Because of their notoriety and invasive behaviour, red imported fire ants are considered pests. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration estimates more than $5 billion is spent annually on medical treatment, damage, and control in infested areas. In Texas alone, red imported fire ants caused $300 million in damages for livestock, wildlife and public health. Approximately $36 per American household, and more than $250 million has been spent to control and eradicate red imported fire ants. Private agencies spend $25 to $40 million on pesticides annually. Unsuccessful eradication in Australia may cost the economy billions in damages annually and, based on a Queensland government study, the estimated cost could reach $43 billion over 30 years.
Red imported fire ants thrive in urban areas, especially in backyards, golf courses, parks, recreational areas, school grounds, and street verges, in which their presence may deter outdoor activities. If they enter homes or properties, they can harm pets if they are caged, penned, tied or cannot escape. Nests can be built under pavements or even roads, as well as under driveways, foundations, lawns, edges of sidewalks, under patio slabs, in electrical boxes or near power lines. A colony can excavate huge quantities of soil, resulting in structural problems in driveways, pavings and walls, and can also cause the formation of potholes in roads. Additional damage by mounds can be inflicted on trees, yard plants, and pipes; some structures may also collapse. Colonies may migrate into human homes after heavy rain to take refuge from saturated soil.
Not only do they thrive in urban areas, red imported fire ants can damage equipment and infrastructure and impact business, land, and property values. They are also attracted to electricity; electrically stimulated workers release venom alkaloids, alarm pheromones, and recruitment pheromones, which in return attracts more workers to the site. As a result, red imported fire ants can destroy electrical equipment. This is known as magnetism, where scientists have identified internal magnetic materials which may play a role in orientation behaviours. They are known to chew through electrical insulation which causes damage to electric motors, irrigation lines, pumps, signal boxes, transformers, telephone exchanges, and other equipment. Colonies aggregate near electrical fields and are capable of causing short circuits or interfering with switches and equipment such as air conditioners, computers, and water pumps. They are also known to infest airport landing areas and traffic lights.
In 2002, the farm gate value of decorative producing nurseries in Orange, Los Angeles, and San Diego counties was $1.3 billion. According to author Les Greenberg of the Center for Invasive Species Research, roughly 40% of crops are produced in these three counties, making it one of the major crops in these areas. “The value of California's entire nursery industry in 2002 was estimated at $2.6 billion” (Greenberg, 1). This business is already feeling the effects of quarantine laws that need pesticide soaking before imports can begin. Immediate costs include the spraying of insecticides to all plants in restricted zones.


The red imported fire ant is a significant agricultural pest in areas where it is not native. They are capable of damaging crops, and they threaten pastures and orchards. The mounds themselves can destroy agricultural equipment such as irrigation systems and damage machinery during harvest time. The ants are known to invade soybean crops causing lower yields, and could cause $156 million in losses for soybean crops in the southeastern United States. Reports from Georgia and North Carolina claim that 16.8 to 49.1 kg/ha of soybeans could not be harvested due to interference from fire ant mounds; combine harvesters skipped over the mounds preventing the crops from being harvested, and farmers raised the cutter bars on their combine harvesters to avoid impacting the mounds. The feeding behaviour of red imported fire ants can result in significant damage to many other crops, including: beans, cabbage, citrus, corn, cucumber, eggplant, okra, peanut, potato, sorghum, sunflower, and sweet potato. The ants also interfere with plants' root systems and feed on young growth. Sometimes, colonies build mounds around or near the base of citrus trees chew off new growth and feed on the flowers or developing fruit. Citrus trees are often girdled or killed.
Despite its pest status and notoriety, the red imported fire ant can be beneficial. The ant is an effective insect predator, so it may serve as a biological agent against other pest species, especially in sugarcane fields. Pest insects the ant kills include: boll weevils (Anthonomus grandis) in cotton crops, sugarcane borers (Diatraea saccharalis) in sugarcane fields, horn flies (Haematobia irritans) in manure, velvetbean caterpillars (Anticarsia gemmatalis) in soybeans, and whiteflies that are found in greenhouses. A number of studies indicate that red imported fire ants do not interfere or attack insects of economic importance in cotton fields, which has resulted in many farmers in the southeastern regions of the United States viewing red imported fire ants as beneficial. However, some scientists have suggested that the beneficial status of the red imported fire ant is hard to predict when geography, plant size, season, soil moisture and the use of insecticides are not considered. These factors may lower the efficacy of red imported fire ants as pest control agents. Another factor is that workers are indiscriminate and kill beneficial insects such as predators that eat horn flies and other pests in pastures and predators of aphids and scale insects. They also reduce the efficacy of parasitic wasps against pest species by eating the larvae and pupae.


