horseradish is also used as a main ingredient for soups. In Poland, horseradish soup is a common Easter Day dish.


Outside Japan, the Japanese condiment wasabi, although traditionally prepared from the true wasabi plant (Wasabia japonica), is now usually made with horseradish due to the scarcity of the wasabi plant. The Japanese botanical name for horseradish is seiyōwasabi (セイヨウワサビ, 西洋山葵), or "Western wasabi". Both plants are members of the family Brassicaceae.


In a 100-gram amount, prepared horseradish provides 48 calories and has high content of vitamin C with moderate content of sodium, folate and dietary fiber, while other essential nutrients are negligible in content. In a typical serving of one tablespoon (15 grams), horseradish supplies no significant nutrient content.
Horseradish contains volatile oils, notably mustard oil.


The enzyme horseradish peroxidase (HRP), found in the plant, is used extensively in molecular biology and biochemistry primarily for its ability to amplify a weak signal and increase detectability of a target molecule. HRP has been used in decades of research to visualize under microscopy and assess non-quantitatively the permeability of capillaries, particularly those of the brain.


Arnica cordifolia is a species of arnica in the sunflower family, known by the common name heartleaf arnica. It is native to western North America.


This is a rhizomatous perennial herb producing one or more erect stems reaching a maximum height of about 60 centimetres (2 feet). It has two to four pairs of leaves on the stem, each on a long petiole. The leaves are heart-shaped to arrowhead-shaped and finely toothed along the edges. The inflorescence bears one or more daisylike flower heads 5–9 cm (2–3+1⁄2 inches) in width, lined with white-haired phyllaries and sometimes studded with resin glands. The center of each head contains golden yellow disc florets and a fringe of 10–15 bright golden ray florets approaching 3 cm (1+1⁄4 in) in maximum length. The flowers usually bloom from April to June, but sometimes do so as late as September.
The fruit is a hairy achene up to 1 cm (1⁄2 in) long, not counting its off-white pappus. Seeds are dispersed on the wind. An individual plant can live 12 years, surviving periodic wildfire by resprouting from its long, slender rhizome afterward.
The species could be confused with the similar Arnica latifolia, from which it can be distinguished by the leaves. The leaves of A. cordifolia are larger and heart-shaped.


It is native to western North America from Alaska to California to New Mexico, as far east as Ontario and Michigan. It is a plant of many habitat types, including coniferous forests, and moist mountain meadows from sea level to altitudes of above 3,700 metres (12,000 ft), but most commonly between 1,200–3,400 m (4,000–11,000 ft).


The dried leaves can be made into a poultice or tincture to treat strains and bruises.


Arnoglossum atriplicifolium, the pale Indian plantain, is a perennial North American wildflower in the sunflower family. It is widely distributed through the central and eastern states of the United States from the  Atlantic Coast westward as far as Kansas, but it is listed as endangered in the state of New Jersey.
Arnoglossum atriplicifolium is a large perennial up to 300 cm (120 inches or 10 feet) tall, spreading by means of underground rhizomes. Stems are usually unbranched. Flower heads are white, sometimes with a bit of green or purple, with disc florets but no ray florets. It grows in pastures, roadsides, and edges of woods. Flowers bloom July to September.


Aronia melanocarpa, called the black chokeberry, is a species of shrubs in the rose family native to eastern North America, ranging from Canada to the central United States, from Newfoundland west to Ontario and Minnesota, south as far as Arkansas, Alabama, and Georgia. This plant has been introduced and is cultivated in Europe.
It is a branching shrub with glossy dark green leaves that take on a red color in the autumn; it grows well in the sun and part-shade, often to heights of six feet or more, forming clumps by means of stems rising from the roots. Its flowers are white or pink, appearing at the end of spring and producing black fruits in September.  The plants are relatively easy to clone and root, with summer being the optimal time to take cuttings. Some birds eat the berries.
When raw, the fruits are astringent, but the flavor improves when used in recipes with added sugar.


The white-breasted woodswallow (Artamus leucorynchus) is a medium sized passerine bird which breeds from the Andaman Islands east through Indonesia and northern Australia. The name "woodswallow" is a misnomer as they are not closely related to true swallows. Instead, they belong to the family Artamidae, which also includes butcherbirds, currawongs and the Australian magpie.


The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1771, its specific epithet derived from the ancient Greek words leukos 'white', and rhynchos 'bill'. The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1771, its specific epithet derived from the ancient Greek words leukos 'white', and rhynchos 'bill'.
Nine subspecies of Artamus leucorynchus and their habitat ranges are:
A. l. albiventer (Lesson, 1831) - Sulawesi and Lesser Sundas
A. l. amydrus (Oberholser, 1917) - Sumatra, Bangka, Belitung, Kangean Islands, Java and Bali
A. l. humei (Stresemann, 1913) - Andaman and Cocos Islands
A. l. leucopygialis (Gould, 1842) - Moluccas, Kai Island, Aru Island, New Guinea and Australia
A. l. leucorynchus (Linnaeus, 1771) - Philippines, Palawan, Borneo and Natuna Islands
A. l. melaleucus (Wagler, 1827) - New Caledonia, Mare and Lifou
A. l. musschenbroeki (A. B. Meyer, 1884) - Babar Islands and Tanimbar Islands
A. l. pelewensis (Finsch, 1876) - Palau Islands
A. l. tenuis (Mayr, 1943) - Vanuatu and Banks Islands


The White-breasted Woodswallow's plumage is dark grey on the head and neck, with white underparts, giving the species its common and scientific names, in contrast to the related great woodswallow whose upper side is a more glossy black. The stout bill of a woodswallow is bluish-grey with a black tip. White breasted woodswallows can also be identified by their short, black tail and grey feet. Their completely black tail makes them the only woodswallow lacking white on its tail. Males and females are identical in appearance. Juvenile woodswallows have a more brownish plumage around their head and mantle that is usually heavily striated. Juveniles have a buff tint on their chest and a brownish bill with a dark tip. White breasted woodswallows can grow to a maximum known size of 18 cm and weigh between 35–45 grams. All 9 subspecies of Artamus leucorynchus are differentiated by small differences in color, overall size, wing length and bill size.


