March 1 – War of the Sixth Coalition – Battle of Saint-Julien: Austrian Army of the South defeats the French Army of the Rhône.
March 3
War of the Sixth Coalition – Battle of Laubressel: Schwarzenberg defeats the French under MacDonald.
Chilean War of Independence – First Battle of Talca: Royalists defeat Chilean rebels.
March 4 – War of 1812 – Battle of Longwoods: American raiding party defeats British regulars and militia and Indian fighters.
March 7 – War of the Sixth Coalition – Battle of Craonne: A French army led by Napoleon is victorious against von Blücher.
March 8 – War of the Sixth Coalition: A night attack by the British under Sir Thomas Graham on the French fortress of Bergen op Zoom ends in failure.
March 9
War of the Sixth Coalition – Treaty of Chaumont signed by four Allied powers, deepening their alliance against France.
American naval schooner USS Enterprise reaches Wilmington, North Carolina, returning from participating in the War of 1812 against the United Kingdom in the Caribbean.
March 10 – War of the Sixth Coalition – Battle of Laon: von Blücher defeats Napoleon.
March 10 – March 15: – Argentine War of Independence – Battle of Martín García: The United Provinces of South America defeat the Spanish royalists.
March 11 – War of the Sixth Coalition – Battle of Mâcon: Austrian Army of the South defeats the French Army of the Rhône.
March 12 – Louis Antoine, Duke of Angoulême enters Bordeaux, marking the restoration of the House of Bourbon.
March 13 – War of the Sixth Coalition – Battle of Reims: Napoleon defeats a combined Russo-Prussian corps.
March 19 – Chilean War of Independence – Battle of El Quilo: Chilean rebels defeat Spanish royalists.
March 20
War of the Sixth Coalition – Battle of Limonest: Austrian and Hessian forces defeat the French Army of the Rhône.
Chilean War of Independence – Battle of Membrillar: Chilean rebels defeat Spanish royalists.
March 21 – War of the Sixth Coalition – Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube: Allied army defeats Napoleon.
March 25
War of the Sixth Coalition – Battle of Fère-Champenoise: Allied army led by Schwarzenberg defeats the French under Marmont and Mortier.
De Nederlandsche Bank is established.
March 26 – War of the Sixth Coalition – Battle of Saint-Dizier: Napoleon defeats the Russians under Ferdinand von Wintzingerode.
March 26 – March 27 – War of the Sixth Coalition – Battle of Jobourg: British squadron defeats and captures two French frigates.
March 27 – War of 1812 – Battle of Horseshoe Bend: In northern Alabama, United States forces under General Andrew Jackson defeat the Creek Indians.
March 28 – War of 1812 – Battle of Valparaíso: Two British Royal Navy ships easily defeat and capture USS Essex and a sister ship off the coast of Chile.
March 29 – Chilean War of Independence – First Battle of Cancha Rayada: Spanish royalists defeat Chilean rebels.
March 30
War of the Sixth Coalition: The Battle of Paris begins.
War of 1812 – Battle of Lacolle Mills: British garrison defeats American attack.
March 31
War of the Sixth Coalition: Coalition troops occupy Paris.
War of the Sixth Coalition – Battle of Courtrai: French forces defeat Saxons and Prussians.


The name Birmingham comes from the Old English Beormingahām, meaning the home or settlement of the Beormingas – a tribe or clan whose name literally means 'Beorma's people' and which may have formed an early unit of Anglo-Saxon administration. Beorma, after whom the tribe was named, could have been its leader at the time of the Anglo-Saxon settlement, a shared ancestor, or a mythical tribal figurehead. Place names ending in -ingahām are characteristic of primary settlements established during the early phases of Anglo-Saxon colonisation of an area, suggesting that Birmingham was probably in existence by the early 7th century at the latest. Surrounding settlements with names ending in -tūn ('farm'), -lēah ('woodland clearing'), -worð ('enclosure') and -field ('open ground') are likely to be secondary settlements created by the later expansion of the Anglo-Saxon population, in some cases possibly on earlier British sites.


The phylogeny of the Nymphalidae is complex. Several taxa are of unclear position, reflecting the fact that some subfamilies were formerly well-recognized as distinct families due to insufficient study.
The five main clades within the family are:
The libytheine clade (basal)
Libytheinae (snout butterflies, earlier treated as the distinct family Libytheidae)
The danaine clade (basal)
Danainae (milkweed butterflies, earlier treated as the distinct family Danaidae)
Host plant families include Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae (subfamily of Apocynaceae), and Moraceae.
Ithomiini (about 300 Neotropical species, sometimes considered a subfamily Ithomiinae)
Most species have long wings, and some have transparent wings. Host plants are in the families Apocynaceae, Gesneriaceae, and Solanaceae.
Tellervini (about 6–10 species in Australasia, sometimes considered a subfamily Tellervinae)
Caterpillars resemble those of the Danainae and feed on Apocynaceae.
The satyrine clade
Calinaginae (about six species, restricted to the Himalayas)
Mimics of the Danainae, they are restricted to host plants in the family Moraceae.
Charaxinae
Tropical canopy butterflies, the caterpillars often have head spines or projections. Mostly edible species, have some Batesian mimics. Host plants are in the families Annonaceae, Celastraceae, Convolvulaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Flacourtiaceae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae, Piperaceae, Poaceae, Rhamnaceae, Rutaceae, Santalaceae, and Sapindaceae.
Morphinae (including Amathusiini, sometimes considered a subfamily Amathusiinae)
Include the spectacular neotropical Morpho, its food plants include the Arecaceae, Bignoniaceae, Fabaceae, Menispermaceae, Poaceae, and Sapindaceae.
Brassolini (owls, neotropical with 70–80 species, mostly crepuscular, sometimes considered a subfamily Brassolinae)
Host plants in the families Arecaceae, Bromeliaceae, Heliconiaceae, Musaceae, and Poaceae.
Satyrinae (satyrs and browns, earlier treated as distinct family Satyridae)
Host plants are in the families Arecaceae, Araceae, Cyperaceae, Heliconiaceae, Poaceae, and Selaginellaceae.
The heliconiine clade (sister group of the nymphaline clade, excludes former tribes Biblidini and Cyrestini, and tribes Pseudergolini and Coeini)
Heliconiinae (earlier treated as distinct family Heliconiidae)
Colourful tropical butterflies, they are noted for Müllerian mimicry. All species use host plants in the family Passifloraceae.
Acraeini (mostly African, but some species in Asia, sometimes considered a family Acraeinae)
Host plants are in the families Asteraceae, Passifloraceae, Sterculiaceae, Tiliaceae, and Urticaceae.
Limenitidinae
The nymphaline clade (sister group of the heliconiine clade, also includes tribes Coeini and Pseudergolini)
Apaturinae (mostly tropical)
Host plants are in the family Ulmaceae. Caterpillars are smooth with bifid tails and horns on the head.
Biblidinae (formerly in Limenitidinae)
Cyrestinae (formerly in Limenitidinae)
Nymphalinae (a large subfamily that sometimes includes the Limenitidinae and Biblidinae)
Some species migrate. Caterpillars are sometimes covered in spines. Host plants include Acanthaceae, Caprifoliaceae, Convolvulaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fagaceae, Flacourtiaceae, Lamiaceae, Loranthaceae, Moraceae, Plantaginaceae, Poaceae, Rubiaceae, Rutaceae, Salicaceae, Sapindaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Urticaceae, and Verbenaceae.


The Nymphalidae are the largest family of butterflies, with more than 6,000 species distributed throughout most of the world. Belonging to the superfamily Papilionoidea, they are usually medium-sized to large butterflies. Most species have a reduced pair of forelegs and many hold their colourful wings flat when resting. They are also called brush-footed butterflies or four-footed butterflies, because they are known to stand on only four legs while the other two are curled up; in some species, these forelegs have a brush-like set of hairs, which gives this family its other common name. Many species are brightly coloured and include popular species such as the emperors, monarch butterfly, admirals, tortoiseshells, and fritillaries. However, the under wings are, in contrast, often dull and in some species look remarkably like dead leaves, or are much paler, producing a cryptic effect that helps the butterflies blend into their surroundings.


The trait for which these butterflies are most known is the use of only four legs; the reason their forelegs have become vestigial is not yet completely clear. Some suggest the forelegs are used to amplify the sense of smell, because some species possess a brush-like set of soft hair called setae, which has led researchers to believe the forelegs are used to improve signaling and communication between the species, while standing in the other four. This ability proves useful in terms of reproduction and the overall health of the species, and it is the leading theory so far.


In the adult butterflies, the first pair of legs is small or reduced, giving the family the other names of four-footed or brush-footed butterflies. The caterpillars are hairy or spiky with projections on the head, and the chrysalids have shiny spots.
The forewings have the submedial vein (vein 1) unbranched and in one subfamily forked near the base; the medial vein has three branches, veins 2, 3, and 4; veins 5 and 6 arise from the points of junction of the discocellulars; the subcostal vein and its continuation beyond the apex of cell, vein 7, has never more than four branches, veins 8–11; 8 and 9 always arise from vein 7, 10, and 11 sometimes from vein 7 but more often free, i.e., given off by the subcostal vein before apex of the cell.
The hindwings have internal (1a) and precostal veins. The cell in both wings is closed or open, often closed in the fore, open in the hindwing. The dorsal margin of the hindwing is channelled to receive the abdomen in many of the forms.
The antennae always have two grooves on the underside; the club is variable in shape. Throughout the family, the front pair of legs in the male, and with three exceptions (Libythea, Pseudergolis, and Calinaga) in the female also, is reduced in size and functionally impotent; in some, the atrophy of the forelegs is considerable, e.g., the Danainae and Satyrinae. In many of the forms of these subfamilies, the forelegs are kept pressed against the underside of the thorax, and are in the male often very inconspicuous.


Rafinesque introduced the name Nymphalia as a subfamily name in diurnal Lepidoptera. Rafinesque did not include Nymphalis among the listed genera, but Nymphalis was unequivocally implied in the formation of the name (Code Article 11.7.1.1). The attribution of the Nymphalidae to Rafinesque has now been widely adopted.


Pollination is important to preserve the ecosystem. It heavily relies on pollinators, like Pyrobombus. Pyrobombus collect pollen from a variety of flora by using its hind legs (scopa) and have pollen trapped between the body hairs. Through vibrating at high frequencies, pollen can be expelled from the bee's body to transport back to their colony and other plants for fertilization. This is the act of buzz pollination in which most species of the Bombus behave that allows for flora to be distributed and fertilised.


