The boat-billed flycatcher (Megarynchus pitangua) is a passerine bird. It is a large tyrant flycatcher, the only member of the monotypic genus Megarynchus.
It breeds in open woodland with some tall trees from Mexico south to Bolivia and Argentina, and through to Trinidad.
The nest, built by the female, is an open saucer of sticks. The typical clutch is two or three whitish eggs heavily blotched with brown. These are incubated mostly by the female for 17–18 days with a further 24 days to fledging.


Adult boat-billed flycatchers are one of the largest species of tyrant flycatcher, measuring 23 cm (9.1 in) long and weighing 70 g (2.5 oz). The head is black with a strong white eyestripe and a concealed yellow crown stripe. The upperparts are olive-brown, and the wings and tail are brown with only faint rufous fringes. The underparts are yellow and the throat is white.
The massive black bill, which gives this species its English and generic names, is the best distinction from the similar great kiskadee, which also has more rufous tail and wings, and lacks the olive tone to the upperparts. The call is a strident trilled nya, nya, nya.


Boat-billed flycatchers wait on a concealed perch high in a tree and sally out to catch insects in flight. They will also take invertebrates off the foliage and eat some berries.


The eastern screech owl (Megascops asio) or eastern screech-owl, is a small owl that is relatively common in Eastern North America, from Mexico to Canada. This species is native to most wooded environments of its distribution, and more so than any other owl in its range, has adapted well to manmade development, although it frequently avoids detection due to its strictly nocturnal habits.


Adults range from 16 to 25 cm (6+1⁄2 to 10 in) in length and weigh 121–244 g (4+1⁄4–8+5⁄8 oz). Among the differently sized races, length can average from 19.5 to 23.8 cm (7+11⁄16 to 9+3⁄8 in). The wingspan can range from 46 to 61 cm (18 to 24 in). In Ohio, male owls average 166 g (5+7⁄8 oz) and females 194 g (6+7⁄8 oz) while in central Texas, they average 157 g (5+1⁄2 oz) and 185 g (6+1⁄2 oz), respectively. They have either rusty or dark gray intricately patterned plumage with streaking on the underparts. Midsized by screech-owl standards, these birds are stocky, short-tailed (tail averages from 6.6 to 8.6 cm (2+5⁄8 to 3+3⁄8 in) in length) and broad-winged (wing chord averages from 14.5 to 17 cm (5+3⁄4 to 6+3⁄4 in) in length) as is typical of the genus. They have a large, round head with prominent ear tufts, yellow eyes, and a yellowish beak, which measures on average 1.45 cm (9⁄16 in) in length. The feet are relatively large and powerful compared to more southern screech owls and are typically feathered down to the toes, although the southernmost populations only have remnant bristles rather than full feathering on the legs and feet. The eastern screech owl (and its western counterpart) are actually some of the heaviest screech owls, the largest tropical screech owls do not exceed them in average or maximal weight, but (due to the eastern screech owls' relatively short tails) they are surpassed in length by Balsas (M. seductus), long-tufted (M. sanctaecatarinae), white-throated (M. albogularis), and rufescent owls (M. seductus), in roughly increasing order.
Two color variations are referred to as "red or rufous morphs" and "gray morphs" by bird watchers and ornithologists. Rusty birds are more common in the southern parts of the range; pairings of the two color variants do occur. While the gray morph provides remarkably effective camouflage amongst the bark of hardwood trees, red morphs may find security in certain pine trees and the colorful leaves of changing deciduous trees. The highest percentage of red morphs is known from Tennessee (79% of population) and Illinois (78% of population). A rarer "brown morph" is known, recorded exclusively in the south (i.e. Florida), which may be the occasional product of hybridation between the morphs. In Florida, brown morphs are typically reported in the more humid portions of the state, whereas they appear to be generally absent in the northern and northwestern parts of the state. A paler gray variation (sometimes bordering on a washed-out, whitish look) also exists in western Canada and the north-central United States.


Eastern screech owls inhabit open mixed woodlands, deciduous forests, parklands, wooded suburban areas, riparian woods along streams and wetlands (especially in drier areas), mature orchards, and woodlands near marshes, meadows, and fields. They try to avoid areas known to have regular activity of larger owls, especially great horned owls (Bubo virginianus). Their ability to live in heavily developed areas outranks even the great horned and certainly the barred owl (Strix varia); screech owls also are considerably more successful in the face of urbanization than barn owls (Tyto alba) following the conversion of what was once farmland. Due to the introduction of open woodland and cultivated strips in the Great Plains, the range of eastern screech owls there has expanded. Eastern screech owls have been reported living and nesting in spots such as along the border of a busy highway and on the top of a street light in the middle of a busy town square. They often nest in trees in neighborhoods and urban yards inhabited by humans. In such urban environments, they often meet their dietary needs via introduced species that live close to humans such as house sparrows (Passer domesticus) and house mice (Mus musculus). They also consume anole lizards and large insects such as cicadas. They occupy the greatest range of habitats of any owl east of the Rockies. Eastern screech owls roost mainly in natural cavities in large trees, including cavities open to the sky during dry weather. In suburban and rural areas, they may roost in manmade locations such as behind loose boards on buildings, in boxcars, or on water tanks. They also roost in dense foliage of trees, usually on a branch next to the trunk, or in dense, scrubby brush. The distribution of the species is largely concurrent with the distribution of eastern deciduous woodlands, probably discontinuing at the Rocky Mountains in the west and in northern Mexico in the south due to the occupation of similar niches by other screech owls and discontinuing at the start of true boreal forest because of the occupation of a similar niche by other small owls (especially boreal owls (Aegolius funereus). Eastern screech owls may be found from sea level up to 1,400 m (4,600 ft) in elevation in the eastern Rocky Mountains and up to 1,500 m (4,900 ft) in the eastern Sierra Madre Oriental Mountains, although their altitudinal limits in the Appalachian Mountains, near the heart of their distribution, is not currently known.


