The whinchat is a largely solitary bird though it may form small family groups in autumn. It favours rough low vegetation habitats such as open rough pasture or similar minimally cultivated grassland with scattered small shrubs such as hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna), and bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) or heather (Calluna vulgaris) stands on rock-strewn ground. It also commonly inhabits new and clear-felled conifer plantations until the new tree crop is about five to six years old and a metre or two tall. It always needs at least a few perching points (shrubs, tall weeds, or fence posts) to scan from for food and for use as song posts.
Breeding takes place in late April and May. The nest is built solely by the female, and is made of dried grasses and moss, and lined with hairs and fine bents. It is built on the ground, hidden in dense low vegetation, often at the foot of a bush. The female lays and incubates a clutch of four to seven eggs which hatch after eleven to fourteen days. Both parents bring food to the young which leave the nest ten to fourteen days later, while still too young to fly. The chicks fledge at seventeen to nineteen days after hatching and remain largely dependent on the parents for a further two weeks. Whinchats are short-lived, typically only surviving two years, to a maximum recorded of just over five years in the wild; breeding starts when birds are a year old. Predators include weasels, stoats, and small raptors such as the merlin and nest predators such as crows and magpies. Nests are also lost due to agricultural operations such as silage cutting (the main factor in the species' decline in western Europe) or trampling by livestock, and are sometimes parasitised by the common cuckoo.
Whinchats are insectivorous, feeding largely (about 80–90%) on insects, but also consume a wide range of other invertebrates including spiders, small snails and worms. They also eat small amounts of fruit such as blackberries, primarily in autumn. The birds like to perch on elevated spots such as shrubs, from where they make sallies to catch insects, mostly taken off the ground, but also flying insects. While so perched, males in particular frequently flick their tail and sometimes their wings to show the white tail and wing flashes, for display or territorial communication signals to other whinchats.
Adult whinchats have a single complex complete moult in late summer (late July onward) after breeding and mainly completed before southbound migration. Juveniles have a partial moult at the same time, growing new body feathering but retaining the flight feathers. All ages also have a partial moult in early spring on the wintering grounds before northbound migration.


Fairly common across its wide range, the whinchat is classified as a species of "least concern" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Some populations are however in serious decline, particularly in the west of its range in Britain, Ireland, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, and Germany, primarily due to agricultural intensification. In Britain it is amber-listed with an unfavourable conservation status; it had all but disappeared from former lowland breeding areas in the south and east between surveys in 1968–72 and 1988–91, remaining common only in upland areas of the north and west where low-intensity livestock rearing is the main land use. There has been a similar decline in Ireland, where it is now classified as "rare".


Saxifraga aizoides, yellow mountain saxifrage or yellow saxifrage, is a flowering alpine plant of the genus Saxifraga.


Saxifraga aizoides is an evergreen perennial which branches at or below ground level, and grows to 2–10 centimetres (0.79–3.94 in). It spreads by short rhizomes, forming mats of small colonies.
The flowers, with five sepals and petals, are yellow—green.


It prefers cold and moist well-draining neutral to basic bedrock, gravel, sand, or shale cliff environments. It is found in: North America, including Alaska, across Canada, the Great Lakes region, and Greenland; and in Europe, including the Tatra Mountains, Alps, and Svalbard.
It is a listed threatened species in New York state.


Saxifraga granulata, commonly called meadow saxifrage, is a species of flowering plant in the family Saxifragaceae. It is native to Europe and Morocco.


Saxifraga granulata was first formally described by Linnaeus as part of his original description of Saxifraga in Species Plantarum in 1753. S. granulata is the type species of the genus Saxifraga.


Saxifraga oppositifolia, the purple saxifrage or purple mountain saxifrage, is a species of plant that is very common in the high Arctic and also some high mountainous areas further south, including northern Britain, the Alps and the Rocky Mountains.


It is a low-growing, densely or loosely matted plant growing up to 5 cm (2.0 in) high, with somewhat woody branches of creeping or trailing habit close to the surface. The leaves are small, rounded, scale-like, opposite in four rows with ciliated margins. The flowers are solitary on short stalks, petals purple or lilac, much longer than the calyx lobes. It is one of the first spring flowers, continuing to flower during the whole summer in localities where the snow melts later.  The flowers grow to about 13 mm (0.5 in) in diameter.


It grows in all kinds of cold temperate to Arctic habitats, usually found from sea level up to 1,000 m (3,300 ft), in many places colouring the landscape. Its native habitats include tundra, arctic coastal bluffs, alpine scree, and rock crevices.
Swiss botanist Christian Körner found the plant growing at an elevation of 4,505 m (14,780 ft) in the Swiss alps, making it the highest elevation angiosperm in Europe. It is even known to grow on Kaffeklubben Island in north Greenland, at 83°N 40°E, the most northerly plant locality in the world.


The flowers of this plant may be consumed by certain animal species, such as the caterpillars of the cold-adapted Gynaephora groenlandica, the Arctic woolly-bear caterpillar.


It is a popular plant in alpine gardens, though difficult to grow in warm climates.
The edible flower petals are eaten, particularly in parts of Nunavut without abundant berries. They are bitter at first but, after about one second, they become sweet. (They are also slightly sticky.) It is known to the Inuit as aupilaktunnguat. The leaves and stems are brewed for herbal tea: According to many Nunavummiut, the tea is best later in the season once the flowers have died.
It serves as the territorial flower of Nunavut in Canada, a symbolic flower of Nordland county in Norway, and the county flower of County Londonderry in Northern Ireland.


There are a few subspecies, including:
Saxifraga oppositifolia ssp. glandulisepala Hultén – native to Alaska
Saxifraga oppositifolia ssp. oppositifolia L. – native to continental US
Saxifraga oppositifolia ssp. smalliana (Engl. & Irmsch.) Hultén – native to Alaska


Saxifraga paniculata was first formally described in the eighth edition of The Gardeners Dictionary by the Scottish botanist Philip Miller in 1768  and is placed in the genus Saxifraga (the saxifrages) and in the Saxifragaceae family. The generic name Saxifraga literally means "stone-breaker", from Latin saxum ("rock" or "stone") + frangere ("to break"). It is usually thought to indicate a medicinal use for treatment of urinary calculi (such as kidney stones), rather than breaking rocks apart.


Saxifraga paniculata is a perennial and stoloniferous herbaceous plant with flowering stems 10–30 cm in height. The most easily identifiable feature is its highly dense basal rosette of leaves, which are leathery, flat and stiff. 1–3 cm long, the oblong to ovate leaves are densely toothed and have fine leaf margins; a lime-encrusted white pore is present at the base of each leaf. The rosettes produce erect flowering stems (though nothing might be produced for a few years), whilst the rosettes themselves grow at the end of runners (horizontal, long stolons).
The flowering stems have reduced and scattered leaves which terminate in a somewhat elongated cluster. The flowers are white, approximately 1 cm across and have dots which are either purplish or red. It flowers from mid-to-late June to early August, and produces perfect flowers (as it has both stamens and carpels). The flowers themselves have five petals, two styles, one inferior ovary and a two-beaked seed capsule. Warming (1909) noted that the flowers are protandrous, in the sense that even before the stigmas become receptive the flowers make and disperse pollen. However, as discussed in the 'Ecology' section below, the plant can self-pollinate.
Saxifraga paniculata can sometimes be mistaken for another plant in the same genus, Saxifraga tricuspidata (prickly saxifrage); whilst S. tricuspidata does grow in a similar range, it can be differentiated from S. paniculata by its lack of lime-encrusted pores and by its crowded and much narrower leaves, which apart from three terminating stiff spine-tipped teeth have otherwise smooth margins.


Growing in the Circumboreal Region, Saxifraga paniculata can be found throughout Central Europe, Greenland, Iceland and Scandinavia, as well as in the Caucasus and in North America where it can be found in the northern Great Lakes region, New England and New York State. Only historical records document it in Maine, whilst it is present, though considered a rarity, in Vermont, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland Island, New Brunswick, Minnesota and Labrador.
Saxifraga paniculata is a calciphile, and hence is found in calcareous habitats: an example of which is in a crevice of a basic rock (including basalt and volcanic rock  conglomerates). Of the rock crevices or rock ledges it does grow on, S. paniculata prefers the shady ones.


Its ability to close its leaf rosettes when undergoing deleterious environmental conditions such as excessive heat and droughts gives Saxifraga paniculata a very high resistance to sustained photoinhibition and irreversible dehydration; a paper published by Hacker and Neuner in 2006 found that S. paniculata was more resistant to cold induced photoinhibition in winter than any other evergreen subalpine species that the group had studied. Due to the short growing season and the possible lack of pollinators, S. paniculata (like many arctic plants) can self-pollinate - whilst usually avoided in plant species as there is no potential for genetic variation in offspring, it does still ensure in dire conditions that seed is produced and dispersed.
In the wild, Saxifraga paniculata has been observed with many associated species, including but not limited to: Trisetum spicatum, Polygonum viviparum, Polypodium virginianum, Sagina nodosa, Woodsia alpina, Campanula rotundifolia, Rubus pubescens, Aralia nudicaulis, Tortella tortuosa, Aquilegia canadensis, Carex eburnea and Woodsia glabella, as well as lichen cover.


Saxifraga paniculata is cultivated as an ornamental garden plant. Though hardy, it dislikes winter wetness and requires very sharp  drainage in an alkaline or neutral soil. It is therefore often to be found in a rock garden or alpine house. It has given rise to numerous hybrids and cultivars. The following have gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit:-
’Lavagreana’
’Rosea’
’Venetia’


The black phoebe (Sayornis nigricans) is a passerine bird in the tyrant-flycatcher family. It breeds from southwest Oregon and California south through Central and South America. It occurs year-round throughout most of its range and migrates less than the other birds in its genus, though its northern populations are partially migratory. Six subspecies are commonly recognized, although two are occasionally combined as a separate species, the white-winged phoebe.
The black phoebe has predominantly black plumage, with a white belly and undertail coverts. The sexes are identical in color, and juveniles have brown feather tips and brown wing-bars. Its song is a repeated tee-hee, tee ho. It lives in a variety of habitats but is always near water. It is mainly insectivorous and waits on a perch before sallying out and catching its prey in the air. It makes an open cup nest which is placed under a cliff or a bridge and cemented in its place with mud.


