The white-tailed hawk is a large, stocky hawk. It is close in size to the Swainson's (Buteo swainsoni) and red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), its mean measurements falling slightly ahead of the first, and slightly behind the latter. It can attain a total length of 44–60 cm (17–24 in) and a wingspan of 118–143 cm (46–56 in). A body mass of 880–1,240 g (1.94–2.73 lb) was reported in B. a. hysopodius and 865–1,010 g (1.907–2.227 lb) in B. a. colonus. Among standard measurements, the wing chord is 39–46.2 cm (15.4–18.2 in), the tail is 19.4–22 cm (7.6–8.7 in) and the tarsus is 8–9.2 cm (3.1–3.6 in). Adult birds are grey above and white below and on the rump, with faint pale grey or rufous barring. The short tail is white with a narrow black band near the end that is conspicuous in flight. A rusty-red shoulder patch is just as characteristic when the bird is sitting with wings closed. The wings are dark above, admixed with grey near the bases of the blackish primary remiges. The underwing is whitish, with indistinct brownish barring on the underwing coverts that extends onto the flanks and thighs. The iris is hazel, the cere is pale green, the beak is black with a horn-colored base, and the feet are yellow with black talons.
Immature birds are somewhat darker than adults; they may appear nearly black in faint light, in particular individuals which have little white below. The wing lining is conspicuously spotted black-and-white; the rusty shoulder patch is absent in younger birds. The tail changes from brown with several dark bars to greyish with a hazy dark band as the birds approach maturity. The bare parts are colored much like in the adult.
In the Southern Hemisphere winter, young birds are sometimes mistaken for migrant red-backed hawks (Geranoaetus polyosoma).


Three subspecies are known:
Geranoaetus albicaudatus hypospodius – coastal Texas and the Rio Grande Valley through Middle America to northern Colombia and western Venezuela.
Intermediate in size and coloration. No dark morph.
Geranoaetus albicaudatus colonus – Eastern Colombia to Surinam south to the mouth of the Amazon River, extending into the Caribbean.
Small and pale. Dark morph is ashy grey all over, except for the tail and underwing coverts; sometimes extensively marked rufous on the underside. Dark-morph immatures are sometimes black all over, except for the tail.
Geranoaetus albicaudatus albicaudatus – Southern Amazon rainforest to central Argentina
Large and dark; throat usually black (except in western Argentina). The dark morph appears blackish above, blackish-brown below.


The white-tailed hawk can be found anywhere from coastal Texas and the Rio Grande Valley to central Argentina, as well as many Caribbean islands of the Lesser Antilles, and Trinidad and Tobago. For habitat it prefers open or semi-open regions up to 2,000 ft (c. 600 m) ASL, with few trees to hinder its flight. It is not a migratory bird, though some populations may make regional movements when food is scarce. It likes to perch on bushes, trees, telephone poles or even stand around on the ground, as well as to soar. Generally, it prefers arid habitat and rarely occurs in very rainy locales.
Though it will disappear from unsuitable locations after habitat fragmentation, it has a wide range and is not considered to be a globally threatened species by the IUCN.
Its preferred hunting technique is to hover and observe the surroundings for signs of potential prey, gliding to another place when nothing is found. The diet of the white-tailed hawk varies with its environment. Rabbits make up the majority of the hawk's diet in southern Texas, while lizards of 12 in (30 cm) in length and more are the preferred prey in the Dutch West Indies. Other animals such as cotton rats, snakes, frogs, arthropods (especially grasshoppers, cicadas and beetles), and smallish birds such as passerines or quails are also eaten; it will snatch chickens when no other source of food is available. In the open cerrado of Brazil, mixed-species feeding flocks will react to a white-tailed hawk with almost as much alarm as they do when seeing such dedicated predators of birds as the aplomado falcon. The white-tailed hawk is also known to feed on carrion and to gather with other birds at brushfires to catch small animals fleeing the flames. In the tropics, white-tailed hawks rank amongst the main predators of the small monkeys known as marmosets.
Breeding pairs of white-tailed hawks build nests out of freshly broken twigs, often of thorny plants, 5–15 ft (1.5–5 m) or more above the ground on top of a tree or yucca, preferably one growing in an elevated location giving good visibility from the nest. The nest's interior is cushioned it with dried grasses and other fine materials; green twigs of mesquite or other aromatic plants are often placed in the nest too, perhaps to deter parasites. Like many Accipitridae, white-tailed hawks do not like to abandon a nest site, and nests built up over the years can thus reach sizes of up to three feet (1 m) across. The eggs are white, often lightly spotted with brown or lavender; between one and three (usually two) are laid per clutch. When approached on the nest, the adults will get airborne and observe the intruder from above, unlike related hawks, which usually wait much longer to flush and then launch a determined attack.


BirdLife International (2020). "Geranoaetus albicaudatus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T22695906A169001701. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T22695906A169001701.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
Gill F, D Donsker & P Rasmussen (Eds). 2020. IOC World Bird List (v10.2). doi : 10.14344/IOC.ML.10.2.
Ferguson-Lees, J.; Christie, D. (2001). Raptors of the World. London: Christopher Helm. ISBN 0-7136-8026-1.
HCT (2008)
"White-tailed Hawk". The Birds of North America Online. Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology. Retrieved 2009-01-06.
Faria et al. (2006), BLI (2008)
Ragusa-Netto (2000)
eNature (2007), HCT (2008)
"Callithrix kuhlii (Weid's black-tufted-ear marmoset)".


The black-chested buzzard-eagle (Geranoaetus melanoleucus) is a bird of prey of the hawk and eagle family (Accipitridae). It lives in open regions of South America. This species is also known as the black buzzard-eagle, grey buzzard-eagle or analogously with "eagle" or "eagle-buzzard" replacing "buzzard-eagle", or as the Chilean blue eagle. It is sometimes placed in the genus Buteo.


This is a huge eagle-like "buzzard" ("hawk" in American terminology). It has a total length of 62 to 76 cm (24 to 30 in) and a wingspan of 149 to 200 cm (4 ft 11 in to 6 ft 7 in). In the nominate race, males averaged 2.13 kg (4.7 lb) and females averaged 2.75 kg (6.1 lb), with a range between both of 1.67 to 3.17 kg (3.7 to 7.0 lb). In the linearly slightly smaller G. m. australis subspecies, a male weighed 1.7 kg (3.7 lb) and a female weighed 3.2 kg (7.1 lb), indicating the bulk of the two races is roughly the same. It is noted for its bulky, powerful-looking build. It is rather long- and broad-winged and the slightly tapering tail is short by comparison and colored black, with grey tips in fresh plumage. When perched, the wings cover the tail almost completely, giving the bird a unique near-tailess appearance when perched. The adult has a white underside, sometimes with fine blackish stripes; its upperparts are dark grey with a blackish, brownish or bluish hue. The feathers of the neck and the lowest dark feathers of the breast are somewhat elongated. Adults have an ash-grey-and-white zone on the wings, the silvery white seen clearly from afar. The female is distinguished by a reddish-cinnamon hue to the upper- and underwing secondaries and is considerably larger than the male. Among standard measurements, males possess a wing chord of 463 to 555 mm (18.2 to 21.9 in), a tail of 203 to 300 mm (8.0 to 11.8 in), a culmen of 29 to 45 mm (1.1 to 1.8 in) and a tarsus of 95 to 102 mm (3.7 to 4.0 in). In comparison, females have a wing chord of 490 to 566 mm (19.3 to 22.3 in), a tail of 220 to 310 mm (8.7 to 12.2 in), a culmen of 30 to 45 mm (1.2 to 1.8 in) and a tarsus of 89 to 110 mm (3.5 to 4.3 in).
The immature plumage is reminiscent of that of the great black hawk (Buteogallus urubitinga). Its upperparts are deep brown, sometimes almost black, and it has no light wing patch. The underside is white or light buff with heavy dark streaks on the breast and dark bars on the belly and thighs. It does not acquire the full adult plumage until 4–5 years old.
It is not very vocal, calling usually in flight and when close to the nest. Some calls resemble a wild human laugh, others are a curlew-like whistle. Occasionally flying birds give a high-pitched vocalization "kukukukuku".
The black-chested buzzard-eagle is readily identified in flight by its short wedge-shaped tail scarcely protruding from its long, broad wings. It is usually easy to make out the generally white underparts with the dark chest-band and tail if the birds are adult. Yet as this bird is usually encountered in the wild when it soars, you are less likely to see its grey upperparts.


Its scientific name is Latinized Ancient Greek and means "black-and-white crane-eagle" or (if called Buteo melanoleucos) "black-and-white buzzard": Geranoaetus comes from Ancient Greek géranos (γέρανoς), "crane" + aetós (ἆετός), "eagle". The "crane" reference is due to its grey upper wings and its loud cries. The alternative genus name Buteo is simply the Latin term used for these hawks in Ancient Rome, translating as "buzzard" (in the European sense). melanoleucus is from Ancient Greek mélan- (μέλαν-), "black-" + leukós (λευκός), "white". This refers to the contrasting coloration when seen from below.
When the black-chested buzzard-eagle was first described by Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot in 1819, it was placed in the genus Spizaetus, as Spizaetus melanoleucus. Nowadays, however, the monotypic genus Spizastur is merged in Spizaetus, and the black-and-white hawk-eagle, originally described as by Vieillot three years earlier as Buteo melanoleucus, is now known as Spizaetus melanoleucus. The earlier use of the specific epithet melanoleucus for the black-and-white hawk-eagle technically precludes its use for the black-chested buzzard-eagle, except when it is placed in Geranoaetus. In fact, in the mid-20th century Buteo fuscescens was the prevailing name for the black-chested buzzard-eagle for some years, but it was eventually dismissed as erroneous. This specific name was established – as Spizaetus fuscescens – by Vieillot for the immature of the black-chested buzzard-eagle at the very same time as he described the adult, because he could not believe that such differently-colored birds were conspecific.
As the two birds are not placed in the same genus today, Article 59.3 of the ICZN Code applies. According to this, a junior homonym replaced before 1961 is not rendered permanently invalid (as junior homonyms usually are) if "the substitute name is not in use" – which has been the case after Amadon's 1963 revision. Hence, in this case the scientific name Buteo melanoleucus can apply, even though the black-and-white hawk-eagle was earlier described under exactly that name, while the senior homonym melanoleucus still applies to the latter species when placed in Spizaetus according to the usual ICZN rules. Consequently, the proper name to use for each bird has through a number of coincidences become the one the other species was described under.