Megisba malaya, the Malayan, is a small butterfly found in South Asia and Southeast Asia. It belongs to the family of gossamer-winged butterflies (Lycaenidae). The species was first described by Thomas Horsfield in 1928.
It ranges from Sri Lanka and South India to Bengal, and from Kumaon to Assam in India and Nepal, onto Myanmar. The butterfly is also found in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It is usually not a rare species, but may be less common, even rare, in parts of its range.


This butterfly resembles the Quaker (Neopithecops zalmora), especially in flight. The female Malayan has a broader and more rounded forewing than the male.
Wet-season form: Upperside: from dull somewhat pale brown to dark brown, some specimens nearly uniform, others with a more or less distinct pale discal patch on the forewing. Hindwing: uniform; a slender short filamentous tail at apex of vein 1, very often absent. Underside: white. Forewing: with the following brown markings: a spot in cell, a transverse short line on the discocellulars, a postdiscal curved series of transverse spots or very short bars that cross the wing from costa to dorsum and are in irregular echelon one with the other, followed by a slender transverse broken line, a subterminal series of broader transverse spots and an anteciliary slender line; at apex of wing the markings are diffuse and form a very small brown-shaded patch, while further inwards along the costa veins 10, 11 and 12 terminate in a minute brown dot. Hindwing: three spots near base in transverse order, a large, conspicuous, rounded, subcostal and a smaller similar spot near the middle of the dorsum, black; between the latter two and also along the discocellulars are some irregular much paler brown transverse spots on the disc, which are followed as on the forewing by an outer postdiscal, very slender brown line, a subterminal series of brown or black spots, and a black anteciliary line. Cilia of forewings and hindwings white, turning to dark brown at apex of forewing. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen dark brown, the antenna ringed narrowly with white; beneath: the palpi, thorax and abdomen snow-white, the third, slender acicular joint of the palpi conspicuously brown.
Dry-season brood: Very similar to the wet-season brood, but the forewing on the upperside bears a large, oval, obliquely-placed conical patch that extends from the middle of the dorsal margin to vein 4. In certain specimens this white bar or patch is continued on to the hindwing. Underside: similar to that of the wet-season form but all the markings broader, coarser, more prominent. Forewing: costa and apex in some specimens broadly shaded with diffuse fuscous brown; the outer postdiscal brown line formed into a series of lunules that extend outwards slenderly along the veins and join the anteciliary brown line, thus enclosing in the interspaces a series of spots of the white ground colour, each of which is centred with a black or dark brown subtriangular spot. Hindwing: the terminal markings modified as on the forewing; the spot in interspace 3 of the subterminal series larger and more prominent than the others, the large subcostal black spot often broken by an anterior and a posterior silvery spot superposed on it. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen as in specimens of the wet-season brood but slightly darker above.
Subspecies include:
Megisba malaya presbyter Fruhstorfer – Central and South Nicobars. Rare. Validity requires confirmation.
Megisba malaya sikkima Moore – Kumaon to Myanmar. Andamans. Not rare. Tailed.
Megisba malaya thwaitesi Moore – Sri Lanka, South India to Bengal. Not rare. Tailless.
The tailed and tailless subspecies are sympatric in Sikkim, the tailed one is more commonly found at lower altitudes.


The Malayan is a butterfly of evergreen forests. Its caterpillar is light green, vermiform, the middle segments swollen; it feeds on Allophyllus cobbe (Sapindaceae). The pupa is thick, with blunted ends.
Adults fly low, close to the ground. This species is often seen in forest glades and forest edges. The males frequent cow dung and damp patches for mud-puddling, but at least on Borneo and probably elsewhere too not generally carrion or old fruit.


Beccaloni et al. (2003)
Wynter-Blyth (1957)
Varshney, R. K.; Smetacek, Peter (2015). A Synoptic Catalogue of the Butterflies of India. New Delhi: Butterfly Research Centre, Bhimtal & Indinov Publishing. p. 139. doi:10.13140/RG.2.1.3966.2164. ISBN 978-81-929826-4-9.
Wynter-Blyth (1957), Haribal (1994)
Savela, Markku. "Megisba malaya (Horsfield, [1828])". Lepidoptera and Some Other Life Forms. Retrieved May 16, 2018.
 One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Bingham, C. T. (1907). The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma: Butterflies Volume II. London: Taylor and Francis, Ltd. pp. 313–314.
 One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Swinhoe, Charles (1905–1910). Lepidoptera Indica: Volume VII. London: Lovell Reeve and Co. pp. 228–229.
Evans (1932)
Haribal (1992)
Hamer et al. (2006)


The fiscal flycatcher (Melaenornis silens) is a small passerine bird in the Old World flycatcher family. It is a resident breeder in Botswana, South Africa,  Lesotho, Mozambique and Swaziland, and a vagrant to Namibia.
This species is found in subtropical open woodland, dry savanna, shrubland and suburban gardens.