The first European settlement in the region were the Dutch, who established the colony of New Netherland. The first settlements were established in 1635 followed by further settlement at Maspeth in 1642 (ultimately unsuccessful), and Vlissingen (now Flushing) in 1645. Other early settlements included Newtown (now Elmhurst) in 1652 and Jamaica in 1655. However, these towns were mostly inhabited by English settlers from New England via eastern Long Island (Suffolk County) who were subject to Dutch law. After the capture of the colony by the English and its subsequent renaming as New York in 1664, the area (and all of Long Island) became known as Yorkshire.
The Flushing Remonstrance signed by colonists in 1657 is considered a precursor to the United States Constitution's provision on freedom of religion in the Bill of Rights. The signers protested the Dutch colonial authorities' persecution of Quakers in what is today the borough of Queens.
Originally, Queens County included the adjacent area now comprising Nassau County. It was an original county of New York State, one of twelve created on November 1, 1683. The county is assumed to have been named after Catherine of Braganza, since she was queen of England at the time (she was Portugal's royal princess Catarina, daughter of King John IV of Portugal). The county was founded alongside Kings County (Brooklyn, which was named after her husband, King Charles II), and Richmond County (Staten Island, named after his illegitimate son, the 1st Duke of Richmond). However, the namesake is disputed. While Catherine's title seems the most likely namesake, no historical evidence of official declaration has been found. On October 7, 1691, all counties in the Colony of New York were redefined. Queens gained North and South Brother Islands as well as Huletts Island (today known as Rikers Island). On December 3, 1768, Queens gained other islands in Long Island Sound that were not already assigned to a county but that did not abut on Westchester County (today's Bronx County).
Queens played a minor role in the American Revolution, as compared to Brooklyn, where the Battle of Long Island was largely fought. Queens, like the rest of what became New York City and Long Island, remained under British occupation after the Battle of Long Island in 1776 and was occupied throughout most of the rest of the Revolutionary War. Under the Quartering Act, British soldiers used, as barracks, the public inns and uninhabited buildings belonging to Queens residents. Even though many residents opposed unannounced quartering, they supported the British crown. The quartering of soldiers in private homes, except in times of war, was banned by the Third Amendment to the United States Constitution. Nathan Hale was captured by the British on the shore of Flushing Bay and hanged in Manhattan.
From 1683 until 1784, Queens County consisted of five towns: Flushing, Hempstead, Jamaica, Newtown, and Oyster Bay. On April 6, 1784, a sixth town, the Town of North Hempstead, was formed through secession by the northern portions of the Town of Hempstead. The seat of the county government was located first in Jamaica, but the courthouse was torn down by the British during the American Revolution to use the materials to build barracks. After the war, various buildings in Jamaica temporarily served as courthouse and jail until a new building was erected about 1787 (and later completed) in an area near Mineola (now in Nassau County) known then as Clowesville.
The 1850 United States census was the first in which the population of the three western towns exceeded that of the three eastern towns that are now part of Nassau County. Concerns were raised about the condition and distance of the old courthouse, and several sites were in contention for the construction of a new one.
In 1870, Long Island City split from the Town of Newtown, incorporating itself as a city, consisting of what had been the village of Astoria and some unincorporated areas within the town of Newtown. Around 1874, the seat of county government was moved to Long Island City from Mineola.
On March 1, 1860, the eastern border between Queens County (later Nassau County) and Suffolk County was redefined with no discernible change. On June 8, 1881, North Brother Island was transferred to New York County. On May 8, 1884, Rikers Island was transferred to New York County.
In 1886, Lloyd's Neck, which was then part of the town of Oyster Bay and had earlier been known as Queens Village, was set off and separated from Queens County and annexed to the town of Huntington in Suffolk County. On April 16, 1964, South Brother Island was transferred to Bronx County.


Four United States Postal Service postal zones serve Queens, based roughly on those serving the towns in existence at the consolidation of the five boroughs into New York City: Long Island City (ZIP codes starting with 111), Jamaica (114), Flushing (113), and Far Rockaway (116). Also, the Floral Park post office (110), based in Nassau County, serves a small part of northeastern Queens. Each of these main post offices has neighborhood stations with individual ZIP codes, and unlike the other boroughs, these station names are often used in addressing letters. These ZIP codes do not always reflect traditional neighborhood names and boundaries; "East Elmhurst", for example, was largely coined by the USPS and is not an official community. Most neighborhoods have no solid boundaries. The Forest Hills and Rego Park neighborhoods, for instance, overlap.
Residents of Queens often closely identify with their neighborhood rather than with the borough or city. The borough is a patchwork of dozens of unique neighborhoods, each with its own distinct identity:
 Flushing, one of the largest neighborhoods in Queens, has a large and growing Asian community. The community consists of Chinese, Koreans, and South Asians. Asians have now expanded eastward along the Northern Boulevard axis through Murray Hill, Whitestone, Bayside, Douglaston–Little Neck, and eventually into adjacent Nassau County. These neighborhoods historically contained Italian Americans and Greeks, as well as Latino Americans. The busy intersection of Main Street, Kissena Boulevard, and 41st Avenue defines the center of Downtown Flushing and the Flushing Chinatown (法拉盛華埠), known as the "Chinese Times Square" or the "Chinese Manhattan". The segment of Main Street between Kissena Boulevard and Roosevelt Avenue, punctuated by the Long Island Rail Road trestle overpass, represents the cultural heart of the Flushing Chinatown. Housing over 25,000 individuals born in China alone, Flushing has become home to one of the largest Chinatowns, representing the largest Chinese population of any U.S. municipality other than New York City in total.
 Howard Beach, Whitestone, and Middle Village are home to large Italian American populations.
 Ozone Park and South Ozone Park have large Italian, Hispanic, and Guyanese populations.
 Rockaway Beach has a large Irish American population.
 Astoria, in the northwest, is traditionally home to one of the largest Greek populations outside Greece. It also has large Spanish American and Italian American communities, and is home to a growing population of immigrants from the Middle East, South Asia, the Balkans as well as young professionals from Manhattan. Nearby Long Island City is a major commercial center and the home to Queensbridge, the largest housing project in North America.
 Maspeth and Ridgewood are home to many Eastern European immigrants such as Romanian, Polish, Serbian, Albanian, and other Slavic populations. Ridgewood also has a large Hispanic population.
 Jackson Heights and Elmhurst make up a conglomeration of Hispanic, Asian, Tibetan, and South Asian communities. Jackson Heights is also known as "Little Colombia" thanks to the gastronomical and demographic impact of Colombian people.
 Woodside is home to a large Filipino American community and has a "Little Manila" as well a large Irish American population. Many Filipino Americans live in Hollis and Queens Village.
 Richmond Hill, in the south, is often thought of as "Little Guyana" for its large Guyanese community, as well as Punjab Avenue (ਪੰਜਾਬ ਐਵੇਨਿਊ), or Little Punjab, for its high concentration of Punjabi people.
 Rego Park, Forest Hills, Kew Gardens, and Kew Gardens Hills have traditionally large Jewish populations (historically from Germany and Eastern Europe; though more recent immigrants are from Israel, Iran, and the former Soviet Union). These neighborhoods are also known for large and growing Asian communities, mainly immigrants from China.
 Jamaica Estates, Jamaica Hills, Hillcrest, Fresh Meadows, and Hollis Hills are also populated with many people of Jewish background. Many Asian families reside in parts of Fresh Meadows as well.
 Jamaica is home to large African American, Caribbean, and Central American populations. There are also middle-class African American and Caribbean neighborhoods such as Saint Albans, Queens Village, Cambria Heights, Springfield Gardens, Rosedale, Laurelton, and Briarwood along east and southeast Queens.
 Bellerose and Floral Park, originally home to many Irish Americans, is home to a growing South Asian population, predominantly Indian Americans.
 Corona and Corona Heights, once considered the "Little Italy" of Queens, was a predominantly Italian community with a strong African American community in the northern portion of Corona and adjacent East Elmhurst. From the 1920s through the 1960s, Corona remained a close-knit neighborhood. Corona today has the highest concentration of Latinos of any Queens neighborhood, with an increasing Chinese American population, located between Elmhurst and Flushing.


According to a 2001 Claritas study, Queens was the most diverse county in the United States among counties of 100,000+ population. A 2014 analysis by The Atlantic found Queens County to be the 3rd most racially diverse county-equivalent in the United States—behind Aleutians West Census Area and Aleutians East Borough in Alaska—as well as the most diverse county in New York. Meanwhile, a 2017 study by Axios found that, although numerous smaller counties in the United States had higher rates of diversity, Queens was the United States' most diverse populous county.
In Queens, approximately 48.5% of the population was foreign born as of 2010. Within the foreign born population, 49.5% were born in Latin America, 33.5% in Asia, 14.8% in Europe, 1.8% in Africa, and 0.4% in North America. Roughly 2.1% of the population was born in Puerto Rico, a U.S. territory, or abroad to American parents. In addition, 51.2% of the population was born in the United States. Approximately 44.2% of the population over 5 years of age speak English at home; 23.8% speak Spanish at home. Also, 16.8% of the populace speak other Indo-European languages at home. Another 13.5% speak a non-Indo-European Asian language or language of the Pacific Islands at home.
Among the Asian population in 2010, people of Chinese ethnicity made up the largest ethnic group at 10.2% of Queens' population, with about 237,484 people; the other East and Southeast Asian groups are: Koreans (2.9%), Filipinos (1.7%), Japanese (0.3%), Thais (0.2%), Vietnamese (0.2%), and Indonesians and Burmese both make up 0.1% of the population. People of South Asian descent made up 7.8% of Queens' population: Indians (5.3%), Bangladeshi (1.5%), Pakistanis (0.7%), and Nepali (0.2%). In 2019, Chinese Americans remained the largest Asian ethnicity (10.9%) followed by Asian Indians (5.7%). Asian Indians had estimated population of 144,896 in 2014 (6.24% of the 2014 borough population), as well as Pakistani Americans, who numbered at 15,604. Queens has the second largest Sikh population in the nation after California.
Among the Hispanic or Latin American population, Puerto Ricans made up the largest ethnic group at 4.6%, next to Mexicans, who made up 4.2% of the population, and Dominicans at 3.9%. Central Americans made up 2.4% and are mostly Salvadorans. South Americans constitute 9.6% of Queens's population, mainly of Ecuadorian (4.4%) and Colombian descent (4.2%). The 2019 American Community Survey estimated Mexicans and Puerto Ricans were equally the largest groups (4.5% each) in Queens, and Cuban Americans were the third largest single group. Other Hispanic and Latinos collectively made up 18.9% of the population. The Hispanic or Latino population increased by 61% to 597,773 between 1990 and 2006 and now accounts for over 26.5% of the borough's population.
Queens has the largest Colombian population in the city, accounting for over 35.6% of the city's total Colombian population, for a total of 145,956 in 2019; it also has the largest Ecuadorian population in the city, accounting for 62.2% of the city's total Ecuadorian population, for a total of 101,339. Queens has the largest Peruvian population in the city, accounting for 69.9% of the city's total Peruvian population, for a total of 30,825. Queens has the largest Salvadoran population in the city, accounting for 50.7% of the city for a total population of 25,235. The Mexican population in Queens has increased 45.7% since 2011 to 71,283, the second-highest in the city, after Brooklyn.
Queens is also home to 49.6% of the city's Asian population. Among the five boroughs, Queens has the largest population of Chinese, Indian, Korean, Filipino, Bangladeshi and Pakistani Americans. Queens has the largest Asian American population by county outside the Western United States; according to the 2006 American Community Survey, Queens ranks fifth among US counties with 477,772 (21.18%) Asian Americans, behind Los Angeles County, California, Honolulu County, Hawaii, Santa Clara County, California, and Orange County, California.
Some main European ancestries in Queens as of 2000 include: Italian (8.4%), Irish (5.5%), German (3.5%), Polish (2.7%), Russian (2.3%), and Greek (2.0%). Of the European American population, Queens has the third largest Bosnian population in the United States behind only St. Louis and Chicago, numbering more than 15,000. Queens is home to some 50,000 Armenian Americans.
The Jewish Community Study of New York 2011, sponsored by the UJA-Federation of New York, found that about 9% of Queens residents were Jews. In 2011, there were about 198,000 Jews in Queens, making it home to about 13% of all people in Jewish households in the eight-county area consisting of the Five Boroughs and Westchester, Nassau, and Suffolk counties. Russian-speaking Jews make up 28% of the Jewish population in Queens, the largest in any of the eight counties.
In Queens, the Black and African American population earns more than non-Hispanic whites on average. Many of these Blacks and African Americans live in quiet, middle-class suburban neighborhoods near the Nassau County border, such as Laurelton and Cambria Heights which have large black populations whose family income is higher than average. The migration of European Americans from parts of Queens has been long ongoing with departures from Ozone Park, Woodhaven, Bellerose, Floral Park, and Flushing (most of the outgoing population has been replaced with Asian Americans). Neighborhoods such as Whitestone, College Point, North Flushing, Auburndale, Bayside, Middle Village, and Douglaston–Little Neck have not had a substantial exodus of white residents, but have seen an increase of Asian population, mostly Chinese and Korean. Queens has experienced a real estate boom making most of its neighborhoods desirable for people who want to reside near Manhattan but in a less urban setting.


