The nests are typically burrowed into the ground in loam soil. Halictus rubicundus has a high tolerance for soil hardness. Soil hardness affects the density of nesting. Females prefer to nest in softer ground as they spend less energy and time excavating the nest. Unlike the similar species Lasioglossum zephyrus that build nests in very close proximity to each other, this species prefers less dense aggregations. Foundresses will choose to build their nests in patches of softer ground until they reach the critical nearest-neighbor distance of about 50 mm, at which point the close spacing poses a high risk of the nests collapsing. At this point, further foundresses would be forced to build their nests in harder soils where the nests could be built closer together without compromising nest architecture. Foundresses may test the hardness of the soil by biting into the surface or performing a short test dig.


Nest temperature determines egg development and foraging active time of females. As long as temperatures do not reach lethal thresholds, developmental rates of offspring will increase with temperature. Higher temperatures will also increase the thoracic temperature and allow females to fly more rapidly. With increased speed in flight, females are allowed more time for foraging, mating, and excavating nests.
Most nests of H. rubicundus are south facing and sloped because of this desire for increased temperature in nesting sites. Based on the distribution of this species, facing the south maximizes the period of time sunlight is shining directly on the nest. Sloping substrates increase the surface area of the nest and allow for higher absorption of sunlight. In order to test the temperature of the substrate, females often spend several seconds basking at various points on the ground while searching for nesting sites.


The water content of the substrate in which foundresses build the nest is important, as waterlogging must be avoided by using well-drained soils, which provides another advantage to building in sloping ground. However, there must be an adequate moisture level to prevent desiccation of the brood cells. Soil samples taken near the nests of H. rubicundus demonstrate a relatively high humidity.


Halictus rubicundus nests are attacked by kleptoparasitic bees (e.g., Sphecodes), as well as flies (Bombyliidae, Anthomyiidae). Although it would seem as though nesting in dense groups would draw attention to aggregations and increase mortality by parasitism, such is not observed to be the case; because the sweat bees nest densely, it is assumed that there is a large dilution effect that proportionally decreases mortality rates by parasites.


Temperature affects not only the sex ratio, but also the size of offspring in the first brood of Halictus rubicundus, with warmer temperatures strongly correlated with larger offspring; there are various hypotheses that offer explanations as to why such is the case:
At optimum temperatures, the maximum offspring size will be produced. Smaller sizes will be the result of both higher and lower temperatures based on differing stresses. So varying conditions around one optimum temperature will lead to different offspring sizes. This hypothesis is not supported by existing data.
Low temperatures may reduce flowering, or reduce bees' ability to forage during the day, and therefore effect the rate of cell provisioning. If the rate of provisioning is lower, females may lay eggs on pollen masses before the mass reaches an optimal size. This hypothesis is supported by existing data.
An offspring's size is not correlated with the size of their mother; foundress females that are smaller than the population average produce offspring that are larger than they are, and foundress females that are above the population average produce offspring that are smaller than they are. Once a nest contains workers, the size of offspring ceases to correlate with temperature, and instead correlates very strongly with the number of workers foraging for pollen, with the largest offspring (both males and females) being produced in nests with the greatest numbers of foragers.


Halictus rubicundus is widely studied for their variability in behavior depending on geographic location, and with changes in temperature. Those at low elevations are known to exhibit eusocial behavior, while those at high elevations and latitudes are known to be solitary.


In eusocial colonies, there is a division of labor similar to that in other eusocial bees. In these colonies in New York, the first brood is primarily worker females, which in turn help the foundress rear her second brood, and a number of gynes and males. The second brood in New York yields only gynes and males, which breed to repeat the cycle. In Kansas, the first brood is exclusively worker females, and it is not until the second brood that gynes and males begin to appear, while the third brood is exclusively gynes and males. However, in non-eusocial nests within the New York populations, or at high elevation in Colorado, the brood contains only males and gynes. The cooperative breeding behavior of worker bees in eusocial colonies benefits the fitness of the foundress queen. They potentially benefit by helping their mother raise the second brood, according to the kin selection hypothesis. By assisting with foraging and feeding the larvae, as well as maintaining the proper functioning of the nest and colony, they help the second brood develop and reproduce to pass down the genes they share. However, in solitary nests, the offspring do not serve as workers and do not help the mother establish a second brood, but rather go off to try to establish nests of their own the following season.
There is no evidence for predetermined morphological or physiological differences in caste for H. rubicundus. The differentiation into different castes is based on behavior. Females that do not mate immediately after emergence become workers or replacement queens while the others become gynes.  The factor that may dictate whether a female mates is the relative abundance of males to newly emerged females; there is a higher percentage of gynes relative to non-gynes when males are relatively more abundant. This has population-level consequences in that during seasons where males are more abundant, a smaller proportion of nests contain eusocial colonies, and the average number of workers per nest is lower.


Like most bee species, mating in H. rubicundus occurs on the ground or vegetation in and around the nest aggregation. Males may hover around their natal nest and wait to encounter females that are entering or leaving a surrounding nest. Gynes are those females that leave the nest site after mating and enter a dormant state (diapause), and restart the cycle the following spring, while worker females, if they mate, remain in the natal nest.
In this species, there are foundress gynes and non-gynes (who can be replacement queens or workers). The gynes and non-gynes are distinct groups, as gynes mate, do not work, and enter diapause (to become foundresses), while non-gynes work and do not diapause. There is evidence that male abundance may be the factor triggering this distinction early in life; if there is an abundance of males, a virgin female is more likely to encounter males and mate early shortly after emergence, and make a caste switch into being a gyne. If she is left unmated for two or three days, however, she will likely stay a non-gyne, even if she mates later on; no female who began acting as a worker (pollen-collecting behavior, typically starting within two or three days after emergence) was ever found to return the following season. Halictus rubicundus is the first bee species documented to have mixed broods containing both gynes and non-gynes, and it was previously thought that non-gynes and gynes were always produced in separate broods.


There is evidence for greater genetic relatedness between two colonies with similar behavioral patterns (either eusocial or solitary), than between those of closer geographic distance but different social behaviors. This does not necessarily mean that social behavior is governed by certain genes, but it could be linked to certain genetic lineages that are more suited for certain environments. Empirical data from within a single population, however, indicates that females who do not remain as workers in their mother's nest are not more likely to have daughters that similarly depart. Although there is only limited research to date on the correlation between genetics, the environment, and social behavior, there is ample evidence that there are links between these three factors. The differences between the populations of H. rubicundus exhibiting solitary behavior, and those exhibiting eusocial behavior could be the result of environmental control of sociality, rather than having a purely genetic explanation.


In environments with short breeding seasons, sociality is not expected because there is no benefit to acting as a worker in the absence of an opportunity to produce another brood that season, and no potential for kinship selection benefits. Populations in environments that allow for multiple broods exhibit eusocial behavior, and there are potential benefits to worker behavior in eusocial colonies, as workers are related to the foundress (their mother) and the brood (their sisters, in particular). Under theories of inclusive fitness, it is potentially beneficial for workers to help their mother produce a second brood if that brood is primarily female. However, H. rubicundus does not show female bias in the second brood, with values only ranging to a maximum of 40% female. Furthermore, the one study providing empirical data for H. rubicundus shows that a typical worker contributes to the production of 0.9 sisters and 0.8 brothers, far below the threshold for inclusive fitness effects to favor helping, but above the threshold at which their mother benefits directly; as such, this species provides evidence that kin selection effects would not apply to this species, and instead suggests that mothers manipulate some of their daughters into acting as workers because of direct gains to maternal fitness, even though these manipulated daughters have lower fitness than they could have had if they had been gynes.


Halmus chalybeus, commonly known as the steelblue ladybird, is a species of ladybird (the beetle family Coccinellidae) native to Australia. It has a rounded appearance with an iridescent blue/green colouration and is a predator of other insects. It was introduced to New Zealand from Australia in 1899 and 1905 to control black scale and blue gum scale (see scale insect) on citrus trees, where it is now common in northern regions. It has also been recorded eating San Jose scale. They are about 3–4 mm long.


This moth is found in North America from southern Canada south through Texas and central Florida.


One generation per year occurs in the north, and two or more occur in the south.


Caterpillars are covered with long setae, in tufts. They vary from yellowish and orange through dark gray.  Extra long hair-pencils of white, black, and/or orange occur at both the front and rear of a caterpillar. Larval head capsules are bright orange. In the north, mature caterpillars are found from July to frost. Caterpillars frequently rest on the upper surface of leaves, and though not gregarious, they are very conspicuous. They grow to a length of 35 mm.


Wings are light brown. Forewings have bands of beige edged in black. The body is 'hairy' and yellow.  The thorax has blue-green lines on its uppersides. Adults are attracted to decaying plants with pyrrolizidine alkaloids. They regurgitate on them, then drink the fluids, and acquire defensive chemicals.


Larvae are known to feed on some species of alder, ash, birch, blueberry, chestnut, elm, grape, hackberry, hazel, oak, walnut, willow, and many others. No serious injury to trees has been reported for this late-season feeder.


Halyzia sedecimguttata, or orange ladybird, is a species of Coccinellidae (ladybirds) family.


Halyzia sedecimguttata is common in Europe, European Russia, the Caucasus, Siberia, the Russian Far East, Belarus, Ukraine, Transcaucasia, Kazakhstan, Asia Minor, Mongolia, Northern China, Japan.
It was formerly uncommon in the British Isles but the species has established itself over the 20th-century and it is now common in many parts.


Common in woodlands, it is more frequent in dry areas, mainly in deciduous woodland (Western European broadleaf forests, Palearctic temperate broadleaf and mixed forest) and in parkland, at forest edges, and on hedges.


Halyzia sedecimguttata can reach a length of 5–6 millimetres (0.20–0.24 in). These beetles have an oval shaped body, rather round than elongated. Compound eyes are black. The antennae are light-brown, quite long and slightly thickened at the end. Their physical appearance is marked by a striking orange colour and the presence of 16 (sometimes less) creamy white large spots on the elytra (eight spots on each elytron). The neck shield usually covers the head and shows orange colored spots. A typical feature is the slightly transparent edges of the elytra. Transparent parts are also present on either side of the neck shield.
This species is rather similar to Calvia decemguttata and Vibidia duodecimguttata.


