The region that is now Northern Ireland was long inhabited by native Gaels who were Irish-speaking and predominantly Catholic. It was made up of several Gaelic kingdoms and territories and was part of the province of Ulster. In 1169, Ireland was invaded by a coalition of forces under the command of the English crown that quickly overran and occupied most of the island, beginning 800 years of foreign central authority. Attempts at resistance were swiftly crushed everywhere outside of Ulster. Unlike in the rest of the country, where Gaelic authority continued only in scattered, remote pockets, the major kingdoms of Ulster would mostly remain intact with English authority in the province contained to areas on the eastern coast closest to Great Britain. English power gradually eroded in the face of stubborn Irish resistance in the centuries that followed; eventually being reduced to only the city of Dublin and its suburbs. When Henry VIII launched the 16th century Tudor re-conquest of Ireland, Ulster once resisted most effectively. In the Nine Years' War (1594–1603), an alliance of Gaelic chieftains led by the two most powerful Ulster lords, Hugh Roe O'Donnell and the Earl of Tyrone fought against the English government in Ireland. The Ulster-dominated alliance represented the first Irish united front (prior resistance had always been localized). Despite being able to cement an alliance with Spain and major victories early on, inevitable defeat was virtually guaranteed following England's victory at the Siege of Kinsale. In 1607, the rebellion's leaders fled to mainland Europe alongside much of Ulster's Gaelic nobility. Their lands were confiscated by the Crown and colonized with English-speaking Protestant settlers from Britain, in the Plantation of Ulster. This led to the founding of many of Ulster's towns and created a lasting Ulster Protestant community with ties to Britain. The Irish Rebellion of 1641 began in Ulster. The rebels wanted an end to anti-Catholic discrimination, greater Irish self-governance, and to roll back the Plantation. It developed into an ethnic conflict between Irish Catholics and British Protestant settlers and became part of the wider Wars of the Three Kingdoms (1639–53), which ended with the English Parliamentarian conquest. Further Protestant victories in the Williamite-Jacobite War (1688–91) solidified Anglican Protestant rule in the Kingdom of Ireland. The Williamite victories of the Siege of Derry (1689) and Battle of the Boyne (1690) are still celebrated by some Protestants in Northern Ireland. Many more Scots Protestants migrated to Ulster during the Scottish famine of the 1690s.
Following the Williamite victory, and contrary to the Treaty of Limerick (1691), a series of Penal Laws were passed by the Anglican Protestant ruling class in Ireland. The intention was to disadvantage Catholics and, to a lesser extent, Presbyterians. Some 250,000 Ulster Presbyterians emigrated to the British North American colonies between 1717 and 1775. It is estimated that there are more than 27 million Scotch-Irish Americans now living in the United States, along with many Scotch-Irish Canadians in Canada. In the context of institutional discrimination, the 18th century saw secret, militant societies develop in Ulster and act on sectarian tensions in violent attacks. This escalated at the end of the century, especially during the County Armagh disturbances, where the Protestant Peep o'Day Boys fought the Catholic Defenders. This led to the founding of the Protestant Orange Order. The Irish Rebellion of 1798 was led by the United Irishmen; a cross-community Irish republican group founded by Belfast Presbyterians, which sought Irish independence. Following this, the government of the Kingdom of Great Britain pushed for the two kingdoms to be merged, in an attempt to quell sectarianism, remove discriminatory laws, and prevent the spread of French-style republicanism. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was formed in 1801 and governed from London. During the 19th century, legal reforms known as the Catholic emancipation continued to remove discrimination against Catholics, and progressive programs enabled tenant farmers to buy land from landlords.


The island is known by many names. Internationally it is known as Borneo, derived from European contact with the Brunei kingdom in the 16th century during the Age of Exploration. On a map from around 1601, Brunei city is referred to as Borneo, and the whole island is also labelled Borneo. The name Borneo may derive from the Sanskrit word váruṇa (वरुण), meaning either "water" or Varuna, the Hindu god of rain.
The local population called it Klemantan or Kalimantan, which was derived from the Sanskrit word Kalamanthana, meaning "burning weather" possibly to describe its hot and humid tropical weather. Indonesian historian Slamet Muljana suggests that the name Kalamanthana was derived from Sanskrit terms kala (time or season) and manthana (churning, kindling or creating fire by friction), which possibly describes the heat of the weather.
In earlier times, the island was known by other names. In 977, Chinese records began to use the term Bo-ni to refer to Borneo. In 1225, it was also mentioned by the Chinese official Chau Ju-Kua (趙汝适). The Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama, written by Majapahit court poet Mpu Prapanca in 1365, mentioned the island as Nusa Tanjungnagara, which means the island of the Tanjungpura Kingdom. Nevertheless, the same manuscript also mentioned Barune (Brunei) and other polities on the island.


In November 2018, scientists reported the discovery of the oldest known figurative art painting, over 40,000 (perhaps as old as 52,000) years old, of an unknown animal, in the cave of Lubang Jeriji Saléh on the island of Borneo.
According to ancient Chinese (977), Indian and Japanese manuscripts, western coastal cities of Borneo had become trading ports by the first millennium AD. In Chinese manuscripts, gold, camphor, tortoise shells, hornbill ivory, rhinoceros horn, crane crest, beeswax, lakawood (a scented heartwood and root wood of a thick liana, Dalbergia parviflora), dragon's blood, rattan, edible bird's nests and various spices were described as among the most valuable items from Borneo. The Indians named Borneo Suvarnabhumi (the land of gold) and also Karpuradvipa (Camphor Island). The Javanese named Borneo Puradvipa, or Diamond Island. Archaeological findings in the Sarawak river delta reveal that the area was a thriving centre of trade between India and China from the 6th century until about 1300.
Stone pillars bearing inscriptions in the Pallava script, found in Kutai along the Mahakam River in East Kalimantan and dating to around the second half of the 4th century, constitute some of the oldest evidence of Hindu influence in Southeast Asia. By the 14th century, Borneo became a vassal state of Majapahit (in present-day Indonesia), later changing its allegiance to the Ming dynasty of China. Pre-Islamic Sulu, then known locally as Lupah Sug, stretched from Palawan and the Sulu archipelago at the Philippines; to Sabah, Eastern, and Northern Kalimantan in Borneo. The Sulu empire rose as a rebellion and reaction against former Majapahit Imperialism against Sulu which Majapahit briefly occupied. The religion of Islam entered the island in the 10th century, following the arrival of Muslim traders who later converted many indigenous peoples in the coastal areas.
The Sultanate of Brunei declared independence from Majapahit following the death of the Majapahit emperor in the mid-14th century. During its golden age under Bolkiah from the 15th to the 17th century, the Bruneian sultanate ruled almost the entire coastal area of Borneo (lending its name to the island due to its influence in the region) and several islands in the Philippines. During the 1450s, Shari'ful Hashem Syed Abu Bakr, an Arab born in Johor, arrived in Sulu from Malacca. In 1457, he founded the Sultanate of Sulu; he titled himself as "Paduka Maulana Mahasari Sharif Sultan Hashem Abu Bakr". Following its independence in 1578 from Brunei's influence, Sulu began to expand its thalassocracy to parts of the northern Borneo. Both the sultanates who ruled northern Borneo had traditionally engaged in trade with China by means of the frequently-arriving Chinese junks. Despite the thalassocracy of the sultanates, Borneo's interior region remained free from the rule of any kingdoms.


Borneo (/ˈbɔːrnioʊ/); Indonesian: Kalimantan) is the third-largest island in the world and the largest in Asia. At the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia, in relation to major Indonesian islands, it is located north of Java, west of Sulawesi, and east of Sumatra.
The island is politically divided among three countries: Malaysia and Brunei in the north, and Indonesia to the south. Approximately 73% of the island is Indonesian territory. In the north, the East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak make up about 26% of the island. The population in Borneo is 18,580,000. Additionally, the Malaysian federal territory of Labuan is situated on a small island just off the coast of Borneo. The sovereign state of Brunei, located on the north coast, comprises about 1% of Borneo's land area. A little more than half of the island is in the Northern Hemisphere, including Brunei and the Malaysian portion, while the Indonesian portion spans the Northern and Southern hemispheres.
Borneo is home to one of the oldest rainforests in the world.


The water supply in Lombok is stressed and this places strain both upon the water supply of the provincial capital, Mataram, and upon that of the island in general. The southern and central areas are reported to be the most critically affected. West Nusa Tenggara province in general is threatened with a water crisis caused by increasing forest and water table damage and degradation. 160 thousand hectares of a total of 1960 thousand hectares are thought to have been affected. The Head of Built Environment and Security Forest Service Forest West Nusa Tenggara Andi Pramari stated in Mataram on Wednesday, May 6, 2009, that, "If this situation is not addressed it can be expected that within five years it may be difficult for people to obtain water in this part of NTB (West Nusa Tenggara). Not only that, the productivity of agriculture in value added will fall, and the residents are experiencing water deficiency in their wells". High cases of timber theft in the region of NTB are contributing to this problem.
In September 2010 in Central Lombok, some villagers reportedly walked for several hours to fetch a single pail of water. Nieleando, a small coastal village about 50 kilometers from the provincial capital, Mataram, has seen dry wells for years. It has been reported that occasionally the problem escalates sufficiently for disputes and fighting between villagers to occur. The problems have been reported to be most pronounced in the districts of Jonggat, Janapria, Praya Timur, Praya Barat, Praya Barat Daya and Pujut. In 2010 provincial authorities declared all six districts drought areas. Sumbawa, the other main island of the province, also experienced severe drought in 2010, making it a province-wide issue.
Areas in southern Lombok Island were classified as arid and prone to water shortages due to low rainfall and lack of water sources. In May 2011, groundbreaking began on Pandanduri dam construction, which will span about 430 hectares and cost an estimated Rp.800 billion ($92.8 million). When finished, the dam will accommodate about 25.7 million cubic meters of water and be able to irrigate 10,350 hectares of farmland. Project construction was expected to last five years.