The fiscal flycatcher was previously the only member of the genus Sigelus but was moved to Melaenornis based on the results of a molecular phylogenetic study published in 2010.


This black and white bird gets its name from its resemblance to the northern fiscal, a shrike.
The fiscal flycatcher is 17–20 cm in length. The adult male is black above and white below with white wing patches and white sides to the tail. The female is brown, not black, above. The juvenile is like the female but duller and with brown spots and scalloping above and below.
The song is a weak chittering, and the alarm call is tssisk.
The male can be confused with the northern fiscal, but the shrike has a heavy hooked bill, a white patch on the shoulder rather than the lower wing, and has no white on its longer tail.
The fiscal flycatcher is larger than the male collared flycatcher, which has a white collar and lacks white wing panels.


The fiscal flycatcher builds an open cup nest from thin stems and other plant material and lined with plant down. It is placed in a dense bush.
The fiscal flycatcher feeds on insects, often taken in flight.


Melampodium leucanthum, the plains blackfoot or blackfoot daisy, is an herbaceous perennial plant in the family Asteraceae found on limestone-containing rocky slopes in the Sonoran Desert. It is an attractive ornamental with showy flowers and long bloom period, from March to November.


Melampyrum arvense, commonly known as field cow-wheat, is an herbaceous flowering plant of the genus Melampyrum in the family Orobanchaceae. It is striking because of the conspicuous spike of pink or purple terminal bracts which includes the flowers.
The Latin specific epithet arvense means "growing in cultivated fields".


The upright stems of this species, which may branch, are terminated by a spike of pink to purple bracts amongst which the tubular flowers appear.  Younger, lower bracts are green however, as the pink/purple colour appears and deepens only with time.  The plant grows up to 40 or 60 cm high.
The ordinary leaves are lanceolate and opposite and may have short teeth.  The bracts are also lanceolate and have long teeth up to 8 mm.  The flowers are two-lipped with a closed throat and are 2 – 2.5 cm long.  They are pink to purple with a yellow or white patch.


This European plant flowers from June to September.  It is favoured by a dry habitat and chalky soil.
It is distributed throughout Western Europe except in central & southern Spain, southern Italy, Ireland, Iceland, Norway, central and northern Sweden, and northern Finland.  Also its range extends east to the Ural Mountains and it is found in Turkey.  In Great Britain it only occurs in a few locations in south-east England.  It is becoming rarer, at least in Britain, France, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands and Finland; this may be due to a reduced area of arable land and changes in farming practices, such as seed-cleaning and intensification.
This species is hemiparasitic, commonly on the roots of grasses but also on those of other plants.  It cannot flourish without a host from which to take nutrients.  In an experiment where the growth of M. arvense was compared on rye grass, alfalfa and flax, it was found to grow much the best on the leguminous plant, alfalfa.
The flowers are pollinated by bumblebees. The seeds may be dispersed by ants which are attracted by a small oil body (elaiosome) attached to each seed and which carry them to their nests for food.  Like some other species of Melampyrum, on their undersides the bracts have minute nectar-producing glands which attract ants, bumblebees and other insects.  These glands are violet in the case of M. arvense, are visible under a hand lens, and take the form of minute scales (about 0.45mm in diameter) which secrete a sugary solution.


Field cow-wheat is an annual weed of arable fields as well as a component of some natural grassy meadow ecosystems. The seeds are poisonous because they hold aucubin. The plant is being targeted by some groups for conservation projects and policy. As with Yellow Rattle (Rhinanthus species), it is sometimes considered to be a valuable part of restoration projects by reducing the vigor, and cover, of grasses and legumes. This enables more forbs (wildflowers) to colonize the land, increasing diversity as well as the land's nectar and pollen production. It is also considered to have aesthetic value.


Melampyrum pratense, the common cow-wheat, is a plant species in the family Orobanchaceae.
The seed of the plant has an elaiosome, which is attractive to wood ants (Formica spp.). The ants disperse the seeds of the plant when they take them back to their nests to feed their young. The plant is an ancient woodland indicator, as the ants rarely carry the seeds more than a few yards, seldom crossing a field to go to a new woodland.
The Latin specific epithet pratense means "of meadows".
Melampyrum pratense is a food plant of the caterpillars of the heath fritillary (Melitaea athalia), a butterfly.
Melampyrum pratense herb has been used in traditional Austrian medicine internally as tea or externally as pillow filling for treatment of rheumatism and blood vessels calcification.
Melampyrum pratense can be parasitized by the oomycete species Peronospora tranzschelinana.


Melanchroia chephise, the white-tipped black or snowbush spanworm, is a moth of the  family Geometridae. It is found from Florida and Texas, south to Paraguay. Strays have been recorded from Arizona, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Kansas and Illinois.
The wingspan is about 33 mm. Adults are on wing from September to December.
Larvae feed on Phyllanthaceae species, including Breynia and Phyllanthus.