Throughout their vast distribution across Australasia, White breasted woodswallows can be found in forests, open woodlands and semi-arid plains, with a mixture of vegetation including shrubs, mangroves, forest clearings and grasses, often near watercourses. They are usually found at elevations from sea level to 1,500 m (4,900 ft). Woodswallows are partially migratory, with southern flocks moving north during Autumn and south in the spring. The breeding season for the white-breasted woodswallow varies throughout its range. In its northern ranges breeding usually occurs between March and May and in the southern ranges occurring between August and January, pre and during the wet season. The female sexual display to invite copulation includes extending the wings over the back in a V, whilst trembling toward a male/s, then waggling the tail and quietly making an 'eep' call.
White breasted woodswallows are seen to be cooperative breeders, with birds other than parents assisting with care for offspring. Both sexes participate in building nests, incubating eggs and feeding young birds. The nest of a White breasted woodswallow are shallow, bowl-shaped nests that are built from grass, twigs and roots and lined with fine grass. Nests are situated in tree forks or hollow stumps. Woodswallows are also known to recycle abandoned magpie lark nests' to use as their own. The normal clutch size is between 2 and 5 eggs. The eggs of Artamus leucorynchus are tapered oval-shaped and cream or pinkish in color with darker brown speckles. After eggs are laid, they will be incubated for 15 days.


Despite having a bifurcated (divided) brush-tipped tongue, which is usually associated with nectar feeders, Woodswallows are insectivores primarily feeding on insects caught on the wings in flight or from a perch, and occasionally feeding on the nectar of flowers. Although they mostly feed on insects caught in flight, Woodswallows also tend to forage on the ground or in the tree canopy. Feeding can often be communal when the catch is too large for one bird.
The white-breasted woodswallow has large, pointed wings and is very agile in powered and gliding flight. They are fast-flying and are one of few passerines that can soar. Even with their small statue, White breasted Woodswallows prove to be aggressive birds whom are quite territorial with groups mobbing larger birds as a form of defense. Out of breeding season, Woodswallows are quite nomadic, chasing flying insects and roosting in large flocks. White breasted Woodswallow are generally seen in flocks of 10-50 birds, sometimes up to 100 to a flock. Flocks tend to cluster together in the evening to roost. Woodswallows are social bird, well known for their habit of huddling up together tightly in flocks, usually along a branch or powerline. This behaviour is done as means of maintaining heat and conserving energy.


With an extensive range, the species Artamus leucorynchus does not fall into vulnerable species categories. The species has a stable and large population size justifying its allocation as Least Concern. There is no evidence of the species decline and the species is recognised as common and therefore there is no alert for Artamus leucorynchus to be recognised as vulnerable throughout is localities.


Artemisia californica, also known as California sagebrush, is a species of western North American shrub in the sunflower family.


Artemisia californica branches from the base and grows out from there, becoming rounded; it grows 1.5 to 2.5 metres (5 to 8 feet) tall. The stems of the plant are slender, flexible, and glabrous (hairless) or canescent (fuzzy). The leaves range from 1 to 10 centimetres (1⁄2 to 4 inches) long and are pinnately divided with 2–4 threadlike lobes less than 5 cm long. Their leaves are hairy and light green to gray in color; the margins of the leaves curl under.
The inflorescences are leafy, narrow, and sparse. The capitula are less than 5 millimetres (3⁄16 in) in diameter. The pistillate flowers range in number from 6 to 10 and the disk flowers range from 15 to 30; they are generally yellowish, but sometimes red.
The fruits produced are resinous achenes up to 1.5 mm long. There is a pappus present that forms a minute crown on the achene body.
The plant contains terpenes which make it quite aromatic. Many people regard the species as having a pleasant smell.


The shrub is native to western California and northwestern Baja California. It is endemic to the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion, in coastal sage scrub, coastal strand, chaparral, and dry foothill communities. It is found from sea level to 800 m (2,600 ft) in elevation. This species is also found on many islands adjacent to the Baja California peninsula, including the Coronado Islands and Cedros Island. It is even found on Guadalupe Island, in the Pacific Ocean.
The prototypical plant association of A. californica is chaparral, notably in the California Coast Ranges; toyon and sage are also key components of communities which are transitional between chaparral and coastal sage scrub.  It is often claimed to be allelopathic, secreting chemicals into the ground which inhibit other plants from growing near and around the shrub.


This shrub is cultivated as an ornamental plant in native plant and wildlife gardens, natural landscaping design, and for restoration of disturbed sites and degraded coastal sage scrub. There are several lower height cultivars in the horticulture trade, for drought-tolerant groundcover use.
It thrives in full sun, preferring to grow on west or north-facing slopes. It needs little water and prefers no water in the summer months; it does not seem that soil types affect plant growth much.  This plant relies on wildfire for seed germination and burned plants can crown-sprout and keep growing.
Animals rarely eat Artemisia californica, probably due to the presence of bitter aromatic terpenes, but it does provide good cover for smaller birds and other animals that can fit between its stems. It is an important habitat plant for the endangered California gnatcatcher.


A. californica is a sagebrush, not a true sage, making it of little culinary interest.


The Cahuilla natives employed the plant as a treatment to fight coughs and colds. They chewed the leaves, either dried or fresh. It was used by women of the Cahuilla and Tongva to alleviate menstrual cramps and to ease labor. The plant stimulates the uterine mucosa, which quickened childbirth. It was also made into a decoction, and if taken regularly prior to menstruation, it relieved menstrual cramps and menopause. The Ohlone used it as a pain remover by applying the leaves to wounds or teeth. It was also made into a tea bath to cure colds, coughs, and rheumatism. It was used as a poultice for asthma as well.
A. californica is used to make a liniment that is a powerful pain reliever. The monoterpenoids in the plant interact with transient receptor potential cation channels to relieve pain. The plant also contains sesquiterpenes that may be involved in pain relief. The liniment is more powerful than opioid drugs and is much safer. A small amount of the liniment is applied where it is needed. Within 20 minutes, the pain subsides, even pain from broken bones, arthritis, sprains and strains.


Artemisia filifolia,  known by common names including sand sagebrush, sand sage  and sandhill sage, is a species of flowering plant in the aster family. It is native to North America, where it occurs  from Nevada east to South Dakota and from there south to Arizona, Chihuahua, and Texas.


Artemisia filifolia  is a branching woody shrub growing up to 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) tall. The stems are covered narrow, threadlike leaves up to 8 centimetres (3.1 in) long and no more than half a millimeter wide. The leaves are sometimes split into segments. They are solitary or arranged in fascicles. The inflorescence is a panicle of hanging flower heads. Each head contains sterile disc florets and 2 to 3 fertile ray florets. The fruit is a tiny achene. The achenes do not tend to disperse far from the parent plant.