October 9 – The first brief flight of Clément Ader's steam-powered fixed-wing aircraft Ader Éole takes place in Satory, France. It flies uncontrolled approximately 50 m (160 ft) at a height of 20 cm (7.9 in), the first take-off of a powered airplane solely under its own power.
October 11 – In Washington, D.C., the Daughters of the American Revolution is founded.
October 12 – In Uddevalla, the Uddevalla Suffrage Association is founded, with a formal founding event on November 2 a month later.
October 13
In Michigan, the schooner J.F. Warner is lost at Thunder Bay.
The Delta Chi fraternity is founded by 11 law students at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York.
November 4 – The first deep level London Underground (Tube) Railway, the City and South London Railway, opens officially.
November 9 – British Royal Navy torpedo cruiser HMS Serpent (1887) is shipwrecked off Camariñas in Spain with the loss of 173 out of her crew of 176.
November 21 – Edward King, Anglican bishop of Lincoln, is convicted of using ritualistic practices.
November 23 – King William III of the Netherlands dies without a male heir, and his daughter Princess Wilhelmina becomes Queen, causing the end of the personal union of thrones with Luxembourg (which requires a male heir) so that Adolphe, Duke of Nassau becomes Grand Duke of Luxembourg.
November 29
The Meiji Constitution goes into effect in Japan, and its first Diet convenes.
At West Point, New York, the United States Navy defeats the United States Army 24–0 in the first Army–Navy Game of college football.
November – Scotland Yard, headquarters of the Metropolitan Police Service, moves to a building on London's Victoria Embankment, as New Scotland Yard.
December 15 – Hunkpapa Lakota leader Sitting Bull is killed by police on Standing Rock Indian Reservation.
December 27 – The British steamship Shanghai burns in the East China Sea off the coast of Anhui Province; 101 lives are lost.
December 29 – Wounded Knee Massacre: At Wounded Knee, South Dakota, a Native American camp, the U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment tries to disperse the non-violent "Ghost-Dance" which was promised to usher in a new era of power and freedom to Native Americans but is feared as a potential rallying tool for violent rebellion by some in the U.S. government. Shooting begins, and 153 Lakota Sioux and 25 troops are killed; about 150 flee the scene. This is the last tribe to be defeated and confined to a reservation as well as the beginning of the decline of both the American Indian Wars and the American frontier.


April 4 – Battle of Racławice: Polish supporters of the Kościuszko Uprising defeat forces of the Russian Empire.
April 5 – French Revolution: Reign of Terror – Georges Danton is executed.
April 17–19 – Kościuszko Uprising – Warsaw Uprising: The Polish people overthrow the Russian garrison in Warsaw.
April 19 – Britain, Prussia and the Netherlands sign a treaty of alliance against France.
April 28 – Sardinian Vespers: The people of Cagliari in Sardinia oust the viceroy and his Piedmontese functionaries.
April 29–May 1 – Battle of Boulou: The French defeat the Spanish and Portuguese forces.
May 7 – French Revolution: Robespierre establishes the Cult of the Supreme Being as the new state religion of the French First Republic.
May 8 – French Revolution: Reign of Terror – Chemist Antoine Lavoisier is tried, convicted and executed by guillotine in Paris, on the same day as with 27 co-defendants also associated with the former ferme générale.
May 18 – Battle of Tourcoing: French troops defeat British forces.
May 28–June 1 – The Glorious First of June (Battle of Ushant): The British win a crushing tactical victory over the French fleet, but the merchant convoy escorted by the French fleet arrives safely in France.
June 4–  British troops capture Port-au-Prince in Haiti from the French.
June 17
The Anglo-Corsican Kingdom is established.
Battle of Mykonos: The British Royal Navy captures French frigate Sibylle.
June 24 – Bowdoin College is founded in Brunswick, Maine.
June 26 – Battle of Fleurus: French forces defeat the Austrians and their allies, leading to permanent loss of the Austrian Netherlands and destruction of the Dutch Republic. French use of an observation balloon marks the first participation of an aircraft in battle.
June–July – Mount Vesuvius erupts in Italy; the town of Torre del Greco is destroyed.


1794 (MDCCXCIV) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar, the 1794th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 794th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 94th  year of the 18th century, and the  5th   year of the 1790s decade. As of the start of 1794, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


October 2 – Battle of Aldenhoven between French forces and those of Austria.
October 4 – In the first and only instance of an incumbent United States president leading men into battle, George Washington arrives at Carlisle, Pennsylvania to guide the U.S. Army's suppression of the Whiskey Rebellion.  The rebels soon disperse and the insurrection collapses by the end of the month.
October 10 – Battle of Maciejowice: Forces of the Russian Empire defeat Polish supporters of the Kościuszko Uprising; Tadeusz Kościuszko is wounded and captured.
October 22 – Fort Wayne founded in what is now the U.S. state of Indiana.
November 4 – Battle of Praga: Russian General Alexander Suvorov storms Warsaw in the war against the Polish Kościuszko Uprising and captures Praga, one of its suburbs, killing many civilians.
November 14 – The first recorded meeting of the Franklin Literary Society is held at Canonsburg Academy (modern-day Washington & Jefferson College).
November 16 – The Kościuszko Uprising ends in the defeat of Tadeusz Kościuszko and his forces.
November 19 – The United States and Great Britain sign the Jay Treaty (coming into effect 1796), which attempts to clear up some issues left over from the American Revolutionary War and secures a decade of peaceful trade between the two nations. Britain agrees to evacuate border forts in the Northwest Territory (roughly the area north of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi) and thereby end British support for the Indians.
November 20 – Battle of St-Laurent-de-la-Muga fought between French and Spanish forces.
December 8 – The Great New Orleans Fire (1794) burns over 200 buildings in the French Quarter.
December 23 – St. Louis Cathedral, New Orleans is dedicated.


January 8 – After much controversy, Michael Faraday is finally elected as a member of the Royal Society, with only one vote against him.
January 22 – First Anglo-Ashanti War: Battle of Nsamankow – forces of the Ashanti Empire crush British forces in the Gold Coast (modern-day Ghana), killing the British governor Sir Charles MacCarthy.
January 24 – The first issue of the radical quarterly founded by Jeremy Bentham, The Westminster Review, is published in London.
February 10 – Simón Bolívar is proclaimed dictator of Peru.
February 21 – The Chumash Revolt of 1824 begins against the Spanish presence in California.
March 4 – Founding of the Royal National Lifeboat Institution in the British Isles.
March 5 – The First Anglo-Burmese War begins.
March 7 – The Florida State Capitol moves from St. Augustine to Tallahassee.
March 9 – Netherlands Trading Society (Netherlandsche Handel-Maatschappij), a predecessor of ABN AMRO, Dutch firm Financial group, founded.
March 11 – The United States War Department creates the Bureau of Indian Affairs.
March 17 – The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 is signed.
March 19 – American explorer Benjamin Morrell departs Antarctica after a voyage later plagued by claims of fraud.
March 29 – In Cairo, 4,000 people are killed in a fire, including people killed by the explosion of gunpowder housed at the palace of Egypt's Ottoman Governor Mehmet Ali.


1824 (MDCCCXXIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar, the 1824th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 824th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 24th  year of the 19th century, and the  5th   year of the 1820s decade. As of the start of 1824, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


July 2 – The Confederation of the Equator begins in Pernambuco, Brazil: Wealthy landowners against the government of Emperor Pedro I initiate a secessionist movement for the independence of Pernambuco.
July 8 – Queen Kamāmalu of Hawaii dies of measles, while accompanying her husband during a visit to the United Kingdom.
July 10 – Visit of the Marquis de Lafayette to the United States: Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette and a beloved hero of the American Revolution, departs from the port of Le Havre in France on the ship Cadmus for a triumphant return to the United States; he arrives in New York on August 15.
July 13 – King Kamehameha II of Hawaii dies of measles, during a visit to the United Kingdom, before he can meet with King George IV. Because of the slow communications of the era, news of the King's death does not reach Hawaii until the following March; his funeral will take place on May 11, 1825, and he will be succeeded by his brother Kamehameha III.
July 19 – Don Agustín de Iturbide, who had formerly been President of Mexico and then proclaimed himself Emperor Agustin the First, until being overthrown on March 19, 1823, is executed by a firing squad in the city of Padilla, five days after returning from exile in England.
July 25 – The Montparnasse Cemetery opens in Paris, France.
August 6 – Peruvian War of Independence: Battle of Junín – Pro-independence forces defeat the Spanish in the highlands of the Junín region.
August 7 – First Anglo-Ashanti War ends when forces of the Ashanti Empire flee the field.
August 15 – Visit of the Marquis de Lafayette to the United States begins at Staten Island; he departs on September 7, 1825.
September 13 – With his crew and 29 convicts aboard the Amity, John Oxley arrives at and founds the Moreton Bay Penal Settlement at what becomes Redcliffe City, Queensland, in Australia, after leaving Sydney.
September 16 – Charles X succeeds his brother Louis XVIII as King of France.


April 9 – The first permanent settlers arrive to construct the new city of Tallahassee, Florida, selected to be the capital of the Florida Territory newly acquired from the Kingdom of Spain; the area has been selected because it is roughly equidistant from the territory's main cities, Pensacola and St. Augustine.
April 19 – Lord Byron (George Gordon Byron), the British poet, dies at the age of 36 in the Greek city of Missolonghi, where he had taken ill while making plans to liberate the Greeks from Ottoman rule, "not in combat, but of a fever caught in the unhealthy conditions at Missolonghi... exacerbated, it is generally agreed, by the over-zealous actions of his doctors, who bled him excessively."
May 7 – Beethoven's Symphony No. 9 (the "Choral") premieres at the Theater am Kärntnertor in Vienna. The deaf composer has to be turned around on the stage to witness the enthusiastic audience reaction.
May 24 – First Anglo-Burmese War: The British take Rangoon, Burma.
June 16 – The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals is established in Great Britain.


The Roaring Twenties brought about several novel and highly visible social and cultural trends. These trends, made possible by sustained economic prosperity, were most visible in major cities like New York, Chicago, Paris, Berlin and London. "Normalcy" returned to politics in the wake of hyper-emotional patriotism during World War I, jazz blossomed, and Art Deco peaked. For women, knee-length skirts and dresses became socially acceptable, as did bobbed hair with a finger wave or marcel wave. The women who pioneered these trends were frequently referred to as flappers.
The era saw the large-scale adoption of automobiles, telephones, motion pictures, radio and household electricity, as well as unprecedented industrial growth, accelerated consumer demand and aspirations, and significant changes in lifestyle and culture. The media began to focus on celebrities, especially sports heroes and movie stars. Large baseball stadiums were built in major U.S. cities, in addition to palatial cinemas.
Most independent countries passed women's suffrage after 1918, especially as a reward for women's support of the war effort and endurance of its deaths and hardships.


The ancient Greek belief in nymphs survived in many parts of the country into the early years of the twentieth century when they were usually known as "nereids". Nymphs often tended to frequent areas distant from humans but could be encountered by lone travelers outside the village, where their music might be heard, and the traveler could spy on their dancing or bathing in a stream or pool, either during the noon heat or in the middle of the night. They might appear in a whirlwind. Such encounters could be dangerous, bringing dumbness, besotted infatuation, madness or stroke to the unfortunate man. When parents believed their child to be nereid-struck, they would pray to Saint Artemidos.