The golden-fronted woodpecker (Melanerpes aurifrons) is a North American woodpecker. Its preferred habitat is mesquite, riparian woodlands, and tropical rainforest. It is distributed from Texas and Oklahoma in the United States through Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras and northern Nicaragua. Cooke listed this species as an abundant resident of the lower Rio Grande Valley, Texas, in 1884.


Recent genetic data indicate that the species as currently constructed is paraphyletic. The golden-fronted, golden-naped, wide-bar-backed birds from the north of the range ("true" golden-fronted woodpeckers) were shown to be more closely related to red-bellied woodpecker than the red-fronted, red-naped, narrow-bar-backed birds from the south. It is suggested that the latter population, the santacruzi group, be treated as a separate species, Velasquez's woodpecker. It is found from eastern Mexico to Nicaragua.


The plumage of the golden-fronted woodpecker is very similar in appearance to that of the Yucatan woodpecker (Melanerpes pygmaeus), which is also found throughout the Yucatán Peninsula. It can be very difficult to distinguish between these two species in the field. The golden-fronted woodpecker — which is much more common than the Yucatan woodpecker — has a larger body and a longer beak, and the female has more red on the nape of the neck than that of the Yucatan woodpecker. Importantly, the golden-fronted woodpecker has reddish feathers at the base of the bill, whereas the Yucatan Woodpecker has bright yellow feathers surrounding the base of the bill. The barring pattern on the back of the golden-fronted woodpecker is such that it has a blackish appearance from a distance, whereas that of the Yucatan woodpecker has a silvery appearance from a distance. Finally, the vocalization of the Yucatan woodpecker is also quite different from that of the golden-fronted woodpecker.
Although the golden-fronted woodpecker is also very similar in appearance to the red-crowned woodpecker (Melanerpes rubricapillus), the distribution of these two species does not overlap.


Nesting behavior of the golden-fronted is similar to that of the red-bellied woodpecker. Tall trees of pecan, oak, and mesquite are the major species used for nesting in the United States and northern Mexico. Occasionally fence posts, telephone poles, and bird boxes are used.


The diet of the golden-fronted woodpecker consists of both insects and vegetable matter. Grasshoppers make up more than half of the animal matter and other insects include beetles and ants. Vegetable matter consumed consists of corn, acorns, wild fruits, and berries.


The golden-cheeked woodpecker (Melanerpes chrysogenys) is a species of bird in the family Picidae.
It is endemic to Mexico, in the western, and southwestern coastal strip on the Pacific Ocean, and the western bordering regions of mountains of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. They are distributed in the coast from Sinaloa to Colima.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests, subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, and heavily degraded former forest.


The black-cheeked woodpecker (Melanerpes pucherani) is a resident breeding bird from southeastern Mexico south to western Ecuador.
This woodpecker occurs in the higher levels of wet forests, semi-open woodland and old second growth. It nests in an unlined hole 6–30 m (20–98 ft) high in a dead tree. The clutch is two to four glossy white eggs, incubated by both sexes.
The binomial commemorates the French zoologist Jacques Pucheran.
The black-cheeked woodpecker feeds on insects, but will take substantial quantities of fruit and nectar.
This common and conspicuous species gives a rattling krrrrrl call and both sexes drum on territory.


The adult is 18.5 cm (7.3 in) long and weighs 63 g (2.2 oz). It has black upperparts with white barring on the back, white spotting on the wings and a white rump. The tail is black with some white barring, and the underparts are pale buff-olive with a red central belly. There is a black patch through the eyes and on the cheeks, a yellow forehead, and a red nape. The crown is red in the male and black in the female. Young birds are duller, have less white above and less red on the belly.


The Gila woodpecker (Melanerpes uropygialis) is a medium-sized woodpecker of the desert regions of the southwestern United States and western Mexico. In the U.S., they range through southeastern California, southern Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico.


The back and wings of this bird are spotted and barred with a black and white zebra-like pattern. The neck, throat, belly and head are greyish-tan in color. The male has a small red cap on the top of the head. Females and juveniles are similar, but both lack the red cap of the adult male. White wing patches are prominent in flight. The dark tail has white bars on the central tail feathers. The birds range from 8–10 in (20–25 cm) in length.
This woodpecker's voice is a rolling churr sound. It also makes a yip yip yip sound and a kee-u, kee-u, kee-u sound. Its drum is long and steady.


This woodpecker's habitat consists of low desert scrub typical of the Sonoran Desert, as well as arroyos (washes) and small towns.


They build nests in holes made in saguaro cacti or mesquite trees. Cavities excavated by these woodpeckers in saguaro cacti (known as a "boot") are later used by a variety of other species, including the elf owl. There, they typically lay 3–4 white eggs, although as many as 6 or 7 have been noted. 2–3 broods are laid a year. Both sexes incubate and feed eggs.


As a woodpecker, its diet is composed greatly of insects, which it gains from drilling into bark. Gila woodpeckers are omnivorous, and do take fruits, nectar, seeds, as well as lizards, eggs, worms, and even young chicks of small birds. They are even known to hang on human placed hummingbird feeders and sip up the nectar.


The IUCN rates the species as least concern. It is an endangered species in California, where populations have suffered notably. Arizona populations remain strong. The effects of climate change could severely reduce available habitat.