There are two subspecies:
Eastern black-chested buzzard-eagle, Geranoaetus melanoleucus melanoleucus (Vieillot, 1819) – SE South America from S and E Brazil (Alagoas, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo states) through Paraguay, Uruguay, and NE Argentina
Larger, Plain white below.
Western black-chested buzzard-eagle, Geranoaetus melanoleucus australis Swann, 1922 – Andes from NW Venezuela (Mérida) through Colombia (Cordillera Central, occasionally ranging into the Cordillera Occidental), Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and W Argentina to Tierra del Fuego
Smaller. White with fine dark barring below.
The black-chested buzzard-eagle is allied to the Buteo hawks, and it is sometimes included with these. Other authors place it in the monotypic genus Geranoaetus. Though the former seems to be more appropriate from a phylogenetic standpoint, the latter is still used here, as much more research into phylogeny and hybridization has to take place before the correct taxonomy of the buteonines can be resolved. It stands to note that the taxonomic and systematic dispute goes back to the early-mid 20th century already. However, it seems there is no real reason to suppose that the lineage of the black-chested buzzard-eagle is North American in origin; fossils that might have been its ancestors at first sight differ in details and are more likely to belong to other buteonine lineages. Because of its buteonine lineage, this species and the closely related Harpyhaliaetus are not considered "true eagles", as are Aquila eagles and "hawk-eagles", and are thus the largest extant type of the diverse buteonine lineage.
This species could be close to the white-tailed hawk (Buteo albicaudatus), and perhaps to the grey-backed (Leucopternis occidentalis), white (L. albicollis), and mantled hawks (L. polionotus) which it resembles in habitus except for being larger. Its closest living relatives may well be the red-backed (B. polyosoma) and Puna hawks (B. poecilochrous). Particularly some populations of the former look like small black-chested buzzard-eagles. The barred hawk (L. princeps) looks similar to the black-chested buzzard-eagle in general color pattern, though the tail differs much in shape, size, and the bright white central band stands out.
The relationship of the black-chested buzzard-eagle to the prehistoric genera Titanohierax from the Caribbean and the Pan-American Amplibuteo also warrant more study. The crab-hawks (Buteogallus) and the solitary "eagles" (Harpyhaliaetus) seem to be allied with the latter, to the extent that these three genera might be united in Buteogallus. That genus in the present restricted sense contains species also quite similar in habitus and size to the black-chested eagle-buzzard.


The black-chested buzzard-eagle is found in mountainous or hilly terrain with sparse vegetation, shrubland or (in the south of its range) Nothofagus forest, where it spends a lot of time soaring in thermals and vertical drafts while looking for prey. It requires large territories with suitable habitat, the páramos at the north of its range, for example, while providing the latter, fail to provide the former, and thus it has only been recorded in the largest patches of such habitat, such as Páramo de Frontino. Most common between about 5,000 feet (1,500 m) and 15,000 feet (4,600 m) ASL, it rarely ventures into the lowlands.
It is most conspicuous in the mid-morning and afternoon, when individuals will seek out places which provide the best soaring conditions, such as north and west facing slopes and ridges. Apparently, their main interest at these times is aerial play and display; they tend to ignore places where food is more plentiful or easily hunted in favor of simply soaring alone or in pairs in strong air currents.
The food of this carnivore consists mainly of mid-sized mammals; the introduced European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) seems to have become a key prey item. The black-chested buzzard-eagle is helpful to farmers by keeping down the numbers of the rabbits, which can be serious agricultural pests. Among the native fauna degus (Octodon) and hog-nosed skunks (Conepatus) are important prey, but mammals as formidable as a gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) – two to over three times as heavy as the birds and certainly not defenceless – are occasionally hunted and killed by this hawk. Its diet is rounded off with an occasional bird – including carnivorous species like the burrowing owl (Athene cunicularia) and sizeable prey such as Penelope guans or the Chilean tinamou (Nothoprocta perdicaria) –, large squamates, and if need be also arthropods and carrion. While not aggressive under normal circumstances, the black-chested eagle-buzzard will fiercely attack humans if it considers itself or its offspring threatened. It is near the top of the avian food chain in its range, in part since it is the only Andean eagle found outside forest habitats. It may compete for carrion with the much larger Andean condor.
It nests in high trees or on rocky cliffs, or if these are not available on high trees or even cacti. If no appropriate high place is available this species will nest in bushes or even on the ground. In Ecuador, nesting can be observed all year round; elsewhere it might have a more restricted breeding season but information is scant and somewhat contradictory. The nest is a huge mass of sticks about 85 centimetres (33 in) in diameter; the black-chested buzzard-eagle is just as likely to reuse an existing nest as to build a new one, and several abandoned nests are often found in the vicinity of an active one. The male and female engage in courtship flights, and copulate over a prolonged time of several weeks as the pairs bond. Little is known of the actual nesting; the clutch contains usually 2 but sometimes 1 or 3 eggs, which are incubated for about a month. The nestlings presumably are covered in white down like in its relatives.
Owing the wide overall range Geranoaetus melanoleucus is considered a Species of Least Concern by the IUCN. While it is rare and declining in places – e.g. in Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina states in Brazil, or in parts of Argentina – its habitat requirements mean that it will to some degree benefit from deforestation and it has for example colonized regions of the former Mata Atlântica forest in Alagoas. The declines in Argentina have been attributed to poisoning by strychnine baits deployed by sheep farmers trying to eradicate pests.


The crane hawk (Geranospiza caerulescens) is a species of bird of prey in the family Accipitridae. It is monotypic within the genus Geranospiza.


The crane hawk used to be many species that were recently lumped into one. Those species are now designated as subspecies. Color varies clinally, though, and it is now commonly accepted that they comprise one species. There are also two species of harrier-hawks in Africa of the genus Polyboroides that, while they are morphologically and behaviorally similar, are not very closely related. They serve as a good example of convergent evolution.
The crane hawk includes the following subspecies:
G. c. livens - Bangs & Penard, TE, 1921
G. c. nigra - (Du Bus de Gisignies, 1847)
G. c. balzarensis - Sclater, WL, 1918
G. c. caerulescens - (Vieillot, 1817)
G. c. gracilis - (Temminck, 1821)
G. c. flexipes - Peters, JL, 1935


Crane hawks occur in tropical lowlands at the edge of forests and are almost always closely associated with water. It is found in Argentina, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Trinidad, Uruguay, and Venezuela. They are an irruptive and local migrant, probably moving in response to changing water conditions.


Nowhere is the crane hawk particularly common, but it is still widely distributed. However, it is considered threatened in Mexico, endangered in El Salvador, and at low risk in Argentina.


The grey warbler (Gerygone igata), also known by its Māori name riroriro or outside New Zealand as the grey gerygone, is an insectivorous bird in the family Acanthizidae endemic to New Zealand. Its natural habitat is temperate forests. It is sometimes known as the teetotum or rainbird.


One of the smallest birds found in New Zealand, grey warblers are about 11 centimeters long, with a weight of up to 6.5 grams. It has grey-brown plumage (with a slight olive-green tint), with the face, throat and breast being pale-grey. The abdomen is off-white with a slight yellow tinge. The tail is white underneath and dark brown on top with white tips being visible in flight. They also have a distinctive ruby-red eye. Females are typically smaller than the male, but otherwise there is little sexual dimorphism. The young are paler with no hint of yellow and have brown eyes.


The male's song often starts with a series of three squeaks and builds into a distinctive long plaintive wavering trill that rises and falls. They sing throughout the year but most vigorously when nesting, during spring. Grey warblers are often heard more than they are seen.


Grey warblers are common throughout New Zealand's main islands and many off-shore islands, but are absent from open country and alpine areas. At home in native and exotic forests it may be found almost anywhere there is some tree or shrub cover.


Grey warblers mainly feed upon spiders, insects and their larvae. They are very active, and almost never stay still as they move from one perch to another.


Grey warblers are unique among New Zealand birds in building a pear-shaped nest with a side entrance near the top. The male collects nesting material, but the female builds the nest from grass, leaves, rootlets and moss, held together with spider web threads, anywhere from 2 to 25 feet above the ground, lined with feathers and other soft material. It is attached to a twig at the top, but is often also secured at the back or sides. The male is not involved in nest building or incubation, but helps to feed nestlings and fledglings. The 3 to 6 eggs, each laid 2 days apart, are pinkish-white with fine reddish-brown speckles all over. The eggs, weighing 1.5 grams are about 17 millimetres long and 12 millimetres wide. Incubation takes about 19 days and the chicks spend another 15 to 19 days in the nest.
Their breeding season is from August to January and they usually manage two clutches. The shining bronze cuckoo, a brood parasite, often targets the second clutch.


The direction in which a grey warbler would build its nest served as an indicator of forthcoming weather conditions to Māori – in this respect, the bird was known as a manu tohu tau. The tradition states that a grey warbler will build the nest entrance in the opposite direction to the prevailing wind. As such, a eastern-facing entrance would indicate a poorly season brought on by western winds; in contrast, a northern-facing entrance would suggest a pleasant season ahead.
In spring, the song of the grey warbler is said to be a signal for Māori to begin planting their crops. As such, those whose 'ignore' the call of the grey warbler and do not help out with the planting of crops (and later seek to reap the harvest for themselves) are rebuked with the following whakataukī (proverb):
I whea koe i te tangihanga o te riroriro, ka mahi kai māu?
 Where were you when the riroriro was singing, that you didn’t work to get yourself food?


Geum aleppicum, commonly called yellow avens or common avens is a flowering plant native to most of the temperate Northern Hemisphere, from eastern Europe across Asia and North America.
It is a herbaceous perennial plant growing to 1 m tall with pinnate leaves. The flowers are 2 cm diameter, yellow, with five to seven toothed petals.
There are two subspecies:
Geum aleppicum subsp. aleppicum. Europe and Asia.
Geum aleppicum subsp. strictum. North America.


It grows in forests and meadows, on grassy slopes, on river banks, in clearings and along roads.
In Europe, it is found in the Carpathians of Romania and Slovakia, in eastern Poland and the Baltic countries, Belarus, Ukraine, the wider Caucasus region and then its area extends from European Russia east across the southern half of Siberia, south up to Tienshan and to the east reaching the Pacific coast, with disjunct distributions in southern Kamchatka, Sakhalin, and northern Japan. It is widespread in the northern temperate region of China, but it can also be found across the central parts of the country and from there southwest up to Yunnan.
In North America, its range extends from Alaska through western and southern Canada, most of the US states (except in the southeast), and southwards up to Mexico.
It has been introduced in Scandinavia and New Zealand.


Geum rossii is a species of flowering plant in the rose family known by the common names Ross' avens and alpine avens. It is native to North America where its distribution spans northern Canada and the high mountains of the western United States. It grows at high-latitude and high-elevation habitat, including the Arctic and in alpine climates. There are three varieties. One, var. depressum, is endemic to Washington in the United States, where it is limited to the Wenatchee Mountains.
The plants' flowers are similar in appearance to those of species in the Potentilla (or cinquefoil) genus. Geum rossii has less flowers per stem and leaves which are somewhat fernlike.