Adults are visible from April to October. They spend the winter under the bark of the trees or in the forest litter under fallen leave. Both larvae and adults feed on mildew that infects the leaves of plants and occasionally on small aphids. They mainly feed on Erisyphaceae infesting trees and bushes. In particular, they feed on Phyllactinia guttata and Podosphaera mors-uvae  and on aphids present on Quercus robur, Tilia cordata, Ulmus minor, Acer pseudoplatanus, Corylus avellana, Fraxinus excelsior, Alnus viridis, Alnus glutinosa and on coniferous trees.


Hamelia patens is a large perennial shrub or small tree in the family	Rubiaceae, that is native to the American subtropics and tropics. Its range extends from Florida in the southern United States to as far south as Argentina. Common names include firebush, hummingbird bush, scarlet bush, and redhead.  In Belize, this plant's Mayan name is Ix Canaan and is also known as "Guardian of the Forest".


Firebush has orangish-red tubular flowers, which recruit hummingbirds and butterflies for pollination. The corollas vary greatly in length, making them attractive to a wide range of pollinators. The fruit is a small dark red berry, turning black at maturity.
Despite its somewhat scraggy appearance, this is a valuable garden tree in warmer climates and even in temperate ones, as long as the soil remains above freezing.


Hummingbirds are attracted by its flowers and other birds feed on the fruit, both of which will also forage on small insects found in the vicinity, helping to keep down pests. These flowers are also fed on by butterflies, such as the statira sulphur (Aphrissa statira), which are attracted to red flowering plants. The fruits have a refreshing, acidic taste and are also edible by humans; in Mexico, they are made into a fermented drink.


The plants are used in folk medicine for a range of ailments.


A number of active compounds have been found in firebush, including maruquine, isomaruquine, pteropodine, isopteropodine, palmirine, rumberine, seneciophylline and stigmast-4-ene-3,6-dione. The bark contains significant amounts of tannins.


Hapithus saltator, the Jumping Bush Cricket, is a species of cricket in the family Gryllidae. It is found in North America.


Haploa lecontei, or Leconte's haploa, is a moth of the family Erebidae. The species was first described by Félix Édouard Guérin-Méneville in 1832. It is found in North America from Nova Scotia to Georgia, west to Manitoba through Arkansas.
The wingspan is 36–50 mm.
The larvae feed on various plants, including apple, blackberry, peach, spearmint and trembling aspen.


Haplotrema vancouverense, common name the robust lancetooth, is a species of predatory air-breathing land snail, a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family Haplotrematidae.


Hardenbergia violacea is a species of flowering plant in the family Fabaceae and is endemic to Australia. It is known in Australia by the common names false sarsaparilla, purple coral pea and waraburra. Elsewhere it is also called purple twining-pea, vine-lilac and wild sarsaparilla. It is a prostrate or climbing subshrub with egg-shaped to narrow lance-shaped leaves and racemes of mostly purple flowers.


Hardenbergia violacea is a prostrate or climbing sub-shrub with wiry stems up to 2 m (6 ft 7 in) or more long. The leaves are egg-shaped to lance-shaped, 30–100 mm (1.2–3.9 in) long and 10–50 mm (0.39–1.97 in) wide on a petiole about 10 mm (0.39 in) long. The leaves are leathery, glabrous and paler on the lower surface. The flowers are arranged in racemes of between twenty and forty flowers, each on a pedicel mostly 2–4 mm (0.079–0.157 in) long. The sepals are 3–4 mm (0.12–0.16 in) long and joined at the base, forming a bell-shaped tube with triangular teeth. The petals are about 8 mm (0.31 in) long, mostly purple, the standard petal with a yellowish spot and a notch on the summit, the wings are egg-shaped with the narrower end towards the base and the keel is curved. Flowering mostly occurs from August to November and the fruit is a pod 20–45 mm (0.79–1.77 in) long containing between six and eight kidney-shaped seeds. The flowers are usually purple or violet, but pink, white and other colours sometimes occur.
H. violacea regrows from its roots after fire. The roots were experimented with by early European settlers as a substitute for sarsaparilla.


False sarsaparilla was first formally described in 1793 by George Voorhelm Schneevoogt who gave it the name Glycine violacea in his book, Icones Plantarum Rariorum. In 1940, William T. Stearn changed the name to Hardenbergia violacea.


Hardenbergia violacea grows in a variety of habitats but is more common in open forests, woodlands and undisturbed areas, from sea level to about 1,000 m (3,300 ft) above sea level. It occurs in eastern Queensland, eastern New South Wales, south-eastern Victoria and southern South Australia. There is a single population in Tasmania, where the species is listed as "endangered" under the Tasmanian Government Threatened Species Protection Act 1995.


Hardenbergia violacea is widely grown as a garden plant, with many cultivars now available. It is hardy in mild and coastal areas of the United Kingdom where temperatures do not fall below −5 °C (23 °F), but it does require a sheltered, south or west facing situation. Alternatively it may be grown indoors with full daylight, for instance in an unheated conservatory or greenhouse. It has been given the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.
The seeds of H. violacea remain viable for many years and propagation is from seeds that have been treated by adding boiling water to them or by abrading the seed coat. Plants prefer full sun in well-drained soil, are moderately frost-tolerant and respond well to pruning.


Harmonia axyridis, most commonly known as the harlequin, multicoloured Asian, or Asian ladybeetle, is a large coccinellid beetle. This is one of the most variable species in the world, with an exceptionally wide range of colour forms. It is native to eastern Asia, but has been artificially introduced to North America and Europe to control aphids and scale insects. It is now common, well known, and spreading in those regions, and has also established in Africa and widely across South America. This species is conspicuous in North America, where it may locally be known as the Halloween beetle, as it often invades homes during October to overwinter.
When the species first arrived in the UK, it was labelled in jest as the "many-named ladybird" due to the great quantity of vernacular names. Among those already listed other names include multivariate, southern, Japanese, and pumpkin ladybird.


Harmonia axyridis is a typical coccinellid beetle in shape and structure, being domed and having a "smooth" transition between its elytra (wing coverings), pronotum, and head. It ranges from 5.5–8.5mm in size. The common color form, f. "succinea", is orange or red in colouration with 0–22 black spots of variable size. The other usual forms, f. "conspicua" and f. "spectabilis", are uniformly black with, respectively, two or four red markings. The pronotum is white with variable black patterning, ranging from a few black spots in an M formation to almost entirely black. The underside is dark with a wide reddish-brown border.
However, numerous other forms have also been recorded. Extreme forms may be entirely black, or feature complex patterns of black, orange and red.
The large size of this species is usually the first clue to its identification. Despite variation, this species does not generally overlap in pronotal or elytral pattern with any other species, except in unmarked orange or red forms. In Europe it is similar to the much smaller Adalia decempunctata, while in America it is similar to the much narrower Mulsantina picta and spotless forms of Adalia bipunctata. When identification is difficult, the underside pattern usually enables a reliable conclusion. Identification is most simple for the common forms, while less common varieties may take longer to identify. They always have reddish-brown legs and are obviously brown on the underside of the abdomen, even in the melanic colour forms.


Harmonia axyridis is native to eastern Asia from central Siberia, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan in the west, through Russia south to the Himalayas and east to the Pacific coast and Japan, including Korea, Mongolia, China, and Taiwan. As a voracious predator, it was identified as a biocontrol agent for aphids and scale insects. Consequently, it has been introduced into greenhouses, crop fields, and gardens in many countries, including the United States and parts of Europe. The species is now established in North America (United States, Canada, Mexico), Central America (Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama), South America (Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Argentina, Chile), Europe (Italy, Spain, the United Kingdom, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Poland), Israel, and South Africa.


This species spread across continents because of human-mediated processes. They became established in North America as the result of introductions into the United States in an attempt to control the spread of aphids. In the last three decades, this insect has spread throughout the US and Canada, and has been a prominent factor in controlling aphid populations. The first introductions into the US took place as far back as 1916. The species repeatedly failed to establish in the wild after successfully controlling aphid populations, but an established population of beetles was observed in the wild near New Orleans, Louisiana, in about 1988. In the following years, it quickly spread to other states, being occasionally observed in the Midwest within five to seven years and becoming common in the region by about 2000. The species was also established in the Northwest by 1991, and the Northeast by 1994, aided by additional introductions from the native range, rather than just reaching there from the Southeast. Reportedly, it has heavily fed on soybean aphids (which recently appeared in the US after coming from China), supposedly saving farmers vast sums of money in 2001.


Worldwide routes of propagation of H. axyridis were described with genetic markers in 2010. The populations in eastern and western North America originated from two independent introductions from the native range. The South American and African populations both originated independently from eastern North America. The European population also originated from eastern North America, but with substantial genetic admixture with individuals of the European biocontrol strain (estimated at about 40%).
This species is widely considered to be one of the world’s most invasive insects, partly due to their tendency to overwinter indoors and the unpleasant odor and stain left by their bodily fluids when frightened or crushed, as well as their tendency to bite humans. In Europe it is currently increasing to the detriment of indigenous species, its voracious appetite enabling it to outcompete and even consume other ladybirds. The harlequin ladybird is also highly resistant to diseases that affect other ladybird species, and carries a microsporidian parasite to which it is immune, but that can infect and kill other species. Native ladybird species have experienced often dramatic declines in abundance in areas invaded by H. axyridis. In 2015, it was declared the fastest invading species in the UK, spreading throughout the country after the first sighting was confirmed in 2004.
In addition to its household pest status, the harlequin has been reported to be a minor agricultural pest that is inadvertently harvested with crops in Iowa, Ohio, New York State, and Ontario.  This can cause visible and sensory contamination. Contamination of grapes by this beetle has been found to alter the taste of wine.