Artemisia filifolia is a dominant species across much of the west-central United States, particularly in areas where the substrate is a deep, sandy soil. It is an indicator of sandy soils. It is efficient for preventing erosion on such soils. It is common in parts of the Great Plains, where it is a dominant component of prairie, grassland, and shrubland ecosystems alongside grasses such as sand bluestem, grama grasses, sand reedgrass, little bluestem, and sand dropseed. Some regions dominated by this sagebrush include the occurrences of the sandsage prairie from Nebraska to central Texas, various river systems in eastern Colorado and Kansas, the sandhills and mixed-grass prairies of Colorado, and parts of southeastern Wyoming. In Texas, it is common in the Trans-Pecos region, where it grows with honey mesquite, and many other areas in the state where it grows with sand shinnery oak.
This ecosystem is most commonly affected by fire and grazing. Before modern fire suppression, the ecosystem was maintained by a pattern of disturbance caused by natural wildfire and grazing by bison, a pattern which is called pyric herbivory.


Sand sagebrush ecosystems are important habitat types for many animals. Prairie dogs build towns in sandy sage grassland, and when they abandon them, burrowing owls move in. Sage grouse live in sand sagebrush, though they prefer big sagebrush. Some animals eat the seeds, such as lesser prairie chickens and scaled quail. Lesser prairie chickens also use it for cover and nesting purposes. Extensive removal of sand sagebrush has been shown to reduce the diversity and abundance of breeding birds in the habitat.
Despite its importance in numerous ecosystems, this sagebrush can become a troublesome weed. One method of control is burning, then placing livestock where they will graze the new sprouts as they come up. It is also controlled with herbicides and mowing.


Sand sagebrush seed is sold commercially. It is sometimes used for revegetation efforts on rangeland and coal fields. The Navajo had several uses for the plant. It was used medicinally and for ritual purposes. Being quite soft, it was used as toilet paper.


Artemisia frigida is a widespread species of flowering plant in the aster family, which is known as the sunflower family.  It is native to Europe, Asia, and much of North America. In parts of the north-central and northeastern United States it is an introduced species.


Common names include fringed sagebrush, prairie sagewort, arctic sage and pasture sage. The plant is  not, however, closely related to the true sages Salvia.


Artemisia frigida is a perennial plant but with a woody base. The stems spread out, generally forming a mat or clump up to 40 centimetres (1.3 ft) tall. The stems are covered in lobed gray-green leaves which are coated in silvery hairs. The inflorescence contains many spherical flower heads each about half a centimeter wide and lined with woolly-haired, gray-green or brownish phyllaries. The flower heads contain several pistillate ray florets and many bisexual disc florets. The plant is aromatic, with a strong scent. This plant can make a great many seeds. It can also spread by layering; in some years it produces very few seeds.
Artemisia frigida is common and dominant or codominant in many areas, especially in dry and disturbed habitat types. It is common in the Rocky Mountains and Great Plains in North America, where it occurs in grasslands, shrublands, and woodlands, among others. It has a tendency to increase in areas that have been heavily grazed by livestock. Overgrowth of the plant is sometimes an indicator of overgrazing on rangeland. It sometimes becomes an aggressive weed. Ranchers have considered the plant to be both an adequate forage species and a worthless nuisance species. Artemisia frigida's common name is wild sage. Sometimes known as prairie sage and sagewort.


A number of wild animals consume the plant, including white-tailed jackrabbits and sage grouse.
Artemisia frigida is cultivated for its foliage effects, and has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.
Artemisia frigida has a variety of uses for Indigenous peoples of North America. It is used medicinally for coughs, colds, wounds, and heartburn by the Blackfoot. The Cree people use it for headache and fever and the Tewa people took it for gastritis and indigestion. It also has ceremonial and veterinary applications, including for the Blackfoot, who reportedly used the crushed leaves to "revive gophers after children clubbed them while playing a game". Among the Zuni, the whole plant is made into an infusion for colds. Sprigs of this plant and corn ears are attached to decorated tablets and carried by female dancers in a drama. The sprigs are also dipped in water and planted with corn so the corn will grow abundantly.
Mongol herders from the Bairin Right Banner and Bairin Left Banner of Inner Mongolia prepare a water-based decoction using fresh or dried Artemisia frigida with Sabina vulgaris, Sanguisorba officinalis, Rhododendron micranthum, and Ephedra sinica to treat joint pain.
Artemisia frigida is also used in landscaping and for erosion control and revegetation of rangeland. It is drought-resistant.


Artemisia ludoviciana is a North American species of flowering plant in the daisy family Asteraceae, known by several common names, including silver wormwood, western mugwort, Louisiana wormwood, white sagebrush, lobed cud-weed, and gray sagewort.
Ludoviciana is the Latinized version of the word Louisiana.


Artemisia ludoviciana is a rhizomatous perennial growing to heights of 0.3–1.0 m (0.98–3.28 ft). The stems bear linear leaves up to 11 cm long. The stems and foliage are covered in woolly gray or white hairs. The top of the stem is occupied by a narrow inflorescence of many nodding (hanging) flower heads. Each small head is a cup of hairy phyllaries surrounding a center of yellowish disc florets and is about 0.5 cm wide.  The fruit is a minute achene. Flowers bloom July to October.


The plant is native to North America where it is widespread across most of the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Some botanists suggest that eastern United States populations have been introduced from the western and central part of the continent. Its habitats include dry slopes, canyons, open pine woods, and dry prairies.


Subspecies include:
A. l. subsp. albula (Wooton) D.D.Keck—deserts from California and Colorado to Chihuahua, Sonora, Baja California
A. l.  subsp. candicans (Rydb.) D.D.Keck—Rocky Mountains and Cascade Range from Alberta, British Columbia to California, Colorado
A. l.  subsp. incompta (Nutt.) D.D.Keck—mountains from Alberta, British Columbia, to Mexico
A. l.  subsp. ludoviciana—western and central United States and western Canada
A. l.  subsp. mexicana (Willd. ex Spreng.) D.D.Keck— Mexico as far south as Puebla; United States as far north as Colorado and Missouri
A. l.  subsp. redolens (A.Gray) D.D.Keck—Durango, Chihuahua, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas
A. l.  subsp. sulcata (Rydb.) D.D.Keck—Chihuahua, Sonora, Arizona


Native Americans use the species as a medicinal plant, a source of fiber for crafting household items, and for ceremonial purposes. The Dakota people use this plant in smudging rituals to protect against maleficent spirits. The Apache, Chiricahua and Mescalero use it for spices, while Blackfoot tribe use it as a drug for dermatological. Gros Ventre also use it for skin curing and as medicine against cold, because it is also antipyretic. The Meskwaki and Potawatomi use a tea made from this species as a treatment for sore throat and tonsillitis.