The black phoebe is a medium-sized flycatcher, being 16 cm (6.3 in) in length and weighing 15 to 22 g (0.5 to 0.8 oz). It has predominantly black plumage, with white on its belly and undertail coverts. The white forms an inverted "V" in the lower breast. The sexes are identical and plumage does not vary seasonally. Juveniles have browner plumage, cinnamon-brown feather tips on their body, and brown wing-bars. The bird has brown irises and black legs, feet, and beak.
The phoebe can be recognized by a characteristic "tail-wagging" motion, in which the tail is lowered and the tail's feathers fanned out. It accomplishes almost all locomotion by flight, which is direct, with steady wing beats. Its song consists of two alternating phrases (tee-hee, tee-ho or sisee, sitsew). The song can be heard from both sexes, but is more commonly sung by males.


The phoebes are a genus, Sayornis, of birds in the tyrant flycatcher family. The flycatchers are the largest family of birds on earth, with over 400 known species. The genus name was given by George Robert Gray of the British Museum, and is named after Thomas Say, an American naturalist. The species name, nigricans, is Latin for "blackish", and was given by William John Swainson in 1827.
The black phoebe has six subspecies, but these can be divided into two groups which are sometimes considered to be separate species: the nigricans group (black phoebe) and the latirostris group (white-winged phoebe). The first group contains four subspecies, the second group two.


The black phoebe breeds in the west and southwest United States, Mexico and Central America, and parts of South America. In Oregon it is found in river valleys on the Pacific coast, and in California on the western side of Coast Ranges. It breeds throughout the Colorado River valley and occasionally is found to the north in southern Nevada and southwestern Utah, as well as Arizona and central New Mexico. In Central America it breeds on Baja California, except for the central part of the peninsula, and on interior mainland Mexico southwest to Panama, excluding El Salvador. In South America it is found in the coastal mountains of Venezuela, through Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, to western Bolivia and northwestern Argentina.
It lives year-round in most of its range and is more sedentary (non-migratory) than either of the other phoebes in its genus (Eastern or Say's), although northern populations may be partially migratory. It is always found near water and is often found at coastal cliffs, river/lake banks, or even park fountains. Habitats must also include a supply of mud for nest building, and the birds' specialized nesting requirements probably cause their somewhat irregular range.


The eastern phoebe (Sayornis phoebe) is a small passerine bird. The genus name Sayornis is constructed from the specific part of Charles Lucien Bonaparte's name for Say's phoebe, Muscicapa saya, and Ancient Greek ornis, "bird". Phoebe is an alternative name for the Roman moon-goddess Diana, but it may also have been chosen to imitate the bird's call.


Eastern Phoebes are highly adaptable to urban environments, primarily found in wooded areas particularly streamsides, and farms areas which provide ideal habitat for these birds. Eastern phoebes tend to avoid open areas and choose spots beneath trees, brushy areas, overhangs, etc. However, during migration in winters or in breeding season they are frequently seen around edges of woods, brushy areas where water sources present abundantly.


This tyrant flycatcher breeds in eastern North America, although its normal range does not include the southeastern coastal United States.
The breeding habitat of the eastern phoebe is open woodland, farmland and suburbs, often near water. This phoebe is insectivorous, and often perches conspicuously when seeking food items. It also eats fruits and berries in cooler weather.


It is migratory, wintering in the southernmost United States and Central America. It is a very rare vagrant to western Europe. This is one of the first birds to return to the breeding grounds in spring and one of the last to leave in the fall. They arrive for breeding in mid-late March, but they return to winter quarters around the same time when other migrant songbirds do, in September and early October; migration times have stayed the same in the last 100 years. The increase in trees throughout the Great Plains during the past century due to fire suppression and tree planting facilitated a western range expansion of the eastern phoebe as well as range expansions of many other species of birds.


Scabiosa ochroleuca, commonly called cream pincushions or cream scabious, is a species of scabious with creamy yellow flower heads.  It is native to  Europe and western Asia.


These hoverflies are present in most of Europe, the Near East, the East Palearctic realm, the Nearctic realm, North Africa, and the Indomalayan realm. In the UK S. pyrastri is a migrant which arrives in some years in high numbers and in others is almost absent.


Scaeva pyrastri can reach a length of 11–15 millimetres (0.43–0.59 in). This large distinctive fly has three pairs of white comma markings (lunules) on the abdomen, these are yellow on Scaeva selenitica.
The face is yellow, with reddish brown antennae. The eyes are covered with hair. Scutellum is brown yellow. The legs are red with a black base of the femur. The male's eyes do touch in the centre of the frons, while in the females they are separated.
The larvae are light green or sometimes pink, with a white dorsal longitudinal stripe.


This species can be found in gardens, meadows and wasteland. Adults are common visitors to flowers of Apiaceae (Umbelliferae), but also of rape, honeysuckle and daisies. They fly from April to September, with the peak in July and August. The larvae feed on different aphid species. During the larval stages they may consume over 500 aphids.


Scaevola taccada, also known as beach cabbage, sea lettuce, beach naupaka, naupaka kahakai (Hawaiian), magoo (Divehi), merambong (Malay), bapaceda or papatjeda (Moluccan Islands), ngahu (Tongan) is a flowering plant in the family Goodeniaceae found in coastal locations in the tropical areas of the Indo-Pacific. It is a common beach shrub throughout the Arabian Sea, the tropical Indian Ocean and the tropical islands of the Pacific Ocean.
There has long been confusion over the correct scientific name for this species. It is also known by the synonym Scaevola sericea.


Scaevola taccada is a large bush reaching up to about 4 m in height typical of littoral zones where it grows very close to the sea exposed to the salt spray, usually on sandy or pebbly soils. Leaves are slightly succulent, about 20 cm long, closely alternate and crowded at the stem tips. They are glabrous with a fleshy-looking yellowish green color. The fruits and flowers are white. Scaevola taccada blooms the whole year round and the flowers have a fan-like shape which gives them the name fanflower or half flower. The fruits float in seawater and are propagated by ocean currents, this bush being one of the pioneer plants in new sandbanks in tropical areas.
Scaevola taccada is similar to Scaevola plumieri – both were included in the original circumscription of the species. S. taccada has evident calyx lobes and white fruit on which the calyx lobes persist. S. plumieri has short or absent lobes on its calyx and black fruit when ripe.


Two shrubby Scaevola species occur along the coasts of tropical and subtropical regions of the world. They sometimes occur in the same region, but one is more western, reaching Atlantic coasts, and one more eastern, reaching out into the Pacific. Carl Linnaeus initially included both species in his Lobelia plumieri, which he later considered to be the sole species in his new genus Scaevola (although the combination Scaevola plumieri was first published by Martin Vahl). There has been confusion for many years over the correct name of the two species when they are recognized as distinct. Scaevola plumieri (L.) Vahl is now used as the name for the western species.
The earliest name now recognized as applying to the eastern species, Lobelia taccada, was published by Joseph Gaertner in 1788. William Roxburgh indirectly referred to this name when transferring it to the genus Scaevola in 1788. Separately, and later, Martin Vahl described Scaevola sericea in 1791, based on a specimen from Niue, a small island in the south Pacific Ocean. In 1980, Jeffrey argued that the correct name for the species was Scaevola sericea, since Roxburgh's transfer was not acceptable under the nomenclature code. However, Green in 1991 considered that Jeffrey was mistaken, the transfer being valid, so that the correct name for the eastern species was Scaevola taccada, the name used, for example, by the online Flora of China. The International Plant Names Index accepts this analysis.


The coastal areas and beaches of Okinawa, Taiwan, Southern China, Vietnam, Malaysia, Philippines, Indonesia, East Timor, Northern Australia, Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, East Africa, Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles, Oman, Yemen, India, Maldives, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Chagos Islands, Comoros,  Réunion.


Scaevola taccada typically grows directly on the beaches of tropical coasts with a preference for beach crests on coral sands. It grows within the salt spray area and it is amongst the first pioneer plant colonisers on tropical atolls and sandbanks. Besides seeds, it is easily propagated from cuttings.
It prefers well drained sandy soils and it is a very salt tolerant scrub. Scaevola taccada is sometimes found growing in loose plant communities with coconut palms, soldierbush, beach morning glory, beach gardenia, several pandanus species, beach calophyllum followed by portia tree, sea almond, beach hibiscus, Cordia subcordata and others. The plant is often featured prominently on tropical island postcards and wallpapers.


In some islands of the Pacific, Scaevola taccada is used to prevent coastal erosion as well as for landscaping. It is also planted on the beach crests to protect other cultivated plants from the salt spray. Parts of the plant are also used in Polynesian and Asian traditional medicine. Drops from the plant were used in cases of eye irritation by Chamorro breath-hold spearfishermen in the Mariana Islands. Historically in the Maldives the leaves of this plant were often used as famine food.


In the United States (Florida, Puerto Rico, US Virgin Islands) as well as many other Caribbean nations and the Bahamas, Scaevola taccada has become an invasive species, pushing away the native Caribbean Scaevola plumieri species from its native habitat.


Scarites subterraneus, known generally as the big-headed ground beetle or pedunculate ground beetle, is a species of ground beetle in the family Carabidae. It is found in the Caribbean, Central America, and North America.


Sceptridium dissectum (Spreng.) Lyon has two separate fronds. The fertile frond looks superficially like a stalk of grapes while the other sterile frond is leafy. Sceptridium dissectum leaves are a light green and remain green through most of the year. During the summer the leaves become deciduous while the leaves stay green in the winter. The grape like sporangia range from green to yellow. The petiole or stalk of the plant is green from top to bottom and glabrous as is the sterile frond. Sceptridium dissectum is a non-flowering plant. The sterile frond or leaf is mostly bipinnate.
At first glance most think there are two separate fronds. The fertile stalk is joined to the stalk of sterile leaf blade near the rhizome. The sporangia resemble grapes which is why these types of ferns are known as grape ferns.  The leaves on a sterile frond have lacy edges. Sceptridium dissectum stands six to fifteen inches tall. Sceptridium dissectum can stay a greenish bronze color through winter.