In comparison to other ant species like Anoplolepis gracilipes, which rapidly take over areas they have been contained in, red imported fire ants are fairly easy to control. The first proposals to controlling the ant occurred in 1957 when the United States Congress authorised an eradication program using federal and state funding. Research on the ant and its biology has been continuous after the establishment of an eradication program, and many chemicals were used to eliminate them. However, scientists discovered that these insecticides were killing native fauna, and the Environmental Protection Agency subsequently outlawed them. Some scientists even questioned whether the ants were pests or not. Today, it is unlikely that the red imported fire ant will be eradicated in areas such as the United States. Populations can be managed properly if an integrated approach is used. Some scientists have considered using the ants' natural enemies against it; this includes Kneallhazia solenopsae and B. bassiana. Phorid flies have also been viewed as potential biological agents, as they can reduce foraging activity in red imported fire ants and affect population levels. However, they are unable to affect colony growth rate. In addition, parasitic ants, parasitic wasps, mites, other pathogens, nematodes, and fungi have been considered to be potential biological agents. Others suggest that populations can be maintained or reduced by manipulating several ecological factors.
Several baits have been used to control populations. Mounds are destroyed in a matter of weeks if baits are used on them. Baits are considered to be effective and simple to use against red imported fire ants, in comparison to drenching, dusting, or fumigating. They are sprinkled onto the mound then the ants take and consume them. Certain baits such as growth regulator baits, and boric acid-sucrose water baits, benefit native fauna and low concentrations are usually required to kill a colony. Others baits used against red imported fire ants include Amdro, Ascend, hydramethylnon, and Maxforce.
Solid and liquid bait insecticides, if improperly applied in a location, may be moved through waterflow in to unintended water sources. Often, this happens through non-point sources including many diffuse sources. As snow melts and rainfall moves over and through the ground, the water picks up improperly applied insecticides and deposits them in to larger bodies of water, rivers, wetlands, or percolates in to watersheds.
Researchers have also been experimenting with other methods, such as fumigation, injecting the mound, mound drenching, and surface dusting. Mound drenching entails pouring large volumes of toxic liquid into the mound. While this may affect a large portion of the mound, it is possible it may not reach the queen, thus preventing the destruction of the colony. Surface dusting is similar to mound drenching, except insecticides are applied on top of the mound and soak into the soil when wet. Mound injections use pressurising and injecting insecticides into the mound, but the queen may not be affected by this. Mounds can be eliminated effectively through fumigation. Broadcast treatment is sometimes used by spraying infected areas with agricultural equipment. Finally, spot treatment with insecticides can be used by drilling and injecting the mound with residual insecticide.
Aside from chemical control, other methods that can be employed against these ants include mechanical and electrical devices. However, it is unknown whether or not these devices are effective. Ant-proofing can be effective against colonies nesting inside buildings by caulking and sealing cracks, which successfully suppresses the population outside the walls. Homeowners have used their own methods to remove mounds by pouring boiling water on them or igniting them with flammable liquids. Although these methods may be effective, they are not recommended because they can be harmful to humans and the environment.


Although S. geminata appears in the cladogram, it is not a member of the species-group. It is only included to serve as an "attachment point"; to be precise, it is showing where the cladogram under investigation connects with the tree of life.
Some sources suggest they first arrived in 1929.
Red imported fire ants most likely reached New Orleans in Louisiana, as well, but the presence of Argentine ants there prevented the ants from settling and spreading.
The population of a single colony can vary seasonally.


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Books and journals about the red imported fire ant at Biodiversity Heritage Library
Books and journals about the red imported fire ant at Internet Archive
National Red Imported Fire Ant Eradication Program – Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries
Imported Fire Ants – United States Department of Agriculture
Solenopsis invicta at the AntWiki – Bringing Ants to the World
The S. invicta Genome Project – Hymenoptera Genome Database project
Species Profile - Red Imported Fire Ant (Solenopsis invicta), National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library.


Solidago caesia, commonly named blue-stemmed goldenrod, wreath goldenrod, or woodland goldenrod, is a flowering plant native to North America.