The Greek word nýmphē has the primary meaning of "young woman; bride, young wife" but is not usually associated with deities in particular. Yet the etymology of the noun nýmphē remains uncertain. The Doric and Aeolic (Homeric) form is nýmphā (νύμφα).
Modern usage more often applies to young women at the peak of their attractiveness, contrasting with parthenos (παρθένος) "a virgin (of any age)", and generically as kore (κόρη < κόρϝα) "maiden, girl". The term is sometimes used by women to address each other and remains the regular Modern Greek term for "bride".


Nymphs are often depicted in classic works across art, literature, mythology, and fiction. They are often associated with the medieval romances or Renaissance literature of the elusive fairies or elves.


A nymph (Ancient Greek: νύμφη, romanized: nýmphē, Modern Greek: nímfi; Attic Greek: [nýmpʰɛː], Modern Greek: [ˈniɱfi]) in ancient Greek folklore is a minor female nature deity. Different from Greek goddesses, nymphs are generally regarded as personifications of nature, are typically tied to a specific place or landform, and are usually depicted as beautiful maidens. They were not necessarily immortal, but lived much longer than humans.
They are often divided into various broad subgroups, such as the Meliae (ash tree nymphs), the Dryad (oak tree nymphs), the Naiads (freshwater nymphs), the Nereids (sea nymphs), and the Oreads (mountain nymphs).
Nymphs are often featured in classic works of art, literature, mythology, and fiction. Since the Middle Ages, nymphs have been sometimes popularly associated or even confused with fairies.


July 18 – Laurent Clerc, French advocate for the American deaf (b. 1785)
July 22 – John A. Roebling, American bridge engineer (b. 1806)
July 28 – Carl Gustav Carus, German physiologist (b. 1789)
August 21 – Casto Méndez Núñez, Spanish admiral (b. 1824)
August 31 – Mary Ward, Irish scientist, first car crash victim (b. 1827)
September 4 – John Pascoe Fawkner, Australian pioneer, settler and politician, (b. 1792)
September 12 – Peter Mark Roget, British lexicographer (b. 1779)
October 8 – Franklin Pierce, 64, 14th President of the United States (b. 1804)
October 12 - Pyotr Anjou, arctic explorer and admiral of the Russian Navy (b. 1796)
October 13 – Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve, French literary critic (b. 1804)
October 16 – Joseph Ritner, American politician (b. 1780)
October 23 – Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1799)
October 31 – Charles A. Wickliffe, American politician, 14th Governor of Kentucky (b. 1788)
November 8 – Christodoulos Hatzipetros, Greek military leader (b. 1799)
November 10 – John E. Wool, general officer in the United States Army, who served during the War of 1812, Mexican–American War, and the American Civil War (b. 1784)
December 8 – Narcisa de Jesús Martillo, Ecuadorian saint (b. 1832)
December 18 – Louis Moreau Gottschalk, American composer, pianist (b. 1829)
December 24 – Edwin Stanton, American lawyer, judge and politician (b. 1814)


April 2 – Hughie Jennings, American baseball player (d. 1928)
April 4 – Mary Colter, American architect (d. 1958)
April 8
Harvey Cushing, American neurosurgeon (d. 1939)
Ignatius Maloyan, Armenian Eastern Catholic archbishop and blessed (d. 1915)
April 10 – Signe Bergman, Swedish suffragist (d. 1960)
April 11 – Gustav Vigeland, Norwegian sculptor (d. 1943)
April 12 – Henri Désiré Landru, French serial killer (d. 1922)
May 3 – Warren Terhune, United States Navy Commander, 13th Governor of American Samoa (d. 1920)
May 5 – Hans Pfitzner, German composer (d. 1949)
May 9 – Tyrone Power Sr., English-born American actor (d. 1931)
May 12 – Carl Schuhmann, German athlete (d. 1946)
May 13 – Bob Dalton, Wild Western outlaw (d. 1892)
May 14 – Percy Abbott, Australian politician (d. 1940)
May 18
Rupprecht, Crown Prince of Bavaria, Bavarian military leader, last Bavarian crown prince (d. 1955)
Lucy Beaumont, English actress (d. 1937)
May 20 – John Stone Stone, American physicist, inventor (d. 1943)
May 28 – Hugo Meurer, German admiral (d. 1960)
May 30 – Giulio Douhet, Italian general, air power theorist (d. 1930)
June 17 – Flora Finch, English-born comedian (d. 1940)
June 24 – Prince George of Greece and Denmark, high commissioner of the Cretan State (d. 1957)
June 27 – Hans Spemann, German embryologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1941)


The first individual to study the emic perspective of the plant world was a German physician working in Sarajevo at the end of the 19th century: Leopold Glück. His published work on traditional medical uses of plants done by rural people in Bosnia (1896) has to be considered the first modern ethnobotanical work.
Other scholars analyzed uses of plants under an indigenous/local perspective in the 20th century: Matilda Coxe Stevenson, Zuni plants (1915); Frank Cushing, Zuni foods (1920); Keewaydinoquay Peschel, Anishinaabe fungi (1998), and the team approach of Wilfred Robbins, John Peabody Harrington, and Barbara Freire-Marreco, Tewa pueblo plants (1916).
In the beginning, ethonobotanical specimens and studies were not very reliable and sometimes not helpful. This is because the botanists and the anthropologists did not always collaborate in their work. The botanists focused on identifying species and how the plants were used instead of concentrating upon how plants fit into people's lives. On the other hand, anthropologists were interested in the cultural role of plants and treated other scientific aspects superficially. In the early 20th century, botanists and anthropologists better collaborated and the collection of reliable, detailed cross-disciplinary data began.
Beginning in the 20th century, the field of ethnobotany experienced a shift from the raw compilation of data to a greater methodological and conceptual reorientation. This is also the beginning of academic ethnobotany. The so-called "father" of this discipline is Richard Evans Schultes, even though he did not actually coin the term "ethnobotany". Today the field of ethnobotany requires a variety of skills: botanical training for the identification and preservation of plant specimens; anthropological training to understand the cultural concepts around the perception of plants; linguistic training, at least enough to transcribe local terms and understand native morphology, syntax, and semantics.
Mark Plotkin, who studied at Harvard University, the Yale School of Forestry and Tufts University, has contributed a number of books on ethnobotany. He completed a handbook for the Tirio people of Suriname detailing their medicinal plants; Tales of a Shaman's Apprentice (1994); The Shaman's Apprentice, a children's book with Lynne Cherry (1998); and Medicine Quest: In Search of Nature's Healing Secrets (2000).
Plotkin was interviewed in 1998 by South American Explorer magazine, just after the release of Tales of a Shaman's Apprentice and the IMAX movie Amazonia. In the book, he stated that he saw wisdom in both traditional and Western forms of medicine:
No medical system has all the answers—no shaman that I've worked with has the equivalent of a polio vaccine and no dermatologist that I've been to could cure a fungal infection as effectively (and inexpensively) as some of my Amazonian mentors. It shouldn't be the doctor versus the witch doctor. It should be the best aspects of all medical systems (ayurvedic, herbalism, homeopathic, and so on) combined in a way which makes health care more effective and more affordable for all.
A great deal of information about the traditional uses of plants is still intact with tribal peoples. But the native healers are often reluctant to accurately share their knowledge to outsiders. Schultes actually apprenticed himself to an Amazonian shaman, which involves a long-term commitment and genuine relationship. In Wind in the Blood: Mayan Healing & Chinese Medicine by Garcia et al. the visiting acupuncturists were able to access levels of Mayan medicine that anthropologists could not because they had something to share in exchange. Cherokee medicine priest David Winston describes how his uncle would invent nonsense to satisfy visiting anthropologists.
Another scholar, James W. Herrick, who studied under ethnologist William N. Fenton, in his work Iroquois Medical Ethnobotany (1995) with Dean R. Snow (editor), professor of Anthropology at Penn State, explains that understanding herbal medicines in traditional Iroquois cultures is rooted in a strong and ancient cosmological belief system. Their work provides perceptions and conceptions of illness and imbalances which can manifest in physical forms from benign maladies to serious diseases. It also includes a large compilation of Herrick’s field work from numerous Iroquois authorities of over 450 names, uses, and preparations of plants for various ailments. Traditional Iroquois practitioners had (and have) a sophisticated perspective on the plant world that contrast strikingly with that of modern medical science.
Researcher Cassandra Quave at Emory University has used ethnobotany to address the problems that arise from antibiotic resistance. Quave notes that the advantage of medical ethnobotany over Western medicine rests in the difference in mechanism. For example, elmleaf blackberry extract focuses instead on the prevention of bacterial collaboration as opposed to directly exterminating them.


During the medieval period, ethnobotanical studies were commonly found connected with monasticism. Notable at this time was Hildegard von Bingen. However, most botanical knowledge was kept in gardens such as physic gardens attached to hospitals and religious buildings. It was thought of in practical use terms for culinary and medical purposes and the ethnographic element was not studied as a modern anthropologist might approach ethnobotany today.


Ethnobotany is the study of a region's plants and their practical uses through the traditional knowledge of a local culture and people. An ethnobotanist thus strives to document the local customs involving the practical uses of local flora  for many aspects of life, such as plants as medicines, foods, intoxicants and clothing. Richard Evans Schultes, often referred to as the "father of ethnobotany", explained the discipline in this way:
Ethnobotany simply means ... investigating plants used by societies in various parts of the world.
Since the time of Schultes, the field of ethnobotany has grown from simply acquiring ethnobotanical knowledge to that of applying it to a modern society, primarily in the form of pharmaceuticals. Intellectual property rights and benefit-sharing arrangements are important issues in ethnobotany.


The idea of ethnobotany was first proposed by the early 20th century botanist John William Harshberger. While Harshberger did perform ethnobotanical research extensively, including in areas such as North Africa, Mexico, Scandinavia, and Pennsylvania, it was not until Richard Evans Schultes began his trips into the Amazon that ethnobotany became a more well known science. However, the practice of ethnobotany is thought to have much earlier origins in the first century AD when a Greek physician by the name of Pedanius Dioscorides wrote an extensive botanical text detailing the medical and culinary properties of "over 600 mediterranean plants" named De Materia Medica. Historians note that Dioscorides wrote about traveling often throughout the Roman empire, including regions such as "Greece, Crete, Egypt, and Petra", and in doing so obtained substantial knowledge about the local plants and their useful properties. European botanical knowledge drastically expanded once the New World was discovered due to ethnobotany. This expansion in knowledge can primarily be attributed to the substantial influx of new plants from the Americas, including crops such as potatoes, peanuts, avocados, and tomatoes. The French explorer Jacques Cartier learned a cure for scurvy (a tea made from the needles of a coniferous tree, likely spruce) from a local Iroquois tribe.