Harmonia axyridis becomes dormant in cooler months, though it will move around whenever the temperature reaches about 10 °C (50 °F). Because the beetles will use crevices and other cool, dry, confined spaces to overwinter, significant numbers may congregate inside walls if given a large enough opening.
Large aggregations are often seen in autumn. The beetles have pheromones to signal to each other. However, many aggregation cues are visual, picking out sites at both long (light-coloured structures that are distinct from their surroundings) and short (pre-existing aggregations to join) distances. Non-volatile long-chain hydrocarbons laid down by previous aggregations also play a significant role in site selection. Both visual and hydrocarbon cues are more important than volatile pheromones.
They often congregate in sunlit areas because of the heat available, so even on fairly cold winter days, some of the hibernating beetles will "wake up" because of solar heating. Large populations can be problematic because they can form swarms and linger in an area for a long time. The beetles can form groups that stay in upper corners of windows. This beetle has been also found to be attracted to dark screening material for its warmth. It has good eyesight; it will return from a location to which it is removed, and is known to give a small bite if provoked.
Harmonia axyridis, like other ladybeetles or ladybirds, uses isopropyl methoxy pyrazine as a defensive chemical to deter predation, and also carries this chemical in its hemolymph at much higher concentrations than many other ladybeetle species, along with species-/genus-specific defensive compounds such as harmonine. These insects will "reflex bleed" when agitated, releasing hemolymph from their legs. The liquid has a foul odour (similar to that of dead leaves), a bitter taste, and can stain porous materials. Some people have allergic reactions, including allergic rhinoconjunctivitis when exposed to these beetles. Occasionally, the beetles will bite humans, presumably in an attempt to acquire salt, although many people feel a pricking sensation as a beetle walks across the skin. Bites normally do no more harm than cause irritation, although a small number of people are allergic to bites. Their natural predators include birds, spined soldier bugs, ants (such as Solenopsis invicta) and other coccinellids, including fellow Harmonia axyridis.
These beetles can be difficult to identify because of their variations in color, spot size, and spot count of the elytra. The easiest way to identify H. axyridis f. succinea is to look at the pronotum and see whether the black markings look like a letter "W" or "M". This species has more white markings on the pronotum than have most native North American species, though this feature is not useful when attempting to separate it from species in other parts of the world.


Numerous methods of control have been investigated in areas where this beetle has been introduced and causes a threat to native species and biodiversity and to the grape industry. Methods of control include insecticides, trapping, removal of aggregates of beetles, and mechanically preventing entry to buildings. Methods under development involve the investigation of natural parasites and pathogens, including the use of parasitic sexually transmitted mites and fungal diseases.
The best methods for dealing with H. axyridis in private homes involve sealing openings they may enter. Sweeping and vacuuming are considered effective methods for removing them from homes, though this should be done carefully so as not to trigger reflex bleeding. A nylon stocking placed inside the vacuum cleaner's hose, secured with a rubber band, allows the beetles to be "bagged" rather than collected inside the machine. A trap designed for indoor use was developed which attracts the beetles with a light and seals them in a removable bag, though as the beetles are not strongly attracted to light, this does not work particularly well.


Harmonia axyridis secretes a number of defensive compounds, one of which, (9Z,17R)-9-Octadecene-1,17-diamine (harmonine) has been isolated from its hemolymph. This molecule has been reported to have broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity that includes human pathogens. Antibacterial activity is most pronounced against fast-growing mycobacteria and Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and the growth of both chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum strains is also inhibited.


Harmonia conformis, the large spotted ladybird, is a species of ladybird (the family Coccinellidae). It has a light reddish appearance and its colouration includes 20 large black spots, 18 of which are found on the elytra (wing covers). They are quite large for ladybirds, being about 6–7 mm long. It is a predator of other insects, eating aphids as both a larva and imago (adult). It is found in Australia, and has been introduced to New Zealand, where it is common in northern regions. Another member of the same genus, Harmonia antipodum, also occurs in New Zealand. This species, however, is a native and is much smaller and harder to find.


This ladybird has annual cycle where the duration of each life stages is dependent on the temperature of the environment. Their life cycle begins with the deposit of yellow eggs by the female in an area where there are prey readily available for the larvae once they have hatched. As larvae, they proceed through four sub-life stages beginning with a form that is dark in color with prothorax and six legs. The second sub-life stage is when the white external spine (scolus) develops. During the third sub-life stage, the larvae develop more coloration and three pairs of legs. The fourth sub-life stage is the further development of coloration and growth of abdominal segments which help the larvae during molting. Once the larva is fully grown, it attaches itself to a plant to form its pupa.The adults then hatch from this pupa and begin to seek out mates.


Harpalus rufipes is a species of ground beetle in the subfamily Harpalinae. It was described by Degeer in 1774. Harpalus rufipes is native to Europe. Harpalus rufipes is used as a biological agent to control seed-eating pests. It has been used as a model organism to investigate the immune system of beetles, and a study has shown it is sensitive to engine oil and diesel oil.


The grapeleaf skeletonizer (Harrisina americana) is a moth in the family Zygaenidae. It is widespread in the eastern half of the United States, and commonly noticed defoliating grapes, especially of the Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia). The western grapeleaf skeletonizer (Harrisina metallica) is very similar to and slightly larger than H. americana, but their distributions are different.
Members of this family all produce HCN (hydrogen cyanide) a potent antipredator toxin.


Hebomoia glaucippe, the great orange-tip, is a butterfly belonging to the family Pieridae, that is the yellows and whites. It is found in the Indomalayan realm and Wallacea.


This species is found in much of south and southeast Asia, as well as in southern China and southern Japan.


Hebomoia glaucippe has the following 28 subspecies:
H. g. glaucippe (northern India, China Hainan), Cambodia
H. g. anaxandra Fruhstorfer (Kalao)
H. g. anomala Pendlebury, 1939 (Pulau Aur)
H. g. aturia Fruhstorfer, 1910 (southern Myanmar, Thailand, Peninsular Malaya, Singapore)
H. g. aurantiaca Fruhstorfer, 1907 (Obi)
H. g. australis Butler, 1898 (southern India)
H. g. borneensis (Wallace, 1863) (Borneo)
H. g. celebensis (Wallace, 1863) (Sulawesi)
H. g. ceylonica Fruhstorfer, 1907 (Ceylon)
H. g. chewi Morita, 2006
H. g. cuyonicola Fruhstorfer, 1907 (Cuyo Islands)
H. g. erinna Fruhstorfer (Philippines Mindanao)
H. g. felderi (Vollenhoven, 1865) (Morotai)
H. g. flavomarginata Pagenstecher, 1896 (Sumba)
H. g. formosana Fruhstorfer (Taiwan)
H. g. javanensis (Wallace, 1863) (Java)
H. g. liukiuensis Fruhstorfer, 1898 (Japan)
H. g. lombockiana Butler, 1878 (Lombok)
H. g. palawensis Fruhstorfer, 1907 (Philippines)
H. g. philippensis (Wallace, 1863) (Philippines)
H. g. reducta Fruhstorfer, 1907 (Philippines)
H. g. roepstorffi Wood-Mason, 1880 (Andamans)
H. g. sulaensis Fruhstorfer, 1907 (Sula Islands)
H. g. sulphurea (Wallace, 1863) (Bachan)
H. g. sumatrana Hagen, 1890 (Sumatra)
H. g. theia Nishimura, 1987
H. g. timoriensis (Wallace, 1863) (Timor)
H. g. vossi (Maitland, 1859) (Nias)


The following descriptions are true for much of its range. There are subspecies that differ, such as H. g. vossi where the white is replaced by pure yellow.


In the males the upperside is creamy white. Forewing: the costa narrowly, the apex and terminal margin to middle of interspace 1 are black. An irregular, somewhat sinuous, black band extends obliquely from beyond the middle of the costa across the upper apex of the cell, and meets at interspace 1 the black on the terminal margin. Within the triangle thus formed is enclosed a rich orange-red patch that is traversed by the black veins and bears in interspaces 3 to 6 a postdiscal series of black inwardly elongated spots. Hindwing: nearly uniform, touched with black on the terminal margin anteriorly and with a conspicuous postdiscal black spot in interspace 7. In some specimens there are one or two smaller spots in continuation of the series in the interspaces below.
The underside is white. The apical third of the forewing and the whole of the hindwing are mottled, with more or less prominent brown stripe and spots. Costa of the forewing and a fine line that runs from base of the hindwing through the cell, straight to the middle of the terminal margin, are brown. Antennae are dark brown. The head and thorax have anteriorly a reddish-brown pile. Thorax above is greyish blue, while the abdomen is white with a bluish tinge. Beneath: head and thorax are more or less brownish, abdomen is white.
Female is similar to the male. Upperside: ground colour with a slight greenish tinge. The orange patch on the forewing is more restricted, it consists of a series of brood streaks in interspaces 3 to 6 and 10, the outer apices of which are deeply incised by black and with a row of hastate orange spots beyond in interspaces 2 to 6. Hindwing: similar to the hindwing in the male, but with a postdiscal series of large triangular black spots and a terminal connected series of still larger triangular black spots at the apices of veins 2 to 7. Underside: similar to that in the male, the brown transverse strigae and spots are more numerous, the costa of the fore and the median line on the hindwing are very prominently brown. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen as in the male.


Differ only from the wet-season brood in the slightly more falcate apex to forewing, and in the purer white ground colour on the upperside. Also the terminal margin on the hindwing in the male has the black markings all but obsolete, while in the female the postdiscal and terminal black markings on the same are smaller than in the wet-season form. Underside: the mottlings of brown strigae and minute spots are more numerous and dense.
Race australis, Butler (Southern India and Sri Lanka). Males and females. Differs only from the typical form in the following particulars: Inner black border to the orange patch on the upperside of the forewing is absent, this represented by a few obsolete touches of black scaling. Hindwing: white throughout, with only a half-obliterated subcostal black spot in interspace 7 in the male; in the female the postdiscal and terminal series of spots are smaller.


In the wings of Hebomoia glaucippe is present glacontryphan-M, a peptide toxin belonging to the family contryphan that are active constituents of the poisonous venom produced by cone snail (genus Conus). In H. glaucippe this toxin should function as a defence against predators.


The eggs are laid on the larval food plants Crataeva religiosa, Capparis moonii, Capparis roxburghii, Capparis cantoniensis and Capparis sepiaria (Capparaceae).


"Subcylindrical, tapering towards each end, numerously-covered with minute tubercles; green." (Moore)
Subcylindrical; suddenly tapered at both ends; covered with transverse rows of pointed tubercles. Colour dark green, with a lateral bluish line bordered inferiorly with a series of minute red spots; legs green, the prothoracic legs bordered with black that widens on the middle one of the three.


