With maturity, the tart flavour of redcurrant fruit is slightly greater than its blackcurrant relative, but with the same approximate sweetness. The white-fruited variant of redcurrant, often referred to as white currant, has the same tart flavour but with greater sweetness. Although frequently cultivated for jams and cooked preparations, much like the white currant, it is often served raw or as a simple accompaniment in salads, garnishes, or drinks when in season.
In the United Kingdom, redcurrant jelly is a condiment often served with lamb, game meat including venison, turkey and goose in a festive or Sunday roast. It is essentially a jam and is made in the same way, by adding the redcurrants to sugar, boiling, and straining.
In France, the highly rarefied and hand-made Bar-le-duc or "Lorraine jelly" is a spreadable preparation traditionally made from white currants or alternatively redcurrants. The pips are taken off by hand, originally by monks, with a goose feather, before cooking.
In Scandinavia and Schleswig-Holstein, it is often used in fruit soups and summer puddings (rødgrød, rote grütze or rode grütt). In Germany it is also used in combination with custard or meringue as a filling for tarts.
In Linz, Austria, it is the most commonly used filling for the Linzer torte. It can be enjoyed in its fresh state without the addition of sugar.
In German-speaking areas, syrup or nectar derived from the redcurrant is added to soda water and enjoyed as a refreshing drink named Johannisbeerschorle. It is so named because the redcurrants (Johannisbeeren, "John's berry" in German) are said to ripen first on St. John's Day, also known as Midsummer Day, June 24.
In Russia, redcurrants are ubiquitous and used in jams, preserves, compotes and desserts. It is also used to make kissel, a sweet healthy drink made from fresh berries or fruits (such as red currants, cherries, cranberries). The leaves have many uses in traditional medicine, such as making an infusion with black tea. Also the plants were cultivated in Russian monastery gardens in the 11th century.


In a 100-gram (3+1⁄2-ounce) reference serving, redcurrants (or white) supply 234 kilojoules (56 kilocalories) of food energy and are a rich source of vitamin C, providing 49% of the Daily Value (DV, table). Vitamin K is the only other essential nutrient in significant content at 10% of DV (table).


Ribes triste, known as the northern redcurrant, swamp redcurrant, or wild redcurrant, is an Asian and North American shrub in the gooseberry family. It is widespread across Canada and the northern United States, as well as in eastern Asia (Russia, China, Korea, Japan).
Ribes triste grows in wet rocky woods, swamps, and cliffs. It grows to 50 cm (20 in) tall, with a lax, often creeping branches. The leaves are alternate, palmately lobed with five lobes, 6–10 cm (2+1⁄4–4 in) in diameter. The flowers are in pendulous racemes, 4–7 cm (1+1⁄2–2+3⁄4 in) long. The axis of the raceme is glandular. Each raceme bears 6-13 small, purplish flowers that appear in June and July. The fruit is a bright red berry, without the hairs that some currants have. The fruit is edible but rather sour.


It is listed as endangered in Connecticut and Ohio, and as threatened in Pennsylvania.


Ribes is listed a plant pest in Michigan and the planting of it in certain parts of the state is prohibited.


Alaska Natives use the fruit as food, eating it raw, and making the berries into jam and jellies. Eskimos eat the berries and the Inupiat eat them raw or cooked, mix them with other berries which are used to make a traditional dessert. They also mix the berries with rosehips and highbush cranberries and boil them into a syrup. The Iroquois mash the fruit, make them into small cakes, and store them for future use. They later soak the fruit cakes in warm water and cooked them a sauce or mixed them with corn bread. They also sun dry or fire dry the raw or cooked fruit for future use and take the dried fruit with them as a hunting food. The Ojibwe eat the berries raw, and also preserve them by cooking them, spreading them on birch bark into little cakes, which are dried and stored for winter use. In the winter, they often eat the berries with cooked with sweet corn. They also use the berries to make jams and preserves. The Upper Tanana eat the berries as food.


Ricinus communis, the castor bean or castor oil plant, is a species of perennial flowering plant in the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae. It is the sole species in the monotypic genus, Ricinus, and subtribe, Ricininae. The evolution of castor and its relation to other species are currently being studied using modern genetic tools.  It reproduces with a mixed pollination system which favors selfing by geitonogamy but at the same time can be an out-crosser by anemophily (wind pollination) or entomophily (insect pollination).
Its seed is the castor bean, which, despite its name, is not a bean (that is, the seed of many Fabaceae). Castor is indigenous to the southeastern Mediterranean Basin, Eastern Africa, and India, but is widespread throughout tropical regions (and widely grown elsewhere as an ornamental plant).
Castor seed is the source of castor oil, which has a wide variety of uses. The seeds contain between 40% and 60% oil that is rich in triglycerides, mainly ricinolein. The seed also contains ricin, a highly potent water-soluble toxin, which is also present in lower concentrations throughout the plant.
The plant known as "false castor oil plant", Fatsia japonica, is not closely related.


Ricinus communis can vary greatly in its growth habit and appearance. The variability has been increased by breeders who have selected a range of cultivars for leaf and flower colours, and for oil production. It is a fast-growing, suckering shrub that can reach the size of a small tree, around 12 metres (39 feet), but it is not cold hardy.
The glossy leaves are 15–45 centimetres (6–18 inches) long, long-stalked, alternate and palmate with five to twelve deep lobes with coarsely toothed segments. In some varieties they start off dark reddish purple or bronze when young, gradually changing to a dark green, sometimes with a reddish tinge, as they mature. The leaves of some other varieties are green practically from the start, whereas in yet others a pigment masks the green color of all the chlorophyll-bearing parts, leaves, stems and young fruit, so that they remain a dramatic purple-to-reddish-brown throughout the life of the plant. Plants with the dark leaves can be found growing next to those with green leaves, so there is most likely only a single gene controlling the production of the pigment in some varieties. The stems and the spherical, spiny seed capsules also vary in pigmentation. The fruit capsules of some varieties are more showy than the flowers.
The flowers lack petals and are unisexual (male and female) where both types are borne on the same plant (monoecious) in terminal panicle-like inflorescences of green or, in some varieties, shades of red. The male flowers are numerous, yellowish-green with prominent creamy stamens; the female flowers, borne at the tips of the spikes, lie within the immature spiny capsules, are relatively few in number and have prominent red stigmas.
The fruit is a spiny, greenish (to reddish-purple) capsule containing large, oval, shiny, bean-like, highly poisonous seeds with variable brownish mottling. Castor seeds have a warty appendage called the caruncle, which is a type of elaiosome. The caruncle promotes the dispersal of the seed by ants (myrmecochory).


Three terpenoids and a tocopherol-related compound have been found in the aerial parts of Ricinus. Compounds named (3E,7Z,11E)-19-hydroxycasba-3,7,11-trien-5-one, 6α-hydroxy-10β-methoxy-7α,8α-epoxy-5-oxocasbane-20,10-olide, 15α-hydroxylup-20(29)-en-3-one, and (2R,4aR,8aR)-3,4,4a,8a-tetrahydro-4a-hydroxy-2,6,7,8a-tetramethyl-2-(4,8, 12-trimethyltridecyl)-2H-chromene-5,8-dione were isolated from the methanol extracts of Ricinus communis by chromatographic methods.
Partitioned h-hexane fraction of Ricinus root methanol extract resulted in enrichment of two triterpenes: lupeol and urs-6-ene-3,16-dione (erandone). Crude methanolic extract, enriched n-hexane fraction and isolates at doses 100 mg/kg p.o. exhibited significant (P < 0.001) anti-inflammatory activity in carrageenan-induced hind paw oedema model.


Carl Linnaeus used the name Ricinus because it is a Latin word for tick; the seed is so named because it has markings and a bump at the end that resemble certain ticks. The genus Ricinus also exists in zoology, and designates insects (not ticks) which are parasites of birds; this is possible because the names of animals and plants are governed by different nomenclature codes.
The common name "castor oil" probably comes from its use as a replacement for castoreum, a perfume base made from the dried perineal glands of the beaver (castor in Latin). It has another common name, palm of Christ, or Palma Christi, that derives from castor oil's reputed ability to heal wounds and cure ailments.


Ricinus communis is the host plant of the common castor butterfly (Ariadne merione), the eri silkmoth (Samia cynthia ricini), and the castor semi-looper moth (Achaea janata). It is also used as a food plant by the larvae of some other species of Lepidoptera, including Hypercompe hambletoni and the nutmeg (Discestra trifolii). A jumping spider Evarcha culicivora has an association with R. communis. They consume the nectar for food and preferentially use these plants as a location for courtship.


Although Ricinus communis is indigenous to the southeastern Mediterranean Basin, Eastern Africa, and India, today it is widespread throughout tropical regions. In areas with a suitable climate, castor establishes itself easily where it can become an invasive plant and can often be found on wasteland.
It is also used extensively as a decorative plant in parks and other public areas, particularly as a "dot plant" in traditional bedding schemes. If sown early, under glass, and kept at a temperature of around 20 °C (68 °F) until planted out, the castor oil plant can reach a height of 2–3 metres (6.6–9.8 ft) in a year. In areas prone to frost it is usually shorter, and grown as if it were an annual. However, it can grow well outdoors in cooler climates, at least in southern England, and the leaves do not appear to suffer frost damage in sheltered spots, where it remains evergreen. It was used in Edwardian times in the parks of Toronto,  Canada. Although not cultivated there, the plant grows wild in the US, notably Griffith Park in Los Angeles.