Many instances of gender bias have occurred in ethnobotany, creating the risk of drawing erroneous conclusions. Anthropologists would often consult with primarily men. In Las Pavas, a small farming community in Panama, anthropologists drew conclusions about the entire community's use of plant from their conversations and lessons with mostly men. They consulted with 40 families, but the women only participated rarely in interviews and never joined them in the field. Due to the division of labor, the knowledge of wild plants for food, medicine, and fibers, among others, was left out of the picture, resulting in a distorted view of which plants were actually important to them.
Ethnobotanists have also assumed that ownership of a resource means familiarity with that resource. In some societies women are excluded from owning land, while being the ones who work it. Inaccurate data can come from interviewing only the owners.
Other issues include ethical concerns regarding interactions with indigenous populations, and the International Society of Ethnobiology has created a code of ethics to guide researchers.


October 14 – Orissa, an area of India along the Bay of Bengal that now comprises the Indian state of Odisha, is occupied by the British under the British East India Company, after the Second Anglo-Maratha War.  The Maratha Empire formally cedes the area in the Treaty of Deogaon, signed on December 17.
October 20 – The Senate ratifies the Louisiana Purchase Treaty, doubling the size of the United States.
November 18 – Battle of Vertières: The Haitian army, led by Jean-Jacques Dessalines, defeats the army of Napoleon.
November 30 –
The Balmis Expedition starts in Spain, with the aim of vaccinating millions against smallpox in Spanish America and the Philippines.
At the Cabildo in New Orleans, Spanish representatives Governor Manuel de Salcedo and the Marqués de Casa Calvo officially transfer Louisiana (New Spain) to French representative Prefect Pierre Clément de Laussat. Barely three weeks later, France transfers the same land to the United States.
December 9 – The proposed Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution, requiring that electoral ballots distinctly list the choice for president and the choice for vice president, is approved by Congress for submission to the states for ratification; passed in the wake of the problems in the 1800 presidential election, the amendment is ratified by 13 of the 17 states and is proclaimed in effect on September 25, 1804.
December 20 – The Louisiana Purchase is completed as the French prefect, de Laussat, formally transfers ownership of land between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains to the United States, by way of commissioners William C. C. Claiborne and James Wilkinson.  Claiborne is appointed as the area's first American governor.


1803 (MDCCCIII) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar, the 1803rd year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 803rd  year of the 2nd millennium, the 3rd  year of the 19th century, and the  4th   year of the 1800s decade. As of the start of 1803, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


Major breakthroughs in chemistry occur, with the identification of the elements rhodium and palladium (by William Hyde Wollaston); osmium and iridium (by Smithson Tennant); and cerium (by Wilhelm Hisinger, Jons Jakob Berzelius and Martin Heinrich Klaproth)


The origin of the name "Libya" first appeared in an inscription of Ramesses II, written as rbw in hieroglyphic. The name derives from a generalized identity given to a large confederacy of ancient east "Libyan" berbers, African people(s) and tribes who lived around the lush regions of Cyrenaica and Marmarica. An army of 40,000 men and a confederacy of tribes known as "Great Chiefs of the Libu" were led by King Meryey who fought a war against pharaoh Merneptah in year 5 (1208 BCE).  This conflict was mentioned in the Great Karnak Inscription in the western delta during the 5th and 6th years of his reign and resulted in a defeat for Meryey. According to the Great Karnak Inscription, the military alliance comprised the Meshwesh, the Lukka, and the "Sea Peoples" known as the Ekwesh, Teresh, Shekelesh, and the Sherden.
The Great karnak inscription reads:
"... the third season, saying: 'The wretched, fallen chief of Libya, Meryey, son of Ded, has fallen upon the country of Tehenu with his bowmen — Sherden, Shekelesh, Ekwesh, Lukka, Teresh. Taking the best of every warrior and every man of war of his country. He has brought his wife and his children — leaders of the camp, and he has reached the western boundary in the fields of Perire."

The modern name of "Libya" is an evolution of the "Libu" or "Libúē" name (from Greek Λιβύη, Libyē), generally encompassing the people of Cyrenaica and Marmarica. The "Libúē" or "libu" name likely came to be used in the classical world as an identity for the natives of the North African region. The name was revived in 1934 for Italian Libya from the ancient Greek Λιβύη (Libúē). It was intended to supplant terms applied to Ottoman Tripolitania, the coastal region of what is today Libya, having been ruled by the Ottoman Empire from 1551 to 1911 as the Eyalet of Tripolitania. The name "Libya" was brought back into use in 1903 by Italian geographer Federico Minutilli.
Libya gained independence in 1951 as the United Libyan Kingdom (المملكة الليبية المتحدة al-Mamlakah al-Lībiyyah al-Muttaḥidah), changing its name to the Kingdom of Libya (المملكة الليبية al-Mamlakah al-Lībiyyah), literally "Libyan Kingdom", in 1963. Following a coup d'état led by Muammar Gaddafi in 1969, the name of the state was changed to the Libyan Arab Republic (الجمهورية العربية الليبية al-Jumhūriyyah al-‘Arabiyyah al-Lībiyyah). The official name was "Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya" from 1977 to 1986 (الجماهيرية العربية الليبية الشعبية الاشتراكية), and "Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya" (الجماهيرية العربية الليبية الشعبية الاشتراكية العظمى, al-Jamāhīriyyah al-‘Arabiyyah al-Lībiyyah ash-Sha‘biyyah al-Ishtirākiyyah al-‘Udmá listen ) from 1986 to 2011.
The National Transitional Council, established in 2011, referred to the state as simply "Libya". The UN formally recognized the country as "Libya" in September 2011 based on a request from the Permanent Mission of Libya citing the Libyan interim Constitutional Declaration of 3 August 2011. In November 2011, the ISO 3166-1 was altered to reflect the new country name "Libya" in English, "Libye (la)" in French.
In December 2017 the Permanent Mission of Libya to the United Nations informed the United Nations that the country's official name was henceforth the "State of Libya"; "Libya" remained the official short form, and the country continued to be listed under "L" in alphabetical lists.


Insects in the family Tettigoniidae are commonly called katydids (especially in North America), or bush crickets. They have previously been known as "long-horned grasshoppers". More than 8,000 species are known. Part of the suborder Ensifera, the Tettigoniidae are the only extant (living) family in the superfamily Tettigonioidea.
They are primarily nocturnal in habit with strident mating calls. Many species exhibit mimicry and camouflage, commonly with shapes and colors similar to leaves.


The Orthoptera species file lists:
†Pseudotettigoniinae (North America, Europe)
†Rammeinae (Europe)
†Tettigoidinae (Australia)
Genera incertae sedis
†Locustites Heer, 1849: 3 spp.
†Locustophanes Handlirsch, 1939: †L. rhipidophorus Handlirsch, 1939
†Prophasgonura Piton, 1940: †P. lineatocollis Piton, 1940
†Protempusa Piton, 1940: †P. incerta Piton, 1940
†Prototettix Giebel, 1856: †P. lithanthraca (Goldenberg, 1854)
The genus †Triassophyllum is extinct and may be placed here or in the Archaeorthoptera.


The Tettigoniidae are a large family and have been divided into a number of subfamilies:
Austrosaginae (Australia)
Bradyporinae (southeast Europe, west & central Asia)
Conocephalinae (global)
Hetrodinae (Africa)
Hexacentrinae (pantropical, especially Asia)
Lipotactinae (Asia)
Listroscelidinae (Americas, Madagascar, Australia)
Meconematinae (global)
Mecopodinae (South America, Africa, Southeast Asia, Oceania)
Microtettigoniinae (Australia)
Phaneropterinae (global)
Phasmodinae (Australia)
Phyllophorinae (Asia, Australia)
Pseudophyllinae (global)
Pterochrozinae (Central and South America)
Saginae (North America, Africa, Europe)
Tettigoniinae (global)
Tympanophorinae (Australia)
Zaprochilinae (Australia)
The Copiphorinae were previously considered a subfamily, but are now placed as tribe Copiphorini in the subfamily Conocephalinae. The genus Acridoxena is now placed in the tribe Acridoxenini of the Mecopodinae (previously its own subfamily, Acridoxeninae).


Eggs are typically oval and may laid in rows on plants: the way their ovipositor is formed relates to its function where it lays eggs. It consists of up to three pairs of appendages formed to transmit the egg, to make a place for it, and place it properly. Tettigoniids have either sickle-shaped ovipositors which typically lay eggs in dead or living plant matter, or uniform long ovipositors which lay eggs in grass stems. When tettigoniids hatch, the nymphs often look like small, wingless versions of the adults, but in some species, the nymphs look nothing at all like the adult and rather mimic other species such as ants spiders and assassin bugs, or flowers, to prevent predation. The nymphs remain in a mimic state only until they are large enough to escape predation. Once they complete their last molt (after about 5 successful molts), they are then prepared to mate.


Kent County Council (KCC) and its 12 district councils administer most of the county (3352 km²), while the Medway Towns Council, a unitary authority and commonly called Medway Council, administers the more densely populated remainder (192 km²). Together they have around 300 town and parish councils. Kent County Council's headquarters are in Maidstone, while Medway's offices are at Gun Wharf, Chatham.
At the 2013 county council elections, control of Kent County Council was held by the Conservatives, who won 44 of the council's 83 seats. 17 seats were won by the United Kingdom Independence Party, 13 by the Labour Party, 7 by the Liberal Democrats, 1 by the Green Party and 1 by the Swanscombe and Greenhithe Residents Association. At the 2007 local elections, control of Medway Council was held by the Conservatives; 33 of the council's 55 seats were held by the Conservatives, 13 by the Labour Party, 8 by the Liberal Democrats and 1 by an Independent. All but one of Kent's district councils are controlled by the Conservatives: a minority Labour administration took control of Thanet District in December 2011 after a Conservative councillor defected to the Independent group. In the council elections of May 2015 the United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP) took control of the Council, the first and so far only one in the UK. In October 2015 UKIP lost overall control following a series of resignations, although remaining the largest party, only for UKIP to regain control once more following ward elections in August 2016.
At the national level, Kent is represented in Parliament by 17 MPs, all of whom are Conservative except Rosie Duffield, Labour MP for Canterbury since 2017.