"Much arched along the back; head pointed." (Moore)
Spindle-shaped, head acutely pointed, dorsum much arched. Colour green, a patch of pale ochraceous on the wing-cases and a narrow lateral band of the same colour from head to tail, with a brown line superposed on it that extends to the abdominal segments; abdominal segments and wing-case sparsely spotted with black.


Hedychium gardnerianum is cultivated as an ornamental plant in gardens and parks. It prefers a warm tropical climate, although it can thrive in sub-tropical and temperate regions as it tolerates occasional frosts. In the UK it has been given the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit. It is best grown in a warm, sheltered spot where temperatures do not fall below freezing, and is given a deep mulch during the winter months. Alternatively it can be grown under glass in a well-lit conservatory or greenhouse.


The plant is a serious invasive species in certain areas. It is known as 'wild kahili ginger' and is listed as a weed of concern on conservation land in New Zealand, Hawaii and the Azores.
It has been recognized as one of "100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species" by the IUCN Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG).


In areas where Hedychium gardnerianum is not of a concern, it may still require control depending on the environment, and its potential as an invasive species in the long term. The simplest way to reduce spread is monitoring. Removal of flower heads before they set seed, and monitoring spread of the rhizomes in these situations will enable Hedychium gardnerianum to be managed in cooler temperate climates such as in the United Kingdom.
In tropical, or sub-tropical climates however, Hedychium gardnerianum can quickly colonise untended areas. Its sticky seeds are easily spread by birds and roaming mammals, while rhizomes crowd out native seedlings by forming dense mats. Without human intervention, it can colonise large areas quickly as each rhizome adds at least one segment per season depending on climatic and light conditions.
The methods mentioned above may give some control over any particular clump but will not resolve the problem. Each year, Hedychium gardnerianum's rhizomes increase the surface area of a particular area, whether the flowers are removed or not. Complete removal of the rhizomes or poisoning, (usually before flowers are matured), is the only certain way of controlling the plant if it is considered a weed When Hedychium gardnerianum is particularly virulent, annual follow up is required for some years to prevent re-infestation. Re-infestation may occur from spreading by neighbouring plants, or dormant seeds disturbed by the removal of the original tuber clump as seeds remain viable for 2–4 years. Lifted rhizomes should be removed from site as if left in contact with soil they will restore themselves.


Medicinal research indicates that the plant compound, villosin, in Hedychium gardnerianum has potent cytotoxicity activity against human small cell lung cancer cells.


Hedysarum alpinum is a species of flowering plant in the legume family known by the common name alpine sweetvetch. It is called masu in the Iñupiaq language. It has a circumpolar distribution, occurring throughout the northern latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere. In North America it is widespread in Canada and the northernmost United States, including Alaska.


This plant is a perennial herb producing several erect stems from its caudex. It grows to 70 centimetres (28 inches) in height. The taproot is thick and woody, and it has rhizomes which can produce new stems. The leaves are each divided into a number of leaflets up to 3.5 centimetres (1.4 inches) long. The inflorescence is a dense raceme of flowers. The flowers are pink or pale purple and up to 1.5 centimetres (0.59 inches) long. The flowers are pollinated by insects such as the bumblebee and honeybee. The fruit is a flat legume pod which is narrowed between the seeds, with as many as 9 segments.


This plant generally grows in the boreal and northern temperate climates. It occurs in tundra and taiga habitat types, in floodplains, grasslands, and dry forests. It is well adapted to calcareous soils. It is usually not a dominant species but it is considered dominant in several river deltas and plains in Alaska. It is a pioneer species on floodplains that have been recently scoured by water and ice. It grows with willows and birches along waterways and in forests dominated by spruces. It grows on grasslands with grass species such as little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), Canada bluegrass (Poa compressa), and American dunegrass (Leymus mollis).


Native Alaskan peoples used and still use the plant for food, particularly the fleshy roots. The roots are said to taste like young carrots. The Inupiat people call the plant wild potato and obtain dietary fiber from the roots. Alpine sweetvetch is the most important food source for the Dena'ina people after wild fruit species. The Eskimo train dogs to locate stores of roots that have been cached by mice. The roots may be eaten raw or prepared in a number of ways, including boiling, roasting, and frying in grease. They are stored in lard or oil and eaten when other food stores run out. The seeds should not be eaten raw, or in large quantity, as they contain L-canavanine, which may have led or contributed to the death of Christopher McCandless.
Research into the veracity of this theory is ongoing.


Hedysarum boreale is a species of flowering plant in the Fabaceae, or legume family, and is known by the common names Utah sweetvetch, boreal sweet-vetch, northern sweetvetch, and plains sweet-broom. It is native to North America, where it is widespread in northern and western regions of Canada and the United States. The ssp. mackenzii can even be found in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago.
This species is quite variable in morphology. There are several ecotypes. In general, it is a perennial herb growing from a deep taproot with a woody stem base. It has nitrogen-fixing root nodules. The plant grows 1 to 2 feet (0.3 to 0.6 m) tall. The hairless leaves are compound, divided into a number of leaflets. The inflorescence is a raceme of white, pink, or purple flowers. The fruit is a legume pod containing kidney-shaped seeds. Honeybees pollinate the flowers.
This plant grows on well-drained loams as well as soils with clay and sand. It can grow on soils with moderate levels of salinity, and can tolerate a range of soil pH. In the wild it generally grows at elevation, between 4,000 and 8,000 feet (1,200 and 2,400 m).
This plant is sometimes added to seed mixes used for rangeland improvement. Its nitrogen-fixing ability improves soil quality. The plant is palatable to livestock and wild animals. It is an important component of Sage Grouse habitat. The cultivar 'Timp' is an improved plant line selected for its adaptability and seed production qualities. The plant can be used in xeriscaping and as a seeded roadside flower. It is good for stabilizing soil.
The wild plant was considered poisonous by some Native American groups, but it was utilized as a food source, particularly the roots, which taste like licorice.


Helenium amarum is a species of annual herb in the daisy family known by the common names yellowdicks, yellow sneezeweed, fiveleaf sneezeweed, and bitter sneezeweed. It is native to much of the south-central United States (Texas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, Arkansas, New Mexico) and northern Mexico (Chihuahua, Coahuila), and it is present elsewhere in North America, Australia, and the West Indies as an introduced species.
Helenium amarum is a multibranched bushy erect plant reaching 20 to 70 centimeters (8-28 inches) in height and thickly foliated in narrow to threadlike leaves. The tops of stem branches hold inflorescences of many daisy-like flower heads. Each head has a rounded center of sometimes as many as 250 golden yellow disc florets and a fringe of 8-10 usually lighter yellow ray florets which are reflexed away from the center. The fruit is a tiny achene about a millimeter long. This herb is weedy in some areas.
The plant is somewhat toxic to mammals and insects due to the presence of the lactone tenulin.
Varieties
Helenium amarum var. amarum - United States
Helenium amarum var. badium Waterf. - Oklahoma, Texas, Chihuahua, Coahuila


Helenium bigelovii is a North American perennial plant in the sunflower family, commonly known as Bigelow's sneezeweed.
It grows in moist areas such as meadows, marshes, or streamsides. It is found at moderate and higher elevations (3000-10,000 ft) in the foothills and mountains of California and Oregon: Cascades, Coast Ranges, Klamath Mountains, Sierra Nevada, etc. Cultivars of the species are used in gardening as ornamentals.
Helenium bigelovii is a perennial herb sometimes as much as 130 cm (51 in; 4.5 ft) tall. One plant can produce as many as 20 flower heads, either one per branch or in branching arrays. Each head has 14-20 yellow ray florets (bending backwards and with teeth at the tips) surrounding sometimes as many as 800 disc florets (yellow at first, turning brown as they get older).
The species is named for J.M. Bigelow, a plant collector on the United States and Mexican Boundary Survey in the 1850s.


Helenium flexuosum is a North American plant species in the daisy family known by the common name purple sneezeweed. It is widespread across much of eastern and central United States and Canada, from Nova Scotia west to Ontario, Minnesota, and Kansas, south to Florida, Louisiana, and eastern Texas.
Helenium flexuosum is a perennial herb up to 100 cm (40 inches) tall. One plant can produce 80 or more flower heads in a branching array. Each head has up to 700 yellow or purple disc florets, sometimes with no ray florets, sometimes with 8-13 yellow, red, purple, or brown ray florets. The species grows in fields, ditches, and streambanks.


Helenium puberulum is a North American species of flowering plants in the daisy family known by the common name rosilla.  It is native to California and Baja California, where it can be found in moist habitats such as riverbanks and meadows. It has also been found in Oregon, although these might possibly be naturalized populations.
Helenium puberulum is an annual or perennial herb sometimes as much as 160 cm tall though other times much smaller. Most of the leaves are on the lower part of the plant. Stems are winged, meaning that they have flaps of tissue running down the sides. One plant can produce as many as 30 flower heads in a branched array. The head is unusual in that the part covered by the disc florets is almost completely spherical rather than conical as in most other species of the genus. There can sometimes be over 1000 small disc florets in the head, each yellow at the bottom but brown or purple toward the tip. The 13-17 yellow ray florets are small and inconspicuous, pointing backwards down the flower stalk. Sometimes the ray florets are completely absent. The fruit is a hairy achene one to two millimeters long.


Helianthemum nummularium (known as common rock-rose) is a species of rock-rose (Cistaceae), native to most of Europe.


It  is an evergreen trailing plant with loose terminal clusters of bright yellow, saucer-shaped flowers. In the flower centre is a tight cluster of orange stamens, which are sensitive to the touch, and spread outwards to reveal the tall stigma in the middle. The plant is common on chalk downs, and occasional in other grasslands, always on dry, base-rich soil. The wild species has yellow flowers, but garden varieties range from white through yellow to deep red.
Though the individual blooms are short-lived, the plant produces a mass of flowers through the summer. It needs a dry, sunny place, like a south-facing rockery or meadow. As the Latin name Helianthemum suggests, these are sun-flowers. This is a good nectar source for bees and there are several species of small beetle that feed on the foliage. Common rock-rose is also the food plant for the larvae of several species of moth and butterfly such as the silver-studded blue (Plebejus argus).
It flowers from May until July.