Under the Köppen climate classification, using the 32 °F (0 °C) coldest month (January) isotherm, Queens and the rest of New York City have a humid continental climate (Dfa) bordeing humid subtropical climate (Cfa) with partial shielding from the Appalachian Mountains and moderating influences from the Atlantic Ocean. Queens receives precipitation throughout the year, with an average of 44.8 inches (114 cm) per year. In an average year, there will be 44 days with either moderate or heavy rain.
An average winter will have 22 days with some snowfall, of which nine days have at least 1 inch (2.5 cm) of snowfall. Summer is typically hot, humid, and wet. An average year will have 17 days with a high temperature of 90 °F (32 °C) or warmer. In an average year, there are 14 days on which the temperature does not go above 32 °F (0 °C) all day. Spring and autumn can vary from chilly to very warm.
The highest temperature ever recorded at LaGuardia Airport was 107 °F (42 °C) on July 3, 1966. The highest temperature ever recorded at John F. Kennedy International Airport was 104 °F (40 °C), also on July 3, 1966. LaGuardia Airport's record-low temperature was −7 °F (−22 °C) on February 15, 1943, the effect of which was exacerbated by a shortage of heating oil and coal. John F. Kennedy International Airport's record-low temperature was −2 °F (−19 °C), on February 8, 1963, and January 21, 1985. On January 24, 2016, 30.5 inches (77 cm) of snow fell, which is the record in Queens.
Tornadoes are generally rare; the most recent tornado, an EF0, touched down in College Point on August 3, 2018, causing minor damage. Before that, there was a tornado in Breezy Point on September 8, 2012, which damaged the roofs of some homes,< and an EF1 tornado in Flushing on September 26, 2010.


Queens is located on the far western portion of geographic Long Island and includes a few smaller islands, most of which are in Jamaica Bay, forming part of the Gateway National Recreation Area, which in turn is one of the National Parks of New York Harbor. According to the United States Census Bureau, Queens County has a total area of 178 square miles (460 km²), of which 109 square miles (280 km²) is land and 70 square miles (180 km²) (39%) is water.
Brooklyn, the only other New York City borough on geographic Long Island, lies just south and west of Queens, with Newtown Creek, an estuary that flows into the East River, forming part of the border. To the west and north is the East River, across which is Manhattan to the west and The Bronx to the north. Nassau County is east of Queens on Long Island. Staten Island is southwest of Brooklyn, and shares only a three-mile-long water border (in the Outer Bay) with Queens. North of Queens are Flushing Bay and the Flushing River, connecting to the East River. The East River opens into Long Island Sound. The midsection of Queens is crossed by the Long Island straddling terminal moraine created by the Wisconsin Glacier. The Rockaway Peninsula, the southernmost part of all of Queens, sits between Jamaica Bay and the Atlantic Ocean, featuring 7 miles (11 km) of beaches.


The New York City borough of Queens was authorized on May 4, 1897, by a vote of the New York State Legislature after an 1894 referendum on consolidation. The eastern 280 square miles (730 km²) of Queens that became Nassau County was partitioned on January 1, 1899. Queens Borough was established on January 1, 1898.
"The city of Long Island City, the towns of Newtown, Flushing and Jamaica, and that part of the town of Hempstead, in the county of Queens, which is westerly of a straight line drawn through the middle of the channel between Rockaway Beach and Shelter Island, in the county of Queens, to the Atlantic Ocean" was annexed to New York City, dissolving all former municipal governments (Long Island City, the county government, all towns, and all villages) within the new borough. The areas of Queens County that were not part of the consolidation plan, consisting of the towns of North Hempstead and Oyster Bay, and the major remaining portion of the Town of Hempstead, remained part of Queens County  until they seceded to form the new Nassau County on January 1, 1899. At this point, the boundaries of Queens County and the Borough of Queens became coterminous. With consolidation, Jamaica once again became the county seat, though county offices now extend to nearby Kew Gardens also.
In 1899, New York City conducted a land survey to determine the exact border of Queens between the Rockaways and Lawrence. This proved difficult because the border was defined as "middle of the channel between Rockaway Beach and Shelter Island" (now called Long Beach Island), and that particular channel had closed up by 1899. The surveyors had to determine where the channel had been when the consolidation law was written in 1894. The surveyors did so in part by speaking with local fishermen and oystermen who knew the area well.
From 1905 to 1908 the Long Island Rail Road in Queens became electrified. Transportation to and from Manhattan, previously by ferry or via bridges in Brooklyn, opened up with the Queensboro Bridge finished in 1909, and with railway tunnels under the East River in 1910. From 1915 onward, much of Queens was connected to the New York City Subway system. With the 1915 construction of the Steinway Tunnel carrying the IRT Flushing Line between Queens and Manhattan, and the robust expansion of the use of the automobile, the population of Queens more than doubled in the 1920s, from 469,042 in 1920 to 1,079,129 in 1930.
In later years, Queens was the site of the 1939 New York World's Fair and the 1964 New York World's Fair. LaGuardia Airport, in northern Queens, opened in 1939. Idlewild Airport, in southern Queens and now called JFK Airport, opened in 1948. In one of several notable incidents, TWA Flight 800 took off from the airport on July 17, 1996. In another, American Airlines Flight 587 took off from the latter airport on November 12, 2001, but ended up crashing in Queens' Belle Harbor area, killing 265 people. In late October 2012, much of Queens' Breezy Point area was destroyed by a massive six-alarm fire caused by Hurricane Sandy.


Queens is a borough of New York City, coextensive with Queens County, in the U.S. state of New York. Located on Long Island, it is the largest borough of New York City in area; it is bordered by the borough of Brooklyn at the western tip of Long Island to its west and Nassau County to the east. Queens also shares water borders with the boroughs of Manhattan, the Bronx, and Staten Island (via the Rockaways).
With a population of 2,405,464 as of the 2020 census, Queens is the second most populous county in the State of New York, second to Kings County (Brooklyn), and is therefore also the second most populous of the five New York City boroughs. Were it a city, Queens would rank as the fourth most-populous in the U.S. Approximately 47 percent of the residents of Queens are foreign-born.  Queens is the most linguistically diverse place on Earth and is one of the most ethnically diverse counties in the United States.
Queens was established in 1683 as one of the original 12 counties of the Province of New York. The settlement was presumably named for the English Queen Catherine of Braganza (1638–1705). From 1683 to 1899, the County of Queens included what is now Nassau County. Queens became a borough during the consolidation of New York City in 1898, combining the separate towns of Long Island City, Newtown, Flushing, Jamaica, and western Hempstead. With the exception of Hempstead, all are today considered neighborhoods of Queens.
Queens has the most diversified economy of the five boroughs of New York City. It is home to two of New York City's airports: John F. Kennedy and LaGuardia. Landmarks in Queens which support its economy include Flushing Meadows–Corona Park; Citi Field, home to the New York Mets baseball team; the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center, site of the U.S. Open tennis tournament; Kaufman Astoria Studios; Silvercup Studios; and the Aqueduct Racetrack. Flushing is undergoing rapid gentrification with investment by Chinese transnational entities, while Long Island City is undergoing gentrification secondary to its proximity across the East River from Manhattan.
The borough has diverse housing, ranging from high-rise apartment buildings in some areas of western and central Queens, such as Ozone Park, Jackson Heights, Flushing, Astoria, and Long Island City, to neighborhoods with many low-rise structures in the eastern part of the borough.


At the 2020 census, 2,405,464 people lived in Queens. In 2018's American Community Survey, the population of Queens was estimated by the United States Census Bureau to have increased to 2,278,906, a rise of 2.2%. Queens' estimated population represented 27.1% of New York City's population of 8,398,748; 29.6% of Long Island's population of 7,701,172; and 11.7% of New York State's population of 19,542,209. The 2019 estimates reported a decline to 2,253,858. In 2018, there were 865,878 housing units, and 777,904 households, 2.97 persons per household, and a median value of $481,300. There was an owner-occupancy rate of 44.5. In the 2010 United States census, Queens recorded a population of 2,230,722. There were 780,117 households enumerated, with an average of 2.82 persons per household. The population density was 20,465.3 inhabitants per square mile (7,966.9/km²). There were 835,127 housing units at an average density of 7,661.7 per square mile (2,982.6/km²).
The racial makeup of the county in 2010 was 39.7% White, 19.1% Black or African American, 0.7% Native American, 22.9% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 12.9% from other races, and 4.5% from two or more races. A total of 27.5% of the population were Hispanic or Latin American of any race. The non-Hispanic white population was 27.6%. In 2019, non-Hispanic whites made up an estimated 24.4% of the population, and Blacks or African Americans were 17.3%. The largest minority groups for the borough were Hispanic and Latin Americans (28.2%), and Asians (26.0%).
In Queens, residents consisted of 6.2% under 5, 13.9% 6–18, 64.2% 19–64, and 15.7% over 65. Females made up 51.5% of the population. An estimated 47.5% of residents are foreign-born in 2018. The per capita income was $28,814, and the median household income was $62,008. In 2018, 12.2% of residents lived below the poverty line.
The New York City Department of City Planning was alarmed by the negligible reported increase in population between 2000 and 2010. Areas with high proportions of immigrants and undocumented aliens are traditionally undercounted for a variety of reasons, often based on a mistrust of government officials or an unwillingness to be identified. In many cases, counts of vacant apartment units did not match data from local surveys and reports from property owners.


Experimental evidence has shown invertebrates (mostly small crustaceans) acting as pollinators in underwater environments. Beds of seagrass have been shown to reproduce this way in the absence of currents. It is not yet known how important invertebrate pollinators might be for other species.