Sceptridium dissectum can be miss identified as Botrypus virginianus (L.) Sw.  commonly known rattlesnake fern.  Botrypus virginianus sporangia looks like a rattle from the tail of a rattlesnake. Sceptridium dissectum is also a close relative to the Southern Grapefern or Botrychium biternatum. These ferns are part of the Ophioglossales order and Ophioglossaceae, known as the Adder’s tongue family. There are three ways to help distinguish the cut-leaf grape fern and the rattlesnake fern. The first is by size, the rattle snake fern can be found up to two feet tall compared to the cut-leaf fern that can be found up to a foot tall. Second the petiole or stalk for a cut-leaf fern is light green while the rattlesnake fern’s petiole is pink at the base.
Sceptridium dissectum (Spreng.) Lyon was known as Botrychium dissectum Spreng. Sceptridium dissectum became the name of the cutleaf grapefern in 1905. Botrychium dissectum held the name from 1804 until 1905. Sceptridium dissectum also goes by a few other names such as Botrychium dissectum Spreng. var. obliquum (Muhl. ex Willd.) Clute, Botrychium dissectum Spreng. var. oblongifolium (Graves) Broun, Botrychium obliquum Muhl. ex Willd., Botrychium obliquum Muhl. ex Willd. var. elongatum Gilbert & Haberer,  Osmunda obliqua (Muhl.) Poir., Botrychium ternatum var. obliquum (Muhl.) D.C. Eaton.


Sceptridium dissectum ranges from Minnesota, south to northeastern Texas and across the east coast of the US. The habitats of the cutleaf grapefern are woodlands, sandy grasslands, the edge of swamps or ravines. One of the favored habitats of these plants are woodlands of deciduous forests where the cutleaf grapefern received winter sun.


Sceptridium dissectum is a homosporous fern which means it only produces one kind of spore. Sceptridium dissectum is also perennial. The cutleaf grapefern typically grows in partial sunlight to medium shade. For soil conditions the cutleaf grapefern grows in soil containing loam or sandy loam. The cutleaf grapefern also grows in moist to dry-mesic conditions. The cutleaf grapefern takes a long time to develop from its spores the fern is dependent on mycorrhizal fungi for survival.
The spores have to be in darkness for 3-4 weeks before any spore germination can occurs. The longer the spores remain in darkness the greater percentage of germination may occur Spore germination and early gametophyte growth were also directly effected by oxidation level of the supplied nitrogen source. The fern remains dependent on the fungi even after sterile and fertile leaves emerge. Unlike some members of the Ophioglossacae, Sceptridum dissectum does not always develop spores. Sceptridum dissectum only creates one leaf per year. The cutleaf grapefern is rumored to live for about 10 to 45 years. Because the cutleaf grapefern is so hard to cultivate it is rarely used horticulturally. The plant is generally common except in New York where it is listed as endangered.


Wild turkey and ruffed grouse feed on the leaves as well as the white-tailed deer.


Sceptridium multifidum is a fern species in the Ophioglossaceae (Adder's tongue family), known by the common names leathery grapefern and leathery moonwort.


It is native to Europe, Asia, and North America including Greenland, where it is widespread and grows in moist areas in many habitat types.


This is a fleshy, leathery plant growing from a small caudex with thin, corky roots. Unlike most ferns, S. multifidum has contractile roots, which are thought to help anchor the plant in the soil. It produces a single leaf which emerges directly from the ground. It is divided into a sterile and a fertile part. The sterile part of the leaf is wide and has rounded or oval-shaped leaflets. The fertile part of the leaf is very different in shape, with grape-like clusters of sporangia by which it reproduces. The gametophytes develop from these spores in the soil, and are thought to associate with an endophytic fungus like the gametophytes of other members of this genus. While the gametophytes have not been observed in nature, they have been grown under lab conditions.


This species is rare in Europe. In Ukraine, there have been 86 recorded localities. In Greenland this species is considered Vulnerable.


Schefflera digitata, the patē, seven-finger, or umbrella tree, is a tree endemic to  New Zealand belonging to the family Araliaceae. Māori names include: patē, patatē, patete, and kōtētē. It occurs in lowland to lower montane forests from sea level to 1200 m in the North Island, South Island, and Stewart Island, covering a latitudinal range from 34°S to 47°S. It prefers damp, shady parts of the forest and is common along stream banks and on shady forest roadsides. It is the only New Zealand representative of the genus Schefflera, which has 200 species of shrubs and small trees in the tropics and subtropics.


The sap of the tree has medicinal uses, and has been used to treat ringworm and sores on the skin. The wood was used by Māori to make fire by friction. Patē is the most common host of the parasitic plant Dactylanthus taylori. This is a root parasite that was known to the Māori as pua-o-te-reinga, 'the flower of the underworld'. Wood rose is threatened with extinction, which is thought to be due to several factors including the poaching of plants for sale as curios. Although patē is easy to grow in New Zealand, it is not popular in cultivation, as its thin, soft foliage cannot match the glossy attractiveness of the similar Pseudopanax species, nor that of the Australian species Schefflera actinophylla, which is also easy to grow in the North Island. S. digitata is sometimes grown by Northern Hemisphere gardeners thinking it may be relatively hardy, but like many New Zealand trees, patē is not tolerant of prolonged cold conditions.


Scheuchzeria palustris (Rannoch-rush, or pod grass), is a flowering plant in the family Scheuchzeriaceae, in which there is only one species and Scheuchzeria is the only genus. In the APG II system it is placed in the order Alismatales of the monocots.


It is a herbaceous perennial plant, native to cool temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, where it grows in wet Sphagnum peat bogs. It grows to 10–40 cm tall, with narrow linear leaves alternating up the stem, with a basal sheath. The leaves can  be up to 20 cm.  The leaf tips are blunt with a conspicuous pore.
It has a creeping rhizome clothed in papery, straw coloured remains of old leaf bases.
The flowers are greenish-yellow, 4–6 mm diameter, with six tepals.  They have an inflated sheathing base, 6 stamens and 3 carpels.  It flowers from June until August
There are two subspecies, not considered distinct by all authorities:
Scheuchzeria palustris subsp. palustris. Northern and eastern Europe, northern Asia.
Scheuchzeria palustris subsp. americana (Fernald) Hultén. Northern North America.


Schinia florida, the primrose moth, is a moth of the family Noctuidae described by Achille Guenée in 1852. Its range includes most of temperate North America aside from the west coast.
Adults have a pink head and pale yellow to creamy white thorax and abdomen. The forewings are pink with pale yellow markings. The hindwings are creamy white. The wingspan is about 30 mm.
Eggs are laid on the flower buds of evening-primroses (Oenothera spp.), which are the larval host plants. Eggs hatch 4-5 days after being laid. Larvae go through five instars before burrowing into the ground to pupate and overwinter.
There is one generation per year, with the adult flight period timed to coincide with the bud development of its larval host plants. Adults are nocturnal, and often rest in the flowers of evening-primroses during the day.


Schinus terebinthifolia is a species of flowering plant in the cashew family, Anacardiaceae, that is native to subtropical and tropical South America. Common names include Brazilian peppertree, aroeira, rose pepper, broadleaved pepper tree, wilelaiki (or wililaiki), Christmasberry tree and Florida holly. The species name has been very commonly misspelled as ‘terebinthifolius’.


Brazilian peppertree is a sprawling shrub or small tree, with a shallow root system, reaching a height of 7–10 m. The branches can be upright, reclining, or nearly vine-like, all on the same plant. Its plastic morphology allows it to thrive in all kinds of ecosystems: From dunes to swamps, where it grows as a semi-aquatic plant. The leaves are alternate, 10–22 cm long, pinnately compound with (3–) 5–152 leaflets; the leaflets are roughly oval (lanceolate to elliptical), 3–6 cm long and 2–3.5 cm broad, and have finely toothed margins, an acute to rounded apex and yellowish veins. The leaf rachis between the leaflets is usually (but not invariably) slightly winged. The plant is dioecious, with small white flowers borne profusely in axillary clusters. The fruit is a drupe 4–5 mm diameter, carried in dense clusters of hundreds.
The two varieties are:
S. terebinthifolia var. acutifolia, leaves to 22 cm, with 7–152 leaflets, pink fruit
S. terebinthifolia var. terebinthifolia, leaves to 17 cm, with 5–132 leaflets, red fruit


Schinus terebinthifolia is native to Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay. In the United States, it has been introduced to California, Texas, Hawaii, Arizona, Nevada, Louisiana, and Florida.


Brazilian pepper is widely grown as an ornamental plant in frost-free regions of South America for its foliage and fruit. In its native habitat it is a melliferous flower and is the main source of food for the stingless bee Tetragonisca angustula, which is an important honey producer in Central and South America.
Although it is not a true pepper (Piper), its dried drupes are often sold as pink peppercorns, as are the fruits from the related species Schinus molle (Peruvian peppertree). The seeds can be used as a spice, adding a pepper-like taste to food. They are usually sold in a dry state and have a bright pink color. They are less often sold pickled in brine, where they have a dull, almost green hue.
Planted originally as an ornamental outside of its native range, Brazilian pepper has become widespread and is considered an invasive species in many subtropical regions with moderate to high rainfall, including parts or all of Australia, the Bahamas, Bermuda, southern China, Cuba, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, Hawaii, Malta, the Marshall Islands, Mauritius, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Norfolk Island, Puerto Rico, Réunion, South Africa and the United States. In drier areas, such as Israel and southern California, it is also grown, but has not generally proven invasive. In California, it is considered invasive in coastal regions by the California Invasive Plant Council.
Brazilian pepper is hard to control because it produces basal shoots if the trunk is cut. Trees also produce abundant seeds that are dispersed by birds and ants. This same hardiness makes the tree highly useful for reforestation in its native environment, but enables it to become invasive outside of its natural range.


Like many other species in the family Anacardiaceae, Brazilian pepper has an aromatic sap that can cause skin reactions (similar to poison ivy burns) in some sensitive people – although the reaction is usually weaker than that induced by touch of the closely related Lithraea molleoides, known in Brazil as "wild" aroeira (aroeira brava). Conversely, Schinus terebinthifolia is commonly known as "tame" aroeira (aroeira mansa).
In a paper on triterpenes, the ingested fruits are noted to have a “paralyzing effect” on birds. The narcotic and toxic effects on birds and other wildlife has also been noted by others, e.g., Bureau of Aquatic Plant Management. The AMA Handbook of Poisonous and Injurious Plants reports that the triterpenes found in the fruits can result in irritation of the throat, gastroenteritis, diarrhea, and vomiting. Like most other members of the Anacardiaceae, Brazilian pepper contains active alkenyl phenols, e.g., urushiol, cardol, which can cause contact dermatitis and inflammation in sensitive individuals. Contact with the “sap” from a cut or bruised tree can result in rash, lesions, oozing sores, severe itching, welts and reddening and swelling (especially of the eyes).
The burning of plant matter releases many airborne irritants, so it is not an effective means of control. It is said to have a "mace-like" effect upon nearby people and is highly advised against.