Helianthus debilis is a species of sunflower known by the common names cucumberleaf sunflower, beach sunflower, weak sunflower, and East Coast dune sunflower. It is native to the United States, where it can be found along the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts. It is known elsewhere as an introduced species, such as South Africa, Australia, Taiwan, Slovakia, and Cuba.
This species may be an annual or perennial herb. It is usually perennial but it may last only one season in climates where freezes occur. It can reach a height of 2 meters. The stem grows from a taproot and may grow erect or decumbent. It can also spread along the ground, becoming a dense groundcover. The leaves are usually arranged alternately and are variable in shape and size. The largest are up to 14 centimeters long by 13 wide. The showy inflorescence is a single flower head or an array of two or three heads. There are up to 30 lance-shaped phyllaries each up to 1.7 centimeters long. There are up to 20 or 21 ray florets, each up to 2.3 centimeters long. They are usually yellow in the wild, but cultivars have been bred to bear whitish, reddish, or orange florets. The center of the head is filled with many red, yellowish, or purplish disc florets. The fruit, a cypsela, is roughly 2 or 3 millimeters long.
There are several subspecies. At one point there were eight. Five are currently recognized.
Helianthus debilis subsp. cucumerifolius - cucumberleaf sunflower. The subspecies with the widest distribution.
Helianthus debilis subsp. debilis - beach sunflower. Endemic to Florida.
Helianthus debilis subsp. silvestris - forest sunflower. Endemic to Texas.
Helianthus debilis subsp. tardiflorus - slow-flowering sunflower. Mississippi to Florida. Limited to rare, specialized coastal habitat.
Helianthus debilis subsp. vestitus - clothed sunflower, hairy beach sunflower. Endemic to Florida. Imperiled; known from about 22 occurrences.
This species grows in several types of coastal habitat, sometimes directly on the beach. It tolerates a moderately saline environment, but not an excessive amount of salt spray or inundation. It is highly drought-tolerant and it will grow in low-nutrient and poor soils, such as alkaline and acidic soils and sand. The plant attracts butterflies and birds feed on the fruits.
This plant is used as a garden flower. It is also good for landscaping, especially in poor, dry soils. It is planted on beaches, where it forms a sand-binding groundcover that prevents erosion and stabilizes dunes. It requires supplemental watering only rarely, if ever. It may get "ratty-looking" after the showy flowers have withered. Available cultivars include 'Italian White', 'Flora Sun','Dazzler', 'Excelsior', and 'Orion'.


Helianthus grosseserratus, commonly known as sawtooth sunflower or thick-tooth sunflower, is a perennial sunflower in the family Asteraceae, with a large flowering head (inflorescence).
The plant may reach 3–12 feet (91–366 cm) in height and is found along streams, damp prairies and roadsides in the eastern and central parts of Canada and the United States, primarily in the northern Great Plains and Great Lakes Region, with additional populations as far as Maine, Georgia, and Texas. It prefers full sun and moist, fertile loamy soil with high organic content.
The lanceolate leaves are simple and alternate and may reach 4 to 12 inches (10–30 cm) long and from 1 to 4 inches (2–10 cm) wide. The leaves have large teeth along the edges (hence the name, sawtooth) to occasionally nearly entire and the tips are pointed.
The head (formally composite flower) is 3 to 4 inches (7–10 cm) wide with golden-yellow disk flowers that bloom in summer and autumn. The 10-20 yellow ray florets are about 1.5 inches (3.81 cm) long. The fruit is a single achene within a husk.
Various insects, birds and mammals (including cattle) feed on either the plant or its seeds.
Native Americans used to treat burns with a poultice made from the flowers.


Helianthus occidentalis, the fewleaf sunflower or western sunflower, is a species of sunflower native to the Eastern and Central United States. It grows mostly in the Great Lakes Region and in the Ozarks, with additional populations scattered as far as Massachusetts, Texas, and the Florida Panhandle.
Helianthus occidentalis differs from other, similar species by its sparse leaves, most of which are crowded around the lower part of the stem. This perennial plant reaches heights from 2 to 5 ft (60–150 cm). It produces one to several yellow flower heads, each with 8-14 ray florets surrounding more than 50 disc florets.
The word occidentalis means "western" in Latin. The plant was first described in 1836, when the Great Lakes Region was considered the western part of the United States.
Subspecies
Helianthus occidentalis subsp. occidentalis - most of species range
Helianthus occidentalis subsp. plantagineus (Torr. & A.Gray) Shinners - Texas, Arkansas


Helianthus petiolaris is a North American plant species in the family Asteraceae, commonly known as the prairie sunflower or lesser sunflower. Naturalist and botanist Thomas Nuttall was the first to describe the prairie sunflower in 1821. The word petiolaris in Latin means, “having a petiole”. The species originated in Western United States, but has since expanded east. The prairie sunflower is sometimes considered a weed.


Helianthus petiolaris originated in the dry prairies of Minnesota, Oregon, Texas, the Dakotas, California, and other states in Western and Central United States. It has since expanded its distribution to throughout the Eastern United States and into central and western Canada. It is now the most widely distributed species of sunflower besides H. annuus.


Prairie sunflowers are commonly found growing in sandy areas. They can also be found in heavy clay soil and in dry prairies. They are unable to grow in shady areas; they need to be in direct sunlight. Prairie sunflowers  require dry to moist soil. This species of sunflower is an annual flower, blooming between June and September.


Prairie sunflower is a taprooted annual. It grows up to 4 ft (120 cm) tall. The leaves appear alternate and the flowers have a close resemblance to the traditional sunflower. The flowers are hermaphrodites, which means the flowers contain both male and female parts. The stem of the flower is erect and hairy. The leaves are alternate, have a lanceolate shape, are rough in texture, are bluish-green in color, and have a length between 2 and 5 in.


Helianthus petiolaris has flower heads reminiscent of those of a common sunflower, H. annuus. The fruits of the flowers are known as achenes. The flower head contains 10-30 yellow ray florets, surrounding 50-100 dark red-brown disc florets, and green, lanceolate phyllaries (bracts). The center of the flower has hints of white due to the presence of white hairs on the chaff. The flowers attract butterflies and bees for pollination.


The seeds in the plant are edible and can be ground up into an oily meal or into a butter.


Powdered leaves of the prairie sunflower are said to work well with the healing of sores and swellings.
Varieties
Helianthus petiolaris var. canescens A.Gray - Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, Chihuahua
Helianthus petiolaris var. var. fallax (Heiser) B.L.Turner  - Arizona, Colorado, Nevada, Utah
Helianthus petiolaris var. var. petiolaris - most of species range


The Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus), also called sunroot, sunchoke, wild sunflower, topinambur, or earth apple, is a species of sunflower native to central North America. It is cultivated widely across the temperate zone for its tuber, which is used as a root vegetable.


Helianthus tuberosus is a herbaceous perennial plant growing to 1.5–3 m (4 ft 11 in – 9 ft 10 in) tall with opposite leaves on the lower part of the stem but alternate towards the top. The leaves have a rough, hairy texture. Larger leaves on the lower stem are broad ovoid-acute and can be up to 30 cm (12 in) long. Leaves higher on the stem are smaller and narrower.
The flowers are yellow and produced in capitate flowerheads, which are 5–10 cm (2.0–3.9 in) in diameter, with 10–20 ray florets and 60 or more small disc florets. The flowers are briefly fragrant, giving off a light, vanilla-chocolate perfume.
The tubers are often elongated and uneven, typically 7.5–10 cm (3.0–3.9 in) long and 3–5 cm (1.2–2.0 in) thick, and vaguely resembling a ginger root in appearance, with a crisp and crunchy texture when raw. They vary in color from pale brown to white, red, or purple.


The tubers can be eaten raw, cooked, or pickled.
Before the arrival of Europeans, indigenous peoples cultivated H. tuberosus as a food source. The tubers persist for years after being planted, so that the species expanded its range from central North America to the eastern and western regions. Early European colonists learned of this, and sent tubers back to Europe, where it became a popular crop and naturalized there. It later gradually fell into obscurity in North America, but attempts to market it commercially have been successful in the late 1900s and early 2000s.
The tuber contains about 2% protein, no oil, and little starch. It is rich in the carbohydrate inulin (8 to 13%), which is a polymer of the monosaccharide fructose. Tubers stored for any length of time convert their inulin into its component fructose. Jerusalem artichokes have an underlying sweet taste because of the fructose, which is about one and a half times as sweet as sucrose.
It has also been reported as a folk remedy for diabetes: since inulin is not assimilated in the intestine, it doesn't cause a glycemic spike as potatoes would.  Temperature variances have been shown to affect the amount of inulin the Jerusalem artichoke can produce. It makes less inulin in a colder region than when it is in a warmer region.


Despite one of its names, the Jerusalem artichoke  has no relationship to Jerusalem, and it is not a type of artichoke, though the two are distantly related as members of the daisy family. Italian settlers in the United States called the plant girasole, the Italian word for sunflower, because of its familial relationship to the garden sunflower (both plants are members of the genus Helianthus). Over time, the name girasole (pronounced closer to [dʒiraˈsuːlə] in southern Italian dialects) was corrupted to Jerusalem. An alternative explanation for the name is that the Puritans, when they came to the New World, named the plant with regard to the "New Jerusalem" they believed they were creating in the wilderness. Also, various other names have been applied to the plant, such as the French or Canada potato, topinambour, and lambchoke. Sunchoke, a name by which it is still known today, was invented in the 1960s by Frieda Caplan, a produce wholesaler who was trying to revive the plant's appeal.
The artichoke part of the Jerusalem artichoke's name comes from the taste of its edible tuber. Samuel de Champlain, the French explorer, sent the first samples of the plant to France, noting its taste was similar to that of an artichoke.
The name topinambur, in one account, dates from 1615, when a member of the Brazilian coastal tribe called the Tupinambá visited the Vatican at the same time that a sample of the tuber from Canada was on display there, presented as a critical food source that helped French Canadian settlers survive the winter. The New World connection resulted in the name topinambur being applied to the tuber, the word now used in French, German, Italian, Polish, Romanian, Russian, and Spanish.