January – Eli Whitney contracts with the U.S. federal government for 10,000 muskets, which he produces with interchangeable parts.
January 4 – Constantine Hangerli enters Bucharest, as Prince of Wallachia.
January 22 – A coup d'état is staged in the Netherlands (Batavian Republic). Unitarian Democrat Pieter Vreede  ends the power of the parliament (with a conservative-moderate majority).
February 10 – The Pope is taken captive, and the Papacy is removed from power, by French General Louis-Alexandre Berthier.
February 15 – U.S. Representative Roger Griswold (Fed-CT) beats Congressman Matthew Lyon (Dem-Rep-VT) with a cane after the House declines to censure Lyon earlier spitting in Griswold's face; the House declines to discipline either man.
March – the Irish Rebellion of 1798 begins when the Irish Militia arrest the leadership of the Society of United Irishmen, a group unique amongst Irish republican and nationalist movements in that it unifies Catholics and Protestants (Anglican, Presbyterian, Methodist, Baptist and others) around republican ideals. This month, Lord Castlereagh is appointed Acting Chief Secretary for Ireland and on March 30 martial law is proclaimed here. The first battles in the rebellion are fought on May 24 and it continues through September, but the rebels receive much less than the expected support from France, which sends only 1,100 men.
March 5 – French troops enter Bern.
March 7 – French forces invade the Papal States and establish the Roman Republic.
April 7 – The Mississippi Territory is organized by the United States, from territory ceded by Georgia and South Carolina; later it is twice expanded, to include disputed territory claimed by both the U.S. and Spain (which acquired territory in trade with Great Britain).
April 12 – The Helvetic Republic, a French client republic, is proclaimed following the collapse of the Old Swiss Confederacy after the French invasion; Aarau becomes the republic's temporary capital.
April 26 – France annexes Geneva.
April 30 – The United States Department of the Navy is established as a cabinet-level department. Benjamin Stoddert, a civilian businessman, is appointed as the first Navy Secretary by President Adams.
May 9 – Napoleon sets off for Toulon, sailing aboard Vice-Admiral Brueys's flagship L'Orient; his squadron is part of a larger fleet of over 300 vessels, carrying almost 37,000 troops.
June 12
The French take Malta.
A moderate coup d'état in the Netherlands (Batavian Republic) deposes Pieter Vreede.
June 13 – Mission San Luis Rey de Francia is founded in California.
June 18 – The first of the four Alien and Sedition Acts, the Naturalization Act of 1798, is signed into law by U.S. President Adams, requiring immigrants to wait 14 years rather than five years to become naturalized citizens of the United States. On June 25, another law is signed authorizing the imprisonment and deportation of any non-citizens deemed to be dangerous.


January 22 – Lewis Morris, American landowner and developer, signer of the United States Declaration of Independence (b. 1726)
February 12 – Stanisław August Poniatowski, deposed last King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania (b. 1732)
February 25 – Louis Jules Mancini Mazarini, French diplomat, writer (b. 1716)
March 22 – Justin Morgan, American horse breeder and composer (b. 1747)
March 25 – General Michel Joachim Marie Raymond, French leader of the army of the Nizam of Hyderabad (poisoned) (b. 1755)
April – Gideon Morris, trans-Appalachian pioneer (b. 1756)
April 11 – Karl Wilhelm Ramler, German poet (b. 1725)
April 12 – Madeleine de Puisieux, French writer, active feminist (b. 1720)
April 14 – Henry Mowat, Scottish-born British Royal Navy officer (b. 1734)
April 29 – Nikolaus Poda von Neuhaus, German entomologist (b. 1723)
May 10 – George Vancouver, British Royal Navy officer, explorer (Vancouver, Canada is named after him) (b. 1757)
May 19 – William Byron, 5th Baron Byron, English dueler (b. 1722)
June – Betsy Gray, Irish rebel heroine
June 4 – Giacomo Casanova, Italian adventurer, writer (b. 1725)
June 21 – John Kelly of Killanne, Irish republican
June 25 – Thomas Sandby, English cartographer, architect (b. 1721)
June 29 – Catharina Mulder, Dutch organist (d. 1723)
July 17 – Henry Joy McCracken, Irish republican
July 21 – François Sébastien Charles Joseph de Croix, Count of Clerfayt, Austrian field marshal (b. 1733)
August 1 – François-Paul Brueys d'Aigalliers, French admiral (killed in battle) (b. 1753)
August 11 – Joshua Clayton, American politician (b. 1744)
August 18 – John Lewis Gervais, American revolutionary and politician (b. 1741)
August 21 – James Wilson, American politician (b. 1742)
August 24 – Thomas Alcock, English clergyman (b. 1709)
August 25 – Mikiel'Ang Grima, Maltese surgeon (b. 1731)
September 21 – George Read, American lawyer, signer of the Declaration of Independence (b. 1733)
November 5 – John Zephaniah Holwell, British surgeon (b. 1711)
November 15 – Angelo Maria Amorevoli, Italian operatic tenor (b. 1716)
November 19 – Wolfe Tone, Irish republican (b. 1737)
November 21 – Gabriel Lenkiewicz, Belarusian Temporary Vicar General of the Society of Jesus (b. 1722)
December 4 – Luigi Galvani, Italian physicist (b. 1737)
December 16 – Thomas Pennant, Welsh naturalist (b. 1726)


July 1 – Egyptian Campaign: Napoleon disembarks his French army in Marabout Bay.
July 7
Quasi-War: The United States Congress rescinds treaties with France, sparking the war.
In the action of USS Delaware vs La Croyable, the newly-formed United States Navy makes its first capture.
July 11 – The United States Marine Corps is re-established under its present name.
July 12 – Battle of Shubra Khit: French troops defeat the Mamelukes, during Napoleon's march from Alexandria to take Cairo.
July 14 – The fourth of the Alien and Sedition Acts, the Sedition Act of 1798 is signed into law, making it a federal crime to write, publish, or utter false or malicious statements about the United States government.
July 16 – The Relief of Sick and Disabled Seamen Act is signed into law, creating the Marine Hospital Service, the forerunner to the current United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps.
July 21 – Battle of the Pyramids: Napoleon defeats Ottoman forces near the Pyramids.
July 24 – Napoleon occupies Cairo.
July 31 – A second round of elections are held in the Netherlands (Batavian Republic); no general elections this time.
August 1 – Battle of the Nile (near Abu Qir): Lord Nelson defeats the French navy under Admiral Brueys. 11 of the 13 French battleships are captured or destroyed, including the flagship Orient whose magazine explodes; Nelson himself is wounded in the head.
August 22 – French troops land at Kilcummin in County Mayo to assist the Irish Rebellion.
September – Charles Brockden Brown publishes the first significant American novel, the Gothic fiction Wieland: or, The Transformation; an American Tale.
September 5 – Conscription is made mandatory in France by the Jourdan Law.
September 10
The Piedmontese Republic is declared in the territory of Piedmont.
Battle of St. George's Caye: Off the coast of British Honduras (modern-day Belize), a group of European settlers and Africans defeat a Spanish force sent from Mexico to drive them out.
September 18 – Lyrical Ballads is published anonymously by Samuel Taylor Coleridge and William Wordsworth, inaugurating the English Romantic movement in literature.
September 23 – Battle of Killala: in the last land battle of the Irish Rebellion of 1798, British troops defeat the remaining rebel Irish and French forces at Killala.
October 2 – The Cherokee nation signs a treaty with the United States allowing free passage through Cherokee lands in Tennessee through the Cumberland Gap through the Appalachian Mountains from Virginia into Kentucky.
October 7 – U.S. Representative Matthew Lyon of Vermont becomes the first member of Congress to be put on trial for violating the new Sedition Act of 1798.
October 12
Battle of Tory Island: A British Royal Navy squadron, under Sir John Borlase Warren, prevents French Republican ships, commanded by Jean-Baptiste-François Bompart, from landing reinforcements for the Society of United Irishmen on the Donegal coast; Irish leader Wolfe Tone is captured and later dies of his wounds. This ends the Irish Rebellion of 1798.
Peasants War against the French occupiers of the Southern Netherlands begins in Overmere.
October 22 – Capitulation of the French garrison at Hyderabad to East India Company troops under James Kirkpatrick, British Resident.
November 4 – The Russo-Ottoman siege of Corfu begins.
November 8 – British whaler John Fearn becomes the first European to land on Nauru.
November 28 – Trade between the United States and modern-day Uruguay begins when John Leamy's frigate John arrives in Montevideo.
December 5 – Peasants War in the Southern Netherlands: The revolt is crushed in Hasselt; during the uprising it is estimated that 5,000 to 10,000 people have been killed.
December 6 – General Joubert of the Piedmontese Republic occupies the Sardinian capital of Turin.


Edward Jenner publishes An Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of the Variolæ Vaccinæ, describing the smallpox vaccine, in London.
Thomas Malthus publishes An Essay on the Principle of Population (anonymously) in London.
Nathan Mayer Rothschild moves from Frankfurt in the Holy Roman Empire to England, settling up in business as a textile trader and financier in Manchester.
Alois Senefelder invents lithography.
The first census in Brazil counts 2 million blacks in a total population of 3.25 million.
The Ayrshire (Earl of Carrick's Own) Yeomanry, a British Army Yeomanry Cavalry Regiment, formed by The Earl of Cassillis at Culzean Castle, Ayrshire in 1794, is adopted onto the British Army List.
The platypus is first discovered by Europeans.


The name Hymenoptera refers to the wings of the insects, but the original derivation is ambiguous. All references agree that the derivation involves the Ancient Greek πτερόν (pteron) for wing. The Ancient Greek ὑμήν (hymen) for membrane provides a plausible etymology for the term because species in this order have membranous wings. However, a key characteristic of this order is that the hindwings are connected to the forewings by a series of hooks. Thus, another plausible etymology involves Hymen, the Ancient Greek god of marriage, as these insects have married wings in flight. Another suggestion for the inclusion of Hymen is the myth of Melissa, a nymph with a prominent role at the wedding of Zeus.


Among most or all hymenopterans, sex is determined by the number of chromosomes an individual possesses. Fertilized eggs get two sets of chromosomes (one from each parent's respective gametes) and develop into diploid females, while unfertilized eggs only contain one set (from the mother) and develop into haploid males. The act of fertilization is under the voluntary control of the egg-laying female, giving her control of the sex of her offspring. This phenomenon is called haplodiploidy.
However, the actual genetic mechanisms of haplodiploid sex determination may be more complex than simple chromosome number. In many Hymenoptera, sex is actually determined by a single gene locus with many alleles. In these species, haploids are male and diploids heterozygous at the sex locus are female, but occasionally a diploid will be homozygous at the sex locus and develop as a male, instead. This is especially likely to occur in an individual whose parents were siblings or other close relatives. Diploid males are known to be produced by inbreeding in many ant, bee, and wasp species. Diploid biparental males are usually sterile but a few species that have fertile diploid males are known.
One consequence of haplodiploidy is that females on average actually have more genes in common with their sisters than they do with their own daughters. Because of this, cooperation among kindred females may be unusually advantageous, and has been hypothesized to contribute to the multiple origins of eusociality within this order. In many colonies of bees, ants, and wasps, worker females will remove eggs laid by other workers due to increased relatedness to direct siblings, a phenomenon known as worker policing.
Another consequence is that hymenopterans may be more resistant to the deleterious effects of inbreeding. As males are haploid, any recessive genes will automatically be expressed, exposing them to natural selection. Thus, the genetic load of deleterious genes is purged relatively quickly.