Selections have been made by breeders for use as ornamental plants (heights refer to plants grown as annuals) and for commercial production of castor oil.
Ornamental cultivars
'Carmencita' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit
'Carmencita Bright Red' has red stems, dark purplish leaves and red seed pods;
'Carmencita Pink' has green leaves and pink seed pods
'Gibsonii' has red-tinged leaves with reddish veins and bright scarlet seed pods
'New Zealand Purple' has plum colored leaves tinged with red, plum colored seed pods turn to red as they ripen
(All the above grow to around 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) tall as annuals.)
'Impala' is compact (only 1.2 metres or 3.9 feet tall) with reddish foliage and stems, brightest on the young shoots
'Red Spire' is tall (2–3 metres or 6.6–9.8 feet) with red stems and bronze foliage
'Zanzibarensis' is also tall (2–3 metres or 6.6–9.8 feet), with large, mid-green leaves (50 centimetres or 20 inches long) that have white midribs
Cultivars for oil production:
'Hale' was launched in the 1970s for the US state of Texas. It is short (up to 1.2 m or 3 ft 11 in) and has several racemes
'Brigham' is a variety with reduced ricin content adapted for Texas, US. It grows up to 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in) and has 10% of the ricin content of 'Hale'
'BRS Nordestina' was developed by Brazil's Embrapa in 1990 for hand harvest and semi-arid environments
'BRS Energia" was developed by Embrapa in 2004 for mechanised or hand harvest
'GCH6' was developed by Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada University, India, 2004: it is resistant to root rot and tolerant to fusarium wilt
'GCH5' was developed by Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada University, 1995. It is resistant to fusarium wilt
'Abaro' was developed by the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research's Essential Oils Research Center for hand harvest
'Hiruy' was developed by the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research's Melkassa and Wondo Genet Agricultural Research Centers for hand harvest during 2010/2011


Ricinus is extremely allergenic, and has an OPALS allergy scale rating of 10 out of 10. The plant is also a very strong trigger for asthma, and allergies to Ricinus are commonplace and severe.
The castor oil plant produces abundant amounts of very light pollen, which easily become airborne and can be inhaled into the lungs, triggering allergic reactions. The sap of the plant causes skin rashes. Individuals who are allergic to the plant can also develop rashes from merely touching the leaves, flowers, or seeds. These individuals can also have cross-allergic reactions to latex sap from the related Hevea brasiliensis plant.
The toxicity of raw castor beans is due to the presence of ricin. Although the lethal dose in adults is considered to be four to eight seeds, reports of actual poisoning are relatively rare. According to the Guinness World Records, this is the world's most poisonous common plant. Symptoms of overdosing on ricin, which can include nausea, diarrhea, tachycardia, hypotension and seizures, persist for up to a week. The poison can be extracted from castor by concentrating it with a fairly complicated process similar to that used for extracting cyanide from almonds.
If ricin is ingested, symptoms commonly begin within two to four hours, but may be delayed by up to 36 hours. These include a burning sensation in mouth and throat, abdominal pain, purging and bloody diarrhea. Within several days there is severe dehydration, a drop in blood pressure and a decrease in urine. Unless treated, death can be expected to occur within 3–5 days; however, in most cases a full recovery can be made.
Poisoning occurs when animals, including humans, ingest broken castor beans or break the seed by chewing: intact seeds may pass through the digestive tract without releasing the toxin. The toxin provides the castor oil plant with some degree of natural protection from insect pests such as aphids. Ricin has been investigated for its potential use as an insecticide. The castor oil plant is also the source for undecylenic acid, a natural fungicide.
Commercially available cold-pressed castor oil is not toxic to humans in normal doses, whether internal or external.


Castor oil has many uses in medicine and other applications. An alcoholic extract of the leaf was shown, in laboratory rats, to protect the liver from damage from certain poisons. Methanolic extracts of the leaves of Ricinus communis were used in antimicrobial testing against eight pathogenic bacteria in rats and showed antimicrobial properties.
The pericarp of Ricinus showed central nervous system effects in mice at low doses.  At high doses mice quickly died. A water extract of the root bark showed analgesic activity in rats. Antihistamine and anti-inflammatory properties were found in ethanolic extract of Ricinus communis root bark. Castor oil and the plant's roots and leaves are used in the ancient Indian medicinal system of Ayurveda for various diseases, and it has been investigated in a few limited studies for its potential as an anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory herbal medicine.


Global castor seed production is around two million tons per year. Leading producing areas are India (with over three-quarters of the global yield), China and Mozambique, and it is widely grown as a crop in Ethiopia. There are several active breeding programmes.
Other modern uses include:
Whether natural, blended, or chemically altered, castor oil still has many uses. For example, it remains of commercial importance as a non-freezing, antimicrobial, pressure-resistant lubricant for special purposes, either of latex or metals, or as a lubricating component of fuels.
Castor products are sources of various chemical feedstocks.
In Brazil, castor oil (locally known as mamona oil) is a raw material for some varieties of biodiesel.
In rural areas, the abundant seeds are used by children for slingshot balls, as they have the right weight, size, and hardness.
Because castor seeds are attractively patterned, they are popular in low-cost personal adornments, such as non-durable necklaces and bracelets.
Castor oil has long been used on the skin to prevent dryness. Either purified or processed, it still is a component of many cosmetics.
The high percentage of ricinoleic acid residues in castor oil and its derivatives, inhibits many microbes, whether viral, bacterial or fungal. They accordingly are useful components of many ointments and similar preparations.
Castor oil is the major raw material for polyglycerol polyricinoleate, a modifier that improves the flow characteristics of cocoa butter in the manufacture of chocolate bars, and thereby reduces the costs .
Castor oil is used in the US to repel moles and voles for lawn care.


Castor seeds have been found in Egyptian tombs dating back to 4000 BC; the slow-burning oil was mostly used to fuel lamps. Herodotus and other Greek travellers noted the use of castor seed oil for lighting, body ointments, and improving hair growth and texture. Cleopatra is reputed to have used it to brighten the whites of her eyes. The Ebers Papyrus is an ancient Egyptian medical treatise believed to date from 1552 BC. Translated in 1872, it describes castor oil as a laxative.
The use of castor bean oil (eranda) in India has been documented since 2000 BC in lamps and in local medicine as a laxative, purgative, and cathartic in Unani, Ayurvedic, siddha and other ethnomedical systems. Traditional Ayurvedic and siddha medicine considers castor oil the king of medicinals for curing arthritic diseases. It is regularly given to children to treat infections with parasitic worms. Modern medical research suggests the purgative action induced by castor oil helps clear intestines of parasites.
The ancient Romans had a variety of medicinal/cosmetic uses for both the seeds and the leaves of Ricinus communis. The naturalist Pliny the Elder cited the poisonous qualities of the seeds, but mentioned that they could be used to form wicks for oil lamps (possibly if crushed together), and the oil for use as a laxative and lamp oil. He also recommends the use of the leaves as follows:
"The leaves are applied topically with vinegar for erysipelas, and fresh-gathered, they are used by themselves for diseases of the mamillæ [breasts] and de- fluxions; a decoction of them in wine, with polenta and saffron, is good for inflammations of various kinds. Boiled by themselves, and applied to the face for three successive days, they improve the complexion."
In Haiti it is called maskreti, where the plant is turned into a red oil that is then given to newborns as a purgative to cleanse the insides of their first stools.
Castor seed and its oil have also been used in China for centuries, mainly prescribed in local medicine for internal use or use in dressings.


Castor oil was used as an instrument of coercion by the paramilitary Blackshirts under the regime of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini and by the Spanish Civil Guard in Francoist Spain. Dissidents and regime opponents were forced to ingest the oil in large amounts, triggering severe diarrhea and dehydration, which could ultimately cause death. This punishment method was originally thought of by Gabriele D'Annunzio, the Italian poet and Fascist supporter, during the First World War.


Extract of  Ricinus communis exhibited acaricidal and insecticidal activities against the adult of Haemaphysalis bispinosa (Acarina: Ixodidae) and hematophagous fly Hippobosca maculata (Diptera: Hippoboscidae).
Members of the Bodo tribe of Bodoland in Assam, India, use the leaves of the plant to feed the larvae of muga and endi silkworms.
Castor oil is an effective motor lubricant and has been used in internal combustion engines, including those of World War I airplanes, some racing cars and some model airplanes. It has historically been popular for lubricating two-stroke engines due to high resistance to heat compared to petroleum-based oils. It does not mix well with petroleum products, particularly at low temperatures, but mixes better with the methanol-based fuels used in glow model engines. In total-loss-lubrication applications, it tends to leave carbon deposits and varnish within the engine. It has been largely replaced by synthetic oils that are more stable and less toxic.
Jewellery can be made of castor beans, particularly necklaces and bracelets.


The sand martin (Riparia riparia), also known as the bank swallow (in the Americas), collared sand martin, or common sand martin, is a migratory passerine bird in the swallow family. It has a wide range in summer, embracing practically the whole of Europe and the Mediterranean countries and across the Palearctic to the Pacific Ocean. It is a Holarctic species also found in North America. It winters in eastern and southern Africa, South America, and the Indian Subcontinent.


The black-legged kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla) is a seabird species in the gull family Laridae.
This species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae as Larus tridactylus. The English name is derived from its call, a shrill 'kittee-wa-aaake, kitte-wa-aaake'. The genus name Rissa is from the Icelandic name rita for this bird, and the specific tridactyla is from Ancient Greek tridaktulos, "three-toed", from tri-, "three-" and daktulos, "toe".
In North America, this species is known as the black-legged kittiwake to differentiate it from the red-legged kittiwake, but in Europe, where it is the only member of the genus, it is often known just as kittiwake.


The black-legged kittiwake is a coastal bird of the arctic to subarctic regions of the world. It can be found all across the northern coasts of the Atlantic, from Canada to Greenland as well as on the Pacific side from Alaska to the coast of Siberia. Black-legged kittiwakes' wintering range extends further south from the St-Lawrence to the southern coast of New Jersey as well as in China, the Sargasso sea and of the coast of west Africa. There are two subspecies of black-legged kittiwake. Rissa tridactyla tridactyla can be found on the Atlantic coast whereas Rissa tridactyla pollicaris is found on the Pacific coast.
Out of all the laridae, the kittiwakes are the most pelagic ones. Kittiwakes are almost exclusively found at sea with the exception of the breeding period, from May to September, where they can be found nesting on the sheerest sea cliffs. They are rarely found inland, though they have been reported on few instances as far as 20 km inland. For the rest of the year, kittiwake spend most of their time on the wing out of sight from the coast.


The adult is 37–41 cm (15–16 in) in length with a wingspan of 91–105 cm (36–41 in) and a body mass of 305–525 g (10.8–18.5 oz). It has a white head and body, grey back, grey wings tipped solid black, black legs and a yellow bill. Occasional individuals have pinky-grey to reddish legs, inviting confusion with red-legged kittiwake. The inside of their mouth is also a characteristic feature of the species due to its rich red colour. Such red pigmentation is due to carotenoids pigments and vitamin A which have to be acquired through their diet. Studies show that integument coloration is associated with male's reproductive success. Such hypothesis would explain the behavior of couples greeting each other by opening their mouth and flashing their bright mouth it to their partner while vocalizing. As their Latin name suggests, they only possess three toes since their hind toe is either extremely reduced or completely absent. The two subspecies being almost identical, R. tridactyla pollicaris is in general slightly larger than its counterpart R. tridactyle tridactyla.
In winter, this species acquires a dark grey smudge behind the eye and a grey hind-neck collar. The bill also turns a dusky-olive color.
Since kittiwakes winter at sea and rarely touch ground during this period, very little is known about their exact molting pattern.