Geum triflorum, prairie smoke, three-flowered avens, or old man's whiskers, is a spring-blooming perennial herbaceous plant of North America from northern Canada to California and east to New York. The flowers bloom from mid-spring to early summer.


The plant spreads by short underground rhizomes, and the leaves and flowers grow from a caudex. The plant has pinnately divided leaves with 7–17 primary leaflets, resembling fern leaves; there are also a few smaller secondary leaflets between some of the primary leaflets. They are arranged in a rosette at ground level and are semi-evergreen; some basal leaves remain over the winter and often turn reddish purple.
Blooming in spring, the inflorescence is arranged in umbels of 3 to 5 flowers on short reddish purple-tinged stems 15 to 41 cm (6 to 16 in) high. The stems are bare other than a couple of small dissected leaves about halfway up the main stem or on those of individual flowers. At the base of the umbel are leaflike green to reddish purple bracts. While blooming, the flowers nod downwards and remain mostly closed and bud-like, except for a tiny opening at the bottom. The five petals are cream to yellowish, suffused with pink or purple, but are mostly covered by the five red, fused sepals. Between the sepals are five narrow bractlets. Hidden within the flower are a central cluster of pistils and a ring of many stamens around them.
Pollinated flowers turn upwards and open up. The pistils in the middle of the flower develop into heads of seeds with long fuzzy hairs that point upwards. The hairs resemble mauve smoke, hence the name prairie smoke.


In the United States, Geum triflorum occurs in the west, midwest, and the state of New York. In Canada it is reported as growing in every province west of Ontario as well as the Yukon and Northwest Territories.
The species prefers to grow in dry, well-drained soils in full sun in most of its native range. It prefers cool summer climates, but it is intolerant of wet soils during the winter.


The flowers produce both nectar and pollen. They are visited mainly by bumblebees, which are able to force their way into the mostly closed flowers and reach the nectar. They also buzz-pollinate to dislodge pollen from the stamens and gather it to feed their young. Smaller bees such as sweat bees from the genus Lasioglossum feed on pollen grains from the opening of the flower. Bumblebees are the only effective cross-pollinators. Various insects chew holes in the top of the flower, near the stem, to reach the nectar.


Some Native Americans once made a tea from the plant's roots, which have a sassafras-like flavor. Some Plateau Indian tribes used three-flowered avens to treat tuberculosis.


Gilia stellata is a species of flowering plant in the phlox family known by the common name star gilia. It is native to the southwestern United States and northern Mexico, where it is a common resident of desert washes and sandy mountain slopes.


The erect, branching stem reaches a maximum height around 40 centimeters and is coated in stiff, white hairs and stalked glands. Leaves are mostly arranged in a basal rosette at the ground, each leaf composed of toothlike leaflets.
The inflorescence is an array of several small funnel-shaped flowers. Each flower has a corolla of five pointed lobes in shades of light pink or lavender and a yellowish throat.


Gladiolus italicus is a species of gladiolus known by the common names Italian gladiolus, field gladiolus, and common sword-lily.
It is native to much of Eurasia and North Africa, but it is well known on other continents where it is a common weed, particularly of cultivated fields and waste places. This perennial flower grows an erect stem approaching a meter in maximum height with a few long leaves around its base. Toward the top half of the generally unbranching stem is a spike inflorescence on which flowers appear at intervals. Each plant has up to 15 or 16 flowers. The flower is bright pink to magenta and several centimeters long with its stamens and style protruding from the throat. The fruit is a capsule about a centimeter long containing many seeds.


Glaphyria sesquistrialis, the white-roped glaphyria moth, is a moth in the family Crambidae. It was described by Jacob Hübner in 1823. It is found in Honduras and North America, where it has been recorded from Ontario to Florida and from Illinois to Texas.
The wingspan is about 15 mm. The forewings are yellowish with wavy white antemedial and postmedial lines, bordered on both sides by dark gray. The hindwings are whitish or light gray with yellowish shading beyond the postmedial line. Adults are on wing from February to November.
The larvae feed on Quercus virginiana.


The collared pratincole (Glareola pratincola), also known as the common pratincole or red-winged pratincole, is a wader in the pratincole family, Glareolidae. As with other pratincoles, it is native to the Old World.


This pratincole is 24–28 cm (9.4–11.0 in) long with a 60–70 cm (24–28 in) wingspan. It has short legs, long pointed wings, a long forked tail, and a short bill, which is an adaptation to aerial feeding. The back and head are brown, and the wings are brown with darker flight feathers. The belly is white. The underwings are chestnut, but look dark below.
Very good views are needed to distinguish this species from other pratincoles, such as the black-winged pratincole and the oriental pratincole, which may occur in its range. The latter species also has a chestnut underwing, but is shorter-tailed.


The collared pratincole is divided into two subspecies:
G. p. pratincola, (Linnaeus, 1766): southern Europe & North Africa to Pakistan
G. p. fuelleborni, (Neumann, 1910): sub-Saharan Africa


The collared pratincole is a bird of open country, and is often seen near water in the evening, hawking for insects. It is found in the warmer parts of Europe, southwest Asia and Africa. It is migratory, wintering in tropical Africa, and is rare north of the breeding range.


The collared pratincole is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies.


The ferruginous pygmy owl (Glaucidium brasilianum) is a small owl that breeds in south-central Arizona and southern Texas in the United States, south through Mexico and Central America, to South America into Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina.
In Central America and South America, it is the most widely distributed pygmy owl and is probably one of the most numerous owl species in those areas. It is found in a wide range of semi-open wooded habitats in these areas.


This species is a part of the larger family Strigidae of owls, known as typical owls. This family contains most species of owls.
Trinidad, as well as other localities, have endemic subspecies of the Glaucidium brasilianum owl. Recent genetics work has found substantial differences in ferruginous pygmy owls from different regions and members of the northern ridgwayi group are sometimes considered a separate species, the Ridgway's pygmy-owl (Glaucidium ridgwayi).


This species is crepuscular, but often hunts by day. It hunts a variety of birds, lizards, other reptiles, amphibians, mammals, and insects. Specific examples of what these owls feed on include grasshoppers, crickets, scorpions, six-lined racerunners, four-lined skinks, and Texas spotted whiptails. The flight is often undulating in motion, similar to that of many woodpecker species.
It can be readily located by the small birds that mob it while it is perched in a tree (up to 40 birds of 11 species have been recorded mobbing one owl).


The ferruginous pygmy owl is small, typically 15 cm (5.9 in), and stocky with disproportionately large feet and talons. The crown has elongated white/buff streaks, the wing coverts have white spots, and the underparts are heavily streaked white. There are prominent white supercilia above the facial disc. There are dark two spots on the nape, often termed "false eyes" by birders.
Otherwise, its overall color is highly variable, ranging from grey-brown with a black-and-white barred tail to rich rufous with a uniform rufous tail. Sexes are similar with females slightly larger and often more reddish.


The call is a whistled hoo-hoo-hoo-hoo, usually in E flat. It is easily imitated, and is used by birdwatchers to attract small birds intent on mobbing the pygmy owls.


The Glaucidium brasilianum mating season is from late winter to early spring. It is a cavity nesting bird (tree and columnar cactus cavities), laying 1-7 white eggs. Incubation is 28 days, with 27–30 days to fledging.


There are multiple different subspecies of the ferruginous pygmy-owl. The type subspecies, G.b.brasilianum, is found in south Amazonian Brazil to east Paraguay, Uruguay and northeast Argentina. G.b.medianum lives in the tropical lowlands of north Colombia. G.b.phaoenloides can be seen in tropical north Venuezuela, Trinidad, and the Guianas. G.b.margaritae is endemic to Isla Margarita in Venezuela, from which it takes its name. Two subspecies, G.b.duidae and G.b.olivaceum, inhabit the tepuis of south Venezuela (Mt.Duida and Mt. Auyan-Tepui), respectively. G.b stranecki lives in south Uruguay to central Argentina. G.b.ucalayae is found in the east base of the Andes of southeast Colombia to Peru and north Bolivia.


The northernmost subspecies, G. b. cactorum, commonly called the cactus ferruginous pygmy owl, was a listed Endangered species under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. This protected it in south-central Arizona from loss of habitat and buffel grass fires. Buffel grass catches fire very easy, which spreads to cacti, burning the owl's primary habitat.
Its range extends over the border into Sonora, Mexico. Glaucidium brasilianum was delisted in 2006.


The mountain pygmy owl (Glaucidium gnoma) is a small species of owl from the family Strigidae. They reside throughout southern Arizona, New Mexico and Mexico.
There is current taxonomic debate regarding its classification as an independent species or subspecies from that of the northern pygmy owl. Similar plumage colour and different vocal patterns are the primary characteristics fuelling this confusion.

The mountain pygmy owl hunts for small mammals and insects during the day from its high perches in pine-forested mountains, at elevations of 1,500 to 3,500 m. Breeding occurs once the female has chosen the appropriate cavity to form her nest. The female mountain pygmy owl will lay eggs between May and June. Owlets will leave their nests 23-30 days, after hatching. Although the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), has ranked this species as least-concerned, the increase in deforestation could impact the future population.


The taxonomy of the pygmy owl genus (Glaucidium), remains disputed amongst taxonomic authorities. The International Ornithologists' Union, considers the Mountain pygmy owl (Glaucidium gnoma) to be a separate species from the Northern pygmy owl (Glaucidium californicum). Whereas, the American Ornithological Society has amalgamated the Mountain, Guatemalan (Glaucidium cobanense), Cape (Glaucidium hoskinsi) and Northern pygmy owl, as the same species (conspecific) and classifies them all under Glaucidium gnoma and further categorizes them into respective subspecies. This northern pygmy owl complex ranges from North America to Central America. However, individuals inhabiting these regions, demonstrate unique vocal patterns, indicating distinct species and population distribution. Although more research is required, genetic sequencing based on cytochrome b and nuclear markers, suggests that Glaucidium gnoma and Glaucidium californicum are not conspecific.


This species is mainly residential, as they do not migrate. The further northern pygmy species have a limited winter migration, descending from mountain regions to closer lowlands.