Key identification features include a dark, wiry, blue or purple stem, and flower heads in the leaf axils instead of in a large array at the top of the plant. Prefers medium to part shade, and can often be found in wooded areas.


It grows in the central and eastern parts of the continent from Manitoba east to New Brunswick, south as far as Florida and eastern Texas.


Solidago canadensis, known as Canada goldenrod or Canadian goldenrod, is an herbaceous perennial plant of the family Asteraceae. It is native to northeastern and north-central North America and often forms colonies of upright growing plants, with many small yellow flowers in a branching inflorescence held above the foliage. It is an invasive plant in other parts of the continent and several areas worldwide, including Europe and Asia. It is grown as an ornamental in flower gardens.


Solidago canadensis is a herbaceous perennial plant with stems that grow 2-4 feet and sometimes to 6 feet (30–150(–200) cm) tall. It has a wide distribution with several varieties, which have significant variability. The lanceolate to broadly linear shaped leaves are alternately arranged on the stems. The leaves are 4-6" long and 1" wide. The stems have lines of white hairs, while the undersides of the leaves are pubescent. The leaves are often prominently toothed. The flowers have yellow rays and are arranged into small heads on branched pyramidal shaped inflorescences, flowering occurs from July to October.  It has a rhizomatous growth habit, which can produce large colonies of clones. This goldenrod can be found growing on distributed sites, along dry road sides to moist thickets.


Solidago canadensis is sometimes browsed by deer and is good to fair as food for domestic livestock such as cattle or horses.
It is found in a variety of habitats. It typically is one of the first plants to colonize an area after a disturbance (such as fire) and rarely persists once shrubs and trees become established. It is found in very dry locations and also waterlogged ones.
Canada goldenrod is visited by a wide variety of insects for its pollen and nectar, including bees, wasps, flies, beetles, butterflies, and moths. It is especially strongly favored as a nectar source by bumblebees and paper wasps, such as Polistes parametricus and Polistes fuscatus. Aside from wasps, it is also visited frequently by honeybees and some butterflies, such as monarchs.
It can be extremely aggressive and tends to form monocultures and near-monocultures in parts of its native range, such as in Southwest Ohio clay loam. It not only seeds a great deal, but also spreads rapidly via running rhizomes. Its root system is very tough, and plants that have been pulled out of the ground prior to freezing and left exposed atop soil have survived winter temperatures down to -26 °C (-14 °F).
Solidago canadensis is winter hardy in USDA hardiness zones 3-9.
Many wasps form parasitic galls inside the stem of goldenrod. There are stem, flower, and bud galls


It is established as an invasive weed in many parts of Europe, Japan and China.
In eastern and southeastern China, particularly the provinces of Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Jiangxi and Shanghai, its invasion has caused widespread concern. It has been reported that the spread of invasive plants including Canada goldenrod has caused the extinction of 30 native plants in Shanghai. In the city of Ningbo, Zhejiang, it has reduced local orange harvests. It is still spreading across China, and sightings have been reported in as far as Yunnan province.


Solidago gigantea is a North American plant species in the family Asteraceae. Its common names include tall goldenrod and giant goldenrod, among others.
Goldenrod is the state flower of Kentucky, and Solidago gigantea is the state flower of Nebraska.


Solidago gigantea is a perennial herb that reaches heights of up to 2 m (6.6 ft) tall, sometimes spreading by means of underground rhizomes. It often grows in clumps with no leaves at the base but numerous leaves on the stem. At the top, each stem produces a sizable array of many small flower heads, sometimes several hundred. Each head is yellow, containing both disc florets and ray florets.


Solidago gigantea is found in a wide variety of natural habitats, although it is restricted to areas with at least seasonally moist soils.


It is a widespread species known from most of non-arctic North America east of the Rocky Mountains. It has been reported from every state and province from Alberta to Nova Scotia to Florida to Texas, and also from the state of Nuevo León in northeastern Mexico.


Solidago gigantea is highly invasive throughout Europe and Asia. In its non-native range, it exerts a negative impact on native communities by decreasing species richness and diversity, apparently due to its intense competitive effects, rapid growth, or polyploidization. In the non-native European range, several management option are applied, such as periodical flooding, mowing, mulching, grazing, or herbicide to reduce the negative impact of the species on native biodiversity.


Parasitized by the Basidiomycete Coleosporium asterum.