The red-legged kittiwake is the only other species in the Rissa genus and can be differentiated from its counterpart by its red legs, as the name suggests. The head of the red-legged kittiwake is slightly smaller and bears a shorter bill. The chicks of the Pacific black-legged kittiwake and red-legged kittiwake cannot be distinguished during their youngest downy phase.
The juvenile black-legged kittiwake can be confused with the Bonaparte's gull juveniles although the kittiwakes' plumage has more black on the primaries and a different pattern going across the coverts.


It is a coastal breeding bird around the north Pacific and north Atlantic oceans, found most commonly in North America and Europe. Kittiwakes are colonial nesters that form monogamous pairs and exhibit biparental care, meaning that both take part in nest building, incubation and chick rearing. They tend to nest in large numbers on cliffs by the sea side. It breeds in large colonies on cliffs and is very noisy on the breeding ground. Cliff nesting for gulls occurs only in the Rissa species, and the kittiwake is capable of utilizing the very sheerest of vertical cliffs, as is evident in their nesting sites on Staple Island in the outer Farne Islands. There are few instances of kittiwakes nesting on man-made structure in Europe and Alaska. Kittiwake pairs both participate in building the nest in which the female will lay their eggs. The breeding season begins in mid-June and usually end in August.


Kittiwakes are single-brooded, meaning that the pair will only reproduce once per year. Egg formation within the female usually takes around 15 days and normal egg clutch size ranges from one to two sub-elliptical eggs, though three eggs clutches are not impossible. The female will lay eggs on alternate days. The eggs' color varies quite a bit, ranging from white, brownish to turquoise with dark brown speckles. Once the eggs are laid, the parents will take turns and incubate their clutch for an average period of 27 days. In case of egg loss, the female might relay another egg within 15 days after the loss.


Kittiwakes are a frequent encounter of fisheries in northern regions. Their diet consisting almost exclusively of fish, fishermen tend to seek large aggregation of seabirds since they are often a sign of fish abundance. On the other hand, kittiwake and other seabirds hang around fishing boats or platforms to collect scraps or any fish that might have been left out. Due to the kittiwake pelagic lifestyle, they rarely interact with humans on the land, other than occasional sight near the ocean's coast.
In New England, the black-legged kittiwake is often called the "winter gull" since its arrival often signals to people that winter is coming.


Since the 1970s, its it believed that the global population of black-legged kittiwake has declined of about 40% in only three generations (one generation is in average 12.9 years), putting the species in a dangerous place for the future. The global population is estimated at 14,600,000-15,700,000 individuals and is in constant decline. The individual distribution of kittiwakes across the world varies quite a bit, with Europe representing more than 50% of the world's kittiwake and North America representing only 20%. In their recent species assessment, the IUCN Red List pointed out that all but one populations of kittiwakes were in decline, with the exception of the small Canadian arctic population that seems to be increasing at a rate of 1% per year. The last IUCN Red List report in 2017, the species was moved from "least concern" to a "vulnerable" status on a global scale.


There are still no global conservation plans for the black-legged kittiwake though the species is closely monitored for population trends shifts. There are currently no international legislations regarding this species. However, the black-legged kittiwake is protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 that has been ratified by the US, Canada, Mexico, Russia and Japan. As for many gull species, the kittiwake is not a species of special interest for the public, therefore there are no education plans put in place in order to inform and educate people regarding this species.


There are two subspecies of black-legged kittiwake:
R. t. tridactyla (Linnaeus, 1758): nominate, found in the North Atlantic Ocean, is unique among the Laridae in having only a very small or even no hind toe.
R. t. pollicaris (Ridgway, 1884): found in the north Pacific Ocean, has a normally developed hind toe (as the name pollex, meaning thumb, suggests).


Rivina humilis is a species of flowering plant in the family Petiveriaceae. It was formerly placed in the pokeweed family, Phytolaccaceae.  It can be found in the southern United States, the Caribbean, Central America, and tropical South America. Common names include pigeonberry, rougeplant, baby peppers, bloodberry, and coralito. The specific epithet means "dwarfish" or "lowly" in Latin, referring to the plant's short stature.


Rivina humilis can be found in forests, thickets, shell middens, hammocks, roadsides, and disturbed areas at elevations from sea level to 1,700 m (5,600 ft). It requires less than partial sun and is tolerant of full shade. It is also tolerant of salt spray and saline soils.
It is considered invasive in New Caledonia, where it was likely introduced in 1900. It is considered a weed in Queensland, Australia where it has naturalised, and is also naturalised on Cocos Islands, Réunion, Norfolk Island, Fiji, Tonga, French Polynesia, Hawaii, India and the Galapagos Islands.


R. humilis is a host plant for the caterpillars of Goodson's greenstreak (Cyanophrys goodsoni)


Rivula propinqualis, the spotted grass moth or yellow snout-moth, is a moth of the family Erebidae. The species was first described by Achille Guenée in 1854. It is found throughout eastern North America from southern Canada southward to Florida and Texas and westward in the north to British Columbia and Washington. In North Carolina it is found from the Appalachian Mountains to the Atlantic coast.
The wingspan is 15–19 mm. Adults are on wing from May to August.
The larvae feed on various grasses.


Rivula sericealis, the straw dot, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. The species was first described by Giovanni Antonio Scopoli in his 1763 Entomologia Carniolica. It is found in Europe including the Iberian Peninsula and southern Fennoscandia and south to North Africa. In an easterly direction, the species occurs across the Palearctic to the Pacific Ocean and Japan. The species closely resembles Evergestis forficalis.


Robinia neomexicana, the New Mexican, New Mexico, Southwest, desert, pink, or rose locust, is a shrub or small tree in the subfamily Faboideae of the family Fabaceae.


Robinia neomexicana is native to the Southwestern United States (southeastern California and southwestern Utah, Virgin River region, east through Arizona and New Mexico, the Rio Grande valley, to far west Texas) and adjoining northern Mexico; from central New Mexico the range extends north into Colorado, mostly the eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains. In Arizona, it ranges across the Arizona transition zone, the Mogollon Rim and White Mountains, and into western and southwestern New Mexico.
In California, it is uncommon below 1500 m (5000 ft) in canyons in the Mojave Desert and its sky island pinyon-juniper habitats (Pinus monophylla and Juniperus californica). Farther east, it is typically found between 1200 and 2600 meters (4000 and 8500 feet) along streams, in the bottoms of valleys, and on the sides of canyons.


Robinia neomexicana grows to 5–10 m tall (rarely to 15 m) with bristly shoots. The leaves are 10–15 cm long, pinnate with 7–15 leaflets; they have a pair of sharp, reddish-brown thorns at the base. The flowers are showy and white or pink, and considered fragrant.  Blooms are produced in spring or early summer in dense racemes 5–10 cm long that hang from the branches near the ends.  The fruits are brown bean-like pods with bristles like those on the shoots.


In New Mexico, Pueblo Native Americans traditionally ate the flowers uncooked. The pods were also eaten raw and cooked by some Native Americans, such as the Mescalero and Chiricahua Apache.
Mule deer, cattle, and goats browse the plant foliage. Cattle also eat the plant's flowers. Squirrels and quail eat the locust's seeds.


Robinia pseudoacacia, commonly known in its native territory as black locust, is a medium-sized hardwood deciduous tree, belonging to the tribe Robinieae of the legume family Fabaceae. It is endemic to a few small areas of the United States, but it has been widely planted and naturalized elsewhere in temperate North America, Europe, Southern Africa and Asia and is considered an invasive species in some areas. Another common name is false acacia, a literal translation of the specific name (pseudo [Greek ψευδο-] meaning fake or false and acacia referring to the genus of plants with the same name).


Black locust reaches a typical height of 12–30 metres (40–100 feet) with a diameter of 0.61–1.22 m (2–4 ft). Exceptionally, it may grow up to 52 m (171 ft) tall and 1.6 m (5 ft) diameter in very old trees. It is a very upright tree with a straight trunk and narrow crown that grows scraggly with age. The dark blue-green compound leaves with a contrasting lighter underside give this tree a beautiful appearance in the wind and contribute to its grace.
Black locust is a shade-intolerant species and therefore is typical of young woodlands and disturbed areas where sunlight is plentiful and the soil is dry. In this sense, black locust can be considered a weed tree. It also spreads by underground shoots or suckers, which contributes to the weedy character of this species. Young trees are often spiny, but mature trees often lack spines. In the early summer black locust flowers; the flowers are large and appear in large, intensely fragrant clusters reminiscent of orange blossoms. The leaflets fold together in wet weather and at night (nyctinasty), as some change of position at night is a habit of the entire leguminous family.
Although similar in general appearance to the honey locust, the black locust lacks that tree's characteristic long branched thorns on the trunk, having instead pairs of short prickles at the base of each leaf; the leaflets are also much broader than honey locust. It may resemble Styphnolobium japonicum, which has smaller flower spikes and lacks spines.