Jerusalem artichokes were first cultivated by the Indigenous peoples of the Americas—this extensive cultivation obscures the exact native range of the species. The French explorer Samuel de Champlain discovered that the native people of Nauset Harbor in Massachusetts had cultivated roots that tasted like artichoke. The following year, Champlain returned to the same area to discover that the roots had a flavor similar to chard and was responsible for bringing the plant back to France. Some time later, Petrus Hondius, a Dutch botanist, planted a shriveled Jerusalem artichoke tuber in his garden at Terneuzen and was surprised to see the plant proliferate. Jerusalem artichokes are so well-suited for the European climate and soil that the plant multiplies quickly. By the mid-1600s, the Jerusalem artichoke had become a very common vegetable for human consumption in Europe and the Americas, and was also used for livestock feed in Europe and colonial America. The French in particular were especially fond of the vegetable, which reached its peak popularity at the turn of the 19th century. The Jerusalem artichoke was titled 'best soup vegetable' in the 2002 Nice Festival for the Heritage of the French Cuisine.
The French explorer and Acadia's first historian, Marc Lescarbot, described Jerusalem artichokes as being "as big as turnips or truffles", suitable for eating and taste "like chards, but more pleasant". In 1629, English herbalist and botanist, John Parkinson, wrote that the widely grown Jerusalem artichoke had become very common and cheap in London, so much so "that even the most vulgar begin to despise them". In contrast, when Jerusalem artichokes first arrived in England, the tubers were "dainties for the Queen".
Lewis and Clark ate the tubers, prepared by an indigenous woman, in modern-day North Dakota.
They have also been called the "Canadian truffle".


Unlike most tubers, but in common with many other members of the Asteraceae (including the artichoke), the tubers store their carbohydrate as inulin (not to be confused with insulin) rather than as starch. So, Jerusalem artichoke tubers are an important source of inulin used as a dietary fiber in food manufacturing.
Crop yields are high, typically 16–20 tonnes per hectare (7–9 short ton/acre) for tubers, and 18–28 tonnes per hectare (8–12 short ton/acre) green weight for foliage. Tubers remaining in the ground lie dormant over winter and can handle temperatures as low as −30 °C (−22 °F). Jerusalem artichoke also has potential for production of ethanol fuel, using inulin-adapted strains of yeast for fermentation.
The tubers are used for cooking and baking in the same ways as potatoes, but unlike the potato they can also be eaten raw. They have a similar consistency, and in their raw form have a similar texture, but a sweeter, nuttier flavor. When raw and sliced thinly, they are fit for a salad. Their inulin form of carbohydrates give the tubers a tendency to become soft and mushy if boiled, but they retain their texture better when steamed. The inulin cannot be broken down by the human digestive system but it is metabolized by bacteria in the colon. This can cause flatulence and, in some cases, gastric pain. John Gerard's Herbal, printed in 1621, quotes the English botanist John Goodyer on Jerusalem artichokes:
which way soever they be dressed and eaten, they stir and cause a filthy loathsome stinking wind within the body, thereby causing the belly to be pained and tormented, and are a meat more fit for swine than men.
Jerusalem artichokes have 650 mg potassium per 1 cup (150 g) serving. They are also high in iron, and contain 10–12% of the USRDA of fiber, niacin, thiamine, phosphorus, and copper.
Jerusalem artichokes can be used as animal feed, but they must be washed before being fed to most animals. Pigs can forage, however, and safely eat them directly from the ground. The stalks and leaves can be harvested and used for silage, though cutting the tops greatly reduces the harvest of the roots.


In Baden-Württemberg, Germany, over 90% of the Jerusalem artichoke crop is used to produce a spirit called Topinambur, the German word for Jerusalem artichoke. By the end of the 19th century, Jerusalem artichokes were being used in Baden to make a spirit called  "Topinambur-Branntwein" (Jerusalem artichoke brandy), "Topinambur" (Jerusalem artichoke), "Topi", "Erdäpfler", "Rossler", or "Borbel". Topinambur produced in the European Union and Switzerland must be made exclusively from Jerusalem artichokes, contain at least 38% alcohol by volume, and may not contain added alcohol or flavorings. Caramel color is the only permitted additive.
Jerusalem artichoke brandy smells fruity and has a slight nutty-sweet flavor. It is characterized by an intense, pleasing, earthy note. The tubers are washed and dried in an oven before being fermented and distilled. It can be further refined to make "Red Rossler" by adding the roots of the common tormentil, giving it a bitter and astringent taste and a red color. Red Rossler contains other ingredients such as currants, producing a schnapps with about 50% alcohol used as digestif and as a remedy for diarrhea or abdominal pain.


In the 1980s, the Jerusalem artichoke also gained some notoriety when its seeds were planted by Midwestern US farmers at the prodding of an agricultural attempt to save the family farm. This effort was an attempt to teach independent farmers to raise their own food, feed, and fuel. Little market existed for the tuber in that part of the US at the time, but contacts were made with sugar producers, oil and gas companies, and the fresh food market for markets to be developed. Fructose had not yet been established as a mainstay, nor was ethanol used as a main fuel additive as it is today. The only real profit in this effort were realized by a few first-year growers (who sold some of their seed to other farmers individually as well as with the help of the company attempting this venture). As a result, many of the farmers who had planted large quantities of the crop lost money.


Helicoverpa zea, commonly known as the corn earworm, is a species (formerly in the genus Heliothis) in the family Noctuidae. The larva of the moth Helicoverpa zea is a major agricultural pest. Since it is polyphagous (feeds on many different plants) during the larval stage, the species has been given many different common names, including the cotton bollworm and the tomato fruitworm. It also consumes a wide variety of other crops.
The species is widely distributed across the Americas with the exception of northern Canada and Alaska. It has become resistant to many pesticides, but can be controlled with integrated pest management techniques including deep ploughing, trap crops, chemical control using mineral oil, and biological controls.
The species migrates seasonally, at night, and can be carried downwind up to 400 km. Pupae can make use of diapause to wait out adverse environmental conditions, especially at high latitudes and in drought.


The corn earworm is found in temperate and tropical regions of North America, with the exception of northern Canada and Alaska as it cannot overwinter in these areas. Helicoverpa zea found in the eastern United States also does not overwinter successfully. They live in Kansas, Ohio, Virginia, and southern New Jersey, but survival rate is mainly affected by the severity of the winter. Corn earworm moths regularly migrate from southern regions to northern regions depending on winter conditions. They are also found in Hawaii, the Caribbean islands, and most of South America, including Peru, Argentina, and Brazil.
Cotton earworms have also been reported from China in 2002.
The taxonomy of Helicoverpa was poorly understood for a long time. Many older works referring to "Heliothis obsoleta", a synonym of H. armigera, are actually about H. zea.


Two kinds of control measures have been advocated since the 19th century. One aims at total pest population reduction, while the other is aimed at protection of the particular crop. As of 2013, integrated pest management (IPM), an array of techniques and approaches to control pests, was recommended. Practices such as deep ploughing, mechanical destruction, and trap crops are also used to kill different instars. Chemical control is widely successful, and includes the use of applying mineral oil inside the tip of each corn ear, which suffocates the young larvae. Pesticides are one method by which corn earworm populations are controlled; however, since they have been widely used, the insects have become resistant to many pesticides. The use of biological controls, such as the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis and various forms of nematodes, is also common, although not without their own problems. Corn earworm moths are not always vulnerable to the bacterium, and they are only afflicted by nematodes once the larvae have pupated and dropped to the ground. Strains of maize have been genetically modified to produce the same toxin as the bacterium, and are referred to as Bt-corn.


Heliomata cycladata, the common spring moth, is a moth of the  family Geometridae. The species was first described by Augustus Radcliffe Grote and Coleman Townsend Robinson in 1866. It is found in eastern North America, with records from southern Ontario, southern Quebec, Maine, New Hampshire, Michigan, Wisconsin to South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, northern Mississippi and Arkansas.
The wingspan is about 20 mm. Adults are on wing from March to July.
The larvae feed on Robinia pseudoacacia and Gleditsia triacanthos.


Heliophorus epicles, commonly known as the purple sapphire, is a species of lycaenid or blue butterfly found in Asia. The species was first described by Jean Baptiste Godart in 1823.


The subspecies of Heliophorus epicles are:
Heliophorus epicles epicles Fruhstorfer, 1918 – western Java
Heliophorus epicles hilima Fruhstorfer, 1912 – eastern Java
Heliophorus epicles latilimbata Fruhstorfer, 1908 – Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Assam, Myanmar, Andamans, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, southern Yunnan
Heliophorus epicles tweediei Eliot, 1963 – Peninsular Malaya
Heliophorus epicles sumatrensis Fruhstorfer, 1908 – Sumatra
Heliophorus epicles phoenicoparyphus Holland, 1887 – Hainan


In India, this butterfly can only be traced in the Himalayas at 2000–7000 ft (600–2100 m). Apart from that they can be found from Kumaon in the Himalayas to southern Myanmar. They mainly inhabit in dense forest region.


Heliopsis helianthoides is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae, known by the common names rough oxeye, smooth oxeye and false sunflower. It is native to eastern and central North America from Saskatchewan east to Newfoundland and south as far as Texas, New Mexico, and Georgia.
Heliopsis helianthoides is a rhizomatous herbaceous perennial growing 40–150 cm (16–59 in) tall. The toothed leaf blades are oval to triangular or lance-shaped and may be smooth or hairy or rough in texture. The flowers are produced from midsummer to early autumn (fall). The inflorescence contains one to many composite flowerheads. Each head contains yellow ray florets which are generally 2–4 cm (3⁄4–1+1⁄2 in) long. The rays are fertile, having a small forked pistil at the base; this distinguishes them from true sunflowers. At the center are many yellow to brownish disc florets. The fruit is an achene about 5 mm (0.20 in) long.
In the wild, H. helianthoides may be found in wooded areas and tallgrass prairie, and sometimes along roadsides.
It is a popular garden plant for moist, fertile soil in full sun. Plants grow stiff and tall, so may require staking. Several cultivars are available with flowers of varying colors and shades. These include 'Summer Sun', 'Golden Plume', and 'Prairie Sunset'. The following cultivars of H. helianthoides var. scabra ("rough") have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:
'Benzinggold'
'Light of Loddon'
'Loraine Sunshine'='Helhan'
'Sonnenglut'
'Spitzentänzerin'
'Waterperry Gold'


Heliotropium curassavicum, commonly called salt heliotrope (among other names), a species of flowering plant in the borage family (Boraginaceae). It is native to much of the Americas, from Canada to Argentina, including the West Indies and Hawaii. It can be found as an introduced, and sometimes invasive, species in Africa, Asia, Australia, and Europe. It thrives in salty soils, such as beach sand, alkali flats, and salt marshes. It is often found in disturbed coastal sites.