The black scoter or American scoter (Melanitta americana) is a large sea duck, 43 to 49 cm (17 to 19 in) in length. The genus name is derived from Ancient Greek melas "black" and netta "duck". The species name is from the Latin for "American ". Together with the common scoter M. nigra, it forms the subgenus Oidemia; the two are sometimes considered conspecific, the black scoter then being referred to as M. nigra americana. Its French name, used in parts of its Canadian range, is macreuse noire (also meaning "black scoter"). The species is listed as Near Threatened by the IUCN.


The black scoter breeds in the far north of North America in Labrador and Newfoundland to the southeast and northwest of Hudson Bay. It also occurs on the Siberian side of the Bering Straits east of the Yana River. It winters farther south in temperate zones, on the coasts of the northern USA and Canada, on the Pacific coast south to the San Francisco Bay region and on the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coasts, and in Asia as far south as China.
Some birds may over-winter on the Great Lakes. This species is a very rare vagrant to western Europe; only drakes are safely identifiable out of range, so females are likely to be undetected.


This species dives for crustaceans and molluscs while migrating or wintering on the sea-coasts, and feeds on insects and their larvae, especially caddisflies, fish eggs and, more rarely, vegetation such as duck weed while nesting on freshwater. It forms large flocks on suitable coastal waters in winter quarters. These are tightly packed, and the birds tend to take off together; in the breeding season they are less social. It has been suggested that in coastal waters this species prefers sheltered embayments, and possibly waters that include some mixed depths.
Black scoters nest later than most other ducks in North America. Pairs form in late winter or spring. The lined nest is built on the ground close to the sea, lakes or rivers, in woodland or tundra. 5–7 eggs are laid. Each eggs weighs from 60–74 g (2.1–2.6 oz), or 8% of the females body weight. The incubation period may range from 27 to 31 days. Females brood their young extensively for about 3 weeks, after which the still flightless young must fend for themselves.
The male performs a diagnostic downward head movement when stretching his wings.


Melanoplus bivittatus, the two-striped grasshopper, is a poikilothermic species of grasshopper belonging to the genus Melanoplus. It is commonly found in North America, with high quantities inhabiting Canadian prairies and farmland.


A relatively large species with sizes ranging from 30 to 55 mm. A pair of pale yellow stripes running along the top of its body from above its eyes to the hind tip of its wings help to easily identify this species. This characteristic also gives this species its other rare name the yellow-striped grasshopper.  The species also has a yellowish green coloration throughout its body due to chromoprotein and carotenoid. The rest of the body looks similar to that of most grasshopper species, with enlarged hind legs for jumping and two pairs of wings, with one set overlapping the other.


During the winter, eggs are laid in the soil and hatch by late April to early May.  At optimal conditions (25 °C, very moist), Melanoplus bivittatus will stop morphogenesis at around 21 days. Once morphogenesis is stopped, the eggs go into a state of diapause, with development continuing again in spring. Once temperatures are warm enough the eggs start hatching. Once hatching starts, the maximum rate of hatching occurs between the 10th and 13th day. At the end of development, a Melanoplus bivittatus individual will have gone through five instars.


Melanoplus bivittatus participate in long hours of mating, with some copulation lasting up to 10 hours. The mating rituals of M.bivittatus are similar to that of red-legged grasshoppers (Melanoplus femurrubrum) in that both species receive and obtain nuptial gifts, in this case spermatophores Spermatophores are provided during the entire copulation period, which tends to be dominated mostly by male activity. Not only does long periods of copulation increase the likelihood of transferring genes, but time spent in copola can be very productive for sperm and nutrient transfer. Once the females have mated with a male they can delay mating for up to 21 days. Females will often refrain from rejecting males due to the benefits gained from the protein and fitness from eating the spermatophore.


Melanoplus bivittatus are polyphagous, which means they are capable of eating a wide variety of food. The main source of food they rely on are plants such as forbs and lentil crops. This species is commonly seen eating many different types of crops on farms across North America. In times of food shortage, this species has been known to cannibalize one another. During times of colder weather (below 25 °C) Melanoplus bivittatus will not feed since fecal production is low and excrete can not be expelled. This species of Orthoptera require a diet with linoleic acid or unsaturated fatty acids, since these acids keep the organism's wings from crumpling.


Orthoptera are known pests to agricultural environments. Some species can completely ruin crops and have detrimental economic effects on farmers. Melanoplus bivittatus can cause crop damage all through their life cycle. Not only do M. bivittatus damage crops, but they tend to eat the reproductive parts of the plants (sepals, flowers, immature and mature pods), so the likelihood of regeneration or reproduction is slim.


The differential grasshopper (Melanoplus differentialis) is a species of grasshopper belonging to the genus Melanoplus. It is found throughout northern Mexico, the central United States and southern Ontario, Canada. It is considered a pest over most of its range.


The differential grasshopper is found throughout most of the United States, except for the northwest. Within its range, it is most often found in heavily weeded areas and grasslands, and even in vacant lots and other urban areas. This species is not migratory, but can travel a few miles to search for food.  In the northern part of its range, M. differentialis is about as numerous as the two-striped grasshopper (Melanoplus bivittatus), but in the southern part of its range greatly outnumbers it.