The bark is a reddish black and gray and tinged with red or orange in the grooves. It is deeply furrowed into grooves and ridges which run up and down the trunk and often cross and form diamond shapes.
The roots of black locust contain nodules that allow it to fix nitrogen, as is common within the pea family.
The branches are typically zig-zaggy and may have ridges and grooves or may be round. When young, they are at first coated with white silvery down; this soon disappears, and they become pale green and afterward reddish or greenish brown.
Spines may or may not be present on young trees, root suckers, and branches near the ground; typically, branches high above the ground rarely contain spines. R. pseudoacacia is quite variable in the number of spines present, as some trees are densely prickly and other trees have no prickles at all. The spines typically remain on the tree until the young thin bark to which they are attached is replaced by the thicker mature bark. They develop from stipules (small leaf-like structures that grow at the base of leaves), and since stipules are paired at the base of leaves, the spines will be paired at the bases of leaves. They range from .65–2 centimetres (1⁄4–3⁄4 inch) in length and are somewhat triangular with a flared base and sharp point. Their color is of a dark purple and they adhere only to the bark.
Wood is pale yellowish brown, heavy, hard, strong, close-grained, and very durable in contact with the ground. The wood has a specific gravity of 0.733 (733 kilograms per cubic metre or 45.7 pounds per cubic foot).
The leaves are compound, meaning that each leaf contains many smaller leaf like structures called leaflets, which are roughly paired on either side of the stem that runs through the leaf (rachis). There is typically one leaflet at the tip of the leaf (odd pinnate), and the leaves are alternately arranged on the stem. Each leaf is 15–36 cm (6–14 in) long and contains 9–19 leaflets, each being 2.5–5.1 cm (1–2 in) long, and .65–1.9 cm (1⁄4–3⁄4 in) wide. The leaflets are rounded or slightly indented at the tip and typically rounded at the base. The leaves come out of the bud folded in half, yellow green, covered with silvery down which soon disappears. Each leaflet initially has a minute stipel, which quickly falls, and is connected to the (rachis) by a short stem or petiolule. The leaves are attached to the branch with slender hairy petioles which are grooved and swollen at the base. The stipules are linear, downy, membranous at first and occasionally develop into prickles. The leaves appear relatively late in spring.
The leaf color of the fully grown leaves is a dull dark green above and paler beneath. In autumn. the leaves turn a clear pale yellow.
The flowers open in May or June for 7–10 days, after the leaves have developed. They are arranged in loose drooping clumps (racemes) which are typically 10–20 cm (4–8 in) long. The flowers themselves are cream-white (rarely pink or purple) with a pale yellow blotch in the center and imperfectly papilionaceous in shape. They are  about 2.5 cm (1 in) wide, very fragrant, and produce large amounts of nectar. Each flower is perfect, having both stamens and a pistil (male and female parts). There are 10 stamens enclosed within the petals; these are fused together in a diadelphous configuration, where the filaments of 9 are all joined to form a tube and one stamen is separate and above the joined stamens. The single ovary is superior and contains several ovules. Below each flower is a calyx which looks like leafy tube between the flower and the stem. It is made from fused sepals and is dark green and may be blotched with red. The pedicels (stems which connect the flower to the branch) are slender, 1.3 cm (1⁄2 in), dark red or reddish green.
The fruit is a typical legume fruit, being a flat and smooth pea-like pod 5.1–10.2 cm (2–4 in) long and 1.3 cm (1⁄2 in) broad. The fruit usually contains 4–8 seeds. The seeds are dark orange brown with irregular markings. They ripen late in autumn and hang on the branches until early spring. There are typically 25,500 seeds per pound.
Winter buds: Minute, naked (having no scales covering them), three or four together, protected in a depression by a scale-like covering lined on the inner surface with a thick coat of tomentum and opening in early spring.  When the buds are forming they are covered by the swollen base of the petiole.
Cotyledons are oval in shape and fleshy.


Black locust reproduces both sexually via flowers, and asexually via root suckers. The flowers are pollinated by insects, primarily by Hymenopteran insects. The physical construction of the flower separates the male and female parts so that self-pollination will not typically occur. The seedlings grow rapidly but they have a thick seed coat which means that not all seeds will germinate. The seed coat can be weakened via hot water, sulfuric acid, or be mechanically scarified, which will allow a greater quantity of the seeds to grow. The seeds are produced in good crops every year or every other year.
Root suckers are an important method of local reproduction of this tree. The roots may grow suckers after damage (by being hit with a lawn mower or otherwise damaged) or after no damage at all.  The suckers are stems which grow from the roots, directly into the air and may grow into full trees. The main trunk also has the capability to grow sprouts and will do so after being cut down. This makes removal of black locust difficult as the suckers need to be continually removed from both the trunk and roots or the tree will regrow. This is considered an asexual form of reproduction.
The suckers allow black locust to grow into colonies which often exclude other species. These colonies may form dense thickets which shade out competition.
Black locust has been found to have either 2n=20 or 2n=22 chromosomes.


Black locust leaves contain flavone glycosides characterised by spectroscopic and chemical methods as the 7-O-β-d-glucuronopyranosyl-(1 → 2)[α-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 6)]-β-d-glucopyranosides of acacetin (5,7-dihydroxy-4′-methoxyflavone), apigenin (5,7,4′-trihydroxyflavone), diosmetin (5,7,3′-trihydroxy-4′-methoxyflavone) and luteolin (5,7,3′,4′-tetrahydroxyflavone).


The black locust is a plant from the subfamily of Faboideae in the family of legumes (Fabaceae) and is a relative of the pea and bean.
The black locust is commonly referred to as "false acacia" after its species name "pseudoacacia", although it is not particularly closely related to the acacia, which belongs to a subfamily of the mimosa family (Mimosoideae). Both species are similar in the form of their feathered leaves and thorns, but the flower shapes are very different. Confusion between species of both genera is almost impossible in higher latitudes, since acacias are native to subtropical and tropical areas and do not thrive in the cooler climates favoured by the black locust.


The tree was identified in 1607 at Jamestown by British colonists, who used the timber to build houses. The tree was named for its resemblance to Ceratonia siliqua, known as the "Old World Locust". Jesuit missionaries apparently fancied that this was the tree that supported St. John in the wilderness, but it is native only to North America.
It was introduced into Britain in 1636.
Robinia is a native North American genus, but traces of it are found in the Eocene and Miocene rocks of Europe.
The genus is named after the royal French gardeners Jean Robin and his son Vespasien Robin, who brought the plant to Europe in 1601, in what may be regarded as a reintroduction. A black locust planted by Vespasien Robin still exists in the Square René Viviani in Paris.


The black locust is native to the eastern United States, but the exact native range is not accurately known as the tree has been cultivated and is currently found across the continent, in all the lower 48 states, eastern Canada, and British Columbia. The native range is thought to be two separate populations, one centered about the Appalachian Mountains, from Pennsylvania to northern Georgia, and a second westward focused around the Ozark Plateau and Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas, Oklahoma and Missouri.
Black locust's current range has been expanded by humans distributing the tree for landscaping and now includes Pakistan, India, Australia, Canada, China, Europe, Northern and South Africa, temperate regions in Asia, New Zealand, Southern South America.
Black locust is an interesting example of how one plant species can be considered invasive even on the continent to which it is native. For example, within the western United States, New England region, northern California, and in the Midwest, black locust is considered an invasive species. In the prairie and savanna regions of the Midwest black locust can dominate and shade open habitats. These ecosystems have been decreasing in size, and black locust is contributing to this reduction; when black locust invades an area, it will convert the grassland ecosystem into a forested ecosystem where the grasses are displaced. Black locust has been listed as invasive in Connecticut and Wisconsin, and prohibited in Massachusetts.
In Australia black locust has become naturalized within Victoria, New South Wales, South Australia and Western Australia. It is considered an environmental weed there. In South Africa, it is regarded as a weed because of its suckering habit. In Asia, many black locusts, called cihuai (zh:刺槐), yanghuai (foreign huai zh:洋槐, against native huai zh:国槐) or simply "acacias", were planted in Dalian, Liaoning, China, during its Russian and Japanese occupation, and are loved by the local people: there is Acacia Avenue (槐树大道) in downtown; the Acacia Flower Festival (槐花節) is celebrated every year in May; and acacia honey is collected in the suburbs by bee keepers.


When growing in sandy areas this plant can enrich the soil by means of its nitrogen-fixing nodules, allowing other species to move in. On sandy soils black locust may replace other vegetation which cannot fix nitrogen.
Black locust is a typical early successional plant, a pioneer species. It grows best in bright sunlight and does not handle shade well. It specializes in colonizing disturbed areas and edges of woodlots before it is eventually replaced with taller or more shade-tolerant species. It prefers dry to moist limestone soils but will grow on most soils as long as they are not wet or poorly drained.  This tree tolerates a soil pH range of 4.6 to 8.2. Within its native range it will grow on soils of Inceptisols, Ultisols, and Alfisols groups, but does not do well on compacted, clayey or eroded soils. Black locust is a part of the Appalachian mixed mesophytic forests.
Black locust is host to up to 67 species of lepidoptera, and provides valuable cover when planted on previously open areas. Its seeds are eaten by bobwhite quail and other game birds and squirrels. Woodpeckers may nest in the trunk since older trees are often infected by heart rot.


Locust leaf miner Odontota dorsalis attacks the tree in spring and turns the leaves brown by mid summer, slowing the growth of the tree though not seriously. Locust borer Megacyllene robiniae larvae carve tunnels into the trunk of the tree and make it more prone to being knocked down by the wind. Heart rot is the only significant disease affecting black locust. Black locust is also attacked by Chlorogenus robiniae, a virus which causes witch's broom growths; clear leaflet veins are a symptom of the disease.


Black locust is a major honey plant in the eastern US, and has been planted in European countries. In many European countries, it is the source of the renowned acacia honey. Flowering starts after 140 growing degree days. However, its blooming period is short (about 10 days) and it does not consistently produce a honey crop year after year. Weather conditions can have quite an effect on the amount of nectar collected, as well; in Ohio for example, good locust honey flow happens in one of five years.

Black locust can be easily propagated from roots, softwood, or hardwood. Cultivars may be grafted, ensuring that parent and daughter plants will be genetically identical.
R. pseudoacacia is considered an excellent plant for growing in highly disturbed areas as an erosion control plant. Black locust's shallow, aggressive roots help hold onto the soil, and nitrogen-fixing bacteria on its root system allow it to grow on poor soils, making it an early colonizer of disturbed areas. Obviating the mass application of fertilizers, black locust and other nitrogen-fixing tree and shrub species have gained importance in managed forestry.
Black locust is planted for firewood, as it grows rapidly, is highly resilient in a variety of soils, and it grows back rapidly after harvest from the existing root system. (see coppicing)
In Europe, it is often planted along streets and in parks, especially in large cities, because it tolerates pollution well.


Several cultivars exist, 'Frisia' being one of the most planted ones.
'Decaisneana' has been considered a cultivar but is more accurately a hybrid (R. pseudoacacia x R. viscosa). It has light rose-pink colored flowers and small or no prickles.
‘Frisia’, a selection with bright yellow-green leaves and red prickles, is occasionally planted as an ornamental tree.
'Purple robe' has dark rose-pink flowers and bronze red new growth. The flowers tend to last longer than on the wild tree.
'Tortuosa', a small tree with curved and distorted branches.
'Unifoliola', a plant with fewer leaflets, no prickles, and a shorter height.


The bark, leaves, and wood are toxic to both humans and livestock. Important constituents of the plant are the toxalbumin robin, which loses its toxicity when heated, and robinin, a nontoxic glucoside.
Horses that consume the plant show signs of anorexia, depression, incontinence, colic, weakness, and cardiac arrhythmia. Symptoms usually occur about 1 hour following consumption, and immediate veterinary attention is required.


Black locust has been spread and used as a plant for erosion control as it is fast growing and generally a tough tree. The wood, considered the most durable wood in North America, has been very desirable and motivated people to move the tree to areas where it is not native so the wood can be farmed and used.