Little has been observed regarding the social behaviour and reproduction of the mountain pygmy owl, data available is from the Eurasian pygmy owl, but can be generalized and applied to the Northern pygmy complex. Sexual maturity can commence at 5 months of age, followed by breeding at the age of 1 year. Pygmy owls form monogamous pairs, usually span one breeding season. Though, a pairing could return to the same nesting location for up to four years.  The male displays courtship behaviour by a series of consistent hoots while jumping from branch to branch within a claimed territory. Initially, both sexes demonstrate hesitation and aggression towards each other. Duet singing decreases when the male demonstrates nesting behaviour. Nests are formed in either hollowed tree cavities or woodpecker holes. Once the male locates a possible nest, he will fly into it and inform the female via his call so that she may inspect it. The female will choose the ideal cavity and begin to clean it; copulation will occur soon after.
Mountain pygmy owls lay eggs between May 19 to June 14. Clutches range between 2 to 4 white eggs, which are laid at the base of the nest. The female will commence the approximate 28 day incubation period, once all the eggs have been laid. This would explain why chicks hatch within a short period of each other. It is thought that the mountain pygmy owl demonstrates similar feeding behaviour to that of the Eurasian pygmy owl. Once the eggs have hatched, the male mountain pygmy owl will provide more food to the female. An estimated 14 days after hatching, nestlings have attained approximately 60% of their mature weight. It has been observed in several pygmy owl species that, within a month of hatching, 23-30 days, juveniles are able to fly and will leave their nests. The parental pair will remain in the vicinity of the nest, and provided protection for upwards of 20-30 additional days.


Glaucopsyche alexis, the green-underside blue, is a butterfly of the family Lycaenidae. It is found in the Palearctic.
The butterfly flies from April to July depending on the location, lingering in warm, lush meadows with plenty of its host plant, vetch (Vicia).


L. cyllarus Rott. (= damoetas Schiff.) (82 f). Male above light cyaneous blue with a violet sheen and narrow black border; female darker blue with the black border gradually shading off, so that it occupies nearly the whole outer half of the wings. Beneath silver-grey (male) or ashy grey (female), the forewing with 5 or 6 large rounded black spots, the hindwing with small ocelli and in its whole basal half with metallic  blue-green dusting. In ab. dimus Bgstr. the ocelli of the forewing beneath are reduced to 4; on the other hand, they may also be increased in number, or may be elongate (= subtus-radiata Oberth.). In European Turkey and the neighbouring districts of Anterior Asia the ocelli of the forewing appear to be constantly  or at least commonly enlarged, the blue also being darker; this is ab. tristis Gerh.. Throughout Central and Southern Europe, North Africa and North Asia to the Amur; absent from England and Japan. —
ab. andereggii  Ruhl (82 g) occurs in the Alps (perhaps also elsewhere); it is a large female-form which is above entirely black-brown, the underside being dark ashy grey, with the very large ocelli placed in pale rings.— blachieri  Mill. (82 g) is a very small form from Southern France and the Yalais which has beneath only  4 ocelli on the forewing and very scanty blue-green dusting at the base of the hindwing; above darker and duller blue. — coelestina Mill., nec  Ev. (82 g) is similar to the preceding form; above very dull in colour, underside with blue-green scaling only in the basal half, the ocelli of the forewing reduced in size, those of the hindwing almost obsolete. — lugens Car. (82 g) has altogether lost the ocellli of the hindwing; the male is darker blue above, the female being entirely black-brown almost like the female of semiargus without any blue; the blue-green scaling on the hindwing beneath is entirely absent or nearly. — aeruginosa Stgr.,
from South Russia, Asia Minor (especially the Lebanon) into Central Asia, has the hindwing beneath
entirely dusted with blue-green. — laetifica Pung., from the Ili R., has similar underside, but the blue of the upperside is purer and more brilliant in both sexes; the club of the antenna has a different shape  (being more elongate) and is reddish yellow on the innerside, so that Pungeler regarded laetifica  as being perhaps a distinct species. — Larva green or brownish, with reddish brown dorsal line accompanied by dark oblique parallel stripes which stand close together; head black. In June and the autumn on Cytisus, Genista, Astragalus, Melilotus, etc. Pupa greyish brown. North of the Alps, where occurs only one brood, the larva probably hibernates. The butterflies occur singly but are mostly common, being found on  clearings in timber-woods and on wide roads, where they flutter along usually 1 to 2 m above the  ground, with a slow, straight, flapping flight. They appear in the South in the spring and again from July onwards, in the North only once, at the end of May and in June.


Glaucopsyche lygdamus, the silvery blue, is a small butterfly native to North America. Its upperside is a light blue in males and a dull grayish blue in females. The underside is gray with a single row of round spots of differing sizes depending upon the region.
G. lygdamus is found over much of the western United States and most of Canada extending north excepting most of Nunavut and the high Arctic islands. Wingspan is from 18 to 28 mm. It occurs in a variety of habitats including alpine meadows, shale barrens, dunes, and wooded areas. It feeds on Lupinus plants.


Listed alphabetically:
G. l. afra (W. H. Edwards, 1884) – Afra (silvery) blue
G. l. arizonensis McDunnough, 1934 – Arizona silvery blue
G. l. australis (F. Grinnell, 1917) – southern (silvery) blue
G. l. columbia (Skinner, 1917) – Columbia blue or Skinner's (silvery) blue
G. l. couperi Grote, 1873 – Couper's silvery blue
G. l. deserticola (Austin & J. Emmel, 1998) – Mojave silvery blue
G. l. incognitus Tilden, 1974 – Behr's silvery blue
G. l. jacki Stallings & Turner, 1947 – Jack's (silvery) blue
G. l. lygdamus (Edward Doubleday, 1841) – (Georgian) silvery blue
G. l. mildredae F. Chermock, 1944 – Mildred's silvery blue
G. l. minipunctum (Austin, 1998) – mini-spotted silvery blue
G. l. nittanyensis (F. Chermock, 1944) – Appalachian silvery blue
G. l. oro Scudder, 1876 – oro (silvery) blue
G. l. palosverdesensis (E. Perkins & J. Emmel, 1977) – Palos Verdes blue
G. l. pseudoxerces (Emmel & Emmel, 1998) – false Xerces (silvery) blue
G. l. sabulosa (Emmel, Emmel & Mattoon, 1998) – sand dune silvery blue
†G. l. xerces (Boisduval, 1852) – Xerces blue (extinct)


Glebionis coronaria, formerly called Chrysanthemum coronarium, is a species of flowering plant in the  daisy family. It is native to the Mediterranean region. It is cultivated and naturalized in East Asia and in scattered locations in North America.
Glebionis coronaria is used as a leaf vegetable. English language common names include garland chrysanthemum, chrysanthemum greens, edible chrysanthemum, crowndaisy chrysanthemum, chop suey greens, crown daisy, and Japanese greens.
Glebionis coronaria has been hybridized with related Argyranthemum species to create cultivars of garden marguerites.


A leafy herb, the garland chrysanthemum is an annual plant. It has yellow ray florets grouped in small flower heads and aromatic, bipinnately lobed leaves.
The vegetable grows very well in mild or slightly cold climates, but will go quickly into premature flowering in warm summer conditions. Seeds are sown in early spring and fall.
"The plant is rich in minerals and vitamins with potassium concentrations at 610 mg/100 g and carotene at 3.4 g/100 g in edible portions. In addition, the plant contains various antioxidants (in stem, leaf, and root tissues) that have potential long-term benefits for human health, although toxic (dioxin) properties have also been observed. Extracts from C. coronarium var. spatiosum have been shown to inhibit growth of Lactobacillus casei, a beneficial human intestinal bacterium."


The plant's greens are used in many Asian cuisines. It is widely available in China where it is called 茼蒿(菜) (Cantonese tong ho (choy), Mandarin tónghāo (cài)) and appears in multiple Chinese cuisines as a ingredient for stir fries, stews, casseroles, and hotpots. In Japanese cuisine, it is called "spring chrysanthemum" (Japanese: 春菊, romanized: shungiku), and is used in nabemono, mixed into rice, or drizzled with soy sauce and sesame seeds as a side dish. Korean cuisine uses the greens in soups, stews, and alone as a side dish (banchan). In a hotpot, it is added at the last moment to the pot to avoid overcooking.
In Crete, a variety of the species called mantilida (μαντηλίδα) has its tender shoots eaten raw or steamed by the locals (see Greek cuisine).


The honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos),  also known as the thorny locust or thorny honeylocust, is a deciduous tree in the family Fabaceae, native to central North America where it is mostly found in the moist soil of river valleys. Honey locust is highly adaptable to different environments, has been introduced worldwide, and is an aggressive, invasive species.


The honey locust, Gleditsia triacanthos, can reach a height of 20–30 m (65–100 ft). They exhibit fast growth, but live a medium life span of about 120 years. The leaves are pinnately compound on older trees but bipinnately compound on vigorous young trees. The leaflets are 1.5–2.5 cm (1⁄2–1 in) (smaller on bipinnate leaves) and bright green. They turn yellow in the autumn. Honey locusts leaf out relatively late in spring, but generally slightly earlier than the black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia). The strongly scented, cream-colored flowers appear in late spring, in clusters emerging from the base of the leaf axils. The trees are polygamodioecious: most are strictly dioecious with male and female flowers on separate trees though some have bisexual flowers with a few male or female flowers on the same tree.
The fruit of the honey locust is a flat legume (pod) that matures in early autumn. The pods are generally between 15–20 cm (6–8 in). The seeds are dispersed by grazing herbivores such as cattle and horses, which eat the pod pulp and excrete the seeds in droppings; the animal's digestive system assists in breaking down the hard seed coat, making germination easier. In addition, the seeds are released in the host's manure, providing fertilizer for them. Honey locust seed pods ripen in late spring and germinate rapidly when temperatures are warm enough.
Honey locusts commonly have thorns 3–10 cm (1–4 in) long growing out of the branches, some reaching lengths over 20 cm (8 in); these may be single, or branched into several points, and commonly form dense clusters. The thorns are fairly soft and green when young, harden and turn red as they age, then fade to ash grey and turn brittle when mature. These thorns are thought to have evolved to protect the trees from browsing Pleistocene megafauna, which may also have been involved in seed dispersal, but the size and spacing of them is less useful in defending against smaller extant herbivores such as deer. Thornless forms (Gleditsia triacanthos var. inermis) are occasionally found growing wild and are available as nursery plants. Hybridization of honey locust with water locust (G. aquatica) has been reported.


Its cultivars are popular ornamental plants, especially in the northern plains of North America where few other trees can survive and prosper. It tolerates urban conditions, compacted soil, road salt, alkaline soil, heat, and drought. The popularity is in part due to the fact that it transplants so easily. The fast growth rate and tolerance of poor site conditions make it valued in areas where shade is wanted quickly, such as new parks or housing developments, and in disturbed and reclaimed environments, such as mine tailings. Cultivars with narrow upright growth habit, such as Northern Sentinel, are especially prized as street trees. It is resistant to spongy moths but is defoliated by another pest, the mimosa webworm. Spider mites, cankers, and galls are a problem with some trees. Many cultivated varieties do not have thorns.