The area has been occupied since the Palaeolithic era, as attested by finds from the quarries at Swanscombe. The Medway megaliths were built during the Neolithic era. There is a rich sequence of Bronze Age, celtic Iron Age, and Britto-Roman era occupation, as indicated by finds and features such as the Ringlemere gold cup and the Roman villas of the Darent valley.
Julius Caesar described the area as Cantium, or the home of the Cantiaci, in 51 BC. The extreme west of the modern county was by the time of Roman Britain occupied by a celtic Iron Age tribe known as the Regni. Caesar wrote that the people of Kent were 'by far the most civilised inhabitants of Britain'.
Following the withdrawal of the Romans, large numbers of Germanic speakers from the continent settled in Kent, bringing their language, which came to be Old English. While they expelled the native Romano-British population, some likely remained in the area, eventually assimilating with the newcomers. Of the invading tribes, the Jutes were the most prominent, and the area became a Jutish kingdom recorded as Cantia in about 730 and Cent in 835. The early medieval inhabitants of the county were referred to as the Cantwara, or Kentish people. The city of Canterbury was the largest in Kent.
In 597, Pope Gregory I appointed the religious missionary (who became Saint Augustine of Canterbury after his death) as the first Archbishop of Canterbury. In the previous year, Augustine successfully converted the pagan King Æthelberht of Kent to Christianity. The Diocese of Canterbury became England's first Episcopal See with first cathedral and has since remained England's centre of Christianity. The second designated English cathedral was for West Kent at Rochester Cathedral.
Kent was traditionally partitioned into East and West Kent, and into lathes and hundreds. The traditional border of East and West Kent was the county's main river, the Medway. Men and women from east of the Medway are Men (or Maids) of Kent, those from the west are Kentishmen or Kentish Maids. The divide has been explained by some as originating in the Anglo-Saxon migrations, with Jutes mainly settling east of the Medway and Saxons settling west of it.
In the 11th century, the people of Kent adopted the motto Invicta, meaning "undefeated" or "unconquered". This naming followed the invasion of Britain by William of Normandy as he was unable to subdue the county and they negotiated favourable terms. The continued resistance of the Kentish people against the Normans led to Kent's designation as a semi-autonomous county palatine in 1067. Under the nominal rule of William's half-brother Odo of Bayeux, the county was granted similar powers to those granted in the areas bordering Wales and Scotland.
During the medieval and early modern period, Kent played a major role in several of England's most notable rebellions, including the Peasants' Revolt of 1381, led by Wat Tyler,Jack Cade's Kent rebellion of 1450, and Wyatt's Rebellion of 1554 against Queen Mary I.
The Royal Navy first used the River Medway in 1547. By the reign of Elizabeth I (1558–1603) a small dockyard had been established at Chatham. By 1618, storehouses, a ropewalk, a drydock, and houses for officials had been built downstream from Chatham.
By the 17th century, tensions between Britain and the powers of the Netherlands and France led to increasing military build-up in the county. Forts were built all along the coast following the raid on the Medway, a successful attack by the Dutch navy on the shipyards of the Medway towns in 1667.
The 18th century was dominated by wars with France, during which the Medway became the primary base for a fleet that could act along the Dutch and French coasts. When the theatre of operation moved to the Atlantic, this role was assumed by Portsmouth and Plymouth, with Chatham concentrating on shipbuilding and ship repair.  As an indication of the area's military importance, the first Ordnance Survey map ever drawn was a one-inch map of Kent, published in 1801. Many of the Georgian naval buildings still stand.
In the early 19th century, smugglers were very active on the Kent coastline. Gangs such as The Aldington Gang brought spirits, tobacco and salt to the county, and transported goods such as wool across the sea to France.
In 1889, the County of London was created and took over responsibility for local administration of parts of north-west Kent. These included the towns of Greenwich, Woolwich, Lee, Eltham, Charlton, Kidbrooke. In 1900, however, Kent absorbed the district of Penge. Some of Kent is contiguous with the Greater London sprawl, notably parts of Dartford.
Originally, the border between Kent and Sussex (later East Sussex) ran through the towns of Tunbridge Wells and Lamberhurst. In 1894, by the Local Government Act, the parts of these towns that lay in East Sussex were absorbed by Kent.
During the Second World War, much of the Battle of Britain was fought in the skies over Kent.
Between June 1944 and March 1945, more than 10,000 V1 flying bombs, or "Doodlebugs", were fired towards London from bases in Northern France. Although many were destroyed by aircraft, anti-aircraft guns and barrage balloons, both London and Kent were hit by around 2,500 of these bombs.
After the war, Kent's borders changed several more times. In 1965, the London boroughs of Bromley and Bexley were created from nine towns formerly in Kent. In 1998, Rochester, Chatham, Gillingham and Rainham left the administrative county of Kent to form the Unitary Authority of Medway. Plans for another unitary authority in north-west Kent were dropped, but in 2016 consultations began between five Kent local authorities (Canterbury, Thanet, Dover, Folkestone & Hythe, and Ashford) with a view to forming a new unitary authority for East Kent, outside the auspices of Kent County Council.
For almost nine centuries, a small part of present-day East London (the North Woolwich, London E16 area), formed part of Kent.


The name Kent is believed to be of British Celtic origin. The meaning has been explained as 'coastal district,' 'corner-land' or 'land on the edge' (compare Welsh cant 'bordering of a circle, tire, edge;' Breton cant 'circle;' Dutch kant 'side, edge'). In Latin sources the area is called Cantia or Canticum, while the Anglo-Saxons referred to it as Cent, Cent lond or Centrice.


Shale is a fine-grained, clastic sedimentary rock formed from mud that is a mix of flakes of clay minerals and tiny fragments (silt-sized particles) of other minerals, especially quartz and calcite.  Shale is characterized by its tendency to split into thin layers (laminae) less than one centimeter in thickness. This property is called fissility. Shale is the most common sedimentary rock.
The term shale is sometimes applied more broadly, as essentially a synonym for mudrock, rather than in the more narrow sense of clay-rich fissile mudrock.


Following his retirement, Matthew Corbet bequeathed his puppets to Richard Cadell, a fan of Sooty and a skilled magician, who focused on producing a new Sooty programme for ITV titled Sooty Heights, which launched in 1999. Like its predecessor, the new programme stuck to the same format, but with episodes set within a beachside hotel that the characters ran, with Cadell joined by Liana Bridges – a co-star whom he worked with on a number of episodes in the final series of Sooty & Co. By the end of 1999, The Britt Allcroft Company had purchased a 50% stake in the franchise, held under Sooty International Limited, and created a joint-venture company called Bridgefilms, which would also handle distribution rights to existing Britt Allcroft property Magic Adventures of Mumfie. The Britt Allcroft Company would be later rebranded to Gullane Entertainment in 2000.
While Cadell continued to operate stage shows and produce a second spin-off series, titled Sooty's Magic, for the direct-to-video market, Sooty Heights was changed by Gullane Entertainment in 2001. Alongside being renamed as Sooty, it also saw Bridges being replaced with Vicki Lee Taylor, the presentation style of the programme being changed, including the stage sets, and the addition of two new puppet characters to the cast: the return of Butch; and the introduction of a new character called Miki – a Brazilian cat. However, the programme faced extensive cutbacks in production in 2002 after Gullane Entertainment was bought out by rival company HIT Entertainment. These changes, which included new puppet designs for the characters, effectively saw several puppeteers, including Longman, leaving the programme, while effectively causing the cancellation of Sooty in 2004. After HIT Entertainment were unable to offer ITV a new programme from the franchise in 2006, the company was forced to place the rights to the franchise up for sale in October 2007.
In June 2008, Cadell bought the rights with the intention of saving the franchise and ensuring its future. Alongside conducting new stage shows, he also began work on producing a new programme, which eventually launched on CITV in 2011 under the title of Sooty. Although the format remained the same, the setting focused on misadventures within a holiday park that they helped to run, while scripts were focused on younger audiences. Filming of the series took place at Brean Leisure Park, which Cadell co-owned with his brother, until it was put up for sale  in 2014. Additional series were still made, but focused on other locations, with the programme moving to ITVBe. Cadell continued to keep Sooty in the public eye, making guest appearances with him, and at times the other characters, on other programmes. In 2017, Sooty was officially inducted into The Magic Circle based upon the magic tricks he conducted with his handlers.
After the expiry of the license at Brean, Cadells Limited announced in February 2022 to sign a new deal with Crealy Theme Park & Resort to open a Sooty-focused theme park area in May 2022.


The creation of the franchise is traced back to 1948, when Corbett came across an all yellow bear glove puppet during a holiday in Blackpool. Purchasing the item, he made use of it to entertain his children during that time, including his newborn son Peter, naming the puppet Teddy. In time, his use of the puppet to entertain children with a variety of comedic routines and magic tricks earned him a place on the BBC's talent competition, Talent Night, being held at Belle Vue, Manchester in 1952. Corbett proved popular with viewers and became the overall winner, landing him a job as a regular performer on the BBC children's show Saturday Special, where his puppet immediately appealed to children, turning him into an overnight success. When the BBC offered him his own programme – to begin with, consisting of a few episodes at 12 guineas each – he opted to redesign Teddy's appearance to make him stand-out on black and white television screens. The overall change involved the use of black dust (or 'soot') upon the ears and nose, which inspired Corbett to change the puppet's name from Teddy to Sooty. The new look cemented the foundations of the franchise.


The genus Dendrocoptes was erected by the German ornithologists Jean Cabanis and Ferdinand Heine in 1863 with the middle spotted woodpecker (Dendrocoptes medius ) as the type species. The name combines the Ancient Greek dendron meaning "tree" and koptō meaning "to strike". A 2015 molecular phylogenetic analysis of the nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequences from pied woodpeckers found that the genus Dendrocopos was polyphyletic. As part of the reorganisation to create monophyletic genera, three species from Dendrocopos were moved to the resurrected genus Dendrocoptes. The taxonomic committee of the British Ornithologists' Union recommended an alternative arrangement in which the genera Dendrocoptes and Leiopicus were combined into a larger Dendropicos. The yellow-crowned woodpecker (Leiopicus mahrattensis) is closely related to the species in this genus.
The genus contains three species:


Lycopodium (from Greek lykos, wolf and podion, diminutive of pous, foot) is a genus of clubmosses, also known as ground pines or creeping cedars, in the family Lycopodiaceae. Two very different circumscriptions of the genus are in use. In the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I), Lycopodium is one of nine genera in the subfamily Lycopodioideae, and has from nine to 15 species. In other classifications, the genus is equivalent to the whole of the subfamily, since it includes all of the other genera. More than 40 species are accepted.


The spores of Lycopodium species are harvested and are sold as lycopodium powder.
Lycopodium  sp. herb has been used in the traditional Austrian medicine internally as tea or externally as compresses for treatment of disorders of the locomotor system, skin, liver and bile, kidneys and urinary tract, infections, rheumatism, and gout, though claims of efficacy are unproven. It has also been used in some United States government chemical warfare test programs such as Operation Dew. Lycopodium powder was also used to determine the molecular size of oleic acid.