A. ludoviciana is cultivated as an ornamental plant. Being rhizomatous, it can spread aggressively in some climates and gardens. It grows in dry to medium moisture and well-drained soil. It requires full sun.
Popular cultivars include 'Valerie Finnis' and 'Silver Queen'. Both are hardy to USDA zone 4. 'Valerie Finnis' has held the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit since 1993.


Artemisia stelleriana  is an Asian and North American  species of plants in the sunflower family. It is native to China (Heixiazi Island in Heilongjiang Province), Japan, Korea, Russian Far East (Sakhalin, Kuril Islands, Yakutia, Kamchatka Peninsula), and the Aleutian Islands in the United States. The species is widely cultivated as an ornamental and naturalized in scattered locations in North America, primarily on coastal dunes and other sandy locations, as well as in Scandinavia. Common names include hoary mugwort, Dusty Miller, beach wormwood, and oldwoman.


The plants have pale-green to white leaves, which are covered on both surfaces with thick trichomes, giving a silver or whitish appearance. The yellow flowers grow in tall clusters and bloom from July to late August. The species thrives in dry and hot climates.


A number of forms have been selected as garden cultivars.
'Boughton Silver' (aka 'Silver Brocade') is probably the best known cultivar. It is a prostrate form with prettily cut broad white leaves and was originally known as 'Mori's form'. English plantswoman Valerie Finnis (Lady Scott) was given this form by a Mr Mori during her honeymoon in Japan in 1970. It was distributed in UK mainly as 'Mori's form', but was also known as 'Boughton Silver' relating to her husband's garden at Boughton House, Northamptonshire. It was taken to Canada by Bruce McDonald and renamed 'Silver Brocade.'
'Nana' is a more erect (30 cm), but lax stemmed form with less deeply cut silverish leaves. It has been grown for many years in UK where it is used as a filler between other plants in the herbaceous border.
'Elsworth' is a taller (45 cm) more strongly erect stemmed form with more deeply cut silver leaves. It was selected by UK National Artemisia Collection Holder John Twibell c1990.
'Shemya' is a short form (30 cm) with silver green leaves, and was also selected by John Twibell c2013 This form was selected from seed originating from Shemya in the Aleutian Isles (Alaska, USA).


Artemisia vulgaris, the common mugwort, is a species of flowering plant in the daisy family Asteraceae. It is one of several species in the genus Artemisia commonly known as mugwort, although Artemisia vulgaris is the species most often called mugwort. It is also occasionally known as  riverside wormwood, felon herb, chrysanthemum weed, wild wormwood, old Uncle Henry, sailor's tobacco, naughty man, old man, or St. John's plant (not to be confused with St John's wort). Mugworts have been used medicinally and as culinary herbs.


A. vulgaris is native to temperate Europe, Asia, North Africa, and Alaska, and is naturalized in North America, where some consider it an invasive weed. It is a very common plant growing on nitrogenous soils, such as waste places, roadsides and other weedy and uncultivated areas.


Traditionally, it has been used as one of the flavoring and bittering agents of gruit ales, a type of unhopped, fermented grain beverage. In Vietnam, mugwort is used in cooking as an aromatic herb.
In China, the crunchy stalks of young shoots of A. vulgaris, known as luhao (Chinese: 芦蒿; pinyin: lúhāo), are a seasonal vegetable often used in stir-fries.
In Nepal, the plant is also called titepati (tite meaning bitter, pati meaning leaf) and is used as an offering to the gods, for cleansing the environment (by sweeping floors or hanging a bundle outside the home), as incense, and also as a medicinal plant.
The dried leaves are often smoked or drunk as a tea to promote lucid dreaming. This supposed oneirogenic effect is believed to be due to the thujone contained in the plant.


A. vulgaris is a tall, herbaceous, perennial plant growing 1–2 m (rarely 2.5 m) tall, with an extensive rhizome system. Rather than depending on seed dispersal, it spreads through vegetative expansion and the anthropogenic dispersal of root rhizome fragments. The leaves are 5–20 cm long, dark green, pinnate, and sessile, with dense, white, tomentose hairs on the underside. The erect stems are grooved and often have a red-purplish tinge. The rather small florets (5 mm long) are radially symmetrical with many yellow or dark red petals. The narrow and numerous capitula (flower heads), all fertile, spread out in racemose panicles. It flowers from midsummer to early autumn.
A number of species of Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) such as Ostrinia scapulalis feed on the leaves and flowers of the plant.


Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) is a species of flowering tree in the mulberry and jackfruit family (Moraceae) believed to be a domesticated descendant of Artocarpus camansi originating in New Guinea, the Maluku Islands, and the Philippines. It was initially spread to Oceania via the Austronesian expansion. It was further spread to other tropical regions of the world during the Colonial Era. British and French navigators introduced a few Polynesian seedless varieties to Caribbean islands during the late 18th century. Today it is grown in some 90 countries throughout South and Southeast Asia, the Pacific Ocean, the Caribbean, Central America and Africa. Its name is derived from the texture of the moderately ripe fruit when cooked, similar to freshly baked bread and having a potato-like flavor.
The trees have been widely planted in tropical regions, including lowland Central America, northern South America, and the Caribbean. In addition to the fruit serving as a staple food in many cultures, the light, sturdy timber of breadfruit has been used for outriggers, ships, and houses in the tropics.
Breadfruit is closely related to Artocarpus camansi (breadnut or seeded breadfruit) of New Guinea, the Maluku Islands, and the Philippines, Artocarpus blancoi (tipolo or antipolo) of the Philippines, and Artocarpus mariannensis (dugdug) of Micronesia, all of which are sometimes also referred to as "breadfruit". It is also closely related to the jackfruit.