The species is a major invasive environmental and economic weed in agricultural regions of Australia. The plant forms thickets and destroys the pasture required for livestock to survive. The thickets choke waterways and prevent both domestic and native animals from drinking and also harbour vermin. The spines cause damage to both people and domestic and native wildlife and puncture vehicle tires. In much of the Midwest of the United States the honey locust is also considered a weed tree and a pest that establishes itself in farm fields. In other regions of the world, ranchers and farmers who employ monocropping deem honey locust a nuisance weed; its fast growth allows it to out-compete grasses and other crops.


The pulp on the inside of the pods is edible (unlike the black locust, which is toxic) and consumed by wildlife and livestock.
Despite its name, the honey locust is not a significant honey plant. The name derives from the sweet taste of the legume pulp, which was used for food and traditional medicine by Native American people, and can also be used to make tea. The long pods, which eventually dry and ripen to brown or maroon, are surrounded in a tough, leathery skin that adheres strongly to the pulp within. The pulp—bright green in unripe pods—is strongly sweet, crisp and succulent in ripe pods. Dark brown tannin-rich beans are found in slots within the pulp.


Honey locusts produce a high quality, durable wood that polishes well, but the tree does not grow in sufficient numbers to support a bulk industry. However, a niche market exists for honey locust furniture. It is also used for posts and rails because of the dense, rot-resistant nature of the wood. In the past, the hard thorns of the younger trees were used as nails and the wood itself was used to fashion treenails for shipbuilding.


The ability of Gleditsia to fix nitrogen is disputed. Many scientific sources state that Gleditsia does not fix nitrogen. Some support this statement with the fact that Gleditsia does not form root nodules with symbiotic bacteria, the assumption being that without nodulation, no nitrogen fixation can occur. In contrast, many popular sources, permaculture publications in particular, claim that Gleditsia does fix nitrogen but by some other mechanism.
There are anatomical, ecological, and taxonomic indications of nitrogen fixation in non-nodulating legumes. Both nodulating and non-nodulating species have been observed to grow well in nitrogen-poor soil with non-nodulating legumes even dominating some sites. The litter and seeds of non-nodulating species contain levels of nitrogen higher than non-legumes and sometimes even higher than nodulating legumes growing on the same site. How this happens is not yet well understood but there have been some observations of nitrogenase activity in non-nodulating leguminous plants, including honey locust. Electron microscopy indicates the presence of clusters around the inner cortex of roots, just outside the xylem, that resemble colonies of rhizobial bacterioids. These may well constitute the evolutionary precursors in legumes for nitrogen fixation through nodulation. It is not known whether the non-nodulating nitrogen fixation, if it exists, benefits neighboring plants as is said to be the case with nodulating legumes.


In research using databases, more than 60 phytochemicals were identified from honey locust, including polyphenols, triterpenes, sterols, and saponins, with in vitro studies assessing for possible biological activity.


Gleichenia dicarpa, commonly known as pouched coral fern or tangle fern, is a small fern of the family Gleicheniaceae found in eastern Australia, New Caledonia and New Zealand. It forms tangled thickets in wet places such as swamps and riverbanks.


Collected by Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander in November 1769 at Mercury Bay in New Zealand, G. dicarpa appeared in the 1810 work Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae, authored by prolific botanist Robert Brown. Its genus name honours the German botanist W.F. von Gleichen, and its species name is Ancient Greek for "two fruit". Common names in New Zealand include tangle fern, Spider fern, and swamp umbrella fern. Australian common names include pouched coral fern, and wiry coral fern.
The taxonomy of G. dicarpa is more complicated than previously thought; a genetic study of the DNA of Gleicheniaceae from New Zealand and Tasmania indicate that a smaller shorter-branched "upland" form from New Zealand is in fact more closely related to the Tasmanian G. alpina than to other New Zealand G. dicarpa. Furthermore, G. microphylla is also nested within various populations of  G. dicarpa.


G. dicarpa consists of numerous fronds arising more or less vertically from a thin many branched rhizome.  Each frond can reach 2 m (7 ft) in length with pinnae up to 4 cm (1.6 in) long. The smallest end-branches, known as pinnules, are a mere 1 to 1.5 mm long and recurved margins that give them a cup- or pouch shape. In fertile fronds, two spores lie within the pouch. It is these pouches which give the fern its common name. The spores are yellowish and darken to black when ripe. Fronds growing in sunnier areas often have a bleached yellow coloration.


G. dicarpa is found throughout eastern Australia, from Queensland through New South Wales and Victoria and in Tasmania. It is widespread in Tasmania, where it is found up to altitudes of 900 m (3000 ft). It is widely distributed in New Zealand, where it is found on North, South and Stewart Islands, as well as the Chatham Islands. It is also found in New Caledonia.
A common plant, often seen growing under waterfalls, in peatlands, under cliffs and in tall open forest. It can grow in nutrient poor conditions, preferring high humidity and good levels of sunshine and moisture. Its tangled roots collect detritus and prevent erosion. It can also be a pioneer species of disturbed ground.


Although not commercially available, G. dicarpa can be readily propagated from spores, and grows as long as it is not allowed to dry out and is not otherwise disturbed. It prefers acidic soil and sunny aspect.


Gliricidia sepium, often simply referred to as its genus name Gliricidia, is a medium size leguminous tree belonging to the family Fabaceae.  Common names include quickstick, mata ratón; cacao de nance, cachanance; balo in Panama; piñon Cubano in the Dominican Republic; madreado in Honduras; kakawate in the Philippines; madre xacao, madre cacao, or madre de cacao in the Philippines and Guatemala; madero negro in Nicaragua; undirmari in Marathi and wetahiriya in Sinhala).  It is an important multi-purpose legume tree, with a native range from Mexico to Colombia, but now widely introduced to other tropical zones.


Gliricidia sepium is a medium-sized tree that grows 10–12 m (33–39 ft) high. The bark is smooth, and its color can range from a whitish gray to deep red-brown.
The flowers are located on the end of branches that have no leaves. These flowers have a bright pink to lilac color that is tinged with white. A pale yellow spot is usually at the flower's base.
The tree's fruit is a pod about 10–15 cm (4–6 in) long. It is green when unripe and becomes yellow-brown when it reaches maturity. The pod produces four to ten round brown seeds.
G. sepium is native to tropical dry forests in Mexico and Central America. In addition to its native range it is cultivated in many tropical and subtropical regions, including the Caribbean, northern parts of South America, central Africa, parts of India,parts of Sri Lanka, parts of Myanmar and Southeast Asia.
The tree grows well in acidic soils with a pH of 4.5-6.2. The tree is found on volcanic soils in its native range in Central America and Mexico. However, it can also grow on sandy, clay, and limestone soils.


G. sepium was spread from its native range throughout the tropics to shade plantation crops such as coffee. Today it is used for many other purposes including live fencing, fodder, firewood, green manure, intercropping, and  rat poison. Its use expanded following the widespread defoliation of Leucaena by psyllid in the 1980s.  In the charsutri method of paddy cultivation, leaves of glyricidia are incorporated in soil during ploughing.


G. sepium is used as cut and carry forage for cattle, sheep, and goats. Its high protein content allows it to complement low-quality tropical forages. G. sepium can tolerate repeated cutting, every 2 to 4 months depending on the climate. Cutting G. sepium causes it to retain its leaves during the dry season when many forage crops have lost their leaves. In some cases it is the only source of feed during the dry season.


G. sepium trees are used for intercropping in part because they fix nitrogen in the soil and tolerate low soil fertility, so when they are interplanted with crops they can boost crop yields significantly, without the need of chemical fertilizers.
G. Sepium tolerates being cut back to crop height, and can even be coppiced, year after year. When the trees are cut back, they enter a temporary dormant state during which their root systems do not compete for nutrients needed by the crops, so the crops can establish themselves.
These properties also enable G. Sepium to be used as green manure.


G. sepium is a fast-growing ruderal species that takes advantage of slash and burn practices in its native range. Because it is easily propagated and grows quickly, it is also planted to prevent topsoil erosion in the initial stages of reforesting denuded areas, and as an intermediate step to be taken before introducing species that take longer to grow.


The common name madre de cacao (literally "mother of cacao" in Spanish) used in Central America and the Philippines is in reference to its traditional use as shade trees for cocoa tree plantations.


G. sepium is widely used in the form of poles for live fencing in Cuba and India. This is one of the best plants used for traditional live fencing to protect agriculture and fruit bearing plantations from animals such as goats, cow, and buffalo. As a Caribbean native, G. sepium has traditionally been used for live fencing in Cuba.
As in India, during the recent past one could see many living fences around mango and cashew orchards and agricultural properties in Goa, Maharashtra and Karnataka, erected with G. sepium and tied with bamboo rafters.
G. sepium is also used for its insect repellent properties. Farmers in Latin America often wash their livestock with a paste made of crushed G. sepium leaves to ward off torsalos (botflies). In the Philippines, the extract obtained from its leaves is made into anti-mange dog shampoo.


G. sepium seems to be toxic to non-ruminants. The generic name Gliricidia means "mouse killer" in reference to the traditional use of its toxic seeds and bark as rodenticides.
Some palatability challenges have been reported; animals seem to refuse the leaves on the basis of smell, but this depends on management and geography.
Another limitation is frost intolerance and the lack of adaptation to a cool season: it is a tropical plant.
In terms of cultivation, it requires the presence of pollinators, and it needs a dry season to germinate.
Further, it has invasive potential: its swift propagation has caused it to be considered a weed in Jamaica.
Until now G. sepium has remained free of serious diseases; only a number of insect problems are reported in exotic environments, but there are issues with defoliation under humid conditions.


In Indonesian Gliricidia sepium is known as gamal, which is an acronym for Ganjang Malaysia (Down with Malaysia.)


Gloriosa superba is a species of flowering plant in the family Colchicaceae. Common names include flame lily, climbing lily, creeping lily, glory lily, gloriosa lily, tiger claw, agnishikha and fire lily.


This herbaceous perennial grows from a fleshy rhizome. It is scandent, climbing using modified leaf-tip tendrils, the stem reaching 4 m (13 ft) long. The leaves are mainly alternately arranged, but they may be opposite, as well. They are somewhat lance-shaped and tipped with tendrils, and they are up 13 to 20 cm (5.1 to 7.9 in) long. The showy flower has six tepals each up to 5 to 7.6 cm (2.0 to 3.0 in) long. They are generally bright red to orange at maturity, sometimes with yellowish bases. The margins may be quite wavy. The six stamens also are long, up to 4 cm (1.6 in), and each bears a large anther at the tip that drops large amounts of yellow pollen.
The style may be more than 6 cm (2.4 in) long. One flower may weigh over 2.5 g (0.09 oz). The fruit is a fleshy capsule up to 6 to 12 cm (2.4 to 4.7 in) long containing red seeds. Cultivars of this popular garden plant may vary from these wild-type characteristics; the cultivar 'Lutea' has all-yellow tepals, 'Citrina' is yellow with red markings, and 'Nana' is a dwarf. Whitish forms are also known.