The wood is extremely hard, being one of the hardest woods in Northern America with a Janka hardness test of 1,700 lbf (7,560 N). It is very resistant to rot, and durable, making it prized for furniture, flooring, paneling, fence posts, and small watercraft. Black Locust is a highly durable organic wood product that does not require chemical treatment to preserve its beauty for 50 years or longer. Wet, newly cut planks have an offensive odor which disappears with seasoning.  Black locust is still in use in some rustic handrail systems.  In the Netherlands and some other parts of Europe, black locust is one of the most rot-resistant local trees, and projects have started to limit the use of tropical wood by promoting this tree and creating plantations. Flavonoids in the heartwood allow the wood to last over 100 years in soil.
Black locust is highly valued as firewood for wood-burning stoves; it burns slowly, with little visible flame or smoke, and has a higher heat content than any other species that grows widely in the Eastern United States, comparable to the heat content of anthracite. For best results, it should be seasoned like any other hardwood, but black locust is also popular because of its ability to burn even when wet. In fireplaces, it can be less satisfactory because knots and beetle damage make the wood prone to "spitting" coals for distances of up to several feet. If the black locust is cut, split, and cured while relatively young (within 10 years), thus minimizing beetle damage, "spitting" problems are minimal.
With a light yellowish color and strength, the wood was much used for decorative inlays and banding in furniture in England and France in the 17th and 18th centuries, under the name "acacia" or "Virginia acacia".
In 1900, the value of Robinia pseudoacacia was reported to be practically destroyed in nearly all parts of the United States beyond the mountain forests which are its home by locust borers which riddle the trunk and branches. Were it not for these insects, it would be one of the most valuable timber trees that could be planted in the northern and middle states. Young trees grow quickly and vigorously for a number of years, but soon become stunted and diseased, and rarely live long enough to attain any commercial value.


In traditional medicine of India, different parts of R. pseudoacacia are used as laxative, antispasmodic, and diuretic.
In Romania the flowers are sometimes used to produce a sweet and perfumed jam. This means manual harvesting of flowers, eliminating the seeds and boiling the petals with sugar, in certain proportions, to obtain a light sweet and delicate perfume jam.
Although the bark and leaves are toxic, various reports suggest that the seeds and the young pods of the black locust are edible. Shelled seeds are safe to harvest from summer through fall, and are edible both raw and boiled.  Due to the small size of the seeds, shelling them efficiently can prove tedious and difficult. In France, Italy and Romania, R. pseudoacacia flowers are eaten as beignets after being coated in batter and fried in oil; they are also eaten in Japan, largely as tempura.


Romalea is a genus of grasshoppers native to the Southeastern and South-central United States. Its single species is Romalea microptera, known commonly as the eastern lubber grasshopper, Florida lubber, or Florida lubber grasshopper. It is the most distinctive grasshopper species within the Southeastern US, and is well known for its size and its unique coloration. It can reach nearly 3 inches (8 cm) in size.
It is the type genus and species of the relatively new family Romaleidae and tribe Romaleini, and was long known as Romalea microptera before being moved to Romalea guttata. After new research, though, the remaining names (including guttata) have been marked as nomina oblita and microptera takes priority once more.


R. microptera grows through several stages, like all insects. When in the nymph stage, it is smaller than in the adult stage, wingless, and completely black with one or more yellow, orange, or red stripes. In the adult stage, it reaches 2.5–3 in (64–76 mm), grows wings half the length of its body, and become either a dull yellow often characterized by black spots and markings, a bright orange with black markings, or entirely black (as in the nymph stage) with yellow or red striping. In the black adult color phase, the grasshopper is widely known by the name "diablo" or "black diablo". In Louisiana, they are known as the "devil's horse" or cheval-diable. The insect is also colloquially known as a "graveyard grasshopper". In Mississippi, they are known as the "giant locust".


R. microptera inhabits regions west of North Carolina to Tennessee, in Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Texas, and throughout Florida, Missouri, and Arizona.  They live in open pinewoods, weedy vegetation, and weedy fields.


This species can reach nearly 3 in (76 mm) in size. Their wings are rarely half the length of the abdomen; most of the time, they are much smaller, and cannot be used for flight.


R. microptera has several defense strategies. The first is its brightly colored pattern (aposematism) to warn predators that it emits a foul-smelling and foul-tasting, foamy secretion from its thorax when it is disturbed. The secretion is dark colored and opaque. It also lets off a loud hissing sound that can scare animals.


Rorippa palustris, marsh yellow cress, is a species of flowering plant in the family Brassicaceae. It is widespread and native to parts of Africa, and much of Asia, Europe and Eurasia, North America and the Caribbean. It can also be found in other parts of the world as an introduced species and a common weed, for example, in Australia and South America. It is an adaptable plant which grows in many types of damp, wet, and aquatic habitat. It may be an annual, biennial, or perennial plant, and is variable in appearance as well.


It produces an erect stem, sometimes with branches, attaining a maximum height of just over one meter. The leaves are up to 30 centimeters long and have toothed to deeply lobed edges. The inflorescence is a raceme of mustardlike flowers with spoon-shaped yellow petals each a few millimeters in length. The fruit is a dehiscent and smoothly valved silicle, up to a centimeter long, and containing anywhere from 20 to 90 minute seeds.


The species epithet palustris is Latin for "of the marsh" and indicates its common habitat.


In botanical literature, Rorippa palustris has been called by numerous common names (with variations). Some of them are listed here:
bog marshcress
bog yellowcress
common yellowcress
marsh yellowcress (or marsh yellow-cress)
marshcress (or marsh cress)
yellow cress
yellow watercress (or yellow-watercress)


Rorippa palustris is native to, or naturalized across much of the globe.


AUSTRALASIA: Australia and New Zealand
MEZO- and SOUTH AMERICA: in Argentina; Brazil; Chile; Ecuador; Panama; Peru; and Suriname.


Rosa acicularis is a flowering plant in the Rosaceae family. It is commonly known as the prickly wild rose, prickly rose, bristly rose, wild rose or Arctic rose. It is a species of wild rose with a Holarctic distribution in northern regions of Asia, Europe, and North America.


Rosa acicularis is a deciduous shrub growing 1–3 m tall. The leaves are pinnate, 7–14 cm long, with three to seven leaflets. The leaflets are ovate, with serrate (toothed) margins. The flowers are pink (rarely white), 3.5–5 cm diameter; the hips are red, pear-shaped to ovoid, 10–15 mm diameter. Its native habitats include thickets, stream banks, rocky bluffs, and wooded hillsides.
The ploidy of this rose species is variable. Botanical authorities have listed it as tetraploid and hexaploid in North America (subsp. sayi), and octoploid in Eurasia (subsp. acicularis), including China. On the northern Great Plains its populations are generally tetraploid. Hexaploid populations exist in the Yukon.


This native rose species of the northern Great Plains is the provincial flower of Alberta. It is not as common in the Parkland region of the Canadian Prairie provinces as Rosa woodsii (Woods' rose), nor is it as common as Rosa woodsii in the boreal forest of northern North America.


The hips, which stay on the plant through winter, are reported to be high in vitamins A and C. Native Americans made tea and salad from the leaves, and used the inner bark to smoke tobacco. Perfume has also been made from this plant.


Rosa arkansana, the prairie rose or wild prairie rose, is a species of rose native to a large area of central North America, between the Appalachian and Rocky Mountains from Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan south to New Mexico, Texas and Indiana.
There are two varieties:
Rosa arkansana var. arkansana
Rosa arkansana var. suffulta (Greene) Cockerell
The name Rosa arkansana comes from the Arkansas River in Colorado. The species' wide distribution and consequent genetic drift has led to an extensive synonymy. It is a perennial subshrub and its native habitats include prairies, roadsides, and ditches. The plant attracts butterflies and birds.
The name prairie rose is also sometimes applied to Rosa blanda, also known as the meadow rose or smooth rose, which is also widely spread, but somewhat further to the north.


Wild  rose is the state flower of the U.S. states of Iowa and North Dakota.  In Iowa, convention states the species is Rosa pratincola (currently treated as a synonym of Rosa arkansana).  North Dakota, on the other hand, specifies either Rosa arkansana or Rosa blanda.  Alberta's "wild rose" is Rosa acicularis.


Rosa arkansana is grown as an ornamental plant, and has become naturalized in parts of Massachusetts, New York, and North Dakota.


Rosa californica, the California wildrose, or California rose, is a species of rose native to the U.S. states of California and Oregon and the northern part of Baja California, Mexico. The plant is native to chaparral and woodlands and the Sierra Nevada foothills, and can survive drought, though it grows most abundantly in moist soils near water sources.


Rosa californica is a bush or thicket-forming shrub with prickly, curving stems. The fragrant flowers may grow singly or in inflorescences of several blooms. Each rose is open-faced and generally flat, with five petals in any shade of pink from almost white to deep magenta. It produces typical rose hips containing yellow seeds.


Rosa californica is used in California native gardens and habitat gardens, forming colonies, and attracting wildlife with the bright rose hips in autumn.


The rose hips were used during World War II for their high vitamin content. They are dried for tea, or for use in jellies and sauces. The Cahuilla eat the rose buds raw or soaked them in water for drinking. A tea was also made from the roots, and used for colds. Because the rose hips remain on the plant throughout the winter, they provide food for wildlife during times when little forage is available.


Rosa canina, commonly known as the dog rose, is a variable climbing, wild rose species native to Europe, northwest Africa, and western Asia.


The dog rose is a deciduous shrub normally ranging in height from 1–5 metres (3.3–16.4 ft), though sometimes it can scramble higher into the crowns of taller trees. Its stems are covered with small, sharp, hooked prickles, which aid it in climbing.
The leaves are pinnate, with 5–7 leaflets. Leaves have a delicious fragrance, when bruised.
The dog rose blooms from June to July, with sweet scented flowers which are usually pale pink, but can vary between a deep pink and white. They are 4–6 centimetres (1.6–2.4 in) in diameter with five petals. As other roses it has a quintuscial aestivation (see sketch A in diagram). Unusually though of its five sepals, when viewed from underneath two are whiskered on both sides, two are quite smooth and one is whiskered (or bearded) on one side only.
Flowers mature into an oval, 1.5–2-centimetre (0.59–0.79 in), red-orange hip.
The dog rose is hardy to zone 3 in the UK (USDA hardiness zone 3-7), tolerates maritime exposure and grows well in a sunny position, grows even in heavy clay soils, but like all roses dislikes water-logged soils or very dry sites. In deep shade it usually fails to flower and fruit.
It can be confused with fieldbriar Rosa agrestis, and sweetbriar Rosa rubiginosa.