Breadfruit trees grow to a height of 26 metres (85 feet). The large and thick leaves are deeply cut into pinnate lobes. All parts of the tree yield latex, which is useful for boat caulking.
The trees are monoecious, with male and female flowers growing on the same tree. The male flowers emerge first, followed shortly afterward by the female flowers. The latter grow into capitula, which are capable of pollination just three days later. Pollination occurs mainly by fruit bats, but cultivated varieties produce fruit without pollination. The compound, false fruit develops from the swollen perianth, and originates from 1,500 to 2,000 flowers visible on the skin of the fruit as hexagon-like disks.
Breadfruit is one of the highest-yielding food plants, with a single tree producing up to 200 or more grapefruit-sized fruits per season, requiring limited care. In the South Pacific, the trees yield 50 to 150 fruits per year, usually round, oval or oblong weighing 0.25–6 kg. Productivity varies between wet and dry areas. Studies in Barbados indicate a reasonable potential of 16–32 short tons per hectare (6.5–12.9 short ton/acre). The ovoid fruit has a rough surface, and each fruit is divided into many achenes, each achene surrounded by a fleshy perianth and growing on a fleshy receptacle. Most selectively bred cultivars have seedless fruit, whereas seeded varieties are grown mainly for their edible seeds. Breadfruit is usually propagated using root cuttings.
Breadfruit is closely related to the breadnut. It is similar in appearance to its relative of the same genus, the jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus).
Breadfruit has hundreds of varieties and thousands of common names varying according to its geographic distribution, and is cultivated in some 90 countries.
The closely related Artocarpus camansi can be distinguished from A. altilis by having spinier fruits with numerous seeds. Artocarpus mariannensis can be distinguished by having dark green elongated fruits with darker yellow flesh, as well as entire or shallowly lobed leaves.


Breadfruit is propagated mainly by seeds, although seedless breadfruit can be propagated by transplanting suckers that grow off the surface roots of the tree. The roots can be purposefully injured to induce the growth of suckers, which are then separated from the root and planted in a pot or directly transplanted into the ground. Pruning also induces sucker growth. Sucker cuttings are placed in plastic bags containing a mixture of soil, peat and sand, and kept in the shade while moistened with liquid fertilizer. When roots are developed, the transplant is put in full sun until time for planting in the orchard.
For propagation in quantity, root cuttings are preferred, using segments about 10 centimetres (2 in) thick and 20 centimetres (9 in) long. Rooting may take up to 5 months to develop, with the young trees ready for planting when they are 60 centimetres (2 ft) high.


According to DNA fingerprinting studies, the wild seeded ancestor of breadfruit is the breadnut (Artocarpus camansi) which is native to New Guinea, the Maluku Islands, and the Philippines. It was one of the canoe plants spread by Austronesian voyagers around 3,000 years ago into Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia, where it was not native.
A. camansi was domesticated and selectively bred in Polynesia, giving rise to the mostly seedless Artocarpus altilis. Micronesian breadfruit also show evidence of hybridization with the native Artocarpus mariannensis, while most Polynesian and Melanesian cultivars do not. This indicates that Micronesia was initially colonized separately from Polynesia and Melanesia through two different migration events which later came into contact with each other in eastern Micronesia.


Breadfruit is an equatorial lowland species. It has been spread from its Pacific source to many tropical regions.
In 1769, Joseph Banks was stationed in Tahiti as part of the Endeavour expedition commanded by Captain James Cook. The late-18th-century quest for cheap, high-energy food sources for slaves in British colonies prompted colonial administrators and plantation owners to call for breadfruit to be brought to the Caribbean. As president of the Royal Society, Banks provided a cash bounty and gold medal for success in this endeavor, and successfully lobbied for a British Naval expedition. After an unsuccessful voyage to the South Pacific to collect the plants by as commander of HMS Bounty, in 1791, William Bligh commanded a second expedition with Providence and Assistant, which collected seedless breadfruit plants in Tahiti and transported these to St. Helena in the Atlantic and St. Vincent and Jamaica in the West Indies.
The plant grows best below elevations of 650 m (2,130 ft), but is found at elevations of 1,550 m (5,090 ft). Preferred soils are neutral to alkaline (pH of 6.1–7.4) and either sand, sandy loam, loam or sandy clay loam. Breadfruit is able to grow in coral sands and saline soils. The breadfruit is ultra-tropical, requiring a temperature range of 16–38 °C (61–100 °F) and an annual rainfall of 2,000–2,500 millimetres (80–100 inches).


Breadfruit is 71% water, 27% carbohydrates, 1% protein and negligible in fat (see table). In a 100 gram amount, raw breadfruit is a rich source (35% of the Daily Value, DV) of vitamin C, and a moderate source (10% DV each) of thiamin and potassium, with no other nutrients in significant content.


Breadfruit is a staple food in many tropical regions. Most breadfruit varieties produce fruit throughout the year. Both ripe and unripe fruit have culinary uses; unripe breadfruit is cooked before consumption. Before being eaten, the fruit are roasted, baked, fried or boiled. When cooked, the taste of moderately ripe breadfruit is described as potato-like, or similar to freshly baked bread.
One breadfruit tree can produce 200 kilograms (450 lb) each season. Because breadfruit trees usually produce large crops at certain times of the year, preservation of harvested fruit is an issue. One traditional preservation technique is to bury peeled and washed fruits in a leaf-lined pit where they ferment over several weeks and produce a sour, sticky paste. So stored, the product may endure a year or more, and some pits are reported to have produced edible contents more than 20 years later. Fermented breadfruit mash goes by many names such as mahr, ma, masi, furo, and bwiru, among others.
Breadfruit can be eaten once cooked, or can be further processed into a variety of other foods. A common product is a mixture of cooked or fermented breadfruit mash mixed with coconut milk baked in banana leaves. Whole fruits can be cooked in an open fire, then cored and filled with other foods, such as coconut milk, sugar and butter, cooked meats, or other fruits. The filled fruit can be cooked further so the flavor of the filling permeates the flesh of the breadfruit.
In addition to being edible raw, breadfruit can be ground into flour and the seeds can be cooked for consumption.


The seedless breadfruit is found in Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia, where it is called sukun. It is commonly made into fritters and eaten as snacks. Breadfruit fritters are sold as local street food.
In the Philippines, breadfruit is known as rimas in Tagalog and kolo in the Visayan languages. It is also called kamansi (also spelled camansi), along with the closely related Artocarpus camansi, and the endemic Artocarpus blancoi (tipolo or antipolo). All three species, as well as the closely related jackfruit, are commonly used much in the same way in savory dishes. The immature fruits are most commonly eaten as ginataang rimas (cooked with coconut milk).
In the Hawaiian staple food called poi, the traditional ingredient of mashed taro root can be replaced by, or augmented with, mashed breadfruit. The resulting "breadfruit poi" is called poi ʻulu.