This plant is poisonous, toxic enough to cause human and animal fatalities if ingested. It has been used to commit murder, to achieve suicide, and to kill animals. Every part of the plant is poisonous, especially the tuberous rhizomes. As with other members of the Colchicaceae, this plant contains high levels of colchicine, a toxic alkaloid. It also contains the alkaloid gloriocine. Within a few hours of the ingestion of a toxic amount of plant material, a victim may experience nausea, vomiting, numbness, and tingling around the mouth, burning in the throat, abdominal pain, and bloody diarrhea, which leads to dehydration. As the toxic syndrome progresses, rhabdomyolysis, ileus, respiratory depression, hypotension, coagulopathy, haematuria, altered mental status, seizures, coma, and ascending polyneuropathy may occur. Longer-term effects include peeling of the skin and prolonged vaginal bleeding in women. Colchicine is known to cause alopecia. One case report described a patient who accidentally ate the tubers and then experienced hair loss over her entire body, including complete baldness. Poisonings can occur when the tubers are mistaken for sweet potatoes or yams and eaten. The plant can be dangerous for cats, dogs, horses, and livestock, as well.


The alkaloid-rich plant has long been used as a traditional medicine in many cultures. It has been used in the treatment of gout, infertility, open wounds, snakebite, ulcers, arthritis, cholera, colic, kidney problems, typhus, itching, leprosy, bruises, sprains, hemorrhoids, cancer, impotence, nocturnal emission, smallpox, sexually transmitted diseases, and many types of internal parasites. It is an anthelmintic. It has been used as a laxative and an alexiteric. The sap is used to treat acne and head lice. In a pregnant woman, it may cause abortion. In parts of India, extracts of the rhizome are applied topically during childbirth to reduce labor pain.
Other uses for this plant include arrow poison in Nigeria and snake repellent in India. Some cultures consider it to be magical. The flowers are part of religious rituals.
This species is the national flower of Zimbabwe. In 1947, Queen Elizabeth II received a diamond brooch in the shape of this flower for her twenty-first birthday while traveling in Rhodesia, now called Zimbabwe. It is also the national flower of Tamil Eelam, and as such was displayed during Maaveerar Day and the state flower of Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is called senganthal (செங்காந்தள்), kanvali kizhangu (கண்வலிக்கிழங்கு) and karthigaipoo (கார்த்திகைப்பூ) in Tamil.


The plant can be propagated sexually by seed or vegetatively by dividing the rhizome. Problems during cultivation include inadequate pollination, fungal diseases such as leaf blight and tuber rot, and crop pests such as the moths Polytela gloriosa and Chrysodeixis chalcites. It is also a crop that is slow to propagate; each split tuber produces only one extra plant in a year's time. In vitro experiments with plant tissue culture have been performed, and some increased the yield.
Both the fruit and the rhizome are harvested. The fruits are dried and split, and the seeds are removed and dried further. The seeds and rhizomes are sold whole, as powder, or as oil extracts.


In general, this plant is common in the wild. It is in great demand for medicinal use, so it is cultivated on farms in India, but most plant material sold into the pharmaceutical trade comes from wild populations. This is one reason for its decline in parts of its native range. In Sri Lanka it has become rare, and in Orissa it is thought to be nearing extinction. On the other hand, it has been introduced outside its native range and has become a weed which may be invasive. In Australia, for example, it now can be found growing in coastal areas of Queensland and New South Wales. It also is cited as an invasive species in the Cook Islands, French Polynesia, Kiribati, and Singapore.


Caladenia major, commonly known as the waxlip orchid, parson-in-the-pulpit, or purple cockatoo is a plant in the orchid family Orchidaceae, and is endemic to Australia. It is a ground orchid with a single hairy leaf and one or two purple to mauve flowers. It has been known as Glossodia major since its description by the prolific Scottish botanist Robert Brown in 1810, but recent discoveries suggest its inclusion in the genus Caladenia.


Caladenia major is a terrestrial, perennial, deciduous, herbaceous plant with an underground tuber. It has a single dark green, hairy, oblong to lance-shaped leaf, 30–60 mm (1–2 in) long and 15–20 mm (0.6–0.8 in) wide. One or two faintly fragrant flowers, 30–45 mm (1–2 in) long and wide are borne on a spike 80–350 mm (3–10 in) tall. The sepals and petals are purple to mauve except for their bases which are white with purple spots. Rarely, the flowers are all white. The dorsal sepal is 18–25 mm (0.7–1 in) long and 6–8 mm (0.2–0.3 in) wide. The lateral sepals are 18–25 mm (0.7–1 in) long and 7–10 mm (0.3–0.4 in) wide and spread apart from each other. The petals are 16–20 mm (0.6–0.8 in) long and 5–7 mm (0.2–0.3 in) wide and spread widely. The labellum is 7–10 mm (0.3–0.4 in) long, 5–7 mm (0.2–0.3 in) wide, white with a purple tip and with a furrow along its mid-line. At the base of the labellum there is a purple, cylinder-shaped appendage with two yellow, fleshy lobes on top. Flowering occurs from August to November.


The waxlip orchid was first formally described in 1810 by Robert Brown who gave it the name Glossodia major and published the description in Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae. In 2015, as a result of studies of molecular phylogenetics, Mark Clements changed the name to Caladenia major. The specific epithet (major) is a Latin word meaning "greater".
Glossodia major is regarded as a synonym of the name Caladenia major which is accepted by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.


The musk lorikeet (Glossopsitta concinna) is a lorikeet, now the only species in the genus Glossopsitta. It inhabits south-central/eastern Australia. The little lorikeet and the purple-crowned lorikeet were previously included in the genus. The musk lorikeet was first described by ornithologist George Shaw in 1790 as Psittacus concinnus, from a collection in the vicinity of Port Jackson in what is now Sydney. John Latham described it as Psittacus australis. Its specific epithet is the Latin concinna "elegant". Other common names include red-eared lorikeet, and green keet, and formerly a local Sydney indigenous term coolich. The names green leek and king parrot have been incorrectly applied to this species in the past.


The musk lorikeet is 22 centimetres (8.7 in) long. It is mainly green and it is identified by its red forehead, blue crown and a distinctive yellow band on its wing. Both upper and lower mandibles of the beak are red at the tip and darker near its base.


Musk lorikeets are found in eastern New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania.
They are an uncommon nomad in woodlands and drier forests in south-east mainland, mainly west of Great Dividing Range, and in Tasmania.
Musk lorikeets have been sighted and are recent common visitors to fruit trees in the Punchbowl Area, near Launceston, Northern Tasmania. Favourite foods seem to include apricots, apples, bottlebrush flowers & nectar, as well as seeds and nectar from Grevillea spp.


Musk lorikeets are one of the few animals with the plasticity to survive and thrive in rapid urbanization. Over the past 30 years, flocks of musk lorikeets have been adopting Australia's cities, such as Melbourne and Sydney.
The partial reason for musk lorikeets' move to, and success in, urban areas is the planting of various nectar-producing plants throughout the city. They have evolved to consume nectar as a part of their major food source and can be found foraging in the blooming canopies of eucalyptus forests.
Unlike their natural habitat, the city plants are regularly maintained and so they have become a more reliable food source. Because the nectar plants tend to be most dense in the outer urban areas, most of the population prefers the outer urban areas, which allows for more feeding and roosting opportunities, rather than the inner ones. Although, there have been sightings of these lorikeets in the inner city regions but in reduced numbers; most likely from reduced vegetation.
The only Australian nectarivore to not have a preference between the inner city and outer urban zones is the rainbow lorikeet. Both the rainbow lorikeet and the musk lorikeet are nectarivores, which means that their niches overlap and that they must compete against one another for the limited amount of resources available. The growth and resources of the rainbow lorikeet population may limit the growth of the musk lorikeet population, and coupled with the growing urbanization, the musk lorikeet may have more competitive pressures for resources.


The musk lorikeet breeds mainly from August to January. The nest is usually built in a hollow limb high in a tree. Two white 24 mm × 20 mm (0.94 in × 0.79 in) eggs are laid and incubated for 22 days by the female. The young are fledged after 5 to 6 weeks.


Glyceria canadensis is a species of grass in the genus Glyceria which is known by the common name rattlesnake mannagrass. It is native to North America, from British Columbia to Newfoundland and south to North Carolina. It is commonly found in wet areas.


G. canadensis is an obligate wetland species, meaning it will not grow in areas which are not wetlands. These habitats include moist woods, marshes, swamps, wet woods, and shores along streams and lakes.


Glyceria canadensis is a species of perennial bunchgrass which can grow up to 1m tall. The leaves are between 3-8mm wide, as with other species in the genus Glyceria the leaf sheaths are fused for the majority of their length.
Flowers are produced in a panicle typically between June and September depending on location. The panicle is typically open, containing few spikelets and each spikelet tends to droop giving the overall inflorescence a curved shape. Each spikelet is 3-5mm long and contains 5-10 individual florets. The lemmas are 2.9-4mm long.
G. canadensis hybridizes with Glyceria grandis to form the hybrid Glyceria canadenis × grandis. This hybrid is very similar to G. canadensis but with spikelets containing between 3-6 florets as opposed to 5-10 found in G. canadensis. The hybrid occurs in the same habitat as G. canadensis. This hybrid has been recognized by some authors as Glyceria laxa.


Glyceria maxima (syn. G. aquatica (L.) Wahlenb.; G. spectabilis Mert. & W.D.J. Koch; Molinia maxima Hartm.; Poa aquatica L.), commonly known as great manna grass, reed mannagrass, reed sweet-grass, and greater sweet-grass is a species of rhizomatous perennial grasses in the mannagrass genus native to Europe and Western Siberia and growing in wet areas such as riverbanks and ponds. It is highly competitive and invasive and is often considered to be a noxious weed outside its native range.