The young grasshoppers feed on various grains, alfalfa and hay crops, while adults attack corn, cotton and deciduous fruit crops. A single swarm can destroy a crop in a few days. Because this species tends to feed in large swarms, it can be a serious threat to farming over most of its range.


Melanoplus punctulatus, known generally as the pine tree spur-throat grasshopper or grizzly spur-throat grasshopper, is a species of spur-throated grasshopper in the family Acrididae. It is found in North America.


These three subspecies belong to the species Melanoplus punctulatus:
Melanoplus punctulatus arboreus Scudder, 1897 ⁱ ᶜ ᵍ
Melanoplus punctulatus griseus (Thomas, 1872) ⁱ ᶜ ᵍ
Melanoplus punctulatus punctulatus (Scudder, 1863) ⁱ ᶜ ᵍ
Data sources: i = ITIS, c = Catalogue of Life, g = GBIF, b = Bugguide.net


The black-faced grassquit (Melanospiza bicolor) is a small bird. It is recognized as a tanager closely related to Darwin's finches. It breeds in the West Indies except Cuba, on Tobago but not Trinidad, and along the northern coasts of Colombia and Venezuela.


The first formal description of the black-faced grassquit was by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1766 in the twelfth edition of his Systema Naturae. He introduced the binomial name Fringilla bicolor. Linnaeus based his description on the "Bahama Sparrow" that was described and illustrated by Mark Catesby in his The Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands which was published between 1729 and 1732. The black-faced grassquit was traditionally placed in the genus Tiaris. A molecular phylogenetic study published in 2014 found that this genus was polyphyletic and that the black-faced grassquit was closely related to the Saint Lucia black finch in the monospecific genus Melanospiza. In the resulting reorganization of the genera, the black-faced grassquit was moved to Melanospiza.
Eight subspecies are recognised:
M. b. bicolor (Linnaeus, 1766) – Bahamas and islands off north Cuba
M. b. marchii (Baird, SF, 1864) – Jamaica and Hispaniola
M. b. omissa (Jardine, 1847) – Puerto Rico, Lesser Antilles, north Colombia and north Venezuela
M. b. huilae (Miller, AH, 1952) – central Colombia
M. b. grandior (Cory, 1887) – San Andrés Archipelago (east of Nicaragua)
M. b. johnstonei (Lowe, 1906) – La Blanquilla Island and the Los Hermanos Archipelago (off north Venezuela)
M. b. sharpei (Hartert, 1893) – Netherlands Antilles
M. b. tortugensis (Cory, 1909) – La Tortuga Island (off north Venezuela)


A male black-faced grassquits is around 10 cm (3.9 in) long and weighs approximately 10 g (0.35 oz). It has a short conical black bill, a black head and breast with an olive green back. Females and immature birds have dull olive-grey upperparts and head, and paler grey underparts becoming whiter on the belly.
Males on the South American mainland have more extensively black underparts, shading to a grey belly.
The male has a display flight in which he flies for short distances, vibrating his wings and giving a buzzing  dik-zeezeezee call.


This is a common bird in long grass or scrub in open or semi-open areas, including roadsides and ricefields. It makes a domed grass nest,  lined with finer grasses, and placed low in a bush or on a bank. The typical clutch is two or three whitish eggs blotched with reddish brown.


The black-faced grassquit feeds mainly on seeds, especially of grasses and weeds. It is often found in small groups.


Melastoma malabathricum, known also as Malabar melastome, Indian rhododendron, Singapore rhododendron, planter's rhododendron and senduduk, is a flowering plant in the family Melastomataceae. This plant is native to Indomalaya, Japan and Australia, and is usually found between 100 and 2,800 m on grasslands and sparse forests. It has been used as a medicinal plant in certain parts of the world, but has been declared a noxious weed in the United States. M. malabathricum is a known hyperaccumulator of aluminium, and as such can be used for phytoremediation.


The taxonomy of the genus Melastoma requires a complete revision. Early genetics studies were published from 2001, through to recently, but a revision based on them has yet to be. In 2001 Karsten Meyer proposed a revision in which the species Melastoma affine and other species were subsumed within this species M. malabathricum.
In Australia, currently most authorities do not accept this; instead the naturally occurring populations in Western Australia, Northern Territory, Queensland and north eastern New South Wales remain recognised as M. affine, except by authorities in Queensland. Australian populations which occur as weeds, having different flowers, for example in Warraroon Reserve, Lane Cove, Sydney, further south than the natural distribution of M. affine, are introduced plants of this M. malabathricum L. species.


M. malabathricum grows wild on a wide range of soils, from sea-level up to an altitude of 3000 meters. It is an erect, free-flowering shrub that grows to a height of about 3 meters. The plant is branched, and has reddish stems that are covered with bristly scales and minute hairs. Its leaves are simple, elliptic lanceolate with a rounded base, are up to 7 cm long, and have three distinct main veins running from base to apex. Its flowers are borne on short terminal cymes 2 to 8 cm across. The flowers are pink, violet or mauve. Its fruit is a berry, which when ripe breaks irregularly to expose its soft, dark blue pulp and orange seeds.


Melica nutans, known as mountain melick, is a grass species in the family Poaceae, native to European and Asian forests.