In Sri Lanka, it is cooked as a curry using coconut milk and spices (which becomes a side dish) or boiled. Boiled breadfruit is a famous main meal. It is often consumed with scraped coconut or coconut sambol, made of scraped coconut, red chili powder and salt mixed with a dash of lime juice. A traditional sweet snack made of finely sliced, sun-dried breadfruit chips deep-fried in coconut oil and dipped in heated treacle or sugar syrup is known as rata del petti. In India, fritters of breadfruit, called jeev kadge phodi in Konkani or kadachakka varuthath in Malayalam are a local delicacy in coastal Karnataka and Kerala. In Seychelles, it was traditionally eaten as a substitute for rice, as an accompaniment to the mains. It would either be consumed boiled (friyapen bwi) or grilled (friyapen griye), where it would be put whole in the wood fire used for cooking the main meal and then taken out when ready. It is also eaten as a dessert, called ladob friyapen, where it is boiled in coconut milk, sugar, vanilla, cinnamon and a pinch of salt.


In Belize, the Mayan people call it masapan.
In Puerto Rico, breadfruit is called panapén or pana, for short, although the name pana is often used to refer to breadnut, seeds of which have traditionally been boiled, peeled and eaten whole. In some inland regions it is also called mapén and used to make pasteles and alcapurrias. Breadfruit is often served boiled with a mixture of sauteed bacalao (salted cod fish), olive oil and onions. Mostly as tostones where about 1 inch chunks are fried, lighty flattered and fried again. Mofongo de panapén fried breadfruit mashed with olive oil, garlic, broth, and chicharrón. Rellenos de panapén the breadfruit version of papa rellena. Dipping sauce made from boiled ripe breadfruit similar to chutney using spices, sesame seeds, herbs, lentil, coconut milk, and fruit. Both ripe and unripe are boiled together and mashed with milk and butter to make pastelón de panapén, a dish similar to lasagna. Ripe breadfruit is used in desserts: flan de pana (breadfruit custard). Cazuela, a crustless pie with ripe breadfruit, spices, raisins, coconut milk,  and sweet potatoes. Breadfruit flour is sold all over Puerto Rico and used for making bread, pastries, cookies, pancakes, waffles, crepes, and almojábana.
In the Dominican Republic, it is called buen pan or "good bread". Breadfruit isn't popular in Dominican cookery and is used mainly for feeding pigs.
In Barbados, breadfruit is boiled with salted meat and mashed with butter to make breadfruit coucou. It is usually eaten with saucy meat dishes.
In Trinidad and Tobago, breadfruit is boiled, then fried and eaten with saucy meat dishes like curried duck.
In Jamaica, breadfruit is boiled in soups or roasted on stove top, in the oven or on wood coal. It is eaten with the national dish ackee and salt fish. The ripe fruit is used in salads or fried as a side dish.


Breadfruit was widely used in a variety of ways among Pacific Islanders. Its lightweight wood (specific gravity of 0.27) is resistant to termites and shipworms, so it is used as timber for structures and outrigger canoes. Its wood pulp can also be used to make paper, called breadfruit tapa. Native Hawaiians used its sticky latex to trap birds, whose feathers were made into cloaks. The wood of the breadfruit tree was one of the most valuable timbers in the construction of traditional houses in Samoan architecture.
Breadfruit contains phytochemicals having potential as an insect repellent. The parts of the fruits that are discarded can be used to feed livestock. The leaves of breadfruit trees can also be browsed by cattle.


On Puluwat in the Caroline Islands, in the context of sacred yitang lore, breadfruit (poi) is a figure of speech for knowledge. This lore is organized into five categories: war, magic, meetings, navigation, and breadfruit.
According to an etiological Hawaiian myth, the breadfruit originated from the sacrifice of the war god Kū. After deciding to live secretly among mortals as a farmer, Kū married and had children. He and his family lived happily until a famine seized their island. When he could no longer bear to watch his children suffer, Kū told his wife that he could deliver them from starvation, but to do so he would have to leave them. Reluctantly she agreed, and at her word, Kū descended into the ground right where he had stood until only the top of his head was visible. His family waited around the spot he had last been, day and night, watering it with their tears until suddenly, a small green shoot appeared where Kū had stood. Quickly, the shoot grew into a tall and leafy tree that was laden with heavy breadfruits that Kū's family and neighbors gratefully ate, joyfully saved from starvation.
Though they are widely distributed throughout the Pacific, many breadfruit hybrids and cultivars are seedless or otherwise biologically incapable of naturally dispersing long distances. Therefore, it is clear that humans aided distribution of the plant in the Pacific, specifically prehistoric groups who colonized the Pacific Islands. To investigate the patterns of human migration throughout the Pacific, scientists have used molecular dating of breadfruit hybrids and cultivars in concert with anthropological data. Results support the west-to-east migration hypothesis, in which the Lapita people are thought to have traveled from Melanesia to numerous Polynesian islands.
The world's largest collection of breadfruit varieties was established by botanist Diane Ragone, from over 20 years' travel to 50 Pacific islands, on a 4 hectares (10 acres) plot outside of Hana, on the isolated east coast of Maui (Hawaii).


The jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus), also known as jack tree, is a species of tree in the fig, mulberry, and breadfruit family (Moraceae). Its origin is in the region between the Western Ghats of southern India, all of Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and the rainforests of the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia.
The jack tree is well-suited to tropical lowlands, and is widely cultivated throughout tropical regions of the world. It bears the largest fruit of all trees, reaching as much as 55 kg (120 pounds) in weight, 90 cm (35 inches) in length, and 50 cm (20 inches) in diameter. A mature jack tree produces some 200 fruits per year, with older trees bearing up to 500 fruits in a year. The jackfruit is a multiple fruit composed of hundreds to thousands of individual flowers, and the fleshy petals of the unripe fruit are eaten. The ripe fruit is sweet (depending on variety) and is more often used for desserts. Canned green jackfruit has a mild taste and meat-like texture that lends itself to being called a "vegetable meat".
Jackfruit is commonly used in South and Southeast Asian cuisines. Both ripe and unripe fruits are consumed. It is available internationally canned or frozen and in chilled meals as are various products derived from the fruit such as noodles and chips.


The word jackfruit comes from Portuguese jaca, which in turn is derived from the Malayalam language term chakka (Malayalam: chakka pazham), when the Portuguese arrived in India at Kozhikode (Calicut) on the Malabar Coast (Kerala) in 1499. Later the Malayalam name ചക്ക (cakka) was recorded by Hendrik van Rheede (1678–1703) in the Hortus Malabaricus, vol. iii in Latin. Henry Yule translated the book in Jordanus Catalani's (fl. 1321–1330) Mirabilia descripta: the wonders of the East. This term is in turn derived from the Proto-Dravidian root kā(y) ("fruit, vegetable").
The common English name "jackfruit" was used by physician and naturalist Garcia de Orta in his 1563 book Colóquios dos simples e drogas da India. Centuries later, botanist Ralph Randles Stewart suggested it was named after William Jack (1795–1822), a Scottish botanist who worked for the East India Company in Bengal, Sumatra, and Malaya.