Classical writers did not acknowledge Rosa canina as a rose, but called it Cynorrhodon from the Greek "kunórodon". In 1538, Turner called it "Cynosbatos : wild hep or brere tree".  Yet in 1551, Matthias de l'Obel classified it as a rose under the name of "Canina Rosa odorata et silvestris" in his herbal "Rubus canis: Brere bush or hep tree" .
From a 2013 DNA analysis using amplified fragment length polymorphisms of wild-rose samples from a transect across Europe (900 samples from section Caninae, and 200 from other sections), it has been suggested that the following named species are best considered as part of a single Rosa canina species complex, and are therefore synonyms of R. canina:
R. balsamica Besser
R. caesia Sm.
R. corymbifera Borkh.
R. dumalis Bechst.
R. montana Chaix
R. stylosa Desv.
R. subcanina (Christ) Vuk.
R. subcollina (Christ) Vuk.
R. × irregularis Déségl. & Guillon
As of 2021 however, many of these continue to be accepted as separate species by checklists and floras, such as the World Checklist of Vascular Plants facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
Numerous cultivars have been named, though few are common in cultivation. The cultivar Rosa canina 'Assisiensis' is the only dog rose without thorns.


The dog rose can be attacked by aphids, leafhoppers, glasshouse Red Spider Mite, scale insects, caterpillars, rose leaf-rolling sawfly, and leaf-cutting Bee.
When a gall wasp lays eggs into a leaf axillary or terminal bud the plant develops a chemically induced distortion known as rose gall (see photo).
Buds and leaves may be eaten by rabbits and deer, despite the thorns.
It may be affected by rose rust (see photo) and powdery mildews.
It is notably susceptible to honey fungus.


The flesh (shells) of rose hips from dog roses contain high levels of antioxidants, mainly polyphenols and vitamin C /ascorbic acid, as well as carotenoids and vitamins B and E along with natural sugars, organic acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, phenolics, and essential oil, making them excellent for consumption. Rose hip essential oil is composed mainly of alcohols, monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes.
The fruit is used to make syrup, tea, and marmalade, used in the making of pies, stews, and wine. The flowers can be made into a syrup, or can be eaten in salads, or candied or preserved in vinegar, honey and brandy. It has been grown or encouraged in the wild for the production of vitamin C from its fruit, especially during conditions of scarcity or during wartime. During World War II in the United States, Rosa canina was planted in victory gardens, and can still be found growing throughout the country, including roadsides and in wet, sandy areas along the coastlines.During World War II the British relied on rose hips and hops as the sources for their vitamins A and C and it was a common British wartime expression to say  "We are getting by on our hips and hops."
In Bulgaria, where it grows in abundance, the hips are used to make a sweet wine as well as tea.
The hips are used as a flavouring in Cockta, a soft drink made in Slovenia.
Forms of this plant are used as stocks for the grafting or budding of cultivated roses. The wild plant is used for stabilising soil in land reclamation and specialised landscaping schemes.
The species has also been introduced to other temperate latitudes.


Dog roses have an unusual kind of meiosis which is sometimes called permanent odd polyploidy, although it can also occur with even polyploidy (e.g. in tetraploids or hexaploids). Regardless of ploidy level, only seven bivalents are formed leaving the other chromosomes as univalents. Univalents are included in egg cells, but not in pollen. Similar processes occur in some other organisms. Dog roses are most commonly pentaploid, i.e. five times the base number of seven chromosomes for the genus Rosa, but may be tetraploid or hexaploid as well.


The botanical name is derived from the common names 'dog rose' or similar in several European languages, including classical Latin and ancient (Hellenistic period) Greek.
The Roman naturalist Pliny attributed the name dog rose to a belief that the plant's root could cure the bite of a mad dog. It is not clear if the dogs were rabid.
According to The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, the English name is a direct translation of the plant's name from classical Latin, rosa canina, itself a translation of the Greek κυνόροδον ('kunórodon'); It is known to have been used to treat the bite of rabid dogs in the 18th and 19th centuries. The origin of its name may be related to the hooked prickles on the plant that have resemblance to a dog's canines.
It is sometimes considered that the word 'dog' has a disparaging meaning in this context, indicating 'worthless' as compared with cultivated garden roses.


Dog rose is an invasive species in the high country of New Zealand. It was recognised as displacing native vegetation as early as 1895 although the Department of Conservation does not consider it to be a conservation threat.
The dog rose is a declared weed in Australia under the Natural Resources Management Act, 2004 as the plant out-competes native vegetation, provides shelter to pests such as foxes and rabbits, is unpalatable to stock, large shrubs are resistant to grazing, therefore do not get eaten by farm animals. The dog rose invades native bushland therefore reducing biodiversity and the presence of desirable pasture species. It is a biosecurity risk as it hosts fruit fly.
Birds and wild fruit eating animals are the main cause of seed dispersal. The plant seeds can also be carried in the hooves or fur of stock animals. They may also be carried by waterways.


The dog rose was the stylised rose of medieval European heraldry. It is the county flower of Hampshire, and Ireland's County Leitrim is nicknamed "The Wild Rose County" due to the prevalence of the dog rose in the area. Legend states the Thousand-year Rose or Hildesheim Rose, which climbs against a wall of Hildesheim Cathedral, dates back to the establishment of the diocese in 815.
The first recorded significance of the flower dates back hundreds of years ago to The Academy of Floral Games (founded in 1323), which gifted poets a sprig of dog rose to reward them for their literary excellence. Due to this ritual, the branches became increasingly popular and can be found frequently mentioned in several famous poems. Most prevalent in the United Kingdom, William Shakespeare wrote about the flower in "A Mid-Summer Night's Dream", which in his time was called eglantine, though it can now also refer to Rosa rubiginosa (Sweet brier)
Oberon, A Midsummer Night's Dream, Act II, Scene I quoting his words:"With sweet musk-roses and with eglantine."
Symbolically, the meaning of this shrub is quite extensive since the two dominating themes surrounding the flower are pain and pleasure.
An old riddle is called 'The Five Brethren of the Rose:
On a summer's day, in sultry weather
Five Brethren were born together
Two had beards and two had none
And the other had but half a one."
The riddle contains an effective way of identifying the differing roses of the canina group, where the brethren' refers to the five sepals of the dog-rose, two of which are whiskered on both sides, two quite smooth and the last one whiskered on one side only.
The flower is one of the national symbols of Romania.


Rosa gymnocarpa is a species of rose native to western North America. It is known by the common names dwarf rose, baldhip rose, and wood rose. It grows in shady, damp, and rich forests.


Rosa gymnocarpa is a perennial shrub growing up to 2 metres (6.6 ft) in height. Its stem is covered with long, straight spines which may or may not be abundant.
The pink or white fragrant flowers are flat and open-faced with five petals in most any shade of pink to almost lavender. Its fruit is a red rose hip containing hard tan achenes that contain the seeds. The sepals fall away from the hip earlier than in other species of rose, hence the name baldhip rose.
The leaves are pinnately compound, alternate, with 5 to 9 leaflets, each of which are 1 to 4 cm. Leaflets are elliptic to ovate to round.


Rosa nutkana, the Nootka rose, bristly rose, or wild rose is a 0.6–3.0-metre-tall (2–10-foot) perennial shrub in the rose family (Rosaceae).
The species name nootka comes from the Nootka Sound of Vancouver Island, where the plant was first described. This plant is native to Western North America.  There are 2 varieties:  hispida grows in the Intermountain West, from east of the Cascades to the Rocky Mountains, and nutkana grows in coastal areas from Alaska to California, east to the Cascades.  The Jepson Interchange (Flora of California) considers other varieties to be part of the nutkana variety.


Rosa nutkana grows to as much as 3 meters, often in thickets. It has light green paired leaflets with toothed edges and sharp prickles at the base. The prickles are straight and paired and generally appear at nodes.  The 5–8 cm (2–3 in) flowers usually occur singly, but may appear in groups of 2 or 3. The flowers, which appear in early summer, can have a pleasantly strong fragrance. The sepals are very long, longer than the petals, and are constricted in the middle.  The fruits (hips) of Nootka rose are somewhat bitter but edible. It is reported that bletting will greatly mitigate the bitterness and make the hips much more palatable. Only the rind should be eaten as the seeds are irritating.


Nootka rose grows in a wide variety of habitats, from sea level to mid elevations. It needs sun but will tolerate some shade, often growing along forest edges.  It grows in moist riparian soils and in dry glacial till soils. It grows in fencerows, hedgerows, pastures, shrubby wetlands, woodlands, prairies, and meadows.
Nootka rose thickets provide habitat and food for birds and small wildlife. Deer browse the flowers, young stems, and hips. They are used in wetland mitigation buffers and in native plant landscaping.
R. nutkana hosts gall-making wasps of the family Cynipidae, genus Diplolepis (wasp), in the insect class Hymenoptera. Two species are D. polita, which makes bristly round red or green galls on leaves, and D. rosae, the mossy rose gall, which makes large, mossy, feathery, greenish or yellowish growths on stems.


Rosa nutkana is used medicinally by a great number of indigenous peoples to treat a wide variety of ailments, and also ceremonially, in handcrafts, and as a food source. The branches or leaves were used to make a tea or poultice to treat sores and eye problems. As with all wild rose species, the hips are edible and sometimes used to make jams and jellies.
Nootka rose serves as the larval host of the mourning cloak and grey hairstreak butterflies.
Nootka rose can be propagated from seed, although germination is spotty. Hardwood cuttings and root suckers can also be used.
There are several ornamental rose cultivars of R. nutkana, including 'Cantab' (Hurst 1939), 'Mander's Nutkana #1' (1983), 'Moore's Nutkana', and 'Schoener's Nutkana' (1930).


Rosa palustris, the swamp rose, is a shrub in the rose family native to much of eastern North America. It can be found from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick in the north, south to Florida and west to Arkansas and Ontario.  It is a host of the blinded sphinx moth and  Coptotriche admirabilis.


Rosa palustris is a shrub with alternate, pinnately compound leaves, on thorny stems. The flowers are pink, borne in summer.


The species epithet palustris is Latin for "of the marsh" and indicates its common habitat.


Rosa rubiginosa (sweet briar, sweetbriar rose, sweet brier or eglantine; syn. R. eglanteria) is a species of rose native to Europe and western Asia.


It is a dense deciduous shrub 2–3 meters high and across, with the stems bearing numerously hooked prickles. The foliage has a strong apple-like fragrance. The leaves are pinnately compound, 5–9  cm long, with 5–9 rounded to oval leaflets with a serrated margin, and numerous glandular hairs. The flowers are 1.8–3  cm in diameter, the five petals being pink with a white base, and the numerous stamens yellow; the flowers are produced in clusters of 2–7 together, from late spring to mid-summer. The fruit is a globose to oblong red hip 1–2 cm in diameter.