The grass has slender creeping rhizomes. The culms are 25–970 centimetres (9.8–381.9 in) tall. It inflorescence is comprised out of 5–15 fertile spikelets, which are both oblong and compressed, with the length of 6–8 millimetres (0.24–0.31 in). They are comprise out of 2-3 fertile florets that are diminished at the apex. The florets are 5–7 millimetres (0.20–0.28 in) long and are elliptic. Flowers have 3 anthers which are 1.5–2 millimetres (0.059–0.079 in) in length. Glumes are thinner than fertile lemma with the lower one being of 4–6 millimetres (0.16–0.24 in) which is one length of upper one.


It is found at 100–2,300 metres (330–7,550 ft) of elevation, in shady and hillside habitats.


In former analyses, four subspecies of M. ramiflorus were recognised: subsp. ramiflorus of New Zealand, subsp. oblongifolius of Norfolk Island, subsp. fastigiata of Fiji and subsp. samoensis of Samoa and Tonga. More recent studies, especially that by Art Whistler, have indicated that all these subspecies should be regarded as species in their own right.


The (southern) pale chanting goshawk (Melierax canorus) is a  bird of prey in the family Accipitridae.
This hawk breeds in southern Africa and is a resident species of dry, open semi-desert with 75 cm or less annual rainfall. It is commonly seen perched on roadside telephone poles.


This species is approximately 55 cm in length with a wingspan of 110 cm. The adult has grey upperparts with a white rump. The central tail feathers are black tipped with white and the outer tail feathers are barred grey and white. The head and upper breast are pale grey while the rest of the underparts are finely barred in dark grey and white. The eyes are dark brown in the adult and pale yellow in the immature. The bill is red at the base and dark grey at the tip. The cere, facial skin and long legs are also red. In flight, the adult has black primary flight feathers, very pale grey (white from a distance) secondaries, and grey forewings. Immatures have brown upperparts, with a white rump and black bars on the tail. From below, the flight feathers and tail are white with black barring, the throat is dark-streaked white, and the rest of the underparts are rufous. It is larger and paler than the barred-rumped dark chanting goshawk, Melierax metabates.
Both sexes are vocal during the breeding season. The call is a tuneful whistling kleeu-kleeu-kleeu-ku-ku-ku usually given from a tree-top perch.


The pale chanting goshawk hunts predominantly from elevated perches such as trees and telephone poles but also walks on the ground in pursuit of prey. It is an opportunistic raptor and eats a wide variety of prey including small mammals, lizards, birds, large insects and carrion. It has also been recorded predating upon tent tortoise and leopard tortoise hatchlings which are swallowed whole while the shell is still soft. There is some evidence of social hunting in breeding groups but solitary hunting is the norm. Pale chanting goshawks commonly associate with foraging honey badgers and feed on organisms that are flushed by the honey badger's feeding activity. This association increases the hunting opportunities and prey capture success of the pale chanting goshawk while the honey badger does not suffer any loss of foraging efficiency.


The relatively small stick nest is built in a tree (often a Vachellia) at a height of 2 to 12 m or on a pole or pylon. Nests have been recorded being lined with soft materials including animal fur, dry dung, Cape penduline tit nests, man-made cloth and the silk nests of a social spider (Stegodyphus dumicola). The female lays and incubates two (occasionally one or three) chalky white, unmarked eggs. Usually only one chick is raised but nests raising two chicks are not uncommon. The breeding cycle begins in midwinter and takes over 115 days. After leaving the nest the young may be found near it for some months and in the following year may even display in the same area.  Some pairs and especially trios raise a second brood, starting about 24 days after the first brood fledges.
Normally a female mates with a single male (monogamy), but in "broken veld" vegetation (a prey-rich habitat in the Little Karoo), a female and two males may form a polyandrous trio. In these cases an alpha male and female will be assisted in raising the young by a beta male. The alpha male copulates with the female 31–5 days before laying while the beta male copulates 5–3 days before laying. Subordinate co-breeding males may have reproductive fitness benefits by assisting the alpha female with nest defense and prey provision. Non-breeding individuals from previous broods may remain in their natal territory and form part of the breeding group.


Pale chanting goshawks have a large range throughout most of the drier regions of Southern Africa. They inhabit dry semi-desert areas with open ground and appropriate perches from which to hunt. There is no evidence of migration though both short and long-distance movements are common. In the Karoo one pair or family group occupies between 4.4 and 8.6 km² while around Windhoek one pair occupies between 5.4 and 6.7 km².


Melilotus indicus, sometimes incorrectly written Melilotus indica, is a yellow-flowered herb native to northern Africa, Europe and Asia, but naturalized throughout the rest of the world.
Common names in English include sweet clover (or sweet-clover), sour clover (sour-clover, sourclover), Indian sweet-clover, annual yellow sweetclover, Bokhara clover, small-flowered sweet clover, common melilot, small-flowered melilot, small melilot, sweet melilot, Californian lucerne and Hexham scent. In Australia and New Zealand, where it is naturalised, it is sometimes called King Island melilot or King Island clover.


It is an annual or biennial herb from 10 to 50 centimetres (3.9 to 19.7 inches) in height (rarely to one metre), with yellow flowers. Similar to Melilotus altissima Thuill. in general. The flowers are 2 – 3 mm long they produces a hairless pod of similar length.


It was first published as Trifolium indicum by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 Species plantarum. It was transferred into Melilotus by Carlo Allioni in 1785.