The jackfruit was domesticated independently in South Asia and Southeast Asia, as indicated by the Southeast Asian names which are not derived from the Sanskrit roots. It was probably first domesticated by Austronesians in Java or the Malay Peninsula. The fruit was later introduced to Guam via Filipino settlers when both were part of the Spanish Empire. It is the national fruit of Bangladesh and the state fruit of Kerala.


Artocarpus heterophyllus grows as an evergreen tree that has a relatively short trunk with a dense treetop. It easily reaches heights of 10 to 20 m (33 to 66 feet) and trunk diameters of 30 to 80 cm (12 to 31 inches). It sometimes forms buttress roots. The bark of the jackfruit tree is reddish-brown and smooth. In the event of injury to the bark, a milky juice is released.
The leaves are alternate and spirally arranged. They are gummy and thick and are divided into a petiole and a leaf blade. The petiole is 2.5 to 7.5 cm (1 to 3 inches) long. The leathery leaf blade is 20 to 40 cm (7 to 15 inches) long, and 7.5 to 18 cm (3 to 7 inches) wide and is oblong to ovate in shape.
In young trees, the leaf edges are irregularly lobed or split. On older trees, the leaves are rounded and dark green, with a smooth leaf margin. The leaf blade has a prominent main nerve and starting on each side six to eight lateral nerves. The stipules are egg-shaped at a length of 1.5 to 8 cm (9⁄16 to 3+1⁄8 inches).


The inflorescences are formed on the trunk, branches or twigs (cauliflory). Jackfruit trees are monoecious, having both female and male flowers on a tree. The inflorescences are pedunculated, cylindrical to ellipsoidal or pear-shaped, to about 10–12 cm (3+15⁄16–4+3⁄4 inches) long and 5–7 cm (2–3 inches) wide. Inflorescences are initially completely enveloped in egg-shaped cover sheets which rapidly slough off.
The flowers are small, sitting on a fleshy rachis. The male flowers are greenish, some flowers are sterile. The male flowers are hairy and the perianth ends with two 1 to 1.5 mm (3⁄64 to 1⁄16 in) membrane. The individual and prominent stamens are straight with yellow, roundish anthers. After the pollen distribution, the stamens become ash-gray and fall off after a few days. Later all the male inflorescences also fall off. The greenish female flowers, with hairy and tubular perianth, have a fleshy flower-like base. The female flowers contain an ovary with a broad, capitate, or rarely bilobed scar. The blooming time ranges from December until February or March.
The ellipsoidal to roundish fruit is a multiple fruit formed from the fusion of the ovaries of multiple flowers. The fruits grow on a long and thick stem on the trunk. They vary in size and ripen from an initially yellowish-greenish to yellow, and then at maturity to yellowish-brown. They possess a hard, gummy shell with small pimples surrounded with hard, hexagonal tubercles. The large and variously shaped fruit have a length of 30 to 100 cm (10 to 40 inches) and a diameter of 15 to 50 cm (6 to 20 inches) and can weigh 10–25 kg (22–55 pounds) or more.
The fruits consist of a fibrous, whitish core (rachis) about 5–10 cm (2–4 inches) thick. Radiating from this are many 10-centimeter-long (4 in) individual fruits. They are elliptical to egg-shaped, light brownish achenes with a length of about 3 cm (1+1⁄8 inches) and a diameter of 1.5 to 2 cm (9⁄16 to 13⁄16 inch).
There may be about 100–500 seeds per fruit. The seed coat consists of a thin, waxy, parchment-like and easily removable testa (husk) and a brownish, membranous tegmen. The cotyledons are usually unequal in size, and the endosperm is minimally present. An average fruit consists of 27% edible seed coat, 15% edible seeds, 20% white pulp (undeveloped perianth, rags) and bark and 10% core.
The fruit matures during the rainy season from July to August. The bean-shaped achenes of the jackfruit are coated with a firm yellowish aril (seed coat, flesh), which has an intense sweet taste at maturity of the fruit. The pulp is enveloped by many narrow strands of fiber (undeveloped perianth), which run between the hard shell and the core of the fruit and are firmly attached to it. When pruned, the inner part (core) secretes a sticky, milky liquid, which can hardly be removed from the skin, even with soap and water. To clean the hands after "unwinding" the pulp an oil or other solvent is used. For example, street vendors in Tanzania, who sell the fruit in small segments, provide small bowls of kerosene for their customers to cleanse their sticky fingers. When fully ripe, jackfruit has a strong pleasant aroma, the pulp of the opened fruit resembles the odor of pineapple and banana.


Ripe jackfruit is naturally sweet, with subtle pineapple- or banana-like flavor. It can be used to make a variety of dishes, including custards, cakes, or mixed with shaved ice as es teler in Indonesia or halo-halo in the Philippines. For the traditional breakfast dish in southern India, idlis, the fruit is used with rice as an ingredient and jackfruit leaves are used as a wrapping for steaming. Jackfruit dosas can be prepared by grinding jackfruit flesh along with the batter. Ripe jackfruit arils are sometimes seeded, fried, or freeze-dried and sold as jackfruit chips.
The seeds from ripe fruits are edible once cooked, and are said to have a milky, sweet taste often compared to Brazil nuts. They may be boiled, baked, or roasted. When roasted, the flavor of the seeds is comparable to chestnuts. Seeds are used as snacks (either by boiling or fire-roasting) or to make desserts. In Java, the seeds are commonly cooked and seasoned with salt as a snack. They are commonly used in curry in India in the form of a traditional lentil and vegetable mix curry. Young leaves are tender enough to be used as a vegetable.


Jackfruit has a distinctive sweet and fruity aroma. In a study of flavour volatiles in five jackfruit cultivars, the main volatile compounds detected were ethyl isovalerate, propyl isovalerate, butyl isovalerate, isobutyl isovalerate, 3-methylbutyl acetate, 1-butanol, and 2-methylbutan-1-ol.
A fully ripe and unopened jackfruit is known to "emit a strong aroma" – perhaps unpleasant – with the inside of the fruit described as smelling of pineapple and banana.  After roasting, the seeds may be used as a commercial alternative to chocolate aroma.


The edible pulp is 74% water, 23% carbohydrates, 2% protein, and 1% fat. The carbohydrate component is primarily sugars, and is a source of dietary fiber. In a 100-gram (3+1⁄2-ounce) portion, raw jackfruit provides 400 kJ (95 kcal), and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of vitamin B₆ (25% DV). It contains moderate levels (10-19% DV) of vitamin C and potassium, with no significant content of other micronutrients.
The jackfruit is a partial solution for food security in developing countries.