Also known as "Florida holly", Schinus terebinthifolia was introduced to Florida by at latest 1891, probably earlier, where it has spread rapidly since about 1940, replacing native plants, like mangroves, with thousands of acres occupied. It is especially adept at colonizing disturbed sites and can grow in both wet and dry conditions. Its growth habit allows it to climb over understory trees and invade mature canopies, forming thickets that choke out most other plants.


The species, including the seed, is legally prohibited from sale, transport, or planting in Florida, according to the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services Noxious Weed List. It is classified as a Category I pest by The Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council (FL EPPC). To keep the plant from spreading into native plant communities and displacing them, local regulations and environmental guidelines require eradication of Brazilian pepper wherever possible. The plant and all parts are also illegal for sale or transfer in Texas. As one of the two species sold as pink peppercorn, the other being Schinus molle, it lacks generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status with the FDA.
Several biocontrols are being studied for use in Florida.
It is a declared weed in several states of Australia. In South Africa, it is classified as a category 1 invader in KwaZulu-Natal province, where any plants are to be removed and destroyed, and a category 3 invader in all other provinces, meaning it may no longer be planted.


Two herbicides are approved for use in the United States to exterminate Brazilian pepper: Triclopyr, using the basal bark method; and glyphosate. Picloram can be used if the stump has been freshly cut, but this is neither the preferred nor most effective means of eradication.
Calophya terebinthifolii and Calophya lutea are two psyllids in the Calophya with high specificity – among plants in Florida – for Brazilian peppertree. Thus they are recommended for use in biocontrol in that area.


Peppertree is the subject of extensive folk medicinal lore where it is indigenous. Virtually all parts of this tropical tree, including its leaves, bark, fruit, seeds, resin and oleoresin (or balsam) have been used medicinally by indigenous peoples throughout the tropics. The plant has a very long history of use and appears in ancient religious artifacts and on idols among some of the ancient Chilean Amerindians.
Throughout South and Central America, Brazilian peppertree is reported to be an astringent, antibacterial, diuretic, digestive stimulant, tonic, antiviral and wound healer. In Peru, the sap is used as a mild laxative and a diuretic and the entire plant is used externally for fractures and as a topical antiseptic. The oleoresin is used externally as a wound healer, to stop bleeding and for toothaches and it is taken internally for rheumatism and as a purgative. In South Africa, a leaf tea is used to treat colds and a leaf decoction is inhaled for colds, hypertension, depression and irregular heartbeat. In the Brazilian Amazon, a bark tea is used as a laxative and a bark-and-leaf tea is used as a stimulant and antidepressant. In Argentina, a decoction is made with the dried leaves and is taken for menstrual disorders and is also used for respiratory and urinary tract infections and disorders.
Brazilian peppertree is still employed in herbal medicine today in many countries. It is used for many conditions in the tropics, including menstrual disorders, bronchitis, gingivitis, gonorrhea, gout, eye infections, rheumatism, sores, swellings, tuberculosis, ulcers, urethritis, urogenital disorders, venereal diseases, warts and wounds. In Brazilian herbal medicine today, the dried bark and/or leaves are employed for heart problems (hypertension and irregular heart beat), infections of all sorts, menstrual disorders with excessive bleeding, tumors and general inflammation. A liquid extract or tincture prepared with the bark is used internally as a stimulant, tonic and astringent and externally for rheumatism, gout and syphilis.
Recently, the fruit of the plant has been studied and shows promise as a treatment for MRSA. A chemical in the berry appears to stop bacteria from producing a toxin which breaks down tissue. It also appears to suppress the way the bacteria communicate.


The misspelling ‘terebinthifolius’ of [correct] Schinus terebinthifolia is due to considerable historic confusion as to the correct gender of the genus name; as of 2015 this has been resolved with the determination that the correct gender of Schinus is feminine (rather than masculine), and adjectival names within the genus must be spelled accordingly.


Schistocerca americana is a species of grasshopper in the family Acrididae known commonly as the American grasshopper and American bird grasshopper. It is native to North America, where it occurs in the eastern United States, Mexico, and the Bahamas. Occasional, localized outbreaks of this grasshopper occur, and it is often referred to as a locust, though it lacks the true swarming form of its congener, the desert locust (S. gregaria).


The adult male of the species is up to 4.5 cm (1.8 in) long, and the adult female may reach 5.5 cm (2.2 in). The body of the adult is generally yellow-brown in color and the wings are pale with large brown spots. The nymphs are different in appearance. They change color as they mature and their coloration is a polyphenic trait - influenced by environmental conditions, producing multiple forms from one genotype. This is not uncommon among grasshoppers. In this species, the coloration of the nymphs is especially influenced by temperature. Nymphs are various shades of green, yellow, or red, usually with a pattern of black markings. They are often red at lower temperatures, but at higher temperatures, only green and yellow shades occur. Black patterning is also influenced by temperature, with lower temperatures inducing darker markings. Density is also a common factor in color polyphenism, but it is less important in this species than in many other grasshoppers. Nymphs reared in crowded conditions develop darker black markings, but density has little effect on their background colors.


Two generations occur per year. The female lays up to three clutches of eggs in a season. A clutch contains 60 to 80 light orange eggs, each about 7 to 8 mm long. The eggs stick together in a frothy mass and the female deposits the mass up to 3 cm deep in the soil. In 3 to 4 weeks, the nymphs emerge and dig to the surface. They remain in a group, feeding together, becoming less gregarious as they develop.
An individual usually progresses through six instars during development, but in low densities, some nymphs complete five. The first-instar nymph is up to 9 mm long and lacks wing structures. The second instar has wing pads and more segments in its antennae. The third instar is up to 2 cm long and the wing pads are triangular. The fourth instar has venation in its wing pads. The fifth instar is up to 3.5 cm long and the wing pads have changed position. By the sixth instar, the wings have elongated.
This species overwinters as an adult rather than in the egg, as many other grasshoppers do.


This is not a severe agricultural pest in terms of economic losses, but it can sometimes cause significant damage to many kinds of crops. It is perhaps best known in Florida, where it can be a pest of citrus. When conditions are right, "population explosions" occur and masses of grasshoppers descend on crop plants. It can defoliate trees and eat smaller plants to the ground. Though its outbreaks are rare, it is considered to be the most destructive grasshopper in Florida.
Besides citrus, it is known to feed on corn, cotton, oats, peanut, rye, sugarcane, tobacco, vegetable crops, and ornamentals. Other host plants include many grasses, such as bahiagrass, bermudagrass, and crabgrass. It can infest dogwood, hickory, and palm trees. It can also damage buildings with chewing activity, particularly objects such as window screens.


This species was the source of a newly discovered class of chemical compounds called caeliferins. These are fatty acid chains present in the grasshopper's regurgitant. When the grasshopper feeds on a plant, the caeliferins in the regurgitant induce the plant to release volatile organic compounds. This is a common response to herbivory in plants; the volatile organic compounds are attractive to predators of the herbivorous insects. Caeliferins may also play a role in defense, as the grasshopper expels large amounts of regurgitant when attacked.


Schistocerca nitens is a species of grasshopper known by several names, including vagrant grasshopper and gray bird grasshopper. It is a close relative of the desert locust, which is in the same genus. This grasshopper is native to southern North America including Mexico and the south-western United States from California to Texas. Vagrants are occasionally found in Colorado and Nebraska, where the climate is too cold for them to reproduce, otherwise. It is also present in parts of Central and South America. It lives in many habitats including desert, woodland, and lower elevation mountainous areas. It is a large grasshopper, reaching lengths of 4 to 7 centimeters. It is mostly brown and gray spotted or patched in cryptic coloration. This species is known as a pest on ornamental plants and many types of crop plants.


It is a troublesome invasive species in Hawaii. A particularly destructive swarming event occurred on the Hawaiian island of Nihoa in 2004, wiping out some 90% of the vegetation on the island. Despite reaching high population densities, this particular species does not swarm as locusts, which is a distinct behavior accompanied by a gregarious phase change. Rather, the grasshoppers reached swarm proportions despite in solitary form, as a result of being an invasive species in an extremely favorable environment. It was probably introduced to Hawaii several decades ago and then spread through the archipelago by flying; it has the ability to fly at least 300 miles across ocean.


The grasshopper becomes sexually mature at 3 to 4 months of age. Any stage of its life cycle can be seen at any time of the year, but the adult is less active during the winter and fall. Mating usually occurs on warm nights in summer, and often around bright lights.


Schistocerca obscura, the obscure bird grasshopper, is a species of grasshopper in the family Acrididae. The species occurs in the United States, from Maryland south to Florida and west to Arizona.


Schizachyrium scoparium, commonly known as little bluestem or beard grass, is a species of North American prairie grass native to most of the contiguous United States (except California, Nevada, and Oregon) as well as a small area north of the Canada–US border and northern Mexico. It is most common in the Midwestern prairies and is one of the most abundant native plants in Texas grasslands.
Little bluestem is a perennial bunchgrass and is prominent in tallgrass prairie, along with big bluestem (Andropogon gerardi), indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans) and switchgrass (Panicum virgatum). It is a warm-season species, meaning it employs the C₄ photosynthetic pathway.


Little bluestem grows to become an upright, roundish mound of soft, bluish-green or grayish-green blades in May and June that is about two to three feet high. In July, it initiates flowering stalks, which reach four to five feet in height. In fall, it displays a coppery or mostly orange color with tints of red or purple. Sometimes it displays in some places, as in sandy soils, a redder fall color. It becomes a more orangish-bronze in winter until early spring, when it becomes more tan.


It is recommended for USDA zones 3 to 10.
The plant grows best in full sun and on well-drained soils. It can be dug up and divided in spring, as many other perennials, for propagation or to reduce the size of an old, big plant. It can be burned in late winter or early spring in a prairie or meadow before new growth, like many American prairie grasses (big bluestem, Indian-grass, and switchgrass), which burn quickly and cleanly.


A number of cultivars have been developed. 'Carousel' is a compact form with especially good fall color developed by Chicagoland Grows. 'The Blues' is a selection that has bluer foliage. 'Standing Ovation' is a tight, upright form with bluer and thicker blades and sturdier stems.


One variety, var. littorale, is native to the eastern and southern coastal strip of the United States, as well as the shores of the Great Lakes. It is adapted to sand dune habitat, and is sometimes considered a separate species, S. littorale.


Little bluestem is the official state grass of Nebraska and Kansas.