They are flowerless, vascular, terrestrial or epiphytic plants, with widely branched, erect, prostrate, or creeping stems, with small, simple, needle-like or scale-like leaves that cover the stem and branches thickly. The leaves contain a single, unbranched vascular strand, and are microphylls by definition. The kidney-shaped (reniform) spore-cases (sporangia) contain spores of one kind only, (isosporous, homosporous), and are borne on the upper surface of the leaf blade of specialized leaves (sporophylls) arranged in a cone-like strobilus at the end of upright stems. The club-shaped appearance of these fertile stems gives the clubmosses their common name.
Lycopods reproduce asexually by spores. The plants have an underground sexual phase that produces gametes, and this alternates in the lifecycle with the spore-producing plant. The prothallium developed from the spore is a subterranean mass of tissue of considerable size, and bears both the male and female organs (antheridia and archegonia).  They are more commonly distributed vegetatively, though, through above- or below-ground rhizomes.


Robinia is a genus of flowering plants in the family Fabaceae, tribe Robinieae, native to North America. Commonly known as locusts, they are deciduous trees and shrubs growing 4–25 metres (13–82 ft) tall. The leaves are pinnate with 7–21 oval leaflets. The flowers are white or pink, in usually pendulous racemes. Many species have thorny shoots, and several have sticky hairs on the shoots.
The genus is named after the royal French gardeners Jean Robin and his son Vespasien Robin, who introduced the plant to Europe in 1601.
The number of species is disputed between different authorities, with as few as four recognised by some authors, while others recognise up to 10 species. Several natural hybrids are also known.
Some species of Robinia are used as food by caterpillars of Lepidoptera, including such moths as the brown-tail (Euproctis chrysorrhoea), the buff-tip (Phalera bucephala), the engrailed (Ectropis crepuscularia), the giant leopard moth (Hypercompe scribonia), the locust underwing (Euparthenos nubilis), and Gracillariidae leaf miners like Chrysaster ostensackenella, Macrosaccus robiniella and Parectopa robiniella.


Robinia hispida – bristly locust
Robinia hispida var. rosea (syn. R. boyntonii)
Robinia hispida var. nana (syns. R. elliottii & R. nana)
Robinia hispida var. kelseyi (syn. R. kelseyi)
Robinia neomexicana (syn. R. luxurians) – New Mexican locust
Robinia pseudoacacia – black locust, false acacia
Robinia viscosa – clammy locust
Robinia viscosa var. hartwegii (syn. R. hartwegii or R. hartwigii)
†Robinia zirkelii


All species produce toxic lectins, throughout the entire plant, with the exception of the flowers.
The flowers are used in teas and in pancakes, and are consumed as fritters in many parts of Europe.


Blepharoconjunctivitis is the dual combination of conjunctivitis with blepharitis (inflammation of the eyelids).
Keratoconjunctivitis is the combination of conjunctivitis and keratitis (corneal inflammation).
Blepharokeratoconjunctivitis is the combination of conjunctivitis with blepharitis and keratitis. It is clinically defined by changes of the lid margin, meibomian gland dysfunction, redness of the eye, conjunctival chemosis and inflammation of the cornea.


Conjunctivitis, also known as pink eye, is inflammation of the outermost layer of the white part of the eye and the inner surface of the eyelid. It makes the eye appear pink or reddish. Pain, burning, scratchiness, or itchiness may occur. The affected eye may have increased tears or be "stuck shut" in the morning. Swelling of the white part of the eye may also occur. Itching is more common in cases due to allergies. Conjunctivitis can affect one or both eyes.
The most common infectious causes are viral followed by bacterial. The viral infection may occur along with other symptoms of a common cold. Both viral and bacterial cases are easily spread between people. Allergies to pollen or animal hair are also a common cause. Diagnosis is often based on signs and symptoms. Occasionally, a sample of the discharge is sent for culture.
Prevention is partly by handwashing. Treatment depends on the underlying cause. In the majority of viral cases, there is no specific treatment. Most cases due to a bacterial infection also resolve without treatment; however, antibiotics can shorten the illness. People who wear contact lenses and those whose infection is caused by gonorrhea or chlamydia should be treated. Allergic cases can be treated with antihistamines or mast cell inhibitor drops.
About 3 to 6 million people get conjunctivitis each year in the United States. In adults, viral causes are more common, while in children, bacterial causes are more common. Typically, people get better in one or two weeks. If visual loss, significant pain, sensitivity to light, signs of herpes, or if symptoms do not improve after a week, further diagnosis and treatment may be required. Conjunctivitis in a newborn, known as neonatal conjunctivitis, may also require specific treatment.


July 2 – Elizabeth Claypole, daughter of Oliver Cromwell (d. 1658)
July 26 – John Ferrers, English politician (d. 1680)
July 27 – Princess Luisa Cristina of Savoy, Princess of Savoy (d. 1692)
August 6 – Thomas Walcot, British judge (d. 1685)
August 10 – Agostino Scilla, Italian painter and scientist (d. 1700)
August 12 – Archduchess Isabella Clara of Austria, Austrian archduchess (d. 1685)
August 17 – King John III Sobieski, of Poland (d. 1696)
August 18 – Agneta Horn, Swedish writer (d. 1672)
August 20 – Matthew Wren, English politician (d. 1672)
August 31 – Anna Margaret of Hesse-Homburg, Duchess consort of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Wiesenburg (d. 1686)
September 1 – Dorothea Elisabeth Christiansdatter, daughter of king Christian IV of Denmark (d. 1687)
September 3
Lady Mary Dering, English composer (d. 1704)
Cornelis Tromp, Dutch naval officer (d. 1691)
September 4 – Lorenzo Pasinelli, Italian painter (d. 1700)
September 10 – John Heydon, English Neoplatonist occult philosopher (d. 1667)
September 17 – Sir John Perceval, 1st Baronet, Irish nobleman (d. 1665)
September 21 – Philip Howard, English Roman Catholic Cardinal (d. 1694)
September 24 – Raj Singh I, Maharaja of Mewar (d. 1680)


1629 (MDCXXIX) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar, the 1629th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 629th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 29th  year of the 17th century, and the  10th  and last year of the 1620s decade. As of the start of 1629, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


Following the defeat of Hannibal in 202 BC during the Punic wars, the Romans determined to deprive Carthage of its most valuable possession: Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula). The defeat of Carthaginian forces by Scipio Africanus in Eastern Hispania allowed the pacification of the west, led by Consul Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus. Decimus obtained the alliance of Olissipo (which sent men to fight alongside the Roman Legions against the northwestern Celtic tribes) by integrating it into the empire, as the Municipium Cives Romanorum Felicitas Julia. Local authorities were granted self-rule over a territory that extended 50 kilometres (31 miles); exempt from taxes, its citizens were given the privileges of Roman citizenship, and it was then integrated with the Roman province of Lusitania (whose capital was Emerita Augusta).
Lusitanian raids and rebellions during Roman occupation required the construction of a wall around the settlement. During Augustus' reign, the Romans also built a great theatre; the Cassian Baths (underneath Rua da Prata); temples to Jupiter, Diana, Cybele, Tethys and Idea Phrygiae (an uncommon cult from Asia Minor), in addition to temples to the Emperor; a large necropolis under Praça da Figueira; a large forum and other buildings such as insulae (multi-storied apartment buildings) in the area between Castle Hill and the historic city core. Many of these ruins were first unearthed during the mid-18th century (when the recent discovery of Pompeii made Roman archaeology fashionable among Europe's upper classes).
The city prospered as piracy was eliminated and technological advances were introduced, consequently Felicitas Julia became a center of trade with the Roman provinces of Britannia (particularly Cornwall) and the Rhine. Economically strong, Olissipo was known for its garum (a fish sauce highly prized by the elites of the empire and exported in amphorae to Rome), wine, salt, and horse-breeding, while Roman culture permeated the hinterland. The city was connected by a broad road to Western Hispania's two other large cities, Bracara Augusta in the province of Tarraconensis (Portuguese Braga), and Emerita Augusta, the capital of Lusitania. The city was ruled by an oligarchical council dominated by two families, the Julii and the Cassiae, although regional authority was administered by the Roman Governor of Emerita or directly by Emperor Tiberius. Among the majority of Latin speakers lived a large minority of Greek traders and slaves.
Olissipo, like most great cities in the Western Empire, was a center for the dissemination of Christianity. Its first attested Bishop was Potamius (c. 356), and there were several martyrs during the period of persecution of the Christians: Verissimus, Maxima, and Julia are the most significant examples. By the time of the Fall of Rome, Olissipo had become a notable Christian center.


Dolichovespula is a small genus of social wasps distributed widely throughout the Northern Hemisphere. The yellow and black members of the genus are known by the common name yellowjackets in North America, such as Dolichovespula norwegica, along with members of their sister genus Vespula. In a study on the nesting biology of Dolichovespula, a colony of D. maculata with 771 workers was reported as having the largest recorded population count.


All females are born with reproductive capacities. Dolichovespula is unique from its sister group Vespula in that some of the workers create haploid offspring that develop into males.


Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali (c. 603–689) is credited with standardizing Arabic grammar, or an-naḥw (النَّحو "the way"), and pioneering a system of diacritics to differentiate consonants (نقط الإعجام nuqat l-i'jām "pointing for non-Arabs") and indicate vocalization (التشكيل at-tashkil). Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi (718 – 786) compiled the first Arabic dictionary, Kitāb al-'Ayn (كتاب العين "The Book of the Letter ع"), and is credited with establishing the rules of Arabic prosody. Al-Jahiz (776-868) proposed to Al-Akhfash al-Akbar an overhaul of the grammar of Arabic, but it would not come to pass for two centuries. The standardization of Arabic reached completion around the end of the 8th century. The first comprehensive description of the ʿarabiyya "Arabic", Sībawayhi's al-Kitāb, is based first of all upon a corpus of poetic texts, in addition to Qur'an usage and Bedouin informants whom he considered to be reliable speakers of the ʿarabiyya.


1696 (MDCXCVI) was a leap year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar, the 1696th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 696th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 96th  year of the 17th century, and the  7th   year of the 1690s decade. As of the start of 1696, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


The Great Famine of 1695–1697 wipes out almost a third of the population of Finland, while the Great Famine of Estonia (1695–97) takes out a fifth of the population of Estonia; and the "seven ill years" of famine in Scotland are ongoing.
Polish replaces Ruthenian as an official language of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
Hand in Hand Fire & Life Insurance Society, as predecessor Aviva, as financial service in worldwide, founded in England, United Kingdom.
Abington, Pennsylvania, is settled.
William Penn offers an elaborate plan for intercolonial cooperation largely in trade, defense, and criminal matters.
Edward Lloyd (coffeehouse owner) probably begins publication of Lloyd's News, a predecessor of Lloyd's List, in London.