In Bangladesh, the fruit is consumed on its own. The unripe fruit is used in curry, and the seed is often dried and preserved to be later used in curry. In India, two varieties of jackfruit predominate: muttomvarikka and sindoor. Muttomvarikka has a slightly hard inner flesh when ripe, while the inner flesh of the ripe sindoor fruit is soft.
A sweet preparation called chakkavaratti (jackfruit jam) is made by seasoning pieces of muttomvarikka fruit flesh in jaggery, which can be preserved and used for many months. The fruits are either eaten alone or as a side to rice. The juice is extracted and either drunk straight or as a side. The juice is sometimes condensed and eaten as candies. The seeds are either boiled or roasted and eaten with salt and hot chilies. They are also used to make spicy side dishes with rice. Jackfruit may be ground and made into a paste, then spread over a mat and allowed to dry in the sun to create a natural chewy candy.


In Indonesia and Malaysia, jackfruit is called nangka. The ripe fruit is usually sold separately and consumed on its own, or sliced and mixed with shaved ice as a sweet concoction dessert such as es campur and es teler. The ripe fruit might be dried and fried as kripik nangka, or jackfruit cracker. The seeds are boiled and consumed with salt, as they contain edible starchy content; this is called beton. Young (unripe) jackfruit is made into curry called gulai nangka or stewed called gudeg.
In the Philippines, jackfruit is called langka in Filipino and nangkà in Cebuano. The unripe fruit is usually cooked in coconut milk and eaten with rice; this is called ginataang langka. The ripe fruit is often an ingredient in local desserts such as halo-halo and the Filipino turon. The ripe fruit, besides also being eaten raw as it is, is also preserved by storing in syrup or by drying. The seeds are also boiled before being eaten.
Thailand is a major producer of jackfruit, which are often cut, prepared, and canned in a sugary syrup (or frozen in bags or boxes without syrup) and exported overseas, frequently to North America and Europe.
In Vietnam, jackfruit is used to make jackfruit chè, a sweet dessert soup, similar to the Chinese derivative bubur cha cha. The Vietnamese also use jackfruit purée as part of pastry fillings or as a topping on xôi ngọt (a sweet version of sticky rice portions).
Jackfruits are found primarily in the eastern part of Taiwan. The fresh fruit can be eaten directly or preserved as dried fruit, candied fruit, or jam. It is also stir-fried or stewed with other vegetables and meat.


In Brazil, three varieties are recognized: jaca-dura, or the "hard" variety, which has a firm flesh, and the largest fruits that can weigh between 15 and 40 kg each; jaca-mole, or the "soft" variety, which bears smaller fruits with a softer and sweeter flesh; and jaca-manteiga, or the "butter" variety, which bears sweet fruits whose flesh has a consistency intermediate between the "hard" and "soft" varieties.


From a tree planted for its shade in gardens, it became an ingredient for local recipes using different fruit segments. The seeds are boiled in water or roasted to remove toxic substances, and then roasted for a variety of desserts. The flesh of the unripe jackfruit is used to make a savory salty dish with smoked pork. The jackfruit arils are used to make jams or fruits in syrup, and can also be eaten raw.


The golden yellow timber with good grain is used for building furniture and house construction in India. It is termite-resistant and is superior to teak for building furniture. The wood of the jackfruit tree is important in Sri Lanka and is exported to Europe. Jackfruit wood is widely used in the manufacture of furniture, doors and windows, in roof construction, and fish sauce barrels.
The wood of the tree is used for the production of musical instruments. In Indonesia, hardwood from the trunk is carved out to form the barrels of drums used in the gamelan, and in the Philippines, its soft wood is made into the body of the kutiyapi, a type of boat lute. It is also used to make the body of the Indian string instrument veena and the drums mridangam, thimila, and kanjira.


The jackfruit has played a significant role in Indian agriculture for centuries. Archaeological findings in India have revealed that jackfruit was cultivated in India 3000 to 6000 years ago. It has also been widely cultivated in Southeast Asia.
The ornate wooden plank called avani palaka, made of the wood of the jackfruit tree, is used as the priest's seat during Hindu ceremonies in Kerala. In Vietnam, jackfruit wood is prized for the making of Buddhist statues in temples  The heartwood is used by Buddhist forest monastics in Southeast Asia as a dye, giving the robes of the monks in those traditions their distinctive light-brown color.
Jackfruit is the national fruit of Bangladesh, and the state fruit of the Indian states of Kerala (which hosts jackfruit festivals) and Tamil Nadu.


In terms of taking care of the plant, minimal pruning is required; cutting off dead branches from the interior of the tree is only sometimes needed. In addition, twigs bearing fruit must be twisted or cut down to the trunk to induce growth for the next season. Branches should be pruned every three to four years to maintain productivity.
Some trees carry too many mediocre fruits and these are usually removed to allow the others to develop better to maturity.
Stingless bees such as Tetragonula iridipennis are jackfruit pollinators, and so play an important role in jackfruit cultivation. It seems to be the case that pollination results from a three-way mutualism involving the flower, a fungus, and a species of gall midge, Clinidiplosis ultracrepidata. The fungus forms a film over the syncarps which is a food source to both the fly larvae and adults.


In 2017, India produced 1.4 million tonnes of jackfruit, followed by Bangladesh, Thailand, and Indonesia.
The marketing of jackfruit involves three groups: producers, traders, and middlemen, including wholesalers and retailers. The marketing channels are rather complex. Large farms sell immature fruit to wholesalers, which helps cash flow and reduces risk, whereas medium-sized farms sell the fruit directly to local markets or retailers.


Outside countries of origin, fresh jackfruit can be found at food markets throughout Southeast Asia.  It is also extensively cultivated in the Brazilian coastal region, where it is sold in local markets. It is available canned in sugary syrup, or frozen, already prepared and cut. Jackfruit industries are established in Sri Lanka and Vietnam, where the fruit is processed into products such as flour, noodles, papad, and ice cream. It is also canned and sold as a vegetable for export.
Jackfruit is also widely available year-round, both canned and dried.  Dried jackfruit chips are produced by various manufacturers. As reported in 2019, jackfruit became more widely available in US grocery stores, cleaned and ready to cook, as well as in premade dishes or prepared ingredients. It is on restaurant menus in preparations such as taco fillings and vegan versions of pulled pork dishes.