Schoenoplectus acutus (syn. Scirpus acutus, Schoenoplectus lacustris, Scirpus lacustris  subsp. acutus),  called tule /ˈtuːliː/, common tule, hardstem tule, tule rush, hardstem bulrush, or viscid bulrush, is a giant species of sedge in the plant family Cyperaceae, native to freshwater marshes all over North America. The common name derives from the Nāhuatl word tōllin [ˈtoːlːin], and was first applied by the early settlers from New Spain who recognized the marsh plants in the Central Valley of California as similar to those in the marshes around Mexico City.
Tules once lined the shores of Tulare Lake, California, formerly the largest freshwater lake in the western United States. It was drained by land speculators in the 20th century. The expression "out in the tules" is still common, deriving from the dialect of old Californian families and meaning "where no one would want to live", with a touch of irony. The phrase is comparable to "out in the boondocks".
Schoenoplectus acutus has a thick, rounded green stem growing to 1 to 3 m (3 to 10 ft) tall, with long, grasslike leaves, and radially symmetrical, clustered, pale brownish flowers. Tules at shorelines play an important ecological role, helping to buffer against wind and water forces, thereby allowing the establishment of other types of plants and reducing erosion. Tules are sometimes cleared from waterways using herbicides. When erosion occurs, tule rhizomes are replanted in strategic areas.
The two varieties are:
Schoenoplectus acutus var. acutus – northern and eastern North America
Schoenoplectus acutus var. occidentalis – southwestern North America


Dyed and woven, tules are used to make baskets, bowls, mats, hats, clothing, duck decoys, and even boats by Native American groups. Before the Salish got horses for bison hunting, they lived in tents covered with sewed mats of tule. At least two tribes, the Wanapum and the Pomo people, constructed tule houses as recently as the 1950s and still do for special occasions. Bay Miwok, Coast Miwok, and Ohlone peoples used the tule in the manufacture of canoes or balsas, for transportation across the San Francisco Bay and using the marine and wetland resources.  Northern groups of Chumash used the tule in the manufacture of canoes rather than the sewn-plank tomol usually used by Chumash and used them to gather marine harvests.
The Paiutes named a neighboring tribe the Si-Te-Cah in their language, meaning tule eaters. The young sprouts and shoots can be eaten raw and the rhizomes and unripe flower heads can be boiled as vegetables.
One of the few Pomo survivors of the Bloody Island Massacre (also called the Clear Lake Massacre) in Northern California, a 6-year-old girl named Ni'ka, or Lucy Moore, evaded the U.S. Cavalry by hiding behind the tule reeds in the bloodied water. Her descendants have since formed the Lucy Moore Foundation to work for better relations between the Pomo and residents of California.
It is so common in wetlands in California that several places in the state were named for it, including Tulare (a tulare is a tule marsh). Tule Lake is near the Oregon border and includes Tule Lake National Wildlife Refuge.  It was the site of an internment camp for Japanese Americans during World War II, imprisoning 18,700 people at its peak. The town of Tulelake is northeast of the lake. California also has a Tule River. The Tule Desert is located in Arizona and Nevada. Nevada also has Tule Springs.
California's dense, ground-hugging tule fog is named for the plant, as are the tule elk and tule perch. The giant garter snake (Thamnophis gigas) was historically closely associated with tule marshes in California's Central Valley.


Flour can be made by peeling and cutting up the older roots, crushing and boiling them, removing any fiber, and drying. The seeds can also be ground and mixed with the root flour.


Schoeneoplectus californicus is a species of sedge known by the common names California bulrush, southern bulrush and giant bulrush. It is also sometimes called "tule", but the closely related Schoenoplectus acutus is the species most often referred to by that name.


Schoenoplectus californicus is a rhizomed water plant found in marshy areas. It is native to the southern and western United States as well as Mexico, Central America, South America, Easter Island, and the Falkland Islands. It is naturalized on some Pacific islands including New Zealand, Hawaii and the Cook Islands. It has tall, thin, dark green stems which are usually triangular in cross-section and woolly, bristly tan or brown flowers in panicle inflorescences.


A notable subspecies is the totora, Schoenoplectus californicus subsp. tatora. This is famous for making up the floating islands on which the Uros people of Lake Titicaca dwell, as well as occurring on isolated Easter Island in the Pacific.
Boats have also been made from this plant by many cultures, including the Caballito de totora in Peru for over 3,000 years. The plants are still farmed in wetlands next to the sea for the boats, and there is also an ecological reserve that specifically protects these sedge farms called the Swamps of Huanchaco.


Schoenoplectus pungens is a species of flowering plant in the sedge family known as common threesquare, common three-square bulrush and sharp club-rush. It is a herbaceous emergent plant that is widespread across much of North and South America as well as Europe, New Zealand and Australia.


Schoenoplectus pungens is a long-lived perennial herb up to 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) tall. The foliage is dark green, rough and dense. The small flowers are grouped in dense spikelets, with of 1–7 spikelets on each stem. The seeds are brown.
It is closely related to S. americanus, and many S. pungens specimens have long been misidentified as S. americanus.


Scilla bifolia, the alpine squill or two-leaf squill, is a herbaceous perennial plant growing from an underground bulb, belonging to the genus Scilla of the family Asparagaceae.
The Latin specific epithet bifolia means "twin leaved".


Scilla bifolia grows from a bulb 1–2 cm (0.4–0.8 in) across. There are two or rarely three lance-shaped, curved, fleshy and shiny leaves and the bases of the leaves clasp up to about the half of the stem (amplexicaul).
The flowering stems are erect and unbranched, 10–20 cm (4–8 in) high. The raceme bears 6-10 flowers, each 1 cm (0.4 in) across.
The flowers of Scilla bifolia are upward-facing, unlike the nodding flowers of Scilla siberica (Siberian squill). They bloom from early to late spring. The six tepals are deep violet-blue, more rarely white, pink, or purple. The fruit is a capsule 6–8 mm (0.2–0.3 in) across.
S. bifolia has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


Synonyms of Scilla bifolia include:
Adenoscilla bifolia (L.) Gren.
Anthericum bifolium (L.) Scop. [1771]
Genlisa bifolia (L.) Raf. [1840]
Hyacinthus bifolia (L.) E.H.L.Krause in Sturm [1906]
Ornithogalum bifolium (L.) Neck. [1770]
Scilla alpina Schur [1852]
Scilla carnea Sweet [1830]
Scilla decidua Speta [1976]
Scilla dubia K.Koch [1847]
Scilla longistylosa Speta [1976]
Scilla minor K.Koch [1847]
Scilla nivalis Boiss. [1844]
Scilla pleiophylla Speta [1980]
Scilla resslii Speta [1977]
Scilla secunda Janka [1856]
Scilla silvatica Czetz [1872]
Scilla uluensis Speta [1976]
Scilla voethorum Speta [1980]
Scilla xanthandra   K.Koch   [1847]
Stellaris bifolia (L.) Moench


Scilla bifolia is native to Europe and western Russia south through Turkey to Syria. The plant is found in shady places, woods of beech or deciduous trees, and mountain grasslands. It grows at an altitude of 100–2,000 m (330–6,560 ft) above sea level.


Scilla forbesii, known as Forbes' glory-of-the-snow,  is a bulbous perennial plant from west Turkey flowering in early spring. It is considered synonymous with Scilla siehei, known as Siehe's glory-of-the-snow, by some sources, although others distinguish them. It belongs to a group of Scilla species that were formerly put in a separate genus, Chionodoxa, and may now be treated as Scilla sect. Chionodoxa. After flowering, it goes into dormancy until the next spring. It seeds readily to form colonies.


Like all members of the former genus Chionodoxa, the bases of the stamens are flattened and closely clustered in the middle of the flower. In other species of Scilla, the stamens are not flattened or clustered together.
Each bulb produces two leaves, up to 12 cm long and 2 cm wide, and at most one flowering stem, up to 10.5 cm long. The flowers are produced in a broadly pyramidal raceme, with up to 12 flowers per stem. The lower ones face outwards, the upper ones face upward. Each flower is up to 3 cm across, with individual tepals 1.3 cm long. The base of each tepal is white (as are the stamen filaments), producing a white 'eye'. The outer part of the tepals is deep blue to violet-blue.
For those who differentiate S. siehei from S. forbesii, S. forbesii differs by having fewer, smaller upward-facing flowers, which are a deep blue, rather than violet-blue.


Scilla forbesii, taken to include S. siehei, is native to western and southern Turkey. Yildirim et al., who distinguish between S. forbesii and S. siehei, give the two slightly different distributions within Turkey. S. forbesii is said to occur only on Babadağ Mountain in Muğla Province, whereas S. siehei is found only on Nif Mountain in İzmir Province.


Scilla forbesii is the commonest species grown in gardens, where it is often wrongly called S. luciliae.
Scilla forbesii can be bought as dry bulbs (often under the alternative names Scilla luciliae, Chionodoxa luciliae, Scilla siehei or Chionodoxa siehei)  and planted while dormant in late summer or early autumn at a depth of 8–10 cm. It requires light when in growth, but can be grown under deciduous trees or shrubs, as the foliage dies down after flowering. It will flower in early to mid Spring. The common blue form seeds freely in many gardens, creating large colonies.
Scilla siehei, then regarded as a separate species, was awarded the RHS Award of Garden Merit in 1993, which was reconfirmed in 2005.< The variety alba has white flowers, and the cultivar 'Pink Giant' has pink flowers with white centres.


Scilla siberica, the Siberian squill or wood squill, is a species of flowering plant in the family Asparagaceae, native to southwestern Russia, the Caucasus, and Turkey. Despite its name, it is not native to Siberia.


Growing to 10–20 cm (4–8 in) tall by 5 cm (2 in) wide, it is a bulbous perennial, with two to four strap-shaped leaves appearing in early spring, at the same time as the nodding, blue, bell-shaped flowers.
The flowers have six tepals and six stamens, and are arranged singly or in racemes of two or three. Petals may be reflexed to the horizontal when sunlight is bright, but are more often cup-shaped. The flowers are usually blue, but those of Scilla siberica var. alba are white. The stamens of Scilla are separate, unlike those of the related genus Puschkinia, which are fused into a tube. The pollen is dark blue.
After flowering, the flower stems become limp as capsules (pods) mature. At maturity, the capsules become purple and split open, releasing small, dark brown seeds. When the seeds are mature, the leaves wither and the plant goes dormant until the next spring.
The seedlings are hollow-leaved.