Its name eglantine is from Middle English eglentyn, from Old French aiglantin (adj.), from aiglent 'sweetbrier', from Vulgar Latin *aculentus (with the ending of spinulentus 'thorny, prickly'), from Latin aculeus 'prickle', from acus 'needle'. Sweet refers to the sweet, apple fragrance of the leaves, while briar ~ brier refers to it being a thorny bush.


Rosa rubiginosa is native to most of Europe with the exception of the extreme north (above 61°N), where it inhabits pastures and thorny bushes from the montane to the subalpine floor, with a sunny, continental climate. It is somewhat rare, with isolated specimens near roads and pastures frequented by cattle. Its presence is doubtful in western Asia. In Southern Europe it lives in higher altitudes, usually 1,000 to 1,700 m (3,300 to 5,600 ft). In Portugal it is classified as Critically Endangered and is restricted to the Serra da Estrela range.


In addition to its pink flowers, it is valued for its scent and the hips that form after the flowers and persist well into the winter. Graham Thomas recommends that it should be planted on the south or west side of the garden so that the fragrance will be brought into the garden on warm, moist winds. A specimen without any scent, and blush to white flowers may be the closely related fieldbriar, Rosa agrestis.
The tea made from the hips of this rose is very popular in Europe and elsewhere, where it is considered a healthy way for people to get their daily dose of vitamin C and other nutrients. A cup of rosehip tea will provide the minimum daily adult requirement of vitamin C. During World War II the British relied on rose hips and hops as the sources for their vitamins A and C. It was a common British wartime expression to say that: "We are getting by on our hips and hops."
In Tunisia, natural flower water is produced from its flowers.
In Chile and Argentina, where it is known in Spanish as "Rosa Mosqueta", it is cultivated to produce marmalades and cosmetic products, and has escaped into the wild in and near the Andes.


Rosa rubiginosa is an invasive species in southeast Australia.
It is classified as a restricted plant in New Zealand and is banned from sale, propagation and distribution in the Auckland, Canterbury, and Southland regions. The New Zealand Department of Conservation classifies R. rubiginosa as an "environmental weed". The plant is present in extensive areas of pasture and tussock grasslands in the Otago and Canterbury regions, where the seeds are spread by cattle, possums and birds that eat the hips. Growth from seed is aided by the reduction in competing pasture by rabbits.
It is listed as a Category 1 Declared Weed in South Africa. These plants may no longer be planted or propagated, and all trade in their seeds, cuttings or other propagative material is prohibited.


Rubus armeniacus, the Himalayan blackberry or Armenian blackberry,  is a species of Rubus in the blackberry group Rubus subgenus Rubus series Discolores (P.J. Müll.) Focke. It is native to Armenia and Northern Iran, and widely naturalised elsewhere. Both its scientific name and origin have been the subject of much confusion, with much of the literature referring to it as either Rubus procerus or Rubus discolor, and often mistakenly citing its origin as western European. Flora of North America, published in 2014, considers the taxonomy unsettled, and tentatively uses the older name Rubus bifrons.
In some areas, the plant is cultivated for its berries, but in many areas it is considered a noxious weed and an invasive species.


Rubus armeniacus is a perennial plant that bears biennial stems ("canes") from the perennial root system. In its first year a new stem grows vigorously to its full length of 4–10 m, trailing along the ground or arching up to 4 m high. The stem is stout, up to 2–3 cm diameter at the base, and green; it is polygonal (usually hexagonal) in cross-section, with fearsome thorns up to 1.5cm long forming along the ribs. The canes can turn more red/purple if they are exposed to bright sunlight. This is common in the summer. The leaves on first year shoots are 7–20 cm long, palmately compound with either three or more commonly five leaflets. The leaflets are moderately serrated. Flowers are not produced on first year shoots. In its second year, the stem does not grow longer, but produces several side shoots, which bear smaller leaves with three leaflets (rarely a single leaflet). These leaflets are oval-acute, dark green above and pale to whitish below, with a toothed margin, and snaring, hooked thorns along the midrib on the underside. The flowers are produced in late spring and early summer on panicles of 3–20 together on the tips of the second-year side shoots, each flower 2–2.5 cm diameter with five white or pale pink petals. The flowers are bisexual (perfect) containing both male and female reproductive structures.
The fruit in  botanical terminology is not a  berry, but an aggregate fruit of numerous drupelets, 1.2–2 cm diameter, ripening black or dark purple. Both first and second year shoots are spiny, with short, stout, curved, sharp spines. Mature plants form a tangle of dense arching stems, the branches rooting from the node tip when they reach the ground.


The species was introduced to Europe in 1835 and to Australia and North America in 1885. It was valued for its fruit, similar to that of common blackberries (Rubus fruticosus and allies) but larger and sweeter, making it a more attractive species for both domestic and commercial fruit production. The immature fruits are smaller, red, and hard with a much more sour taste. The cultivars Himalayan Giant and Theodore Reimers are commonly planted. Rubus armeniacus was used in the cultivation of the Marionberry cultivar of blackberry.


Rubus armeniacus soon escaped from cultivation and has become an invasive species in most of the temperate world. Because it is so hard to contain, it quickly gets out of control, with birds and other animals eating the fruit and then spreading the seeds. It is highly flammable and a common ladder fuel for wildfires, due to the litter and dead canes produced by the plant.
It is especially established west of the Cascades in the American Pacific Northwest and in parts of British Columbia. It does well in riparian zones due to the abundance of other species in these areas, which allows it to go relatively unnoticed until it has had a chance to establish itself. Unlike other invasive species, this plant can easily establish itself and continue to spread in ecosystems that have not experienced a disturbance.
Cutting the canes to the ground, or burning thickets of Rubus armeniacus are ineffective removal strategies. The best practices for removal include digging up the rhizomes and connecting underground structures, and herbicides. Broken roots can resprout, making manual removal extra labor intensive, and glyphosate herbicides are largely ineffective with this plant.


Rubus chamaemorus is a species of flowering plant in the rose family Rosaceae, native to cool temperate regions, alpine and arctic tundra and boreal forest. This herbaceous perennial produces amber-colored edible fruit similar to the blackberry. English common names include cloudberry, nordic berry, bakeapple (in Newfoundland and Labrador), knotberry and knoutberry (in England), aqpik or low-bush salmonberry (in Alaska – not to be confused with salmonberry, Rubus spectabilis), and averin or evron (in Scotland).


Unlike most Rubus species, the cloudberry is dioecious, and fruit production by a female plant requires pollination from a male plant.
The cloudberry grows to 10–25 cm (4–10 in) high. The leaves alternate between having 5 and 7 soft, handlike lobes on straight, branchless stalks. After pollination, the white (sometimes reddish-tipped) flowers form raspberry-sized aggregate fruits which are more plentiful in wooded rather than sun-exposed habitats. Consisting of between 5 and 25 drupelets, each fruit is initially pale red, ripening into an amber color in early autumn.


Cloudberries are a circumpolar boreal plant, occurring naturally throughout the Northern Hemisphere from 78°N, south to about 55°N, and are scattered south to 44°N mainly in mountainous areas and moorlands. In Europe, they grow in the Nordic countries but are rare in the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) and Poland. They occur across northern Russia east towards the Pacific Ocean as far south as Japan. Due to peatland drainage and peat exploitation, they are considered endangered and are under legal protection in Germany's Weser and Elbe valleys, and at isolated sites in the English Pennines and Scottish Highlands. A single, fragile site exists in the Sperrin Mountains of Northern Ireland.
In North America, cloudberries grow wild across Greenland, most of northern Canada, Alaska, northern Minnesota, New Hampshire, Maine, and New York.
Wide distribution occurs due to the excretion of the indigestible seeds by birds and mammals. Further distribution arises through its rhizomes, which are up to 10 m (33 ft) long and grow about 10–15 cm (4–6 in) below the soil surface, developing extensive and dense berry patches. Cuttings of these taken in May or August are successful in producing a genetic clone of the parent plant. The cloudberry grows in bogs, marshes, wet meadows, tundra and elevations of 1,400 metres (4,600 ft) above sea level in Norway, requiring acidic ground (between 3.5 and 5 pH).
Cloudberry leaves are food for caterpillars of several Lepidoptera species. The moth Coleophora thulea has no other known food plants. See also List of Lepidoptera that feed on Rubus.


Despite great demand as a delicacy (particularly in Sweden, Norway and Finland) the cloudberry is not widely cultivated and is primarily a wild plant. Wholesale prices vary widely based on the size of the yearly harvest, but cloudberries have gone for as little as €10/kg (in 2004).
Since the middle of the 1990s, however, the species has formed part of a multinational research project. Beginning in 2002, selected cultivars have been available to farmers, notably 'Apolto' (male), 'Fjellgull' (female) and 'Fjordgull' (female). The cloudberry can be cultivated in Arctic areas where few other crops are possible, for example along the northern coast of Norway.


When ripe, cloudberry fruits are golden-yellow, soft and juicy, and are rich in vitamin C. When eaten fresh, cloudberries have a distinctive tart taste. When over-ripe, they have a creamy texture somewhat like yogurt and a sweet flavor. They are often made into jams, juices, tarts, and liqueurs. In Finland, the berries are eaten with heated leipäjuusto (a local cheese; the name translates to "bread-cheese"), as well as cream and sugar. In Sweden, cloudberries (hjortron) and cloudberry jam are used as a topping for ice cream, pancakes, and waffles. In Norway, they are often mixed with whipped cream and sugar to be served as a dessert called multekrem (cloudberry cream), as a jam or as an ingredient in homemade ice cream. Cloudberry yoghurt—molte- or multeyoughurt—is a supermarket item in Norway.
In Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, cloudberries are used to make "bakeapple pie" or jam. Arctic Yup'ik mix the berries with seal oil, reindeer or caribou fat (which is diced and made fluffy with seal oil) and sugar to make "Eskimo ice cream" or akutaq. The recipes vary by region. Along the Yukon and Kuskokwim River areas, white fish (pike) along with shortening and sugar are used. The berries are an important traditional food resource for the Yup'ik.
Due to its high vitamin C content, the berry is valued both by Nordic seafarers and Northern indigenous peoples. Its polyphenol content, including flavonoid compounds such as ellagic acid, appears to naturally preserve food preparations of the berries. Cloudberries can be preserved in their own juice without added sugar, if stored cool.
Extract of cloudberries is also used in cosmetics such as shower gels, hand creams and body lotions.


In Nordic countries, traditional liqueurs such as lakkalikööri (Finland) are made of cloudberry, having a strong taste and high sugar content. Cloudberry is used as a flavouring for making akvavit. In northeastern Quebec, a cloudberry liqueur known as chicoutai (aboriginal name) is made.