Hymenopterans range in size from very small to large insects, and usually have two pairs of wings. Their mouthparts are adapted for chewing, with well-developed mandibles (ectognathous mouthparts). Many species have further developed the mouthparts into a lengthy proboscis, with which they can drink liquids, such as nectar. They have large compound eyes, and typically three simple eyes, ocelli.
The forward margin of the hind wing bears a number of hooked bristles, or "hamuli", which lock onto the fore wing, keeping them held together. The smaller species may have only two or three hamuli on each side, but the largest wasps may have a considerable number, keeping the wings gripped together especially tightly. Hymenopteran wings have relatively few veins compared with many other insects, especially in the smaller species.
In the more ancestral hymenopterans, the ovipositor is blade-like, and has evolved for slicing plant tissues. In the majority, however, it is modified for piercing, and, in some cases, is several times the length of the body. In some species, the ovipositor has become modified as a stinger, and the eggs are laid from the base of the structure, rather than from the tip, which is used only to inject venom. The sting is typically used to immobilise prey, but in some wasps and bees may be used in defense.
Hymenopteran larvae typically have a distinct head region, three thoracic segments, and usually nine or 10 abdominal segments. In the suborder Symphyta, the larvae resemble caterpillars in appearance, and like them, typically feed on leaves. They have large chewing mandibles, three pairs of thoracic limbs, and, in most cases, six or eight abdominal prolegs. Unlike caterpillars, however, the prolegs have no grasping spines, and the antennae are reduced to mere stubs. Symphytan larvae that are wood borers or stem borers have no abdominal legs and the thoracic legs are smaller than those of non-borers.
With rare exceptions, larvae of the suborder Apocrita have no legs and are maggotlike in form, and are adapted to life in a protected environment. This may be the body of a host organism, or a cell in a nest, where the adults will care for the larva. In parasitic forms, the head is often greatly reduced and partially withdrawn into the prothorax (anterior part of the thorax). Sense organs appear to be poorly developed, with no ocelli, very small or absent antennae, and toothlike, sicklelike, or spinelike mandibles. They are also unable to defecate until they reach adulthood due to having an incomplete digestive tract (a blind sac), presumably to avoid contaminating their environment. The larvae of stinging forms (Aculeata) generally have 10 pairs of spiracles, or breathing pores, whereas parasitic forms usually have nine pairs present.


Different species of Hymenoptera show a wide range of feeding habits. The most primitive forms are typically phytophagous, feeding on flowers, pollen, foliage, or stems. Stinging wasps are predators, and will provision their larvae with immobilised prey, while bees feed on nectar and pollen.
A huge number of species are parasitoids as larvae. The adults inject the eggs into a host, which they begin to consume after hatching. For example, the eggs of the endangered Papilio homerus are parasitized at a rate of 77%, mainly by Hymenoptera species. Some species are even hyperparasitoid, with the host itself being another parasitoid insect. Habits intermediate between those of the herbivorous and parasitoid forms are shown in some hymenopterans, which inhabit the galls or nests of other insects, stealing their food, and eventually killing and eating the occupant.


The cladogram of external relationships, based on a 2008 DNA and protein analysis, shows the order as a clade, most closely related to endopterygote orders including the Diptera (true flies) and Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths).
Hymenoptera originated in the Triassic, with the oldest fossils belonging to the family Xyelidae. Social hymenopterans appeared during the Cretaceous. The evolution of this group has been intensively studied by Alex Rasnitsyn, Michael S. Engel, and others.

This clade has been studied by examining the mitochondrial DNA. Although this study was unable to resolve all the ambiguities in this clade, some relationships could be established. The Aculeata, Ichneumonomorpha, and Proctotrupomorpha were monophyletic. The Megalyroidea and Trigonalyoidea are sister clades as are the Chalcidoidea+Diaprioidea. The Cynipoidea was generally recovered as the sister group to Chalcidoidea and Diaprioidea which are each other's closest relations.
The cladogram is based on Schulmeister 2003.


Some hymenopterans take advantage of parthenogenesis, the creation of embryos without fertilization. Thelytoky is a particular form of parthenogenesis in which female embryos are created (without fertilisation). The form of thelytoky in hymenopterans is a kind of automixis in which two haploid products (proto-eggs) from the same meiosis fuse to form a diploid zygote. This process tends to maintain heterozygosity in the passage of the genome from mother to daughter. It is found in several ant species including the desert ant Cataglyphis cursor, the clonal raider ant Cerapachys biroi, the predaceous ant Platythyrea punctata, and the electric ant (little fire ant) Wasmannia auropunctata. It also occurs in the Cape honey bee Apis mellifera capensis.
Oocytes that undergo automixis with central fusion often have a reduced rate of crossover recombination, which helps to maintain heterozygosity and avoid inbreeding depression. Species that display central fusion with reduced recombination include the ants Platythyrea punctata and  Wasmannia auropunctata and the Cape honey bee Apis mellifera capensis. In A. m. capensis, the recombination rate during meiosis is reduced more than tenfold. In W. auropunctata the reduction is 45 fold.
Single queen colonies of the narrow headed ant Formica exsecta illustrate the possible deleterious effects of increased homozygosity. Colonies of this species which have more homozygous queens will age more rapidly, resulting in reduced colony survival.


Seasonal grazing incorporates "grazing animals on a particular area for only part of the year". This allows the land that is not being grazed to rest and allow for new forage to grow.


In agriculture, grazing is a method of animal husbandry whereby domestic livestock are allowed outdoors to roam around and consume wild vegetations in order to convert the otherwise indigestible (by human gut) cellulose within grass and other forages into meat, milk, wool and other animal products, often on land unsuitable for arable farming.
Farmers may employ many different strategies of grazing for optimum production: grazing may be continuous, seasonal, or rotational within a grazing period. Longer rotations are found in ley farming, alternating arable and fodder crops; in rest rotation, deferred rotation, and mob grazing, giving grasses a longer time to recover or leaving land fallow. Patch-burn sets up a rotation of fresh grass after burning with two years of rest. Conservation grazing proposes to use grazing animals to improve the biodiversity of a site, but studies show that the greatest benefit to biodiversity comes from removing grazing animals from the landscape.
Grazing has existed since the beginning of agriculture; sheep and goats were domesticated by nomads before the first permanent settlements were constructed around 7000 BC, enabling cattle and pigs to be kept.
Livestock grazing contributes to many negative effects on the environment, including deforestation, extinction of native wildlife, pollution of streams and rivers, overgrazing, soil degradation, ecological disturbance, desertification, and ecosystem stability.


According to a report by the Food and Agriculture Organization, about 60% of the world's grassland (just less than half of the world's usable surface) is covered by grazing systems. It states that "Grazing systems supply about 9 percent of the world's production of beef and about 30 percent of the world's production of sheep and goat meat. For an estimated 100 million people in arid areas, and probably a similar number in other zones, grazing livestock is the only possible source of livelihood."


Sheep, goats cattle, and pigs were domesticated early in the history of agriculture. Sheep were domesticated first, soon followed by goats; both species were suitable for nomadic peoples. Cattle and pigs were domesticated somewhat later, around 7000 BC, once people started to live in fixed settlements.
In America, livestock were grazed on public land from the Civil War. The Taylor Grazing Act of 1934 was enacted after the Great Depression to regulate the use of public land for grazing purposes.


1967
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1967 (MCMLXVII) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar, the 1967th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 967th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 67th  year of the 20th century, and the  8th   year of the 1960s decade.


Spring – Justa Grata Honoria, eldest sister of emperor Valentinian III, sends her ring to Attila the Hun in an effort to escape a marriage being forced upon her by her brother. Now about 34, she has had an affair with an officer in her household and has allegedly plotted to overthrow Valentinian, who has sent her to a convent at Constantinople. Attila announces his intention to marry her, says he expects to be given half the Western Roman Empire as her dowry, and gathers a large Hun invasion force. Flavius Aetius, Roman general (magister militum), musters an army in Gaul of Burgundians, Celts, Ripuarians, Salian Franks and Visigoths under the command of the Visigoth king Theodoric I.
Angles, Saxons and Jutes invade Britain, marking the beginning of the Old English period (approximate date).
Remodelling of the Dome of Baptistry of Neon, Ravenna (Italy) begins (approximate date).


Rubus is a large and diverse genus of flowering plants in the rose family, Rosaceae, subfamily Rosoideae, with over 1,350 species.
Raspberries, blackberries, and dewberries are common, widely distributed members of the genus. Most of these plants have woody stems with prickles like roses; spines, bristles, and gland-tipped hairs are also common in the genus. The Rubus fruit, sometimes called a bramble fruit, is an aggregate of drupelets. The term "cane fruit" (or "cane-fruit"), or "cane berry" (or "caneberry"), applies to any Rubus species or hybrid which is commonly grown with supports such as wires or canes, including raspberries, blackberries, and hybrids such as loganberry, boysenberry, marionberry and tayberry. The stems of such plants are also referred to as canes.