S. siberica is cultivated for its bluebell-like flowers. It naturalizes rapidly from seed. At 15 cm (5.9 in), it is suitable for planting in grass, and will spread by seed to form large colonies that go dormant by the time grass needs to be mowed. In the Midwestern United States it is becoming invasive in some situations.
This plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


Scirpus atrovirens, known as dark-green bulrush, is a perennial sedge native to wetlands of eastern Canada and the United States. It is sometimes called dark green bulsedge, black bulrush, or green bulrush.
It was first formally named by Carl Ludwig Willdenow in 1809.
Scirpus atrovirens grows in a wide variety of wetland habitats, typically in sunny areas rather than shady. It can be found in wet meadows and shrubby thickets, openings in swamps, marshes, shorelines, as well as roadside ditches. The plant can grow up to five feet tall, and thrives in hardiness zones 3–9.
It is closely related to Scirpus hattorianus and Scirpus georgianus, with mature fruits necessary for accurate identification.


Scirpus microcarpus is a species of flowering plant in the sedge family known by the common names panicled bulrush, smallfruit bulrush, and barberpole bulrush. It is native to North America, where it can be found throughout the northern and western regions, from Alaska across Canada to the northeastern United States, in most of the central and western states, and in Baja California. It grows in many types of moist and wet habitat. It is a perennial herb growing from a long rhizome system. The erect, three-angled stems often exceed one meter tall. Sheathing leaves occur at the stem bases as well as higher up the stems. The inflorescence is a panicle of many clusters of spikelets and leaflike bracts on long, thin branches. The fruit is a pale, smooth achene less than 2 millimeters long.


Scirpus pendulus is a species of flowering plant in the sedge family known by the common names pendulous bulrush, rufous bulrush, and nodding bulrush. It is native to North America, where it can be found throughout the eastern United States and Canada, through the American midwest, some areas of the western United States, and into Mexico. It is also known as an introduced species in Australia. It grows in many types of moist and wet habitat, including disturbed areas such as ditches, and sometimes in drier areas. It is a perennial herb growing from a short, thick rhizome system. The erect, three-angled stems grow singly or in tufts and clumps, easily reaching one meter tall. Sheathing leaves occur at the stem bases as well as higher up the stems, the blades reaching up to 40 centimeters. The inflorescence is a panicle of many clusters of spikelets which hang on long, thin branches, often nodding or drooping, especially as the fruit develops.


Scirpus sylvaticus, the wood clubrush, is a species of flowering plant in the sedge family.
Scirpus sylvaticus can reach 1 m, and has triangular stems.
S. sylvaticus widespread in Eurasia, is very common in the European part of Russia and in Southern Siberia. It is most often a coastal species, occurring in wet habitat such as marshes in brackish and saltwater, along swamps, along the banks of water bodies, in marshy forests and in wet meadows. It is a perennial herb growing from a rhizome system with associated tubers.
This plant is an important food source for waterfowl. The seeds are food for birds and other animals, such as muskrats.


Scoliopus bigelovii is a species of flowering plant in the lily family known by several common names, including California fetid adderstongue, Bigelow's adderstongue, slinkpod, and brownies. It is native to California, where it is known from the Santa Cruz Mountains, parts of the San Francisco Bay Area and North Coast Ranges. It has also been collected just over the border in Oregon. It occurs in old-growth forest in the understory of redwoods. It grows in mossy, moist places, often in shade.
This herbaceous perennial, one of two species of Scoliopus, grows from a rhizome and a small section of underground stem. The above-ground parts include two large leaves each up to 24 cm × 10 cm (9.4 in × 3.9 in). There are sometimes 3 or 4 leaves. They have several longitudinal veins and are green with darker green or purplish mottling. The inflorescence is actually an umbel of flowers, but the peduncle is mostly underground with 3 to 12 flower-bearing pedicels rising above the surface, appearing separate. The flower has three flat, spreading, pointed oval or lance-shaped sepals and three narrower, linear or fingerlike petals. The sepals are pale or greenish and striped or streaked with dark purple. The flower has a disagreeable scent. The three short stamens are located at the bases of the sepals. The style has three long, often curving branches. The fruit is a capsule. As it matures, the pedicel that bears it twists or droops down to bring it in contact with the substrate.
The flower is pollinated by fungus gnats of the genera Mycetophilla, Sciara, and Corynoptera. Seeds are dispersed by ants, including Formica fusca, Formica rufibaris, and Aphaenogaster subterranea.


Scoparia dulcis is a species of flowering plant in the plantain family. Common names include licorice weed, goatweed, scoparia-weed and sweet-broom in English, tapeiçava, tapixaba, and vassourinha in Portuguese, escobillo in Spanish, and tipychä kuratu in Guarani. It is native to the Neotropics but it can be found throughout the tropical and subtropical world.
Although S. dulcis is considered a weed in many parts of India and Bangladesh, its use in traditional medicine has led to overexploitation. The plant is also found as a weed in Florida citrus groves.


As a traditional medicine, S. dulcis has been used for diabetes in India and hypertension in Taiwan. In Siddha medicine it is used for treatment of kidney stones, but it needs rigorous diet method. It is called  kallurukki (stone melter) in Tamil. In Brazil, it has been used for various problems such as hemorrhoids and wounds.


Chemicals that have been isolated from S. dulcis include scoparinol.


Scopula immorata, the Lewes wave, is a moth of the family Geometridae. It is found throughout Europe and the Near East.
The wingspan is 20–27 millimetres (0.79–1.06 in). The moth flies in two generations from the end of June to mid August in western Europe.
The larva feeds on various low-growing plants like thyme and oregano. Mating occurs from the males seeking out females in simple courtship behavior, taking place at ~6-10am for an hour to an hour and a half.


Scopula immorata immorata
Scopula immorata duercki Sheljuzhko, 1955


Scrophularia californica is a flowering plant in the figwort family which is known by the common names California figwort and California bee plant.
It is native to the western United States, including many habitats in California, and in British Columbia.


Scrophularia californica is an unassuming plant with triangular, toothed, blue-green leaves in pairs opposite each other on a spindly, squared stem.
The brownish-magenta flowers are rounded, hollow buds about a centimeter long with two long upper lobes.
This species is a strong bee attractant and also serves as a host plant for variable checkerspot larvae.


Scudderia furcata is a species in the family Tettigoniidae ("katydids"), in the order Orthoptera ("grasshoppers, crickets, katydids"). A common name for Scudderia furcata is fork-tailed bush katydid. The distribution range of Scudderia furcata includes Central America and North America.


Scutellaria mexicana,  commonly known by variants on bladder sage or paperbag bush, is a shrub of the mint family Lamiaceae distinctive for its calyx lobes that develop into small bag- or bladder-like shells around the fruits.


It is widespread in sandy and gravelly slopes, desert dry washes, and canyons in the southwestern deserts of North America, including in creosote bush scrub and Joshua tree woodland plant communities in the Mojave, Sonoran and Chihuahuan Deserts in southern California, Nevada, southwestern Utah, Arizona, western Texas, Chihuahua, Sonora, and Baja California.
These bushes occupy a variety of habitats in their range, including washes, gravelly or sandy slopes, shrubland, and woodland, often growing intermixed with other shrubs. The range extends from the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada and the deserts of California, east to Texas and south into Mexico. They are relatively common; although both the foliage and flowers are sparse, the distinctive pattern of bags makes them easy to spot from a distance.


This plant takes the form of a rounded shrub, typically 50–100 cm high, sometimes larger.


The stems form a spreading rigid pattern, with the tips often becoming spine-like. The branching pattern is distinctive, with opposite side branches forming right angles to the main stem. The plant drops its leaves in dry conditions (drought deciduous).
The leaves are opposite, small, 3–15 mm long and 2–8 mm wide, ovate to elliptic, have smooth edges (entire), and with a very short or nonexistent petiole.


The 2-lipped flowers develop in pairs facing away from each other; the upper lip is white to light violet and hairy, while the lower lip is 3-lobed and intense dark violet. The calyx starts out as simply a base to the flower, reddish-purple in shade, and then as the flower ages, it expands into its distinctive bag shape, 1–2 cm across, the dried flower eventually falling out of the hole in the end.
The fruit inside the dried calyx bags is composed of 4 nutlets. The plant drops its leaves in dry conditions (drought deciduous). The dried bags help with seed dispersal by wind.
Flowering is generally April through June, but the bags are durable and may last on the plant into winter, becoming dry and papery.


The former genus name, "Salazaria", is after astronomer José Salazar y Larregui, Mexican commissioner for the United States and Mexican Boundary Survey of 1848–55.


Scutellaria parvula, commonly known as the small skullcap, is a member of the mint family. It is native to eastern and central North America, being most common in the central states and become rare in the east. It is found in areas that provide ample sunlight, such as prairies, glades, and savannas, often in calcareous soil. Flowering time is from late spring to early summer.
The closely related Scutellaria australis is sometimes considered a variety of this species.


The tree seldom reaches a height of more than 2 metres and can spread as a shrub over several meters too.
The stems and branches are upright and erect. Young stems are red, shiny, resinous and sticky.
The leaves are shiny ("lucida" = "shiny"), trifoliate, leathery (sub-coriaceous), and a dark to olive green colour (often becoming orange before being shed).
The leaflets' shape is obovate-cuneate, often with small notches in their rounded tips. The leaflets are the same colour above and below, with a prominent central keel and fine lateral veins visible. Damaged leaf-surfaces become pale, almost white.
The leaf's petiole (stalk) is slightly winged, at least along its upper half.
It produces creamy-white flowers from June to October, in small, sparse, terminal inflorescences. The flowers are small, with petals less than 2 mm long.
It bears spherical fruits 4–5 mm in diameter, which are initially green and turn shiny brown as they mature (Oct-Nov). The fruits are eaten by birds.


This species closely resembles Searsia pallens and Searsia undulata, which co-occur over much of its distribution range.
The leaf of Searsia pallens also has a 10mm petiole that is slightly winged, but it has leaflets that are much longer (40mm) than they are wide (10mm). Its leaflets have 4 to 6 lateral veins per centimeter.
Searsia pallens also has glossy fruits that are 4-5mm wide, but its fruits are elliptical-ovoid.
Searsia lucida in contrast, has a rounded fruit, and fewer lateral veins on its leaves (only 2 or 3 per centimeter). The leaflets of Searsia lucida are also broader and more oval in shape.


This small tree has a distribution along the West Coast of South Africa from Saldanha Bay around the Cape and up the East Coast almost until the Mozambique border. Its distribution area also encompasses the whole of Kwazulu-Natal and stretches in an arm past Swaziland, right up the Lowveld areas of Mpumalanga and into Limpopo Province, almost to the Zimbabwe border.
It is found in scrub or forest areas from sea level to 2000 metres above.