Solidago multiradiata is a species of goldenrod known by the common names Rocky Mountain goldenrod, northern goldenrod, and alpine goldenrod. It is native to North America, where it can be found throughout the northern regions, including Alaska and most of Canada (all 3 territories plus all provinces except Prince Edward Island, including territory north of the Arctic Circle. Its distribution extends through the western United States as far south as Arizona, New Mexico, and California. It is known mostly from the subalpine and alpine climates of high mountain ranges. Its habitat includes tundra and mountain meadows.
This is a perennial herb producing one or more decumbent or erect stems from a branching caudex. The stems vary in maximum length or erect height from 3 to 80 centimeters. The leaves are linear or lance-shaped, sometimes narrowing quite a bit at the bases to become spoon- or spatula-shaped. They measure up to 20 centimeters long at the base of the plant, and are smaller farther up the stem. They are mostly hairless but may have hairs lining the toothed or serrated edges. The inflorescence is a cluster of several flower heads, with clusters containing up to 100 heads. Each flower head contains many yellow disc florets and many narrow yellow ray florets each 3 or 4 millimeters long. The fruit is an achene a few millimeters in length. It is coated in rough hairs and usually has a pappus on the tip.
The plant has been noted to be among the first species to resprout after oil spills in Alaska. It is used there for revegetation projects.


Solidago nemoralis is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae. It is native to North America, where it is widely found in Canada (every province except Newfoundland and Labrador) and the United States (all states wholly or partially east of the Rocky Mountains). Its common names include gray goldenrod, gray-stem goldenrod, old-field goldenrod, field goldenrod, prairie goldenrod, dwarf goldenrod, and dyersweed goldenrod.


Like other goldenrods, this species is a perennial herb. One of the smaller goldenrods, It grows 20 centimeters to one meter (8–40 inches) tall from a branching underground caudex. There are 1 to 6 erect stems, sometimes more. The stems are reddish to gray-green and have lines of short, white hairs. The lower leaves are up to 10 centimeters (4 inches long) and the blades are borne on winged petioles. Leaves on the upper half of the stem are narrower and shorter and lack petioles. The spreading inflorescence can carry up to 300 flower heads. The head contains 5 to 11 yellow ray florets each a few millimeters long surrounding up to 10 yellow disc florets. Flowering occurs in late summer and fall. The fruit is a rough-texured cypsela about 2 millimeters long tipped with a pappus of bristles slightly longer.
There are two subspecies:
Solidago nemoralis ssp. decemflora – tetraploid taxon with larger flower heads and narrower basal leaves in west-central North America
Solidago nemoralis ssp. nemoralis – diploid or tetraploid taxon in the eastern regions of the species' range


This plant grows in forests, woods, prairies, grasslands, and disturbed areas such as old fields and roadsides. It is a pioneer species and it can become weedy.
The flowers have a variety of insect pollinators, including honey bees, carpenter bees, sweat bees, plasterer bees, sphecid wasps, vespid wasps, butterflies, moths, beetles, hoverflies, tachinid flies, flesh flies, blow flies, and muscid flies.
Insects such as the goldenrod scarlet plant bug, leaf-footed bugs, and various caterpillars feed on the foliage. The American goldfinch feeds on the fruits.


The plant had various uses among Native American peoples. The Houma people used it medicinally to treat jaundice. The Goshute used the seeds for food. The Navajo used it as incense.
It is cultivated in landscaping and gardens, such as butterfly gardens.


Solidago ptarmicoides, the prairie goldenrod, white flat-top goldenrod or upland white aster, is a North American perennial flowering plant in the family Asteraceae. It is native to the central and eastern Canada (from New Brunswick to Manitoba) and parts of the United States (mostly Great Lakes region, the Northeast, the Ozarks, and the northern Great Plains, with isolated populations in Wyoming, Colorado, Oklahoma, and scattered locations in the Southeast. It has also been called upland white solidago, upland white goldenrod, and sneezewort goldenrod


Solidago ptarmicoides is distinctive within the genus in having white to cream-colored flowers, in heads arranged in a flat-topped corymb rather than in an elongated raceme. One plant can sometimes produce as many as 50 small heads. Leaves are narrow and linear, often rather stiff. The species prefers dry, sandy soils and grassy meadows.


The plant is listed as endangered in Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, North Carolina, and Tennessee, as rare in Indiana, and as presumed extirpated in Ohio.