This is a perennial herb which can take the form of a prostrate creeper along the ground to a somewhat erect shrub approaching 0.5 m (1.6 ft) in height. The stem and foliage are fleshy, with the leaves thick and oval or spade-shaped. The plentiful inflorescences are curled, coiling double rows of small bell-shaped flowers. Each flower is white with five rounded lobes and a purple or yellow throat. The fruit is a smooth nutlet.


Due to its wide geographical range that spans many nations and languages,  Heliotropium curassavicum has been given an assortment of common names. In English, these include seaside heliotrope, salt heliotrope, monkey tail, quail plant and Chinese parsley. In Latin American Spanish, it is known as cola de mico, cola de gama or rabo alacrán. It is called kīpūkai in Hawaii.


There are five currently recognized varieties. These are:
H. curassavicum var. argentinum - Native to the tropics of South America, including Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.
H. curassavicum var. curassavicum - Globally widespread, native from the eastern U.S. to Argentina, and naturalized on seashores elsewhere.
H. curassavicum var. fruticulosum - Endemic to the San Juan and Mendoza provinces of Argentina.
H. curassavicum var. obovatum - Widespread in western North America and Chihuahua, Mexico.
H. curassavicum var. oculatum - Native from southwestern Utah to Baja California.


Hellula hydralis, the cabbage centre grub, is a moth of the family Crambidae. It was described by Achille Guenée in 1854 and is found throughout Australia.
The wingspan is about 20 mm.
The larvae feed on Brassica oleracea and Brassica napus.


Helminthoglypta tudiculata, common names the "Southern California shoulderband" or "Southern shoulderband", is a species of air-breathing land snail, a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family Helminthoglyptidae.
This snail is endemic to the United States.


This species creates and uses love darts as part of its mating behavior.


The worm-eating warbler (Helmitheros vermivorum) is a small New World warbler that breeds in the Eastern United States and migrates to southern Mexico, the Caribbean, and Central America for the winter.


The worm-eating warbler is the only species currently classified in the genus Helmitheros. However, Swainson's warbler has previously been in this genus as H. swainsonii.


The worm-eating warbler is a small New World warbler.
Measurements:
Length: 4.4-5.2 in (11.2-13.1 cm)
Weight: 0.4-0.5 oz (12-14 g)
Wingspan: 7.9-8.7 in (20-22 cm)
It is relatively plain with olive-brown upperparts and light-coloured underparts, but has black and light brown stripes on its head. It has a slim pointed bill and pink legs. In immature birds, the head stripes are brownish. The male's song is a short high-pitched trill. This bird's call is a chip or tseet. Worm-eating warblers are sexually monomorphic. Males and females can only reliably be sexed during the breeding season by the presence of a brood patch in females or a cloacal protuberance in males. These birds are also difficult to age. Hatch year/second year birds have rusty tips on tertials that wear off by March of the following year. Juveniles can be distinguished by duskier head markings, and cinnamon wingbars.


This bird breeds in dense deciduous forests in the eastern United States, usually on wooded slopes. The nest is an open cup placed on the ground, hidden among dead leaves. It is one of several species of new-world warblers that nests on the ground including the black-and-white warbler (Mniotilta varia), the ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapilla), the northern waterthrush (Parkesia noveboracensis), Louisiana waterthrush (Parkesia motacilla), palm warbler (Setophaga palmarum), and the Kentucky warbler (Geothlypis formosa). The female lays four or five eggs. Both parents feed the young; they may try to distract predators near the nest by pretending to be injured. Worm-eating warblers are often parasitized by brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater) where forest fragmentation occurs. Reducing forest fragmentation may prove vital if populations of worm-eating warblers suffer large declines.


These birds breed in the Eastern United States. Their selected habitats vary significantly between populations. In much of their range, worm-eating warblers are associated with mature hardwood forests on steep slopes. However, recent attention has been focused on coastal breeding populations, as little is known about their ecology or status. Historically, coastal populations would select for pocosin ecosystems. More recently, however, these populations have shifted to frequent use of pine plantations. Current use of pine plantations has resulted in densities higher than in areas previously thought to be their natural habitat. This shift in habitat selection likely demonstrates that worm-eating warblers are more closely associated with shrub structure than stand age or size. If this is the case, the landscape changes that occurred on the Atlantic coastal plain may have had less of an impact on these birds than previously described. Maintaining this species habitat may require managing for dense shrubby midstory and understory. Due to their reliance on shrub structure for foraging, and ground nesting behavior, frequent fires have a negative impact on this species. Other management strategies that reduce the shrub mid-story, increase herbaceous growth, and decrease canopy cover are likely to have a similar effect. More information is needed about their breeding habits in coastal regions as these forests are likely to represent different conditions from their inland counterparts. Fat deposits play a key role in allowing for long distance migration in most passerines. Stopover habitat, or areas that allow birds to replenish their fat stores, are also critical.
In winter, these birds migrate to southern Mexico, the Greater Antilles, and Central America particularly along the Caribbean Slope where they occupy both scrub and moist forests. Worm-eating warblers have disappeared from some parts of their range due to habitat loss but their ability to use both scrub and moist forest ecosystems may be beneficial to the long term conservation of this species.


The diet of worm-eating warblers varies across habitat types. This variation can be attributed to different predator avoidance strategies employed by common prey items. On their breeding grounds, worm-eating warblers glean mostly from live foliage, searching for arthropods. On the wintering grounds, this species gleans insects almost exclusively from dead plant material. The name "worm-eating" refers to the numerous Lepidopteran larvae that this species consumes; they rarely if ever eat earthworms.
Use of pesticides, especially those broadcast over a wide area, is likely to have an effect on most insectivorous songbird species, including the worm-eating warbler. These pesticides decrease the species' primary food source and could result in long-term toxicity.


Like other members of the genus Helophilus it has black and yellow longitudinal stripes on the upper surface of its thorax. The abdomen is patterned with yellow, black and grey, and for this reason it is sometimes called the footballer. It has a black central face-stripe. It has a wing-length of 8.5–11.25 mm (0.33–0.44 in).
The tergites two and three are yellow patterned with black. The black pattern consists of a band across the apex of the tergite (on its discal part only, not extending to the sides), and stripe down the centre of the tergite, and a black band across the full width of the base. Due to the black pattern described above, the main yellow areas on these tergites are at the sides of the insect but they are fairly prominent due to their large size, and their bright colour. At the basal margin of these tergites there is usually a narrow yellow border. This border is usually slightly thicker on the third tergite, where it is also more obvious as the front of tergite four is wholly black, thus enhancing the contrast of the feature. The only other Helophilus-species having this yellow border is Helophilus hybridus, but males of such species differs from pendulus-males in the black band at base of the tergite two not extending to the sides. The yellow pattern here is usually a bright, slightly orangey yellow (unlike the paler lemon yellow of trivittatus). Tergite four is largely black, with isolated dull yellow crescentic markings on each side. Females have yellow hairs on the hind part of tergite five, unlike H. hybridus females, in which these hairs are black due to certain biological adapments.
The legs possess patterning which differ from the other species in the genus. First, the hind tibia of pendulus has at least the apical half (usually all except the basal third) pale yellow, whereas other species, such as H. hybridus and H. groenlandicus have pale yellow only on the apical third or less. The middle tibia of pendulus is wholly pale, unlike H. groenlandicus, on which it has a dark apex. The mid-tarsi have extensive dark markings on at least their distal segments, unlike trivittatus which usually has wholly pale mid-tarsi.


It is associated with a wide variety of waterbodies, from large lakes and rivers down to areas as small as ditches, small ponds and muddy puddles. Larvae have been found in cow-dung, very wet manure or very wet old sawdust.
This species visits flowers; it also commonly rests on leaves. It often emits a buzzing sound when resting. It is a notable wanderer and can be found well away from water. The larvae feed on detritus.


Hemerocallis fulva, the orange day-lily, tawny daylily, corn lily, tiger daylily, fulvous daylily, ditch lily or Fourth of July lily (also railroad daylily, roadside daylily, outhouse lily, and wash-house lily), is a species of daylily native to Asia. It is very widely grown as an ornamental plant in temperate climates for its showy flowers and ease of cultivation. It is not a true lily in the genus Lilium, but gets its name from the superficial similarity of its flowers to Lilium and from the fact that each flower lasts only one day.


It is an herbaceous perennial plant growing from tuberous roots, with stems 40–150 centimetres (16–59 inches) tall. The leaves are linear, .5–1.5 metres (1+1⁄2–5 feet) long and 1.5–3 cm (1⁄2–1+1⁄4 in) broad. The flowers are 5–12 cm (2–4+3⁄4 in) across, orange-red, with a pale central line on each tepal; they are produced from early summer through late autumn on scapes of ten through twenty flowers, with the individual flowers opening successively, each one lasting only one day. Its fruit is a three-valved capsule 2–2.5 cm (3⁄4–1 in) long and 1.2–1.5 cm (1⁄2–5⁄8 in) broad which splits open at maturity and releases seeds.
Both diploid and triploid forms occur in the wild, but most cultivated plants are triploids which rarely produce seeds and primarily reproduce vegetatively by stolons. At least four botanical varieties are recognized, including the typical triploid var. fulva, the diploid, long-flowered var. angustifolia (syn.: var. longituba), the triploid var. Flore Pleno, which has petaloid stamens, and the evergreen var. aurantiaca.