Glycyrrhiza lepidota (American licorice) is a species of Glycyrrhiza (a genus in the pea/bean family, Fabaceae) native to most of North America, from central Canada south through the United States to California, Texas and Virginia, but absent from the southeastern states. It is also sometimes known in the United States as "wild licorice", to distinguish it from the related European licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) which is occasionally cultivated.
The plant grows in moist soils; although it will grow in heavy soil it prefers sandy soil. It grows to 40–100 cm (16–39 in) tall, and has long tough brown roots which are said to be sweet and were used as food and for medicinal purposes by Native Americans. After eating a roasted root in 1806, Meriwether Lewis described an "agreeable flavor not unlike the sweet pittaitoe (sweet potato)."
American licorice is not sweet from sugar but from glycyrrhizin. Glycyrrhizin may increase blood pressure (aka hypertension) by interfering with cortisol conversion. The Zuni people chew the root to keep the mouth sweet and moist.
American licorice is grazed by cattle, but not preferred and will increase under grazing as competing plants are grazed off. The new growth can be toxic. It has light green to white flowers in the spring which ripen in the fall to clusters of burs which contain pods of small bean-like seeds.
It can be used as a pioneer species to revegetate bare or disturbed ground and is often the first species to invade a receding alkali flat.
There is a market for American licorice root both for medicinal uses and flavoring; also the sweetening of tobacco products.


Gnaphalium uliginosum, the marsh cudweed, is an annual plant found on damp, disturbed ground and tracks. It is very widespread across much of Europe, Asia, and North America. It is very common on damp, arable grasslands, paths, and on acid soils.


It is a very woolly annual, growing 4–20 cm tall.
The leaves are wooly on both sides. They are 1 to 5 cm long, narrow oblong shaped.
The flower heads are 3 to 4 mm long. They are arranged in clusters of 3 to 10, surrounded by long leaves. The flower head bracts are wooly, and pale below, with dark chaffy hairless tips. The florets are brownish yellow. The stigmas are pale.
It flowers from July until September.


Gnophaela vermiculata, sometimes known as the police-car moth or green lattice, is a moth of the family Erebidae. The species was first described by Augustus Radcliffe Grote in 1864. It is found in the Rocky Mountain region of the United States and in western parts of North America, from British Columbia to California, east to New Mexico and north to Manitoba.
The wingspan is about 54 millimetres (2.1 in). Adults are on wing in late summer and fly during the day. There is one generation per year. The larva is born with yellower patches but eventually grows into the adult coloring. As larvae, they feed on Mertensia, Lithospermum and Hackelia species. Adults feed on nectar of various herbaceous flowers, including Cirsium and Solidago.
It can be confused with Gnophaela latipennis because of the similarity in their pattern. The latter species has smaller pale areas on its wings and more rounded forewing margins.


Gomphocarpus fruticosus is a species of plant native to South Africa. It is also common in New Zealand where it is the main host of the monarch butterfly. The plant's tissues contain sufficient cardenolides that consumption of significant quantities of the plant's leaves, stems, or fruit may lead to death in livestock and humans.
The plant, also referred to as Narrow leaf cotton bush, has officially been declared a pest in Western Australia.
The species is closely related to Gomphocarpus physocarpus.


Gomphocarpus physocarpus, commonly known as hairy balls, balloonplant, balloon cotton-bush, bishop's balls, nailhead, or swan plant, is a species of dogbane. The plant is native to southeast Africa, but it has been widely naturalized.  It is often used as an ornamental plant.


Gomphocarpus physocarpus is an undershrub perennial herb, that can grow to over six feet. The plant blooms in warm months. It grows on roadside banks, at elevations of 2800 to 5000 feet above sea level. The plant prefers moderate moisture, as well as sandy and well-drained soil and full sun.
Gomphocarpus physocarpus is traditionally used to produce ointments for the treatment of warts and the seeds are used in rituals. The leaves and stems produce milky latex that is toxic, yet it has never been described in detail particularly with regards to the anatomy of lactiferous cells.
The flowers are small, with white hoods and about 1 cm across.  The follicle is a pale green, and in shape an inflated spheroid.  It is covered with rough hairs.  It reaches three inches in diameter.  The leaves are light green, linear to lanceolate and 3 to 4 inches long, 1.2 cm broad.  The brown seeds have silky tufts.
This plant will readily hybridize with Gomphocarpus fruticosus creating intermediate forms.


Gomphocarpus physocarpus is a food of the caterpillars of Danaus butterflies, including the monarch butterfly.


Gomphrena celosioides Mart. ('gomphos'=club, 'celosioides'=resembling Celosia) is a herbaceous perennial belonging to the family Amaranthaceae and a cosmopolitan pioneer plant of disturbed areas, and one of 51 species in the genus.
This much-branched, prostrate plant is an annual or short-lived perennial, with a deep taproot and is often mat-forming. The opposite, elliptical leaves have short, hairy petioles, are pubescent and some 3–4 cm long. The flowers are in dense terminal spikes and grow on a woolly receptacle; perianth segments are papery, 4–6 mm long, shining, and whitish to pink in colour. It has 2 stigmas and 5 stamens inserted opposite the sepals and joined into a 5-toothed staminal tube. The ovary is superior, developing into a single-seeded fruit. The seed is some 1.5 mm in length, lentil-shaped, brown and glossy, and is routinely distributed by ants.
Originally from the Americas where it is native to Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador, Paraguay and Uruguay, it has become naturalised in Asia in Bhutan, China, Indonesia, Japan, New Caledonia, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Papua New Guinea, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam, New Zealand, Christmas Island and Australia, and Hawaii in the Pacific region, while in the Africa region it is found in Botswana, Cameroon, Egypt, Eritrea, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Lesotho, Madeira Islands, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Réunion, Rwanda, Socotra, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zaire, Zambia and Zimbabwe.


Analysis of this species has shown the presence of various compounds, including aurantiamide, and aurantiamide acetate, which is a selective cathepsin inhibitor, also produced by Aspergillus penicilloides. These compounds have shown their effectiveness against microorganisms, even in very small doses.
Plants from the Amaranthaceae are used in folk medicine for their nutritional qualities and for the treatment of various disorders such as gastrointestinal and respiratory problems, skin infections, as well as some infectious diseases, and as an abortifacient. Analysis has also revealed hydrocarbons, alcohols, steroids, terpenoids, ecdysteroids, flavonoids, saponins, amino acids, butacyanins, reducing sugar and ketoses.
Eating the plant affects the nervous system of horses, leading to lack of co-ordination, dragging of hooves and falling. Recovery is swift following exclusion of the plant from the diet.


Gomphus vulgatissimus, the common clubtail,  is a medium-sized (wingspan 6 –7 cm.) species of dragonfly in the family Gomphidae. It is found in most of Europe, and is present now in the south of France. Its natural habitats are clean, slow moving streaming rivers and creeks with sandy soil. It can be seen from mid-April in the south to August. Once they hatched out of water, they live shortly. As the common name suggests, this medium-sized species has a distinctive club-shaped abdomen. The males are black with extensive yellow markings on the thorax and abdomen which turn green as the insect ages. The females are black with extensive yellow markings. In the British Isles the adult flight period extends from mid May to early July.


Gonocerus acuteangulatus is a herbivorous species of true bug in the family Coreidae.  It is commonly known as the box bug in the UK as it once only occurred in Box Hill in Surrey where it fed on box trees.


This species was formally described by the German zoologist Johann Goeze in 1778, under the name Cimex acuteangulatus.


This species commonly occurs throughout the Mediterranean region and extends to Central Asia and parts of northwestern Europe.


These heat-loving bugs inhabit mainly dry and warm, south-exposed environments, bushes and forest edges with shrubs that bear berries and small trees of various families, especially Buxaceae and Rhamnaceae, as well as Rosa canina and Crataegus species (Rosaceae) or Lonicera xylosteum (Caprifoliaceae).


Gonocerus acuteangulatus is a medium-sized insect, between 11 and 14 mm long as an adult. These bugs are speckled reddish-brown  with a slightly expanded abdomen. The nymphs have a green abdomen.  This species is rather similar to Coreus marginatus, but it shows a  narrower abdomen and has sharper lateral margins of the pronotum (hence the Latin species name acuteangulatus).


Adults can be found all year. They mainly feed on the juice of the ripe fruits of the host plants. This species is a harmful pest of the hazel and pistachio. It can also be a vector of the fungus Nematospora coryli, an agent of stigmatomycosis.


Gonolobus suberosus  is a species of plant in the family Apocynaceae. It is native to eastern North America, where it is primarily found in the southeastern United States. Its natural habitat is mesic to wet forests and thickets.
Two varieties have been described. These are:
Gonolobus suberosus var. granulatus - West of the Appalachian Mountains
Gonolobus suberosus var. suberosus - Primarily of the Appalachian Mountains and eastward


Goodenia ovata, commonly called the hop goodenia, is a species of flowering plant and is endemic to south-eastern Australia. It is a shrub with sticky, often varnished foliage, toothed egg-shaped to elliptic leaves and racemes or thyrses of yellow flowers.


Goodenia ovata is a erect, ascending to prostrate shrub that typically grows to a height of 2 m (6 ft 7 in) and has sticky, often varnished foliage. The leaves are egg-shaped to elliptic, 30–80 mm (1.2–3.1 in) long and 10–40 mm (0.39–1.57 in) wide with toothed edges, on a petiole up to 30 mm (1.2 in) long. The flowers are arranged in racemes or thyrses about 350 mm (14 in) long on a peduncle 10–40 mm (0.39–1.57 in) long, with leaf-like bracts and linear bracteoles 2–6 mm (0.079–0.236 in) long. Each flower is borne on a pedicel up to 8 mm (0.31 in) long, the sepals linear to lance-shaped and 3–11 mm (0.12–0.43 in) long. The petals are yellow, 10–19 mm (0.39–0.75 in) long, the lower lobes 5–7 mm (0.20–0.28 in) long with wings up to 2.5 mm (0.098 in) wide. Flowering occurs throughout the year with a peak from October to March and the fruit is a cylindrical capsule 8–12 mm (0.31–0.47 in) long.


Goodenia ovata was first formally described in 1794 by James Edward Smith in Transactions of the Linnean Society of London from specimens "presented to the Society by Mr. Hoy" in December 1792. The species' name ovata refers to the egg-shaped or oval leaves.


Hop goodenia grows in forest, woodland and scrub in higher rainfall areas, and especially in disturbed areas. It is found near the coast as well as in drier inland areas. It occurs in south-eastern South Australia, most of Victoria apart from the northern mallee and alpine areas and most of New South Wales. It is also widespread in Tasmania and south-eastern Queensland. It grows on medium-nutrient clay soils derived from shale, as well as siltstone and sandstone, in areas of good drainage in a partly-shaded location in moist eucalypt forests alongside Themeda australis and under such trees as turpentine (Syncarpia glomulifera)  or blackbutt (Eucalyptus pilularis), or in open forest under swamp oak (Casuarina glauca), forest red gum (Eucalyptus tereticornis), thin-leaved stringybark (E. eugenioides), or woollybutt (E. longifolia).