Solidago rigida, known by the common names stiff goldenrod and stiff-leaved goldenrod, is a North American plant species in the family Asteraceae. It has a widespread distribution in Canada and the United States, where it is found primarily east of the Rocky Mountains. It is typically found in open, dry areas associated with calcareous or sandy soil. Habitats include prairies, savannas, and glades.


Soliadgo rigida is a tall, leafy perennial. Its leathery leaves are large for a goldenrod, reaching 3–6 cm (1+1⁄4–2+1⁄4 in) wide and 8–20 cm (3+1⁄4–7+3⁄4 in) long. It produces heads of yellow flowers in the late summer and fall. Its fruit is a wind-dispersed achene.


This species is considered by NatureServe to be globally "secure" (G5), which is the lowest level of conservation concern assigned. However, it is known to be rare on the local level, due to its declining grassland habitat. It is listed as endangered in Connecticut, New Jersey and Pennsylvania. It is listed as endangered and extirpated in Maryland, as threatened in New York, and as historical in Rhode Island.


The Ojibwe use a decoction of root as an enema, and take an infusion of the root to treat "stoppage of urine". The Meskwaki make the flowers into a lotion and use them  on bee stings and for swollen faces.


Solidago rugosa, commonly called the wrinkleleaf goldenrod or rough-stemmed goldenrod, is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae. It is native to North America, where it is widespread across eastern and central Canada (from Newfoundland to Ontario) and the eastern and central United States (Maine west as far as Wisconsin and Iowa, south to Florida and Texas). It is usually found in wet to mesic habitats.


Solidago rugosa is a rough-leaved herbaceous perennial up to 2 m (6.6 ft) tall. Its leaves are primarily cauline. One plant can produce as many as 50 stems, each with 50–1500 yellow flower heads. It flowers in late summer through fall. It can be distinguished from the similar-looking Solidago ulmifolia by the presence of creeping rhizomes, and by its more abrupt leaf bases.


Solidago rugosa is a variable plant throughout its range. Five varieties are currently recognized, although their relationships are complex and poorly understood. The varieties are:
Solidago rugosa var. aspera (Aiton) Fernald - common throughout the east
Solidago rugosa var. celtidifolia (Small) Fernald - coastal plain from Texas to Virginia
Solidago rugosa var. cronquistiana Semple - high elevations in Georgia, Tennessee, North Carolina
Solidago rugosa var. rugosa - common, generally more northern and Appalachian
Solidago rugosa var. sphagnophila C. Graves - cedar swamps from Nova Scotia to coastal Virginia


Solidago rugosa is common throughout most of its range, and is not tracked at the species level in any state or province it is native to. However, in Connecticut the variety sphagnophila is listed as a special concern and believed to be extirpated from the state.


Solidago rugosa is grown as an ornamental garden plant. The cultivar ‘Fireworks’ has gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit.


Solidago uliginosa, or bog goldenrod, is a North American species of flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. It is found in eastern Canada (from Nunavut to Newfoundland and Manitoba) and the eastern United States (Great Lakes, Northeast, and Appalachian Mountains as far south as northeastern Georgia. There are historical reports of the species growing in Alabama, but these populations appear now to have been extirpated).
Solidago uliginosa is a perennial herb up to 200 cm (80 inches or 6 2/3 feet) tall, spreading by means of underground rhizomes. One plant can produce as many as 230 small yellow flower heads in a narrow, elongate array. The species grows in bogs, marshes, and swamps.


Solidago velutina, the threenerve goldenrod or velvety goldenrod, is a plant species native to Mexico and to the western United States. The species has been found in southwestern Oregon, east to the Black Hills of South Dakota, and as far south as México State in the central part of the Republic of México. It is classified as a member of Subsection Nemorales.
Recent taxonomic treatments have expanded the concept of S. velutina to include S. californica and S. sparsiflora, long considered by many to be distinct species. These are now often treated as subspecies:
Solidago velutina subsp. californica (Nutt.) Semple - California, Oregon
Solidago velutina subsp. sparsiflora (A.Gray) Semple
Another infraspecific taxon is also recognized by some authors:
Solidago velutina var. nevadensis (A. Gray) C.E.S. Taylor & R.J. Taylor


Solidago velutina has a basal rosette of leaves that are still present at flowering time. The leaves get progressively smaller higher up on the stem. Each leaf has three prominent veins running from the base to near the tip. One plant can produce as many as 500 small yellow flower heads in a large, branching array at the top of the plant.