The genus Rubus is a very complex one, particularly the blackberry/dewberry subgenus (Rubus), with polyploidy, hybridization, and facultative apomixis apparently all frequently occurring, making species classification of the great variation in the subgenus one of the grand challenges of systematic botany.
Rubus species have a basic chromosome number of seven. Polyploidy from the diploid (14 chromosomes) to the tetradecaploid (98 chromosomes) is exhibited.
Some treatments have recognized dozens of species each for what other, comparably qualified botanists have considered single, more variable species. On the other hand, species in the other Rubus subgenera (such as the raspberries) are generally distinct, or else involved in more routine one-or-a-few taxonomic debates, such as whether the European and American red raspberries are better treated as one species or two (in this case, the two-species view is followed here, with Rubus idaeus and R. strigosus both recognized; if these species are combined, then the older name R. idaeus has priority for the broader species).
Molecular data have backed up classifications based on geography and chromosome number, but following morphological data, such as the structure of the leaves and stems, do not appear to produce a phylogenetic classification.
The classification presented below recognizes 13 subgenera within Rubus, with the largest subgenus (Rubus) in turn divided into 12 sections. Representative examples are presented, but many more species are not mentioned here. A comprehensive 2019 study found subgenera Orobatus and Anoplobatus to be monophyletic, while all other subgenera to be paraphyletic or polyphyletic.
Subgenus Anoplobatus
Rubus aboriginum (garden dewberry)
Rubus aliceae
Rubus deliciosus
Rubus koehleri
Rubus neomexicanus
Rubus odoratus
Rubus parviflorus (thimbleberry)
Subgenus Chamaebatus
Rubus calycinus
Rubus hayata-koidzumii
Rubus nivalis (snow raspberry)
Rubus pectinellus
Subgenus Chamaemorus
Rubus chamaemorus
Rubus pseudochamaemorus
Subgenus Comaropsis
Rubus geoides
Subgenus Cylactis
Rubus arcticus
Rubus fockeanus
Rubus humulifolius
Rubus lasiococcus
Rubus pedatus
Rubus saxatilis
Rubus sierrae
Rubus xanthocarpus
Subgenus Diemenicus
Rubus gunnianus
Subgenus Dalibardastrum
Rubus amphidasys
Rubus nepalensis
Rubus tricolor
Rubus tsangiorum
Subgenus Idaeobatus
Rubus acuminatissimus
Rubus adenophorus (syn. R. sagatus)
Rubus alexeterius
Rubus alpestris
Rubus amabilis
Rubus apetalus
Rubus archboldianus
Rubus aurantiacus
Rubus biflorus
Rubus chingii
Rubus cockburnianus
Rubus columellaris
Rubus copelandii
Rubus corchorifolius
Rubus coreanus
Rubus crataegifolius
Rubus croceacanthus
Rubus ellipticus
Rubus eustephanos
Rubus flosculosus
Rubus fraxinifolius
Rubus glabricarpus
Rubus grayanus
Rubus hawaiensis
Rubus hirsutus
Rubus hoffmeisterianus
Rubus hypargyrus
Rubus idaeus
Rubus illecebrosus
Rubus innominatus
Rubus inopertus
Rubus irritans
Rubus komarovii
Rubus lasiostylus
Rubus leucodermis
Rubus ludwigii
Rubus lutescens
Rubus macilentus
Rubus macraei
Rubus mesogaeus
Rubus microphyllus
Rubus minusculus
Rubus niveus
Rubus occidentalis
Rubus palmatus
Rubus parvifolius
Rubus peltatus
Rubus pentagonus
Rubus phoenicolasius
Rubus pileatus
Rubus pinfaensis
Rubus pinnatus
Rubus probus
Rubus pungens
Rubus queenslandicus
Rubus racemosus
Rubus rigidus
Rubus rosifolius
Rubus sachalinensis
Rubus simplex
Rubus spectabilis
Rubus stans
Rubus strigosus
Rubus suavissimus
Rubus subornatus
Rubus sumatranus
Rubus teledapos
Rubus thibetanus
Rubus trianthus
Rubus trifidus
Rubus vernus
Subgenus Lampobatus
Rubus acanthophyllos
Rubus adenothallus
Rubus adenotrichos
Rubus betonicifolius
Rubus bogotensis
Rubus briareus
Rubus bullatus
Rubus choachiensis
Rubus coriaceus
Rubus costaricanus
Rubus eggersii
Rubus eriocarpus
Rubus fagifolius
Rubus florulentus
Rubus gachetensis
Rubus giganteus
Rubus glabratus
Rubus glaucus
Rubus hondurensis
Rubus imperialis
Rubus irasuensis
Rubus macvaughianus
Rubus megalococcus
Rubus nubigenus
Rubus peruvianus
Rubus roseus
Rubus sapidus
Rubus shankii
Rubus trichomallus
Rubus turquinensis
Subgenus Malachobatus
Rubus acuminatus
Rubus alceifolius
Rubus assamensis
Rubus bambusarum
Rubus buergeri
Rubus chroosepalus
Rubus chrysophyllus
Rubus elongatus
Rubus fairholmianus
Rubus flagelliflorus
Rubus fockei
Rubus formosensis
Rubus gardnerianus
Rubus glomeratus
Rubus henryi
Rubus hunanensis
Rubus ichangensis
Rubus irenaeus
Rubus kawakamii
Rubus lambertianus
Rubus lineatus
Rubus moluccanus
Rubus multibracteatus
Rubus paniculatus
Rubus parkeri
Rubus pseudosieboldii
Rubus pyrifolius
Rubus rolfei
Rubus rugosus
Rubus setchuenensis
Rubus sieboldii
Rubus splendidissimus
Rubus swinhoei
Rubus tephrodes
Rubus tiliaceus
Rubus wardii
Rubus xanthoneurus
Subgenus Micranthobatus
Rubus australis
Rubus cissoides
Rubus moorei
Rubus nebulosus
Rubus parvus
Rubus schmidelioides
Rubus squarrosus
Subgenus Orobatus
Rubus loxensis
Subgenus Rubus (formerly known as subgenus Eubatus)
Sections
Sect. Allegheniensis
Rubus allegheniensis
Rubus alumnus
Rubus pennus
Sect. Arguti
Rubus abactus
Rubus andrewsianus
Rubus argutus
Rubus frondosus
Rubus orarius
Rubus ostryifolius
Rubus pensilvanicus
Rubus recurvans
Sect. Caesii
Rubus caesius
Sect. Canadenses
Rubus canadensis
Rubus kennedyanus
Sect. Corylifolii
Rubus adenoleucus
Rubus aureolus
Rubus babingtonianus
Rubus britannicus
Rubus camptostachys
Rubus conjungens
Rubus cyclomorphus
Rubus dissimulans
Rubus dumetorum
Rubus eluxatus
Rubus fabrimontanus
Rubus fioniae
Rubus gothicus
Rubus lamprocaulos
Rubus mortensenii
Rubus nemorosus
Rubus seebergensis
Rubus tuberculatus
Rubus wahlbergii
Sect. Cuneifolii
Rubus cuneifolius
Sect. Flagellares
Rubus arundelanus
Rubus biformispinus
Rubus deamii
Rubus enslenii
Rubus flagellaris
Sect. Hispidi
Rubus hispidus
Sect. Rubus (also known as Rubus fruticosus agg.)
Rubus acheruntinus
Rubus adornatus
Rubus adspersus
Rubus ahenifolius
Rubus alterniflorus
Rubus ammobius
Rubus amplificatus
Rubus anglocandicans
Rubus angustifrons
Rubus armeniacus (syn. R. discolor)
Rubus arrhenii
Rubus atrichantherus
Rubus axillaris
Rubus bakerianus
Rubus bavaricus
Rubus bayeri
Rubus bertramii
Rubus bifrons
Rubus bloxamianus
Rubus bloxamii
Rubus bollei
Rubus boraeanus
Rubus braeuckeri
Rubus bregutiensis
Rubus calvatus
Rubus canescens
Rubus cardiophyllus
Rubus caucasicus
Rubus chlorocladus
Rubus chlorothyrsos
Rubus chrysoxylon
Rubus cimbricus
Rubus cissburiensis
Rubus clusii
Rubus colemannii
Rubus concolor
Rubus conothyrsoides
Rubus cordifolius
Rubus cyri
Rubus dasyphyllus
Rubus divaricatus
Rubus diversus
Rubus drejeri
Rubus dumnoniensis
Rubus echinatoides
Rubus echinatus
Rubus egregius
Rubus eianus
Rubus ergii
Rubus errabundus
Rubus erythrops
Rubus fissus
Rubus foliosus
Rubus formidabilis
Rubus furvicolor
Rubus fuscoater
Rubus fuscus
Rubus gelertii
Rubus georgicus
Rubus glandithyrsos
Rubus glanduliger
Rubus glandulosus
Rubus godronii
Rubus grabowskii
Rubus gratus
Rubus gremlii
Rubus hartmanii
Rubus hirtus
Rubus hylophilus
Rubus ieri
Rubus inermis
Rubus infestus
Rubus insularis
Rubus laciniatus
Rubus lamprophyllus
Rubus lespinassei
Rubus leucostachys
Rubus linkianus
Rubus macrophyllus
Rubus micans
Rubus miszczenkoi
Rubus montanus
Rubus moschus
Rubus mucronulatus
Rubus mulleri
Rubus nessensis
Rubus nitidioides
Rubus pedatifolius
Rubus pedemontanus
Rubus piceetorum
Rubus plicatus
Rubus polyanthemus
Rubus praecox
Rubus promachonicus
Rubus pyramidalis
Rubus radula
Rubus rhamnifolius
Rubus rhombifolius
Rubus rosaceus
Rubus rubritinctus
Rubus rudis
Rubus sanctus
Rubus scheutzii
Rubus schlechtendalii
Rubus schleicheri
Rubus senticosus
Rubus separinus
Rubus septentrionalis
Rubus slesvicensis
Rubus sprengelii
Rubus sulcatus
Rubus thyrsiflorus
Rubus ulmifolius
Rubus vestitus
Rubus vigorosus
Rubus vulgaris
Sect. Setosi
Rubus glandicaulis
Rubus missouricus
Rubus notatus
Rubus semisetosus
Rubus setosus
Rubus stipulatus
Rubus vermontanus
Sect. Ursini
Rubus × loganobaccus
Rubus ursinus
Sect. Verotriviales
Rubus lucidus
Rubus riograndis
Rubus trivialis (southern dewberry)


The genus has a likely North American origin, with fossils known from the Eocene aged Florissant Formation of Colorado. Rubus expanded into Eurasia, South America, and Oceania during the Miocene. Fossil seeds from the early Miocene of Rubus have been found in the Czech part of the Zittau Basin.
 Many fossil fruits of †Rubus laticostatus, †Rubus microspermus and †Rubus semirotundatus have been extracted from bore hole samples of the Middle Miocene fresh water deposits in Nowy Sacz Basin, West Carpathians, Poland.


The term "hybrid berry" is often used collectively for those fruits in the genus Rubus which have been developed mainly in the U.S. and U.K. in the last 130 years. As Rubus species readily interbreed and are apomicts (able to set seed without fertilisation), the parentage of these plants is often highly complex, but is generally agreed to include cultivars of blackberries (Rubus ursinus, R. fruticosus) and raspberries (R. idaeus). The British National Collection of Rubus stands at over 200 species and, although not within the scope of the National Collection, also hold many cultivars.
The hybrid berries include:-
loganberry (California, U.S., 1883) R. × loganobaccus, a spontaneous hybrid between R. ursinus 'Aughinbaugh' and R. idaeus 'Red Antwerp'
boysenberry (U.S., 1920s) a hybrid between R. idaeus and R. × loganobaccus
olallieberry (U.S., 1930s) a hybrid between the loganberry and youngberry, themselves both hybrid berries
veitchberry (Europe, 1930s) a hybrid between R. fruticosus and R. idaeus
skellyberry (Texas, U.S., 2000s), a hybrid between R. invisus and R. phoenicolasius
marionberry (1956) now thought to be a blackberry cultivar R. 'Marion'
silvanberry, R. 'Silvan', a hybrid between R. 'Marion' and the boysenberry
tayberry (Dundee, Scotland, 1979), another blackberry/raspberry hybrid
tummelberry, R. 'Tummel', from the same Scottish breeding programme as the tayberry
hildaberry (1980s), a tayberry/boysenberry hybrid discovered by an amateur grower
youngberry, a complex hybrid of raspberries, blackberries, and dewberries


Better-known species of Rubus include:
Rubus ablatus
Rubus aboriginum – garden dewberry
Rubus allegheniensis – Allegheny blackberry
Rubus arcticus – Arctic raspberry
Rubus argutus
Rubus armeniacus – Himalayan blackberry
Rubus caesius – European dewberry
Rubus canadensis – Canadian blackberry
Rubus chamaemorus – cloudberry
Rubus cockburnianus
Rubus coreanus – bokbunja
Rubus crataegifolius
Rubus deliciosus
Rubus domingensis
Rubus ellipticus
Rubus flagellaris – northern dewberry
Rubus fraxinifolius – mountain raspberry
Rubus glaucus
Rubus hawaiensis
Rubus hayata-koidzumii
Rubus hispidus – swamp dewberry
Rubus idaeus – European red raspberry
Rubus illecebrosus
Rubus laciniatus – cutleaf evergreen blackberry
Rubus leucodermis – whitebark raspberry or western black raspberry
Rubus moluccanus
Rubus nepalensis
Rubus nivalis
Rubus niveus
Rubus occidentalis – black raspberry
Rubus odoratus – flowering raspberry
Rubus parviflorus – thimbleberry
Rubus parvifolius – small-leaf bramble (Australia)
Rubus pedatus
Rubus pensilvanicus – Pennsylvania blackberry
Rubus phoenicolasius – wine raspberry or wineberry
Rubus plicatus
Rubus probus
Rubus pubescens – dwarf red blackberry
Rubus rosifolius
Rubus saxatilis – stone bramble
Rubus spectabilis – salmonberry
Rubus strigosus – American red raspberry
Rubus tricolor
Rubus ulmifolius
Rubus ursinus – trailing blackberry


Most species are hermaphrodites, Rubus chamaemorus being an exception.
The blackberries, as well as various other Rubus species with mounding or rambling growth habits, are often called brambles. However, this name is not used for those like the raspberry that grow as upright canes, or for trailing or prostrate species, such as most dewberries, or various low-growing boreal, arctic, or alpine species.
The generic name means blackberry in Latin and was derived from the word ruber, meaning "red".
The scientific study of brambles is known as "batology".