Oysters have had a long association with stout. When stouts were emerging in the 18th century, oysters were a commonplace food often served in public houses and taverns. By the 20th century, oyster beds were in decline, and stout had given way to pale ale. Ernest Barnes came up with the idea of combining oysters with stout using an oyster concentrate made by Thyrodone Development Ltd. in Bluff, New Zealand, where he was factory manager. It was first sold by the Dunedin Brewery Company in New Zealand in 1938, with the Hammerton Brewery in London, UK, beginning production using the same formula the following year. Hammerton Brewery was re-established in 2014 and is once again brewing an oyster stout.
Modern oyster stouts may be made with a handful of oysters in the barrel, hence the warning by one establishment, the Porterhouse Brewery in Dublin, that their award-winning Oyster Stout was not suitable for vegetarians. Others, such as Marston's Oyster Stout, use the name with the implication that the beer would be suitable for drinking with oysters.


Stout is a dark, top-fermented beer with a number of variations, including dry stout, oatmeal stout, milk stout, and imperial stout.
The first known use of the word stout for beer, in a document dated 1677 found in the Egerton Manuscripts, referred to its strength. The name porter was first used in 1721 to describe a dark brown beer.  Because of the huge popularity of porters, brewers made them in a variety of strengths.  The stronger beers, typically 7% or 8% alcohol by volume (ABV), were called "stout porters", so the history and development of stout and porter are intertwined, and the term stout has become firmly associated with dark beer, rather than just strong beer.


1816 (MDCCCXVI) was a leap year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar, the 1816th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 816th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 16th  year of the 19th century, and the  7th   year of the 1810s decade. As of the start of 1816, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.

This year was known as the Year Without a Summer, because of low temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere, possibly the result of the Mount Tambora volcanic eruption in Indonesia in 1815, causing severe global cooling, catastrophic in some locations.


January 2 – Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau, French chemist, politician (b. 1737)
January 5 – George Prévost, British general, colonial administrator (b. 1767)
January 27 – Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood, British admiral (b. 1724)
February 6 – Maria Ludwika Rzewuska, Polish szlachcianka (b. 1744)
February 22 – Adam Ferguson, Scottish philosopher, historian (b. 1723)
March 3 – Johann August von Starck, German pastor (b. 1741)
March 19 – Philip Mazzei, Italian physician, friend of Thomas Jefferson (b. 1730)
March 20 – Queen Maria I of Portugal (b. 1734)
March 31 – Francis Asbury, American Methodist bishop (b. 1745)
May 4 – Samuel Dexter, American lawyer, politician, 4th United States Secretary of War, 3rd United States Secretary of the Treasury (b. 1761)
June 5 – Giovanni Paisiello, Italian composer (b. 1751)
June 12 – Pierre Augereau, Marshal of France, duc de Castiglione (b. 1757)


The genus Dryobates was named by the German naturalist Friedrich Boie in 1826 with the downy woodpecker (Dryobates pubescens) as the type species.
The genus name Dryobates is from the Greek compound word δρυο-βάτης : 'woodland walker'; from δρῦς :  drus (genitive δρυός : dryós) meaning woodland and -βάτης : -bátēs meaning walker. In the eBird/Clements Checklist of Birds of the World, the genus Dryobates is expanded to include all the species in Leuconotopicus and Veniliornis.
The genus contains the following species:


Dryobates is a genus of birds in the woodpecker family Picidae. The species are widely distributed and occur in both Eurasia and the Americas.


1826 (MDCCCXXVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar, the 1826th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 826th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 26th  year of the 19th century, and the  7th   year of the 1820s decade. As of the start of 1826, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


July – Ludwig van Beethoven puts the finishing touches on the String Quartet in C sharp Minor, Opus 131, the jewel in the crown of his late string quartets.
July 4 – Former U.S. Presidents Thomas Jefferson and John Adams both die on the 50th anniversary of the signing of the United States Declaration of Independence.
July 26 – Cayetano Ripoll becomes the last person to be executed by the Spanish Inquisition at its last auto-da-fé, held in Valencia.
August – The town of Crawford Notch, New Hampshire suffers a landslide; those killed include the Willey Family, after whom Mount Willey is named.
August 10 – The first Cowes Regatta is held on the Isle of Wight, in the U.K.
August 18 – Explorer Alexander Gordon Laing becomes the first European to reach Timbuktu.
September 21 – Construction of the Rideau Canal begins in Canada.
September – William Morgan (anti-Mason) of Batavia, New York, disappears mysteriously. It is highly likely he was murdered by freemasons.


January 15 – The French newspaper Le Figaro begins publication in Paris, initially as a weekly.
January 30 – The Menai Suspension Bridge, built by engineer Thomas Telford, is opened between the island of Anglesey and the mainland of Wales.
February 8 – Unitarian Bernardino Rivadavia becomes the first President of Argentina.
February 11
University College London is founded, under the name University of London.
Swaminarayan writes the Shikshapatri, an important text within Swaminarayan Hinduism.
February 13 – The American Temperance Society is founded.
February 24 – The Treaty of Yandabo ends the First Anglo-Burmese War; Britain gains Assam, Manipur, Rakhine and Tanintharyi.
March 1 – Chunee the elephant is put to death in London.  After arsenic and shooting fail, he is killed with a sword.
March 10 – João VI, King of Portugal and the former Emperor of Brazil, dies after a short illness that had started six days earlier, after he had been served dinner while visiting Jerónimos Monastery.  An investigative autopsy 174 years later will discover that he had been killed by arsenic poisoning.  King João's son, Emperor Pedro I of Brazil, sails back to Portugal and briefly reigns as King Pedro IV, before turning over the Portuguese throne to his daughter, Maria.


June 2 – Rino Gaetano, Italian musician and singer-songwriter (b. 1950)
June 5 – Miguel Contreras Torres, Mexican actor, director, producer and screenwriter (b. 1899)
June 10
Jenny Maxwell, American actress (b. 1941)
Phelps Phelps, 38th Governor of American Samoa and United States Ambassador to the Dominican Republic (b. 1897)
June 12 – Mahmoud Fawzi, Egyptian diplomat and political figure, 35th Prime Minister of Egypt (b. 1900)
June 13 – George Walsh, American actor (b. 1889)
June 14 – Sir Ronald Holmes, British government official in Hong Kong (b. 1913)
June 16 – Sir Thomas Playford, Australian politician, Premier of South Australia (b. 1891)
June 17 – Sir Richard O'Connor, British general (b. 1889)
June 19
Billy Cook, American actor (b. 1928)
Anya Phillips, American co-founder of New York City's Mudd Club (b. 1955)
Lotte Reiniger, German-born silhouette animator (b. 1899)
June 22
Henri Bouillard, French Jesuit theologian (b. 1908)
Lola Lane, American actress and singer (b. 1906)
June 23 – Zarah Leander, Swedish actress and singer (b. 1907)
June 28
Mohammad Beheshti, Chief Justice of Iran (b. 1928)
Terry Fox, Canadian athlete and cancer activist (b. 1958)


March 1 – Roberto Francisco Chiari Remón, 14th President of Panama (b. 1903)
March 4 – Torin Thatcher, American actor (b. 1905)
March 5 – Yip Harburg, American lyricist (b. 1896)
March 6 – George Geary, English cricketer (b. 1893)
March 7
Peter Birch, Irish Roman Catholic bishop (b. 1911)
Kirill Kondrashin, Russian conductor (b. 1914)
Hilde Krahwinkel Sperling, German-Danish tennis player (b. 1908)
March 9 – Max Delbrück, German biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1906)
March 10 – Flavio Calzavara, Italian director and screenwriter (b. 1900)
March 11 – Kazimierz Kordylewski, Polish astronomer (b. 1903)
March 14 – Paolo Grassi, Italian actor (b. 1919)
March 15 – René Clair, French film director (b. 1898)
March 20 – Gerry Bertier, American college football player (b. 1953)
March 21 – Mark Donskoy, Russian Soviet film director (b. 1901)
March 22
John S. McCain Jr., American admiral (b. 1911)
Gil Puyat, Filipino businessman and politician, Senator of the Philippines and Senate President (b. 1907)
March 23
Claude Auchinleck, British field marshal (b. 1884)
Mike Hailwood, English motorcycle racer (b. 1940)
Beatrice Tinsley, English astronomer (b. 1941)
March 26 – Cyril Dean Darlington, English biologist, geneticist and eugenicist, (b. 1903)
March 29 – Eric Williams, 1st Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago (b. 1911)
March 30
Sherman Edwards, American songwriter (b. 1919)
Douglas Lowe, British Olympic athlete (b. 1902)
DeWitt Wallace, American magazine publisher (b. 1889)
March 31 – Frank Tieri, American gangster (b. 1904)


1981
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
1981 (MCMLXXXI) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar, the 1981st year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 981st  year of the 2nd millennium, the 81st  year of the 20th century, and the  2nd   year of the 1980s decade.


April 5 – The world's first municipally-funded civic public park, Birkenhead Park in Birkenhead on Merseyside, England, is opened.
April 15 – The Lawrence School, Sanawar is established in India.
April 16 – New Zealand Wars: A minor Māori chief is accidentally shot by a junior British Army officer in Whanganui on New Zealand's North Island, triggering the Wanganui Campaign (which continues until July 23).
April 25 – The Exmouth, carrying Irish emigrants from Derry bound for Quebec, is wrecked off Islay, with only three survivors from more than 250 on board.
May – The Architectural Association School of Architecture is founded in London.
May 7 – In Philadelphia, the American Medical Association (AMA) is founded.
May 8 – The Nagano earthquake leaves more than 8,600 people dead in Japan.
May 8 — Bahrain's ruler Shaikh Mohamed bin Khalifa Al Khalifa, signs a treaty with the British to prevent and combat the slave trade in the Arabian Gulf.
May 31 – Second Treaty of Erzurum: the Ottoman Empire cedes Abadan Island to the Persian Empire.
June – E. H. Booth & Co. Ltd, which becomes the northern England supermarket chain Booths, is founded when tea dealer Edwin Henry Booth, 19, opens a shop called "The China House" in Blackpool.
June 1 – The first congress of the Communist League is held in London.
June 9 – Radley College, an English public school, is founded near Oxford as a High Anglican institution.
June 26 – The first passenger railway wholly within modern-day Denmark opens, from Copenhagen to Roskilde.


1847 (MDCCCXLVII) was a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar, the 1847th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 847th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 47th  year of the 19th century, and the  8th   year of the 1840s decade. As of the start of 1847, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


Toxostoma is a genus of bird in the family Mimidae. This genus contains most of the birds called thrashers, and accordingly members of this genus are sometimes referred to as the "typical thrashers".