Biting stonecrop is a tufted evergreen perennial that forms mat-like stands some 5 to 12 cm (2 to 5 in) tall. For much of the year the stems are short, semi-prostrate and densely clad in leaves. At the flowering time in June and July, the stems lengthen and are erect, somewhat limp and often pinkish-brown with the leaves further apart. The leaves are alternate, fleshy and shortly cylindrical with a rounded tip. They are also sometimes tinged with red. The starry flowers form a three to six-flowered cyme. The calyx has five fleshy sepals fused at the base, the corolla consists of five regular bright yellow petals, there are ten stamens, a separate gynoecium and five pistils. The fruit consists of five united, many-seeded follicles. The leaves contain an acrid fluid that can cause skin rashes.


Biting stonecrop is a low-growing plant that cannot compete with more vigorous, fast-growing species. It is specially adapted for growing on thin dry soils and can be found on shingle, beaches, drystone walls, dry banks, seashore rocks, roadside verges, wasteland and in sandy meadows near the sea.


Biting stonecrop spreads when allowed to do so, but is easily controlled, being shallow-rooted.  It is used in hanging baskets and container gardens, as a trailing accent, in borders, or as groundcover.  This plant grows as a creeping ground cover, often in dry sandy soil, but also in the cracks of masonry. It grows well in poor soils, sand, rock gardens, and rich garden soil, under a variety of light levels.


Sedum album, the white stonecrop, is a flowering plant of the genus Sedum in the family Crassulaceae. It is found in the northern temperate regions of the world, often growing in crevices or free-draining rocky soil. As a long-day plant it grows vegetatively for most of the year and flowers in summer.


Three subspecies album, micranthum (Bastard ex DC.) Syme and teretifolium Syme have been described.


White stonecrop is a tufted perennial herb that forms mat-like stands. Much of the year the stems are short, semi prostrate and densely clad in leaves. At the flowering time in July and August, the stems lengthen and are erect, occasionally branched and often pinkish-brown. The leaves are alternate, fleshy and nearly cylindrical with a blunt, rounded tip. They are also sometimes tinged with pink, especially in drought-stressed plants. The starry flowers form a dense cyme. The calyx has five fleshy sepals fused at the base, the corolla consists of five regular white petals, there are ten stamens, a separate gynoecium and five pistils. The fruit is five united, many-seeded follicles.


White stonecrop is a low-growing plant that cannot compete with more vigorous fast-growing species. It is specially adapted for growing on thin dry soils and can be found on walls, dry banks, seashore rocks and in rocky meadows.


Sedum album is able to acclimate to its environment. It can switch between C3 carbon fixation and crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) depending on the availability of water. CAM saves water as the stomata on its leaves only open to allow CO₂ to diffuse into the leaves at night when the temperature (and therefore evapotranspiration) is lower.
Drought stressed plants are also more susceptible to photoinhibition which CAM may help to protect against.


It is a small perennial plant with green/turquoise or gray/green opposite leaves and a creeping stem forming shrubs. Its flowers are white and small with little black dots on the petals and green ovaries. The Sedum dasyphyllum, typical of the Mediterranean region, usually grows among the rocks, especially among the tuff walls of rural areas.


Sedum sexangulare, also known as tasteless stonecrop, is a species of succulent perennial and evergreen plant of the genus Sedum. It is similar to Sedum acre, but has shorter and denser leaves. It gained the binomial name ("six-angled") for its characteristic six spirals of leaves. S. sexangulare is about 15 cm (5 in) tall and is native to Europe and Asia, where it grows in the wild and is often cultivated as an ornamental plant. The plant needs wet or dry sandy soil and a sunny spot. It blooms in June and July with yellow, star-shaped flowers, which attract bees and other insects.


Selaginella lepidophylla (syn. Lycopodium lepidophyllum) is a species of desert plant in the spikemoss family (Selaginellaceae).  Known as a "resurrection plant", S. lepidophylla is renowned for its ability to survive almost complete desiccation. During dry weather in its native habitat, its stems curl into a tight ball, uncurling only when exposed to moisture.
The outer stems of the plant bend into circular rings after a relatively short period without water. The inner stems instead curl slowly into spirals in response to desiccation, due to the action of the strain gradient along their length.  Selaginella lepidophylla reaches a maximum height of 5 cm, and is native to the Chihuahuan Desert.


Common names for this plant include flower of stone, false rose of Jericho, rose of Jericho, resurrection plant, resurrection moss, dinosaur plant, siempre viva, stone flower,  and doradilla.
Selaginella lepidophylla is not to be confused with Anastatica hierochuntica a flowering plant in the mustard family, Brassicaceae, known as the true Rose of Jericho. Selaginella lepidophylla is a true resurrection plant that can revive and regain metabolic function after a period of extreme desiccation. Anastatica hierochuntica is not a resurrection plant, but rather a tumbleweed capable of repeated hygroscopic expansion and retraction, which superficially resembles revival.


The striking feature of Selaginella lepidophylla is its adaptation to conditions of prolonged drought in its natural environment.  It deploys the physiological strategy of drying up and rolling inwards in the absence of water to form a ball, and can survive for up to several years, and lose up to 95% of its moisture content, without suffering damage.
When ground and air humidity begin to rise again, even a considerable time after it has wilted, the plant "resuscitates". If rehydrated, it continues its life cycle, fully recovering its photosynthesis and growth abilities. When desiccated, its rooted leaves become leathery at the base, appearing dark brown or light to reddish brown.
The dry ball opens a few hours after being placed in contact with water, the parched leaves gradually resuming their green colour. If the roots are not too damaged, the plant may survive in pozzolanic ash. No matter how dried or damaged it becomes, because of the particular biological structure of its leaves the plant retains the ability to imbibe water and unfold itself, even many years after its death.
The plant enters a dormant state in the absence of water, avoiding tissue and cell damage during drying by synthesizing trehalose, a crystallized sugar that acts as a compatible solute. Dissolved salts become concentrated in the plant tissues as water evaporates. The trehalose produced by the plant acts in place of the evaporating water, so preventing the salts from causing damage and protecting against death due to an excess of salinity. S. lepidophylla also uses betaines, substances which have the same function as trehalose.
Once water is restored to the plant tissues, the sugar crystals dissolve and the plant's metabolism, until then paralyzed, reactivates. Leaves that seemed dead turn green, and open.


Adapted to the desert environment, Selaginella lepidophylla can survive without water for several years, drying up until it retains only 3% of its mass. The plant can live and reproduce in arid regions for long periods of time. When living conditions become too difficult, the plant's survival mechanism allows it to dry out gradually. Its leaves turn brown and fold in, giving the plant the appearance of a ball. In dormancy, all of its metabolic functions are reduced to a minimum.


Where drought persists, the roots may detach, allowing the plant to be carried by the wind. If it encounters moisture, Selaginella lepidophylla may rehydrate and take root in the new location.
Plants that go through the resurrection process are not always able to "rise again". If dehydration has been too rapid, or in the event of irregular alternation of drought and wet conditions, the plant has insufficient time to prepare properly to resist the water stress to which it is subjected. Likewise, the ability to dry up and rehydrate may diminish, in which case, after dozens of cycles of alternate desiccation and regrowth, the plant dies.
As a sporophyte, S. lepidophylla  does not produce flowers or seeds but reproduces through spores. Selaginella are neither aquatic plants nor epiphytic plants.


Selaginella lepidophylla is sold as a novelty item, as bare root stock in its dry state, in which it may be revived with only a little water.
The plant's ability to survive extreme desiccation was noted by Spanish missionaries when they reached the New World, including the area that was to become the United States. The intruding missionaries used S. lepidophylla to demonstrate to potential native converts the concept of being reborn and convince them to abandon their native religious beliefs and traditions. Because of its properties, the false rose of Jericho was considered a lucky charm, and was passed on in families from generation to generation.
Selaginella lepidophylla has been used as a herbal medicine. An infusion is made by steeping a tablespoon of dried material in hot water, and the resulting tea is used to treat colds and sore throat.
In Mexico, S. lepidophylla is sold as a diuretic. Women drink the water in which the plant is soaked to facilitate childbirth. The speed at which the plant blossoms in the water is interpreted as an indication of whether the delivery will be easy or difficult.
The plant is also used in the rites of voodoo and Cuban santería to invoke love and fortune. The plant is said to absorb "negative energy" when worn on the body.


Selaginella rupestris, the northern selaginella sometimes locally known as ledge spike-moss or rock spike-moss, is a species of spike-moss occurring in dry rocky places in eastern North America, including one locality in Greenland.  It has a wide but sporadic range. In the absence of water, it rolls into a ball for which, it is also known as bird nest moss. Again, when it comes in contact with water, it opens up.

It is listed as imperiled and threatened in the State of Indiana.


The calliope hummingbird (/kəˈlaɪ.əpi/ kə-LY-ə-pee; Selasphorus calliope) is the smallest bird native to the United States and Canada. It has a western breeding range mainly from California to British Columbia, and migrates to the Southwestern United States, Mexico, and Central America for its wintering grounds. It was previously considered the only member of the genus Stellula, but recent evidence suggests placement in the genus Selasphorus. This bird was named after the Greek muse Calliope. The former genus name means "little star".


The calliope is the smallest breeding bird found in Canada and the United States. The only smaller species ever found in the U.S. is the bumblebee hummingbird, an accidental vagrant from Mexico. An adult calliope hummingbird can measure 7–10 cm (2.8–3.9 in) in length, span 11 cm (4.3 in) across the wings and weigh 2 to 3 g (0.071 to 0.106 oz).
Calliope hummingbirds have glossy green on the back and crown with white underparts. The adult male has wine-red streaks on the gorget, green flanks and a dark tail. Females and immatures have a pinkish wash on the flanks, dark streaks on the throat and a dark tail with white tips. The only similar birds are the rufous hummingbird and the Allen's hummingbird, but these birds are larger with more distinct and contrasting rufous markings on tail and flanks, and longer central tail feathers.


The breeding habitat of calliope hummingbird is varied among open shrub habitats and altitudes. Nesting usually occurs at higher altitudes in the Rocky Mountains. Nests have been observed from as low as 600 ft (180 m) in Oregon and Washington elevation to the tree line at over 11,000 ft (3,400 m). In Montana, the minimum elevation observed for breeding is 1,200 m (3,900 ft). Open montane forest, mountain meadows, and willow and alder thickets may variously serve as breeding grounds. During migration and winter, they also occur in chaparral, lowland brushy areas, deserts and semi-desert regions. They nest in western North America from southern British Columbia and Alberta south to Colorado and southern California. During spring and summer, they move, mainly through Arizona and New Mexico and northern Mexico, to winter in southwestern Mexico as well as in Guatemala and Belize.