The flowers of G. ovata are pollinated by insects, including native bees, honeybees, and hoverflies. The plant is killed by bushfire and regenerates from seed afterwards.


In cultivation, the species prefers a situation in part shade and with some moisture. It copes with a range of soil types and tolerates moderate frost. Fast-growing, it can be used as a "filler" plant in the garden. It is readily propagated by cuttings.


Goodyera oblongifolia is a species of orchid known by the common names western rattlesnake plantain and giant rattlesnake plantain. It is native to much of North America, particularly in the mountains of the western United States and Canada, from Alaska to northern Mexico, as well as in the Great Lakes region, Maine, Quebec and the Canadian Maritime Provinces.
Goodyera oblongifolia is most commonly found in mountain forests, often in the understory of conifers. This orchid forms a patch of broad lance-shaped to oval-shaped leaves at the ground, each 4 to 9 centimeters long. The leaf is dark green and in this species the midrib is streaked with white. The netlike veining on the leaf is also white, but not as thick as the midrib stripes. The plant produces an erect inflorescence up to about 30 centimeters tall. The top of the inflorescence has many white orchid flowers which may all face the same direction on the stalk, or be spirally arranged about it.
The common name stems from the leaves, which have marks resembling snakeskin; the plant is also said to have been used to treat snakebites.


Goodyera pubescens, the downy rattlesnake plantain, (also known as Peramium pubescens ) is one of the most common orchids native to eastern North America. It is found from Florida to Nova Scotia, west to eastern Oklahoma, Minnesota and Ontario.
Goodyera pubescens is an evergreen terrestrial herb with variegated leaves. The variegation is in the form of a densely reticulated network of veins that are a much lighter green than the rest of the leaf tissue. It is a creeping plant that divides on the ground surface and sends out short stolons. It may be terrestrial or, occasionally, epipetric, growing on rock shelves. It prefers mildly to moderately acidic soils, such as in oak-heath forests.


Goodyera pubescens is a plant in the Orchidaceae (orchid) family that is commonly found in North America. The genus Goodyera are terrestrial plants with a fleshy rhizome with basal evergreen leaves in a rosette pattern - frequently having white or pale green markings. Inflorescences are in the form of a spike of small flowers, usually white with green or brown markings and have fragrant odor. Most of the plants, excluding and petals, are covered in small hairs. The primary difference between Goodyera and Spiranthes (A similar genus in the family Orchidaceae) is that Goodyera have elliptic leaves with white or pale green markings.
Goodyera pubescens flowers in mid July-early September with a small spike inflorescence of between 10 and 57 cylindric flowers. The leaves have the white-green marbling in the form of veins throughout, broadly elliptic to broadly ovate (2.1-6.2 x 1.3–3 cm), with either an acute or obtuse apex. The peduncle (stem that connects the stalk to a floret) is 11–35 cm long. Flowers: Lateral sepals 3.1 - 5.3 mm long with distinct petals of 3.6 - 5.7mm. The petals lip is scrotiform (pouch shaped) 2.5 - 4.2 x 2.2 - 3.5mm in size with the apex reflexed (bent outwards) with a slightly tuberculate (bumpy/rough) outer surface. The inner surface is smoother but has thicker veins throughout. The anthers are inflexed (bent inwards) within a cup-shaped clinandrium (an orchid structure beneath the anther). The white flowers are usually atop a leafless stalk.
There are similar species within the genus Goodyera that G. pubescens can be confused with. The Dwarf Rattlesnake plantain G. repens has smaller flowers that only have inflorescence on one side of the stalk. Both G. tesselata and G. oblongifolia are only found in Canada. Goodyera tesselata can be differentiated by its dull green leaves with much paler veins, G. oblongifolia leaves only have one primary vein compared to the more dense network of veins of G. pubescens. All of the rattlesnake plantains (Goodyera) are described as such because their venation resembles snakeskin.


Compared to other orchid genera, Goodyera is fairly hardy - surviving more readily in colder conditions, being able to utilize a wider variety of nutrients, and thriving in more types of soil under more broad lighting conditions. Goodyera pubescens has a germination rate of over 90% even in very cold climates, which is why it is found in very cold climates such as the northern US and Canada. This species prefers loamy soils or humus, but it will also grow into decaying wood of Liriodendron tulipifera or Quercus alba with a preference towards woody substrates with a high amount of fungal activity. However, the rhizomes G. pubescens can not survive particularly harsh winters in the northern edge of its distribution.
Goodyera pubescens grows via a rhizome in a colonial pattern, flowering only once a year at maturity of 4–8 years of age. After flowering the root will have 1-3 offshoots which then generates new rosettes, creating its offspring after the parent plant dies. Most G. pubescens individuals do not survive long enough to reach the age of maturity. The mature rosettes flower after being triggered by a dry period in the spring (usually in May) when there is higher than average temperatures. These specific circumstances may not occur in a season and can take several years to occur, explaining the long maturity time. White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) have a preference towards eating the leaves, rosettes, and inflorescences. As deer populations have increased over the last several decades, the number of rosettes per plant has increased to counter the number that get consumed by deer.


Goodyera pubescens is largely just seen as a plant kept for visual aesthetic reasons in terrariums or in wildflower plantings due to its interesting leaf structure and resilience. It was once used historically as a medicinal plant by Native Americans for curing numerous ailments. The roots were made into a tea for treating lung inflammation/breathing pain and for snakebites. The leaves were used to improve appetite, cold treatment, kidney problems, joint pain reducer, or even for toothaches. The wilted leaves were used to cool burns, to deal with skin ulcers, or as a pain reliever. These are historical or cultural uses and are no longer currently recommended.


This is one of the more common species of orchids found throughout the U.S., and for the most part is not considered threatened or at risk. The only places it is of concern are in Florida and New York. In Florida this species is considered endangered. In New York it is considered exploitably vulnerable.


The genus Goodyera is also colloquially called the rattlesnake plantain. This is because of the snake-like venation pattern that this genus has on the leaves. Goodyera pubescens was first defined in 1813 in the Hortus Kewensis 2nd edition volume 5. Goodyera pubescens is the accepted name of this species, and the only legitimate name.


This orchid is of a desirable aesthetic to many gardeners, but keeping it alive in a non-wild setting is challenging. The infrequent sunlight, acidic soil, high fungal activity, and drainage required makes difficult to cultivate in gardens. It is only found in specialty nurseries since taking it from the wild is not condoned and will likely kill the specimen.


Goodyera repens, an orchid in the genus Goodyera, is called by the common name creeping lady's-tresses in Anglophone Europe and dwarf rattlesnake plantain or lesser rattlesnake plantain in North America.
It is a green underground creeper that sends out occasional skinny stems above the surface.  During the summer, these stems bear flowers arranged in a spiral.  These flowers twist themselves to face toward the sun.
Goodyera repens is found in isolated spots in the forests and bogs of Europe. It is a rare plant, but it is the most common orchid in Scandinavia. The species  is widespread across much of Europe, Asia and North America including Russia, China, Germany, Poland, the United Kingdom, Canada and the United States, though never very common in any of these places.
Goodyera repens is a protected species throughout most of its range.  It does not survive fire, and does not soon reenter an area after fire or logging.  It is generally found only in forests at least 95 years old.
Like other orchids, Goodyera repens lives in symbiosis with mycorrhiza, rhizome-dwelling fungus (Ceratobasidium cornigerum or Rhizoctonia goodyearae-repentis). The mycorrhiza help the orchid absorb and assimilate nutrients.
This orchid is pollinated by bumblebees, allowing for its sexual reproduction.  It can also reproduce vegetatively.


Goodyera tesselata is a plant in the orchid family (Orchidaceae), called by the common name checkered rattlesnake plantain. It is native to eastern Canada from Manitoba to Newfoundland, and to the northeastern United States from Maine to Maryland, west to Minnesota .
Goodyera tesselata has low basal leaves with white reticulated lines. The inflorescence is an upright stalk with small white flowers.


The Malayan night heron (Gorsachius melanolophus), also known as Malaysian night heron and tiger bittern, is a medium-sized heron. It is distributed in southern and eastern Asia.


The Malayan night heron has been found in India, Sri Lanka, Brunei, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, China, Indonesia, the Philippines, Taiwan and Japan. It is a vagrant in Christmas Island and Palau. Its range size is estimated at 1,240,000 km². This bird occurs in forests, streams, and marshes.


The Malayan night heron is about 48 cm (19 in) long. The wingspan is about 86 cm (34 in). It is stocky, with a short beak. Its neck and breast are rufous. There are streaks going down the centre of the neck to the breast. The upperparts are chestnut and vermiculated. The flight feathers are blackish. The crown is black, the chin is white, and the eyes are yellow. The beak is black and the legs are greenish. The juvenile is greyish to rufous and is spotted and vermiculated.


The Malayan night heron is usually solitary. It roosts in trees and feeds in open areas. Its territorial call is deep oo notes. It also produces hoarse croaks and arh, arh, arh. The most common food items are earthworms and frogs, and it will sometimes eat fish. A study of its pellets found reptiles, snails, chilopods, arachnids, crabs and  insects.


Gossypium hirsutum, also known as upland cotton or Mexican cotton, is the most widely planted species of cotton in the world. Globally, about 90% of all cotton production is of cultivars derived from this species. In the United States, the world's largest exporter of cotton, it constitutes approximately 95% of all cotton production. It is native to Mexico, the West Indies, northern South America, Central America and possibly tropical Florida.
Archeological evidence from the Tehuacan Valley in Mexico shows the cultivation of this species as long ago as 3,500 BC, although there is as yet no evidence as to exactly where it may have been first domesticated. This is the earliest evidence of cotton cultivation in the Americas found thus far.
Gossypium hirsutum includes a number of varieties or cross-bred cultivars with varying fiber lengths and tolerances to a number of growing conditions. The longer length varieties are called "long staple upland" and the shorter length varieties are referred to as "short staple upland". The long staple varieties are the most widely cultivated in commercial production.
Besides being fibre crops, Gossypium hirsutum and Gossypium herbaceum are the main species used to produce cottonseed oil.
The Zuni people use this plant to make ceremonial garments, and the fuzz is made into cords and used ceremonially.
This species shows extrafloral nectar production.


The magpie-lark (Grallina cyanoleuca), also known as  wee magpie, peewee, peewit or mudlark, is a passerine bird native to Australia, Timor and southern New Guinea. The male and female both have black and white plumage, though with different patterns. John Latham described the species in 1801. Long thought to be a member of the mudnest builder family Corcoracidae, it has been reclassified in the family Monarchidae (the monarch flycatchers). Two subspecies are recognized.