Cloudberries are rich in vitamin C and ellagic acid, citric acid, malic acid, α-tocopherol, anthocyanins and the provitamin A carotenoid, β-carotene in contents which differ across regions of Finland due to sunlight exposure, rainfall or temperature. The ellagitannins lambertianin C and sanguiin H-6 are also present. Genotype of cloudberry variants may also affect polyphenol composition, particularly for ellagitannins, sanguiin H-6, anthocyanins and quercetin.
Polyphenol extracts from cloudberries have improved storage properties when microencapsulated using maltodextrin DE5-8. At least 14 volatile compounds, including vanillin, account for the aroma of cloudberries.


The cloudberry appears on the Finnish version of the 2 euro coin. The name of the hill Beinn nan Oighreag in Breadalbane in the Scottish Highlands means "Hill of the Cloudberries" in Scottish Gaelic. Transactions of Camden's Britain (1637 edition) indicates the etymological origins of 'cloud-berry', the plant's name in old Lancashire dialect: 'Pendelhill [in Lancashire] advenceth itselfe up the skie [...] and in the very top thereof bringeth forth a peculiar plant which, as though it came out of the clowdes, they tearme clowdes-berry'. In Norrland cloudberries are known as Norrland's gold.
One of the gnomes in The Little Grey Men, a 1942 children's book by "BB" (Denys Watkins-Pitchford), and its sequel is named Cloudberry.


Rubus cissoides, commonly called bush lawyer or tātarāmoa, taraheke, taramoa, tātaraheke in Māori, is a scrambling vine native to New Zealand.
R. cissoides leaves are 6 - 15 centimetres in length and are arranged in clusters of three to five. It is found in forest in a variety of altitudes and produces white flowers followed by mature red berries.


Rubus cissoides is the same genus as the blackberry and raspberry resulting in several similar features. The bush lawyer is a woody climbing vine consisting of a relatively weak stem which relies on the support of shrubs.
The bush lawyer is a dicotyledonous plant meaning the leaves consist of a branching vein network. The leaf surface is smooth and hairless, whilst having serrated edges. The leaves are long and narrow in shape, forming in groups of five leaflets.
A key identifying feature for the bush lawyer is the reddish coloured hooks located on the branches. These hooks are on the underside of the branch to enable the plant to essentially grip as it climbs to heights of up to four meters.
The bush lawyer has a white flower and also produces a yellow to red coloured berry.


Rubus cissoides is a species native to New Zealand. It is endemic because it occurs naturally only in New Zealand.


R. cissoides is widespread throughout most of New Zealand, from the North Island all the way south to Stewart Island. However, R. cissoides is not found in all environments. Only lowland and mountainous forests provide the growing conditions in which it thrives.


R. cissoides prefers lowland and mountainous forests. However, these must be areas with reasonable levels of sunlight as R. cissoides cannot grow in shade. This is part of the reason it has adapted into an efficient climbing plant to optimize the sunlight it receives in a competitive forest environment. This plant species also prefers moist soils as it does develop as well in a dry environment.


R. cissoides flowers between the months of August and December. The flowers produced are white in colour and are deciduous meaning during the winter period there are no flowers to be seen. The individual flowers are either male or female flowers. Both male and female flowers cannot be found on the same plant. Pollination of these flowers occurs via insects such as bees. Once the flowers are pollinated the plant also produces the orange/red drupelets between the months of November and April. During this period the drupelets drop seeds. They are eaten by animals such as possums allowing the seeds to be dispersed throughout the forest. The plants then germinate normally around spring when there is a warmer environment for the plant to establish in.
The younger plants/seedlings have a different leaf formation to that of the more mature plants. The more established plants have pinnately compound leaves, whereas the young leaves simple.
Initially the stem of the plants is rather thick and stable to allow the young plant to find vegetation to climb. The young plants can support themselves up to a height of 60 cm before requiring stability. If the young plant cannot find vegetation to grow up it will spread over the forest floor until it finds an appropriate shrub to establish itself on. The hooks on the leaves and branches allow the young plant to climb up shrubs easily to establish a place in the canopy where it can receive light.
R. cissoides is known to grow rapidly. Once the plant has begun to climb, when it reaches a suitable height and is mature it will begin to produce flowers in August to December.


R. cissoides has adapted to many different soil types throughout New Zealand. However, there are some soil characteristics which enable it to grow better.
R. cissoides prefers soils with a moderate to low level of sand. Sand consists of large particles with large air pore spaces. This means the water drains rapidly through these particles. If a soil has a large proportion of sand it can often lead to a relatively dry soil.
R. cissoides prefers a moist environment, so soils with high sand content are not ideal. In contrast soils with a relative proportion of clay suit the preferred growing conditions of the bush lawyer. This is because clay particles are very fine, and have a high water holding capacity. Having a high water holding capacity provides the bush lawyer with a moist soil.
R. cissoides is very versatile in terms of the pH of the soil in which it grows. It is well adapted to acidic, neutral and basic soils. However, highly acidic and basic soils may have negative implications on growth.
R. cissoides cannot tolerate shaded environments. You will often find it in sunny areas of the forest. This is also the reason why it climbs high in the canopy.
R. cissoides requires essential plant macronutrients. There are many nutrients which plants require to maintain good growth but the main three are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK). Out of these three macronutrients nitrogen is the most important for plant growth. Nitrogen is essential for the process of photosynthesis to occur. Photosynthesis produces energy for plant. R. cissoides will need a wide range of nutrients in the soil to remain healthy, especially NPK.


R. cissoides has multiple cultural uses and many of these were created by Maori.
The berries of the plant are edible but are said to be tasteless. The sap inside of the stems can be extracted and is used in cooking, it can be eaten plain or it can be cooked.
The berries can be crushed up to form a dye which is blue/purple in colour.
The Maori often used many parts of R. cissoides for medicinal purposes. The bark of the stem was used as a cure for abdominal pains, and the bark from the roots was used as a cure to stop diarrhea. To relieve chest congestions and colds the Maori used small portions of crushed up leaves.
Other than medicinal uses Maori also had other uses for parts of R. cissoides. In the eighteen hundreds (1800s) it was recorded that local Maori caught fish using a net crafted out of the vines of R. cissoides.


Dalibarda repens is a herbaceous plant with simple leaves, and hairy stems. It is the only species in the genus Dalibarda.  It has both sterile and fertile flowers.  The sterile flowers are much less numerous than the fertile ones, have five white petals and are borne atop a peduncle.  The more numerous fertile flowers are cleistogamous (they are self-pollinating and never open), and are hidden beneath the leaves. The flower stalks (peduncles) of the cleistogamous flowers are short, 2–5 cm long, and curved downward. The calyx forms a shallow, hairy hypanthium, which is divided into 5–6 lobes of unequal size, the 3 larger lobes are toothed (serrate).
The stem is decumbent/creeping, "several inches" in length, with a densely tufted terminal portion which bears both leaves and flowers.
The leaves are basal, simple, pinnately veined above the base, long-petiolate, and slightly hairy/downy on both sides. They are dark green in color. Leaf blades cordate to rounded (orbicular), 3–5 cm long; the basal lobes are rounded; the apex is blunt to rounded; the margins are scalloped, with low rounded teeth (crenate); and the petioles are hairy, 3–10 cm long.
The common name false violet comes not only from the heart-shaped leaves, but also because this plant, like violets, produces two kinds of flowers.
Though this plant is globally secure, it is locally endangered in Connecticut, New Jersey, North Carolina and Rhode Island.  It is listed as threatened in Michigan and Ohio.
The plant can be identified as being low, spreading by runners with leaves and flowers arising on separate stalks from the runner. The sterile flowers are white with 5 broad petals and numerous long stamens, solitary on a long, reddish flower stalk arising from runner. Leaves are kidney-shaped, with a long petiole, and with outer margin scalloped. The plant is 2 to 5 inches in height.
The leaves of dewdrop may be confused with violet leaves, but violets have low rounded teeth that curve upward; the leaf margins of dewdrop have low scalloped edges or outward-facing blunt teeth.
The plant is found in Minnesota in the west to Nova Scotia in the east, southward to Michigan, Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and in the mountains to North Carolina.
Dewdrop is found in northern or upland forests, in shady locations, in moist to wet conifer and mixedwood (softwoods and hardwoods) forests or swamps, and often on red pine and white pine sites with sandy, acidic soils.  It thrives best in acidic soils.
A few, nearly dry, small white drupes (drupelets), 3–4 mm long, retained within the calyx are produced.
As with its close relatives the Rubus, the young plants make a reasonably palatable pot-herb, and can be brewed as a mild infusion/tea throughout the growing season. The fruit is edible, but decidedly not "choice".
It flowers from June to August.


Rubus flagellaris, the northern dewberry, also known as the common dewberry, is a North American species perennial subshrub species of dewberry, in the rose family. This dewberry is distributed across much of Canada, Mexico, and the United States. It grows in diverse habitats ranging from drier savannas to temperate deciduous forests.


Rubus flagellaris has low-growing stems that range from 8–15 feet (2.4–4.6 m) long, and flowering stems that can grow up to 4 feet (1.2 m) in height. It can grow as a woody vine or low growing shrub. The young stems are green with a scattered arrangement of hairy prickles. The old stems are brown, woody and have hard prickles in comparison to the young stem. Sometimes the tips of the young stems root into the ground and form vegetative offsets.
The species has its most active growth from mid-spring to early summer. The roots of the northern dewberry consist of a woody taproot.
The plant has an alternate, compound leaf arrangement, with mostly three, but sometimes five leaflets per leaf. The margins of the leaves are serrated and the leaves show a palmate venation. Each leaflet is ovate, approximately three inches (75 mm) long and one inch (25 mm) wide. The leaflets are green on top, but pale green on the underside. One leaflet of a set is connected by a petiole to the stem while the other leaflets in the set are connected to that terminal leaflet.
The plant produces a five-petaled white flower, each flower about one inch (25 mm) in diameter with five petals. The flowers exhibit a terminal inflorescence with one to five flowers per young stem. The flowers are hermaphrodites and have both female and male sex organs. There are five sepals, green in appearance, lanceolate in shape. The ovaries exhibit a superior position relative to the sepals and petals. Several stamen surround a cluster of carpels. The flowers would then open up at daytime, but close up at nighttime.
Once the flowers of the northern dewberry are fertilized, drupes soon grow and replace each flower. The drupes are a dark-purplish color and range from ½ inch to one inch in diameter. Once the fruit has fully ripened it has a tart-sweet flavor.