Calliope hummingbirds are a migratory bird, generally leaving their breeding grounds earlier than most birds (although not as early as the rufous hummingbird) to take advantage of the late-summer wildflowers in the mountains of western North America. They are believed to be the smallest-bodied long distance migrant in the world.
These birds feed on nectar from flowers using a long extendable tongue, drink sap from holes created by sapsuckers or catch insects on the wing. While collecting nectar, they also assist in plant pollination. Plants preferred for pollinating include paintbrush, penstemon, columbine, trumpet gilia, and elephant head. They will also occasionally catch and eat small insects and spiders.
Adult males usually arrive on the breeding ground before females, from mid-April to early May. The male claims and vigorously defends a nesting territory in which he will breed with many females. The male takes no part in raising the young and often actually vacates the breeding grounds by the time the young hatch. The female usually builds an open cup nest in a conifer tree under an overhanging branch, though apple and alder trees have also been used. The nest is often built on the base of large pine cones and somewhat resembles a pine cone itself. A nest may be used repeatedly over the course of several years. Two eggs are laid from late May to early July and are incubated for 15 to 16 days. The young are capable of flight about 20 days after hatching.


The prominent humming sound of a calliope hummingbird – as for all hummingbirds during flight and hovering – derives from its rapid wingbeats while feeding or interacting with other hummingbirds. Humming serves as an audible communication to alert other birds of the arrival of a fellow forager or potential mate. The humming sound derives from aerodynamic forces generated by both the downstrokes and upstrokes of the rapid wingbeats, producing acoustic oscillations and harmonics.


During courtship, a male calliope hummingbird hovers at accelerated wingbeat frequency up to 95 flaps per second (42% higher than normal hovering),  creating a loud buzzing sound, with throat feathers protruding and facing a female. The male then ascends temporarily to 20 meters and dives at high speed, with the rapid descent causing sonation of wing and tail feathers combined with vocalization, intending to attract attention of the female. Research in a wind tunnel demonstrated that the male courtship display includes
sounds produced by three independent feather or vocal components, each with different acoustic characteristics, thus potentially containing different messages appealing to the female. The tail feathers flutter at high frequency and hit each other to produce the buzzing sound.


The high metabolic rate of calliope hummingbirds – especially during rapid forward flight and hovering – produces increased body heat that requires specialized mechanisms of temperature regulation for dissipating heat, which becomes an even greater challenge in hot, humid climates. As the smallest North American hummingbird species, calliopes appear to adapt their relatively higher surface-to-volume ratio to improve convective cooling from air movement by the wings. When air temperatures rise above 36 °C (97 °F), thermal gradients driving heat passively by convective dissipation from around the eyes, shoulders, and feet are reduced or eliminated, requiring heat dissipation mainly by evaporation and exhalation.
All hummingbirds dissipate heat partially by exhaled air, and from body structures with thin or no feather covering, such as around the eyes, shoulders, under the wings (patagia), and feet.  While hovering, calliope hummingbirds do not benefit from the heat loss by air convection during forward flight, except for air movement generated by their rapid wing-beat, possibly aiding convective heat loss from the extended feet.


Many species of pollinators, including the calliope hummingbird, have shown decreases in certain populations. Little information is available on the overall issues that are causing these declines but possible threats include habitat loss, increased use of pesticides, and replacement of native plants by non-native plants (although, on the other hand, many hummingbirds benefit from non-native plants in gardens that provide additional food). The restricted wintering range of calliope hummingbirds makes the species more susceptible to natural disasters, diseases, or land use changes that could wipe out significant portions of the population. The calliope hummingbird has not been well studied, leaving much of its life history unknown.


The broad-tailed hummingbird (Selasphorus platycercus) is a medium-sized hummingbird species found in highland regions from western United States and Western Canada to Mexico and Guatemala.


Medium in size, the broad-tailed hummingbird is 4 inches (10 cm) in length and possesses an overall wingspan of 5.25 inches (13.3 cm). Weighing around 3.6 grams (0.13 oz), the female tends to be slightly larger than the male. Adults of both sexes show an iridescent green back, white eye ring and a rounded black tail projecting beyond their wing tips, from which their name was inspired.
This species shows sexual dimorphism, which means that male and female have different characteristics. The male possesses a characteristic bright rose-red gorget. An identification characteristic is the white eye ring. The female can be distinguished from the male by her paler coloration, cinnamon flanks, and spotted cheeks absent in the male.


The broad-tailed hummingbird, Selasphorus platycercus, is a member of the order Apodiformes, in the family Trochilidae. Hummingbird taxonomy has not been extensively studied, but its phylogenic division can be divided as a family into nine clades in which the broad-tailed hummingbird is a member of the "Bee group" and included in the Selasphorus genus. This genus is composed of 6 members taxonomically distinguished based on color characteristics. This genus is characterized by hummingbirds with a plumage containing rufous coloration and a neck gorget of orange to purple in males.
Members of this genus include:
Selasphorus sasin : Allen's hummingbird
Selasphorus rufus : Rufous hummingbird
Selasphorus scintilla : Scintillant hummingbird
Selasphorus ardens : Glow-throated hummingbird
Selasphorus flammula :Volcano hummingbird
On a geographic scale, the genus Selasphorus can be subdivided into 2 groups of species, one living in North America, and a second in the region of Costa Rica and Panama.


This hummingbird is seen in the understory or under tree canopies of pine and oak woodland. It forages in open areas with flowers or in grasslands among trees and shrubs. Its breeding habitat is mainly in subalpine meadows, foothills, montane valleys, and stands of aspen or spruce.


The broad-tailed hummingbird is found from Guatemala to Mexico, and western United States and Western Canada during summer, while wintering regions are mainly in southern Mexico and Guatemala.


This species exhibits partial migration, depending on the northern range during winter. The specific migratory route used by the broad-tailed hummingbird remains unknown, although migrating populations winter in southern Mexico or Guatemala and return to their breeding area in spring. Males arrive first to the breeding range, followed by breeding females. Some populations of the broad-tailed hummingbird in southern Mexico and Guatemala do not migrate, a variation in behavior called "sedentary".


The broad-tailed hummingbird produces several different sound patterns. This bird's call sounds like a sharp “cheet”, which is repeated “cheet cheet cheet cheet...”. Hummingbird wing beats have also been found to be a communication signal. These birds produce two different types of sound using their wing beat. The first one is a “wing hum” and is simply produced when the hummingbird flies. This type of wing beat has a sound that ranges from 35 to 100 Hz, and both sexes are able to produce it for communication. The second is “wing trills” produced by the male hummingbird during courtship displays. The wing trill produces a buzzing sound and can be heard 50 m away by other males and 75 m away by other females. This sound is produced when air passes rapidly through the 9th and 10th primary feathers. In one experiment, birds without this wing trill lost their territory more easily to more aggressive birds.


The diet of the broad-tailed hummingbirds consists mainly of insects and nectar of plants that are “hummingbird-flowered”. These types of flower are characterized by high nectar production and red corollas with a tubular shape, such as Aquilegia elegantula.


The range of breeding locations appear to be from central Montana in the north to Guatemala in the south. Although  broad-tailed hummingbirds have been seen in British Columbia, these birds appear to be accidental migrants, with no evidence for breeding at such northern latitudes.


The broad-tailed hummingbird has a promiscuous mating system and does not form a pair bond. The reproduction time for broad-tailed hummingbirds correlated with the time flower production is at its peak.


In 70% of cases, females return to their nest site from one year to the next. Females build their nest alone, without the male help. The overall nest construction may take around 4 to 5 days. The nest has an overall cup shape and is stuck to a tree branch with spider webs, camouflaged by the addition of an external layer of lichen, moss, and tree material. Nest material can be stolen by other females for the construction of a nest.


Selenisa sueroides, the pale-edged selenisa or legume caterpillar, is an owlet moth in the family Erebidae. The species was first described by Achille Guenée in 1852. It is found in North America.
The MONA or Hodges number for Selenisa sueroides is 8658.
Some systems of Microtubing to help irrigate commercial crops have been compromised, as the larvae of S. sueroides had damaged the pipes in the citrus groves of south Florida. The caterpillars had munched holes in the plastic tubing to penetrate the pipes and then pupate. They seemed to prefer black tubing compared to coloured tubing.


Sempervivum arachnoideum, the cobweb house-leek, is a species of flowering plant in the family Crassulaceae, native to European mountains, in the Alps, Apennines and Carpathians. Growing to 8 cm (3 in) tall by 30 cm (12 in) wide, it is a rosette-forming succulent perennial, valued in cultivation for its ability to colonise hot, dry areas via offsets.
The specific epithet arachnoideum refers to its furry central rosettes (long ciliate leaf margins), resembling spider webs.
It flowers in July, with pink flowers that are raised on stems and are hermaphroditic (having both male and female organs).
This plant, and the subspecies Sempervivum arachnoideum subsp. tomentosum, have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


Sempervivum tectorum, the common houseleek, is a species of flowering plant in the family Crassulaceae, native to the mountains of southern Europe, cultivated in the whole of Europe for its appearance and a Roman tradition claiming that it protects buildings against lightning strikes.


Growing to 15 cm (6 in) tall by 50 cm (20 in) broad, it is a rosette-forming succulent evergreen perennial, spreading by offsets. It has grey-green, tufted, sessile leaves, 4–10 cm (2–4 in) in diameter, which are often suffused with rose-red. In summer it bears clusters of reddish-purple flowers, in multiples of 8-16, on hairy erect flat-topped stems. The species is highly variable, in part because hundreds of cultivars have been propagated, sold, and traded for nearly 200 years.
Sempervivum tectorum was described in 1753 by Linnaeus, who noted that its leaves are ciliate, that is, fringed with hairs.


This plant has been known to humans for thousands of years, and has attracted many common names and traditions. In addition to common houseleek, names include variations of the following:-
bullock's beard
devil's beard
earwort
fuet
healing blade
homewort
imbroke
Jove's beard
Jupiter's eye
poor Jan's leaf
red-leaved houseleek
roof foil
roof houseleek
St. George's Beard
St. Patrick's cabbage
sengreen
Thor's beard
thunderplant
Welcome-home-husband-though-never-so-drunk—a name it sometimes shares with Sedum acre.
hen and chicks - a name shared with several other plants
The specific epithet tectorum means "of house roofs", referring to a traditional location for these plants.


Sempervivum tectorum is one of several houseleek species to be cultivated. It is valued as groundcover for hot, dry places. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.