Afternoon is often defined as the period between noon and evening. If this definition is adopted, the specific range of time varies in one direction: noon is defined as the time when the sun reaching its highest point in the sky, but the boundary between afternoon and evening has no standard definition. However, before a period of transition from the 12th to 14th centuries, noon instead referred to 3:00 pm. Possible explanations include shifting times for prayers and midday meals, along which one concept of noon was defined—and so afternoon would have referred to a narrower timeframe.
The word afternoon, which derives from after and noon, has been attested from about the year 1300; Middle English contained both afternoon and the synonym aftermete. The standard phrasing was at afternoon in the 15th and 16th centuries, but has shifted to in the afternoon since then. In Southern American and Midland American English, the word evening is sometimes used to encompass all times between noon and night. The Irish language contains four different words to mark time intervals from late afternoon to nightfall; this period is considered mystical. Metaphorically, the word afternoon refers to a relatively late period in the expanse of time or in one's life.


In 1392, the general Yi Seong-gye overthrew the Goryeo dynasty after he staged a coup and defeated General Choe Yeong. Yi Seong-gye named his new dynasty Joseon and moved the capital from Kaesong to Hanseong (formerly Hanyang; modern-day Seoul) and built the Gyeongbokgung palace. In 1394, he adopted Confucianism as the country's official ideology, resulting in much loss of power and wealth by the Buddhists. The prevailing philosophy of the Joseon dynasty was Neo-Confucianism, which was epitomised by the seonbi class, scholars who passed up positions of wealth and power to lead lives of study and integrity.
Joseon was a nominal tributary state of China but exercised full sovereignty, and maintained the highest position among China's tributary states, which also included countries such as the Ryukyu Kingdom, Vietnam, Burma, Brunei, Laos, Thailand, and the Philippines, among others. In addition, Joseon received tribute from Jurchens and Japanese until the 17th century, and had a small enclave in the Ryukyu Kingdom that engaged in trade with Siam and Java.
During the 15th and 16th centuries, Joseon enjoyed many benevolent rulers who promoted education and science. Most notable among them was Sejong the Great (r. 1418–50), who personally created and promulgated Hangul, the Korean alphabet. This golden age saw great cultural and scientific advancements, including in printing, meteorological observation, astronomy, calendar science, ceramics, military technology, geography, cartography, medicine, and agricultural technology, some of which were unrivaled elsewhere. Joseon implemented a class system that consisted of yangban the noble class, jungin the middle class, yangin the common class, and cheonin the lowest class, which included occupations such as butchers, tanners, shamans, entertainers, and nobi, the equivalent of slaves, bondservants, or serfs.
In 1592 and again in 1597, the Japanese invaded Korea; the Korean military at the time was unprepared and untrained, due to two centuries of peace on the Korean Peninsula. Toyotomi Hideyoshi intended to conquer China and India through the Korean Peninsula, but was defeated by strong resistance from the Righteous Army, the naval superiority of Admiral Yi Sun-sin and his turtle ships, and assistance from Wanli Emperor of Ming China. However, Joseon experienced great destruction, including a tremendous loss of cultural sites such as temples and palaces to Japanese pillaging, and the Japanese brought back to Japan an estimated 100,000–200,000 noses cut from Korean victims. Less than 30 years after the Japanese invasions, the Manchus took advantage of Joseon's war-weakened state and invaded in 1627 and 1637, and then went on to conquer the destabilised Ming dynasty.
After normalising relations with the new Qing dynasty, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace. Kings Yeongjo and Jeongjo led a new renaissance of the Joseon dynasty during the 18th century.
In the 19th century, the royal in-law families gained control of the government, leading to mass corruption and weakening of the state, with severe poverty and peasant rebellions spreading throughout the country. Furthermore, the Joseon government adopted a strict isolationist policy, earning the nickname "the hermit kingdom", but ultimately failed to protect itself against imperialism and was forced to open its borders, beginning an era leading into Japanese imperial rule.


The Proto–Three Kingdoms period, sometimes called the Multiple States Period, is the earlier part of what is commonly called the Three Kingdoms Period, following the fall of Gojoseon but before Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla fully developed into kingdoms.
This time period saw numerous states spring up from the former territories of Gojoseon, which encompassed northern Korea and southern Manchuria. With the fall of Gojoseon, southern Korea entered the Samhan period.
Located in the southern part of Korea, Samhan referred to the three confederacies of Mahan, Jinhan, and Byeonhan. Mahan was the largest and consisted of 54 states. Byeonhan and Jinhan both consisted of twelve states, bringing a total of 78 states within the Samhan. These three confederacies eventually developed into Baekje, Silla, and Gaya.


Beginning in the 6th century, Silla's power gradually extended across the Korean Peninsula. Silla first annexed the adjacent Gaya confederacy in 562. By the 640s, Silla formed an alliance with the Tang dynasty of China to conquer Baekje and later Goguryeo. After conquering Baekje and Goguryeo, Silla repulsed Tang China from the Korean peninsula in 676. Even though Silla unified most of the Korean Peninsula, most of the Goguryeo territories to the north of the Korean Peninsula were ruled by Balhae. Former Goguryeo general or chief of Sumo Mohe Dae Jo-yeong led a group of Goguryeo and Mohe refugees to the Jilin and founded the kingdom of Balhae, 30 years after the collapse of Goguryeo, as the successor to Goguryeo. At its height, Balhae's territories extended from southern Manchuria down to the northern Korean peninsula. Balhae was called the "Prosperous Country in the East".
Later Silla carried on the maritime prowess of Baekje, which acted like the Phoenicia of medieval East Asia, and during the 8th and 9th centuries dominated the seas of East Asia and the trade between China, Korea and Japan, most notably during the time of Jang Bogo; in addition, Silla people made overseas communities in China on the Shandong Peninsula and the mouth of the Yangtze River. Later Silla was a prosperous and wealthy country, and its metropolitan capital of Gyeongju was the fourth largest city in the world. Later Silla experienced a golden age of art and culture, as evidenced by the Hwangnyongsa, Seokguram, and Emille Bell. Buddhism flourished during this time, and many Korean Buddhists gained great fame among Chinese Buddhists and contributed to Chinese Buddhism, including: Woncheuk, Wonhyo, Uisang, Musang, and Kim Gyo-gak, a Silla prince whose influence made Mount Jiuhua one of the Four Sacred Mountains of Chinese Buddhism.
Later Silla fell apart in the late 9th century, giving way to the tumultuous Later Three Kingdoms period (892–935), and Balhae was destroyed by the Khitans in 926. Goryeo unified the Later Three Kingdoms and received the last crown prince and much of the ruling class of Balhae, thus bringing about a unification of the two successor nations of Goguryeo.


The Korean Academy claimed ancient hominid fossils originating from about 100,000 BCE in the lava at a stone city site in Korea. Fluorescent and high-magnetic analyses indicate the volcanic fossils may be from as early as 300,000 BCE. The best preserved Korean pottery goes back to the paleolithic times around 10,000 BCE and the Neolithic period begins around 6000 BCE.
According to legend, Dangun, a descendant of Heaven, established Gojoseon in 2333 BCE. In 108 BCE, the Han dynasty defeated Gojoseon and installed four commanderies in the northern Korean peninsula. Three of the commanderies fell or retreated westward within a few decades, but the Lelang Commandery remained as a center of cultural and economic exchange with successive Chinese dynasties for four centuries. By 313, Goguryeo annexed all of the Chinese commanderies.


Phacelia (phacelia, scorpionweed, heliotrope) is a genus of about 200 species of annual or perennial herbaceous plants in the borage family, native to North and South America. California is particularly rich in species with over 90 recorded in the region.
The genus is traditionally placed at family rank with the waterleafs (Hydrophyllaceae) in the order Boraginales. The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, recognizing that the traditional Boraginaceae and Hydrophyllaceae are paraphyletic with respect to each other, merges the latter into the former and considers the family basal in the Euasterids I clade. Other botanists continue to recognize the Hydrophyllaceae and Boraginales after analysing the secondary structure of the ITS1 genetic region rather than its sequence for these higher taxonomic levels.  This placed Phacelia within the Hydrophyllaceae. Further molecular taxonomic analysis of the Boraginales has divided the Boraginales in two and placed Phacelia among the monophyletic herbaceous Hydrophyllaceae in Boraginales II.
The genus includes both annual and perennial species. Many have been cultivated as garden and honey plants.
There are reports that glandular hairs of stems, flowers and leaves of some species of Phacelia secrete oil droplets that can cause an unpleasant skin rash (contact dermatitis) in some people, specifically from P. brachyloba, P. campanularia, P. crenulata, P. gina-glenneae, P. grandiflora, P. ixodes, P. minor, and P. pedicellata. The major contact allergen of P. crenulata has been identified as geranylhydroquinone and of P. minor as geranylgeranylhydroquinone.
The mining bee Andrena phaceliae is a specialist pollinator of this genus in the Eastern United States


April 3 – Princess Caraboo appears in Almondsbury in Gloucestershire, England.
April 15 –
The American School for the Deaf opens in Hartford, Connecticut.
An earthquake strikes Palermo in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. "Prof. Ferrara on the Earthquakes in Sicily in 1823", The Edinburgh Journal of Science p366
April 29 – The Rush–Bagot Treaty is signed.
May 27 – The General Convention of the Episcopal Church founds the General Theological Seminary, while meeting in New York City.
June 12 –
German inventor Karl Drais drives his dandy horse ("Draisine" or Laufmaschine), the earliest form of bicycle, in Mannheim.
Tradesman Jeffery Sedwards establishes the Skibbereen Abstinence Society in Ireland, considered the first organisation devoted to teetotalism in Europe.
June 22 – King Ferdinand VII of Spain, by royal decree, makes the production and sale of tobacco a legal endeavor in Cuba, thus sparking the birth of the Cuban cigar industry.
June 25 – A large riot breaks out in Copenhagen Prison; the army is sent to quell it.


January 1 – Sailing through the Sandwich Islands, Otto von Kotzebue discovers New Year Island.
January 19 – An army of 5,423 soldiers, led by General José de San Martín, starts crossing the Andes from Argentina, to liberate Chile and then Peru.
January 20 – Ram Mohan Roy and David Hare found Hindu College, Calcutta, offering instructions in Western languages and subjects.
February 12 – Battle of Chacabuco: The Argentine–Chilean patriotic army defeats the Spanish.
March 3
President James Madison vetoes John C. Calhoun's Bonus Bill.
The U.S. Congress passes a law to split the Mississippi Territory, after Mississippi drafts a constitution, creating the Alabama Territory, effective in August.
March 4 – James Monroe is sworn in as the fifth President of the United States.
March 21 – The flag of the Pernambucan Revolt is publicly blessed by the dean of Recife Cathedral, Brazil.


July 4 – At Rome, New York, construction on the Erie Canal begins.
July 4 - 1817 Santiago del Estero earthquake. A 7.0 magnitude earthquake hits Argentina's Santiago del Estero Province.
August 15 – By act of the U.S. Congress (March 3), the Alabama Territory is created by splitting the Mississippi Territory in half, on the day the Mississippi constitution is drafted, four months before Mississippi became a U.S. state.
August 22 – The town of Araraquara, Brazil is founded.
August 23 – An earthquake near the site of the ancient Greek city of Helike results in 65 deaths.
August 26 – The University of Michigan is founded in Ann Arbor, Michigan.
September 11 – The Great Rebellion of 1817-18 begins in Sri Lanka.