1848 (MDCCCXLVIII) was a leap year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar, the 1848th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 848th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 48th  year of the 19th century, and the  9th   year of the 1840s decade. As of the start of 1848, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.

1848 is historically famous for the wave of revolutions, a series of widespread struggles for more liberal governments, which broke out from Brazil to Hungary; although most failed in their immediate aims, they significantly altered the political and philosophical landscape and had major ramifications throughout the rest of the century.


October 10 – Welsh actress Sarah Siddons, the pre-eminent star of the English stage, makes a triumphant return to the theatre in the title role of David Garrick's new play, Isabella, or The Fatal Marriage.
October 18
The first franking privilege is granted for official correspondence to be sent at no charge to and from members of the Confederation Congress, at government expense, during periods when the Congress is in session.
John Adams returns to Paris as the first United States Minister to France.
November 4 – Elias Boudinot of New Jersey is elected the new President of the Congress of the Confederation.
November 30 – American Revolutionary War: In Paris, representatives from the United States and the Kingdom of Great Britain sign preliminary peace articles (later formalized in the Treaty of Paris).
December 12 – American Revolutionary War: Action of 12 December 1782: A naval engagement off Ferrol, Spain, in which the British ship HMS Mediator commanded by James Luttrell successfully attacks a convoy of French and American ships attempting to supply the United States.
December 14 – The Montgolfier brothers first test fly a hot air balloon in France; it floats nearly 2 km (1.2 mi).
December 16 – East India Company: Hada and Mada Miah lead a rebellion in the Indian subcontinent against East India Company officer Robert Lindsay and his troops in Sylhet Shahi Eidgah.


1782 (MDCCLXXXII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar, the 1782nd year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 782nd  year of the 2nd millennium, the 82nd  year of the 18th century, and the  3rd   year of the 1780s decade. As of the start of 1782, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


January 2 – Johann Christian Bach, German composer (b. 1735)
January 4 – Ange-Jacques Gabriel, French architect (b. 1698)
January 18 – John Pringle, Scottish physician (b. 1707)
January 30 – Vasily Dolgorukov-Krymsky, Russian general (b. 1722)
February 9 – Giuseppe Luigi Assemani, Syrian orientalist (b. 1710)
February 10 – Friedrich Christoph Oetinger, German theologian (b. 1702)
March 1 – John A. Treutlen, Governor of Georgia (b. 1734)
March 9 – Sava II Petrović-Njegoš, Metropolitan of Cetinje (b. 1702)
March 17 – Daniel Bernoulli, Dutch-born mathematical physicist (b. 1700)
April 7 – Taksin the Great, King of Siam (Thonburi Kingdom) (b. 1734)
April 13 – Metastasio, Italian poet, librettist (b. 1698)
April 17 – Baal Shem of London, British Kabbalist (b. 1708)
April 22
Anne Bonny, Irish-born pirate in the Caribbean (b. 1702)
Josef Seger, Czech composer and organist (b. 1716)
April 28 – William Talbot, 1st Earl Talbot, English politician (b. 1710)
May 8 – Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal, Portuguese statesman (b. 1699)
May 15 – Richard Wilson, British painter (b. 1714)
May 16 – Daniel Solander, Swedish botanist (b. 1736)
May 20 – William Emerson, English mathematician (b. 1701)
May 22 – Princess Friederike of Hesse-Darmstadt (b. 1752)
June 11 – William Crawford, American soldier and surveyor (burned at the stake by Native Americans) (b. 1732)
June 18 – John Wood, the Younger, English architect (b. 1728)
June 21 – Prince George William of Hesse-Darmstadt, German prince (b. 1722)
July 1 – Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham, British statesman, 2-time Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1730)
July 15 – Farinelli, Italian castrato (b. 1705)
August 27 – John Laurens, American soldier (b. 1754)
August 31 – George Croghan, American colonist
September 5 – Bartolina Sisa, Bolivian indigenous Aymara heroine, rebel leader
September 6
Gregoria Apaza, Bolivian indigenous leader (b. 1751)
Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson, wife of Thomas Jefferson (b. 1748)
September 14 – Nicholas Cooke, first Governor of Rhode Island (b. 1717)
October 2 – Charles Lee, Continental Army general during the American War of Independence (b. 1732)
November 5 – James Burrow, British scholar (b. 1701)
November 21 – Jacques de Vaucanson, French inventor (b. 1709)
December 7 – Hyder Ali, Indian general, Sultan of Mysore (b. 1720)
December 16 – William Cole (antiquary), British antiquarian (b. 1714)
December 27 – Henry Home, Lord Kames, Scottish advocate and philosopher (b. 1697)
date unknown
Christine Kirch, German astronomer (b. 1696)
Sabina Aufenwerth, German potter (b. 1706)
Elisabeth Christina von Linné, Swedish botanist (b. 1743)


Flowing across northeast Asia for over 4,444 kilometres (2,761 mi) (including its two tributaries), from the mountains of northeastern China to the Sea of Okhotsk (near Nikolayevsk-na-Amure), it drains a remarkable watershed that includes diverse landscapes of desert, steppe, tundra, and taiga, eventually emptying into the Pacific Ocean through the Strait of Tartary, where the mouth of the river faces the northern end of the island of Sakhalin.
The Amur has always been closely associated with the island of Sakhalin at its mouth, and most names for the island, even in the languages of the indigenous peoples of the region, are derived from the name of the river: "Sakhalin" derives from a Tungusic dialectal form cognate with Manchu sahaliyan ("black", as in sahaliyan ula, "Black River"), while Ainu and Japanese "Karaputo" or "Karafuto" is derived from the Ainu name of the Amur or its mouth. Anton Chekhov vividly described the Amur in writings about his journey to Sakhalin Island in 1890.
The average annual discharge varies from 6,000 cubic metres per second (210,000 cu ft/s) (1980) to 12,000 cubic metres per second (420,000 cu ft/s) (1957), leading to an average 9,819 cubic metres per second (346,800 cu ft/s) or 310 cubic kilometres (74 cu mi) per year. The maximum runoff measured occurred in Oct 1951 with 30,700 cubic metres per second (1,080,000 cu ft/s) whereas the minimum discharge was recorded in March 1946 with a mere 514 cubic metres per second (18,200 cu ft/s).


The river rises in the hills in the western part of Northeast China at the confluence of its two major affluents, the Shilka and the Argun (or Ergune), at an elevation of 303 metres (994 ft). It flows east forming the border between China and Russia, and slowly makes a great arc to the southeast for about 400 kilometres (250 mi), receiving many tributaries and passing many small towns. At Huma, it is joined by a major tributary, the Huma He. Afterwards it continues to flow south until, between the cities of Blagoveshchensk in Russia and Heihe in China, it widens significantly as it is joined by one of its most important tributaries the Zeya.
The Amur arcs to the east and turns southeast again at the confluence with the Bureya, then does not receive another significant tributary for nearly 250 kilometres (160 mi) before its confluence with its largest tributary, the Songhua, at Tongjiang. At the confluence with the Songhua the river turns northeast, now flowing towards Khabarovsk, where it joins the Ussuri and ceases to define the Russia–China border. Now the river spreads out dramatically into a braided character, flowing north-northeast through a wide valley in eastern Russia, passing Amursk and Komsomolsk-on-Amur. The valley narrows after about 200 kilometres (120 mi) and the river again flows north onto plains at the confluence with the Amgun. Shortly after, the Amur turns sharply east and into an estuary at Nikolayevsk-on-Amur, about 20 kilometres (12 mi) downstream of which it flows into the Strait of Tartary.
During years with heavy precipitation, the Amur river system is connected with the Kherlen river. The normally exit−less endorheic lake Hulun Lake, into which Kherlen flows, will overflow at its northern shore through the arroyo of Mutnaya Protoka, and the water will meet the Argun River (Ergune) after about 30 kilometres (19 mi). The Amur Basin of the Kherlen River−Argun/Ergune River−Amur River system has a total length of 5,052 kilometres (3,139 mi) to its river mouth on the Sea of Japan.


Enallagma is a genus of damselflies in the family Coenagrionidae commonly known as bluets. Adults range in length from 28 mm to 40 mm. Males are usually bright blue and black while the coloration of females varies by species. Bluets can be distinguished from the similar vivid dancer by wing position; at rest, bluets' wings hang down on either side of their body, while vivid dancers hold their wings above their body. Bluets also have shorter leg spines.


July 13 – The Congress of the Confederation enacts the Northwest Ordinance, establishing governing rules for the Northwest Territory (the future states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin). It also establishes procedures for the admission of new states, and limits the expansion of slavery.
July 18 – The United States ratifies its first treaty with the Sultanate of Morocco.
August 9 – South Carolina cedes to the United States its claims to a 12-mile wide strip of land that runs across northern Alabama and Mississippi.
August 27 – Launching a 45-foot (14 m) steam powered craft on the Delaware River, John Fitch demonstrates the first U.S. patent for his design.
September 13 – Prussian troops invade the Dutch Republic. Within a few weeks 40,000 Patriots (out of a population of 2,000,000) go into exile in France (and learn from observation the ideals of the French Revolution).
September 17 – The United States Constitution is signed by the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia.
September 24 – Washington Academy (later Washington & Jefferson College) is chartered by the Pennsylvania General Assembly.


January 9 – The North Carolina General Assembly authorizes nine commissioners to purchase 100 acres (0.40 km²) of land for the seat of Chatham County. The town is named Pittsborough (later shortened to Pittsboro), for William Pitt the Younger.
January 11 – William Herschel discovers Titania and Oberon, two moons of Uranus.
January 19 – Mozart's Symphony No. 38 is premièred in Prague.
February 2 – Arthur St. Clair of Pennsylvania is chosen as the new President of the Congress of the Confederation.
February 4 – Shays' Rebellion in Massachusetts fails.
February 21 – The Confederation Congress sends word to the 13 states that a convention will be held in Philadelphia on May 14 to revise the Articles of Confederation.
February 28 – A charter is granted, establishing the institution which will become the University of Pittsburgh.
March 3 – By a vote of 33 to 29, Harrisburg is approved as the new capital of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.
March 17 – The Bank of North America, the central bank of the United States government under the Articles of Confederation, is re-incorporated after its charter had expired in 1786.
March 28 – In the British House of Commons, Henry Beaufoy files the first motion to repeal the Test Act 1673, which restricts the rights of non-members of the Church of England.; Beaufoy's motion is rejected, and the Act is not repealed until 1829.
March 30 – Biblical theology becomes a separate discipline from biblical studies, as Johann Philipp Gabler delivers his speech "On the proper distinction between biblical and dogmatic theology and the specific objectives of each" upon his inauguration as the professor of theology at the University of Altdorf in Germany.