Orange daylily is native to Asia from the Caucasus east through the Himalaya through China, Japan, and Korea. Orange daylily persists where planted, making them a very good garden plant.
Hemerocallis fulva var. fulva has escaped from cultivation across much of the United States and parts of Canada and has become a weedy or invasive species. It persists also where dumped and spreads more or less rapidly by vegetative increase into woods and fields and along roadsides and ditches, hence its common name ditch lily. It forms dense stands that exclude native vegetation, and is often mistaken for a native species.


Hemerocallis fulva has been cultivated in Europe and naturalized there since at least the 16th century.A few cultivated varieties exist which are grown as ornamental plants. Their propagation is by division since most plants in cultivation are sterile triploids.
They are long lived perennials that are adaptable to varied garden conditions and vigorous growers doing well in even difficult areas where other plants do not thrive. The plants grow well in full sun to open shade, and are drought tolerant. H. fulva is winter hardy to UDSA Zone 4.
All portions of Hemerocallis species may be seriously toxic to cats and somewhat toxic to dogs. Cats are particularly vulnerable as their fastidious nature causes them to lick accidentally transferred pollen from their fur.


The flowers, leaves, and tubers are edible. The leaves and shoots can be eaten raw or cooked when very young (or they become too fibrous). The flowers and young tubers can also be eaten raw or cooked. The flowers taste better when cooked but can also be fried for storage or dried and used as a thickener in soup. The cooked flower buds, served with butter, taste like green beans or wax beans. The tubers are a good potato substitute.


The Australian emerald (Hemicordulia australiae) is a species of dragonfly in the family Corduliidae.
It can be found in Australia,Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, Lesser Sunda Islands and New Zealand.
It is a small to medium-sized, long-legged dragonfly coloured black-metallic and yellow.
In both males and females the inboard edge of the hindwing is rounded.
The Australian emerald appears similar to the tau emerald (Hemicordulia tau).


The tau emerald (Hemicordulia tau) is a species of dragonfly in the family Corduliidae. Corduliidae is the only family not a clade within the Infraorder Anisoptera. The species was first described by Edmond de Sélys Longchamps in 1871.


The tau emerald is a medium-sized, black and yellow dragonfly with long legs,
reaching a body length of about 50 mm. As is unique to dragonfly and mayfly species, H. tau has flight muscles attached directly to the wings, and in both the males and females the inboard edge of the hindwing is rounded. The 7th abdominal tergum is extensively black above and yellowish at the sides. The top of the frons are yellow with a dark T-mark. The species exhibits a linear relationship between head width and body length.
Nearly all of the dragonfly’s head is eye, allowing incredible vision that encompasses almost every angle except right behind them. H. tau has a particularly large and well developed compound eye with two principal regions, the dorsal eye and the ventral eye. The dorsal eye is principally sensitive to short wavelength light, while the ventral eye has 3 or more spectral types of photoreceptors.


The length of time each larval stage of H. tau requires can decrease as the temperature of the water it inhabits increases. It is capable of completing its life cycle from egg to adult in less than 6 weeks. Nymphs reach a total length of 22–24 mm. No mid-dorsal abdominal spines are present unlike other Hemicordulia, but humps may be present on segments 4–9 and the lateral spines are very small. The nymphs have a ladle-shaped labium with premental and palpal setae, and well-developed palpal dentations bearing groups of setae. The prementum has a distinct ventro-basal midline/groove.
An analysis of head width frequencies of samples from Lake Eucumbene suggest there is at least 9 instars in the life history of H. tau, however the number of larval instars is known to vary between, and within, Odonata species.


H. tau is found in all parts of Australia except northern Queensland and north-western Western Australia and is one of Australia's most abundant dragonflies. It is considered a dry-country dragon fly, often inhabiting the arid Australian inland. The adults are vagrants and highly opportunistic users of habitat for breeding.
In addition to rivers, lakes and swamps H. tau has the ability to breed in temporary waters due to its short larval stages. Nymph have a high thermal growth coefficient and details of its life history may vary with their location. The nymph are able to tolerate the high temperatures found in temporary shallow ponds. The ability of H. tau to utilize temporary waters and reduce its larval life with increase in temperature contribute to its abundance and wide distribution. They are also able to overwinter in cold permanent refuges, and have been observed in water with a salinity between 7.8g/L to 13.9g/L.
H. tau larva, similar to other Odonata species, are associated with clean water and it has been suggested they could be monitored to detect changes in water quality. Larval habitat is typically leaf litter and weeds. Many aquatic invertebrates with terrestrial adult stages require a snag extending above the water surface for emergence to the adult stage.
Predators primarily include fish and birds.


The tau emerald is listed as least concern under the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) red list of threatened species. Population trend is classified as unknown and no conservation actions are recommended.


The common house gecko (Hemidactylus frenatus) is a gecko native to South and Southeast Asia. It is also known as the Asian house gecko, Pacific house gecko, wall gecko, house lizard, tayoto, chipkali or moon lizard.
Most geckos are nocturnal, hiding during the day and foraging for insects at night. They can be seen climbing walls of houses and other buildings in search of insects attracted to porch lights, and are immediately recognisable by their characteristic chirping.
They grow to a length of between 7.5–15 cm (3–6 in), and live for about 5 years. These small geckos are non-venomous and not harmful to humans. Most medium-sized to large geckos are docile, but may bite if distressed, which can pierce skin. The common house gecko is tropical, and thrives in warm, humid areas where it can crawl around on rotting wood in search of the insects it eats, as well as within urban landscapes in warm climates. The animal is very adaptable and may prey on insects and spiders, displacing other gecko species which are less robust or behaviourally aggressive. In parts of Australia and Papua New Guinea they are often confused with a similar native lizard, the dubious dtella.


Like many geckos, this species can lose its tail when alarmed. Its call or chirp rather resembles the sound "gecko, gecko". However, this is an interpretation, and the sound may also be described as "tchak tchak tchak" (often sounded six to nine times in sequence). In Asia/Southeast Asia, notably Indonesia, Thailand, Singapore, and Malaysia, geckos have local names onomatopoetically derived from the sounds they make: Hemidactylus frenatus is called "chee chak" or "chi chak" (pr- chee chuck), said quickly, also commonly spelled as "cicak" in Malay dictionaries. In the Philippines, they are called "butiki" in Tagalog, "tiki" in Visayan, "alutiit" in Ilocano, and in Thailand, "jing-jok" (Thai: จิ้งจก). In Myanmar, they are called "အိမ်မြှောင် - ain-mjong" ( "အိမ် - ain" means "house" and "မြှောင် - mjong" means "stick to").  In some parts of India and in Pakistan, they are called "chhipkali" (Urdu:چھپکلی, Hindi: छिपकली), from chhipkana, to stick. In Nepal, they are called "vhitti" (Nepali: भित्ती)  or "mausuli" (Nepali: माउसुली). In other parts of India, they are called  "kirli" (Punjabi: ਕਿੜਲੀ), "jhiti piti" (Oriya: ଝିଟିପିଟି), "zethi" (Assamese: জেঠী), "thikthikiaa" (Maithili: ठिकठिकिया), "paal" (Marathi: पाल), "gawli" or "palli" (Malayalam: ഗവ്ളി (gawli), പല്ലി (palli), Tamil: பல்லி (palli)), Telugu: బల్లి (balli), Kannada: ಹಲ್ಲಿ (halli), "ali" (Sylheti: ꠀꠟꠤ), "garoli" (Gujarati: ગરોળી). In West Bengal and Bangladesh, they are called "tiktiki" (Bengali: টিকটিকি) as the sound is perceived as "tik tik tik". In Sri Lanka, they are called "huna" in singular form (Sinhalese: හුනා).  In Central America, they are sometimes called "limpia casas" (Spanish: "house cleaners") because they reduce the amount of insects and other arthropods in homes and are also called 'qui-qui' because of the sound they make.


The common house gecko is by no means a misnomer, displaying a clear preference for urban environments. The synanthropic gecko displays a tendency to hunt for insects in close proximity to urban lights. They have been found in bushland, but the current evidence seems to suggest they have a preference for urban environments, with their distribution being mostly defined by areas within or in close proximity to city bounds.
The common house gecko appears to prefer areas in the light which are proximal to cracks, or places to escape. Geckos without an immediate opportunity to escape potential danger display behavioural modifications to compensate for this fact, emerging later in the night and retreating earlier in the morning. Without access to the urban landscape, they appear to prefer habitat which is composed of comparatively dense forest or eucalypt woodland which is proximal to closed forest.
The selection of primarily urban habitats makes available the preferred foods of the common house gecko. The bulk of the diet of the gecko is made up of invertebrates, primarily hunted around urban structures. Primary invertebrate food sources include cockroaches, termites, some bees and wasps, butterflies, moths, flies, spiders, and several beetle groupings. There is limited evidence that cannibalism can occur in laboratory conditions, but this is yet to be observed in the wild.


The common house gecko is prolific through the tropics and subtropics. It is able to exist in an ecologically analogous place with other Hemidactylus species. Despite being native throughout Southeast Asia, recent introductions, both deliberate and accidental, have seen them recorded in the Deep South of the United States, large parts of tropical and sub-tropical Australia, and many other countries in South and Central America, Caribbean Dominican Republic, Africa, South Asia and the Middle East. Most recently, this species has also invaded the Caribbean Lesser Antilles, and is now present on Dominica and Saint Lucia. Their capacity to withstand a wide range of latitudes is also partially facilitated by their capacity to enter a state of brumation during colder months. The prospect of increased climate change interacts synergistically with increased urbanisation, greatly increasing the prospective distribution of the common house gecko. Due to concerns over its potential capacity as an invasive species, there are efforts to limit their introduction and presence in locations where they could be a risk to native gecko species.
In Mexico, H. frenatus was first collected in Acapulco, Guerrero, in March of 1895 and found to be well established there and in the surrounding regions by the early 1940s. It was likely introduced through shipping and cargo. H. frenatus now occurs throughout the lowlands of Mexico on both the Atlantic and Pacific versants including the Yucatan Peninsula, and Baja California, with records from 21 of the 32 Mexican states. Most records of H. frenatus in Mexico are from buildings such as homes, hotels, and other structure in cities and towns, with only a few reports of the species in natural habitat, and its impact, if any, on native fauna there is unknown.