January 1 – Martin Heinrich Klaproth, German chemist who discovered uranium (1789), zirconium (1789), and cerium (1803) (b. 1743)
January 11 – Timothy Dwight IV, American educator, theologian (b. 1752)
January 11 – Margherita Dalmet, Venetian dogaressa (b. 1739)
January 12 – Juan Andrés, Spanish Jesuit (b. 1740)
January 16 – Alexander J. Dallas, American statesman, financier (b. 1759)
February 8 – Francis Horner, Scottish politician, economist (b. 1778)
March 8 – Anna Maria Lenngren, Swedish writer (b. 1754)
April 2 – Johann Heinrich Jung, German writer (b. 1740)
April 4 – André Masséna, French marshal (b. 1758)
April 12 – Charles Messier, French astronomer (b. 1730)
April 20 – Infante Antonio Pascual of Spain, Spanish prince (b. 1755)
June 2 – Clotilde Tambroni, Italian philologist, linguist (b. 1758)
June 4 – George Farragut, American naval officer (b. 1755)
June 9 – Théroigne de Méricourt, French revolutionary (b. 1762)
June 13
Richard Lovell Edgeworth, Anglo-Irish, politician writer and inventor (b. 1744)
Esther de Gélieu, Swiss educator (b. 1757)
June 18 – Leonard Neale, American Catholic bishop (b. 1746)
June 20 – Marie-Gabriel-Florent-Auguste de Choiseul-Gouffier, French diplomat (b. 1752)
June 24 – Thomas McKean, American lawyer, signer of the Declaration of Independence (b. 1734)
June 30 – Abraham Gottlob Werner, German geologist (b. 1750)


1817 (MDCCCXVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar, the 1817th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 817th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 17th  year of the 19th century, and the  8th   year of the 1810s decade. As of the start of 1817, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


October 9 - Official opening of the University of Ghent
October 17 – Frigate HMS Trincomalee is launched in Bombay for the British Royal Navy; she will still be afloat two centuries later.
October 30 - The independent government of Venezuela is established by Simón Bolívar.
October 31 – Emperor Ninkō accedes to the throne of Japan.
November 3 - The Bank of Montreal opens in Montreal.
November 5 – Third Anglo-Maratha War breaks out with the Battle of Khadki.
November 20 – The first Seminole War begins in Florida.
November 22 – Frédéric Cailliaud discovers the old Roman emerald mines at Sikait, Egypt.
December 10 – Mississippi is admitted as the 20th U.S. state, formerly the Mississippi Territory.


Aspen wood is white and soft, but fairly strong, and has low flammability. It has a number of uses, notably for making matches and paper where its low flammability makes it safer to use than most other woods. Shredded aspen wood is used for packing and stuffing, sometimes called excelsior (wood wool). Aspen flakes are the most common species of wood used to make oriented strand boards. It is also a popular animal bedding, since it lacks the phenols associated with pine and juniper, which are thought to cause respiratory system ailments in some animals. Heat-treated aspen is a popular material for the interiors of saunas. While standing trees sometimes tend to rot from the heart outward, the dry timber weathers very well, becoming silvery-grey and resistant to rotting and warping, and has traditionally been used for rural construction in the northwestern regions of Russia (especially for roofing, in the form of thin slats).


Aspen is a common name for certain tree species; some, but not all, are classified by botanists in the section Populus, of the Populus genus.


These species are called aspens:
Populus adenopoda – Chinese aspen (China, south of P. tremula)
Populus davidiana – Korean aspen (Eastern Asia)
Populus grandidentata – Bigtooth aspen (eastern North America, south of P. tremuloides)
Populus sieboldii – Japanese aspen (Japan)
Populus tremula – Eurasian aspen (northern Europe and Asia)
Populus tremuloides – Quaking aspen or trembling aspen (northern and western North America)


The natural geography can be categorized into nine regions: The Sierra de Zongolica, the Tecolutla Region, the Huayacocotla Region, the Metlac River area, the Tuxtlas Region, the Central Region, the Laguna del Castillo Region, the Pueblo Viejo-Tamiahua Region and the Laguna de Alvarado Region. The topography changes drastically, rising from the narrow coastal plains to the highlands of the eastern Sierra Madre. Elevation varies from sea level to the Pico de Orizaba, Mexico's highest peak at 5,636 m (18,491 ft) above sea level. The coast consists of low sandy strips interspersed with tidewater streams and lagoons. Most of the long coastline is narrow and sandy with unstable dunes, small shifting lagoons, and points.
The mountains are of the Sierra Madre Oriental and the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. Mountain ranges include the Sierra de Topila, Sierra de Otontepec, Sierra de Huayacocotla, Sierra de Coxquihui, Sierra de Chiconquiaco, Sierra de Jalacingo, Sierra de Axocuapan, Sierra de Huatusco, Sierra de Zongolica, and the Sierra de Los Tuxtlas. Major peaks include Pico de Orizaba (5,636 m, 18,491 ft), Cofre de Perote (4,282 m, 14,048.6 ft), Cerro de Tecomates (3,227 m, 10,587 ft), Cerro del Vigía Alta (3,055 m, 10,023 ft) and Cerro de 3 Tortas (2,997 m, 9,833 ft). The Pico de Orizaba is covered in snow year round; the Cofre de Perote is covered in winter. Major valleys include the Acultzingo, Córdoba, Maltrata, Orizaba and San Andrés.
More than 40 rivers and tributaries provide water for irrigation and hydroelectric power; they also carry rich silt down from the eroding highlands, which is deposited in the valleys and coastal areas. All of the rivers and streams that cross the state begin in the Sierra Madre Oriental or in the Central Mesa, flowing east to the Gulf of Mexico. The important ones include: Actopan River, Acuatempan river, Río Blanco, Cazones River, Coatzacoalcos River, Río de La Antigua, Ayyappan River, Jamapa River, Nautla River, Pánuco River, Papaloapan River, Tecolutla River, Tonalá River, Tuxpan River and Xoloapa River. The largest in terms of water discharge are the Pánuco, Tuxpan, Papaloapan, Coazocoalcos and Uxpanapa. The Panuco, Tuxpan, Papaloapan and Coatzacoalcos are navigable. Two of Mexico's most polluted rivers, the Coatzacoalcos and the Río Blanco are located in the state. Much of the pollution comes from industrial sources, but the discharge of sewerage and uncontrolled garbage disposal are also major contributors. The state has very few sewage treatment plants, with only 10% of sewage being treated before discharge.
The state also has ten major waterfalls and ten major coastal lagoons. There is only one significant lake, called Lake Catemaco. Off the coast are the islands of Isla de Lobos, Isla de los Burros, Isla de Sacrificios, Isla de Salmendina, Isla del Idolo, Isladel Toro, Isla Frijoles, Isla Juan A Ramirez, Isla Pajaros and Isla Terrón and the ocean reefs called Blanquilla, Medio, Tangüillo, Tuxpan, Gualleguilla, Gallega, Anegada de Adento Anegada de Afuera and Cabezo.


In the 17th century, the Somers Isles Company suppressed shipbuilding, as it needed Bermudians to farm in order to generate income from the land. The Virginia colony, however, far surpassed Bermuda in both quality and quantity of tobacco produced. Bermudians began to turn to maritime trades relatively early in the 17th century, but the Somers Isles Company used all its authority to suppress turning away from agriculture. This interference led to islanders demanding, and receiving, revocation of the company's charter in 1684, and the company was dissolved.
Bermudians rapidly abandoned agriculture for shipbuilding, replanting farmland with the native juniper trees (Juniperus bermudiana, called Bermuda cedar). Establishing effective control over the Turks Islands, Bermudians deforested their landscape to begin the salt trade. It became the world's largest and remained the cornerstone of Bermuda's economy for the next century. Bermudians also vigorously pursued whaling, privateering, and the merchant trade.


After the American Revolution, the Royal Navy began improving the harbours on the Bermudas. In 1811, work began on the large Royal Naval Dockyard on Ireland Island, which was to serve as the islands' principal naval base guarding the western Atlantic Ocean shipping lanes. To guard the dockyard, the British Army built the Bermuda Garrison, and heavily fortified the archipelago.
During the War of 1812 between Britain and the United States, the British attacks on Washington, D.C. and the Chesapeake were planned and launched from Bermuda, where the headquarters of the Royal Navy's North American Station had recently been moved from Halifax, Nova Scotia.
 In 1816, James Arnold, the son of Benedict Arnold, fortified Bermuda's Royal Naval Dockyard against possible US attacks. Today, the National Museum of Bermuda, which incorporates Bermuda's Maritime Museum, occupies the Keep of the Royal Naval Dockyard.
Due to its proximity to the southeastern US coast, Bermuda was frequently used during the American Civil War as a stopping point base for the Confederate States' blockade runners on their runs to and from the Southern states, and England, to evade Union naval vessels on blockade patrol. The blockade runners were then able to transport essential war goods from England and deliver valuable cotton back to England. The old Globe Hotel in St. George's, which was a centre of intrigue for Confederate agents, is preserved as a public museum.


Bermuda's ambivalence towards the American rebellion changed in September 1774, when the Continental Congress resolved to ban trade with Great Britain, Ireland, and the West Indies after 10 September 1775. Such an embargo would mean the collapse of their inter-colonial commerce, famine and civil unrest. Lacking political channels with Great Britain, the Tucker Family met in May 1775 with eight other parishioners, and resolved to send delegates to the Continental Congress in July, aiming for an exemption from the ban. Henry Tucker noted a clause in the ban which allowed the exchange of American goods for military supplies. The clause was confirmed by Benjamin Franklin when Tucker met with the Pennsylvania Committee of Safety. Independently, others confirmed this business arrangement with Peyton Randolph, the Charlestown Committee of Safety, and George Washington.
Three American boats, operating from Charlestown, Philadelphia and Newport, sailed to Bermuda, and on 14 August 1775, 100 barrels of gunpowder were taken from the Bermudian magazine while Governor George James Bruere slept, and loaded onto these boats. As a consequence, on 2 October the Continental Congress exempted Bermuda from their trade ban, and Bermuda acquired a reputation for disloyalty. Later that year, the British Parliament passed the Prohibitory Act to prohibit trade with the American rebelling colonies, and sent HMS Scorpion to keep watch over the island. The island's forts were stripped of cannons. Yet, wartime trade of contraband continued along well-established family connections. With 120 boats by 1775, Bermuda continued to trade with St. Eustatius until 1781, and provided salt to North American ports.
In June 1776, HMS Nautilus secured the island, followed by HMS Galatea in September. Yet, the two British captains seemed more intent on capturing prize money, causing a severe food shortage on the island until the departure of Nautilus in October. After France's entry into the war in 1778, Henry Clinton refortified the island under the command of Major William Sutherland. As a result, 91 French and American ships were captured in the winter of 1778–1779, bringing the population once again to the brink of starvation. Bermudian trade was severely hampered by the combined efforts of the Royal Navy, the British garrison and loyalist privateers, such that famine struck the island in 1779.
Upon the death of George Bruere in 1780, the governorship passed to his son, George Jr., an active loyalist. Under his leadership, smuggling was stopped, and the Bermudian colonial government was populated with like-minded loyalists. Even Henry Tucker abandoned trading with the United States, because of the presence of many privateers.
The Bermuda Gazette, Bermuda's first newspaper, began publishing in 1784. The editor, Joseph Stockdale, had been given financial incentive to move to Bermuda with his family and establish the newspaper. He also provided other printing services and operated Bermuda's first local postal service. The Bermuda Gazette was sold by subscription and delivered to subscribers, with Stockdale's employee also delivering mail for a fee.