It has a wide native distribution, ranging from Macaronesia and northern Africa, through Europe, and into temperate and tropical Asia. It is naturalised throughout most of the rest of the world, including the United Kingdom, the United States, South America, Australia and New Zealand.


It is used as a source of nectar for bees, as forage, and as a soil improver. It is also used in folk medicine. It is poisonous to some mammals, and is a potential seed crop contaminant.
In Pakistan, Melilotus indicus is called sinji, which is used as a vegetable. It has many medicinal uses. It has antioxidant properties . It also has alpha-amylase inhibitory activities , because of which it may be useful for type 2 diabetes.


Melilotus officinalis, known as sweet yellow clover, yellow melilot, ribbed melilot and common melilot, is a species of legume native to Eurasia and introduced in North America, Africa, and Australia.


Melilotus officinalis can be an annual or biennial plant, and is 4–6 feet (1.2–1.8 m) high at maturity. Leaves alternate on the stem and possess three leaflets. Yellow flowers bloom in spring and summer and produce fruit in pods typically containing one seed. Seeds can be viable for up to 30 years. Plants have large taproots and tend to grow in groups. Plants have a characteristic sweet odor.


M. officinalis is native to Europe and Asia and has been introduced to North America as a forage crop. It commonly grows in calcareous loamy and clay soils with a pH above 6.5 and can tolerate cold temperatures and drought; it does not tolerate standing water or acidic soils, with a pH of 5.5 as the plant's lowest limit. Common places where it can be found include open disturbed land, prairies, and savannahs, and it grows in full or partial sunlight. It is an invasive species in areas where it has been introduced, especially in open grasslands and woodlands where it shades and outcompetes native plant species.


Sweet clover contains coumarin that converts to dicoumarol, which is a powerful anticoagulant toxin, when the plant becomes moldy. This can lead to bleeding diseases (internal hemorrhaging) and death in cattle. Consequently, hay containing the plant must be properly dried and cured, especially in wet environments.


The seeds are eaten by game birds, including grouse.
Sweetclover can be used as pasture or livestock feed when properly cured. It is most palatable in spring and early summer, but livestock may need time to adjust to the bitter taste of coumarin in the plant. Prior to World War II, before the common use of commercial agricultural fertilizers, the plant was commonly used as a cover crop to increase nitrogen content and improve subsoil water capacity in poor soils. It is the most drought-tolerant of the commercially available legumes. Sweet clover is a major source of nectar for domestic honey bees as hives near sweetclover can yield up to 200 pounds of honey in a year.
Sweetclover has been used as a phytoremediation—phytodegradation plant for treatment of soils contaminated with dioxins.
In the chemical industry, dicoumarol is extracted from the plant to produce rodenticides.


When M. officinalis is invasive, it can be managed by mulching, hand-pulling, mowing, or herbicide applications such (e.g., 2,4-D) before flowering. Prescribed burns in late fall or early spring followed by another burn in late spring can reduce the number of plants before seed set.


Melinis repens is a species of grass known by the common names rose Natal grass, Natal red top, or simply Natal grass. It is native to southern Africa and an introduced species, often considered a noxious weed, on other continents such as North America and Australia. It is an annual or perennial grass, growing up to a meter tall. Its growth rate is dependent on temperature. The inflorescence is an open array of branches bearing spikelets densely coated in silky white or pink hairs.


Melipotis indomita, the indomitable melipotis, is a moth in the family Erebidae. The species was first described by Francis Walker in 1858. It is found from the West Indies to Mexico, and from Maine, Florida and Minnesota to Texas and California.
The wingspan is 40–55 mm. There are multiple generations per year.
The larvae feed on Prosopis species.


Melittis melissophyllum is a species of flowering plant in the mint family, Lamiaceae. Its common name is bastard balm. It is the only species in the monotypic genus Melittis. The genus name is derived from the Greek melitta, which is in turn from melissa ("a bee").
Subspecies
Melittis melissophyllum subsp. albida (Guss.) P.W.Ball - eastern Mediterranean from Sardinia to Turkey
Melittis melissophyllum subsp. carpatica (Klokov) P.W.Ball - eastern Europe from Austria to Baltic States
Melittis melissophyllum subsp. melissophyllum - western Europe from Britain to Spain + Italy


It is native to central and southern Europe from the British Isles + Portugal east to Turkey + Ukraine + Baltic States.


Melittis melissophyllum reaches on average 30–50 centimetres (12–20 in) of height, with a minimum of 20 centimetres (7.9 in) and a maximum of 60 centimetres (24 in). It is a strongly aromatic plant with erect hairy stems. The root of this plant is a perennial short rhizome. This species is quite variable in shape of leaves and colors.  The leaves reach 5–9 centimetres (2.0–3.5 in) of length. They are oval, bluntly-toothed, quite hairy. They have a short petiole and are in opposite pairs up the stems. The inflorescence is composed of large pedunculated hermaphrodite flowers (two to six, or more)  growing in the axils of the leaves. The flowers are labiate, arranged in pairs and are one-sided (all flowers "look" at the same side). They are usually white or pale pink with a large pinkish purple blotch on the lower lip. They are mainly pollinated by bees and moths. The flowering period extends from May through August.


The plant grows in shady deciduous woods, often with oak, beech, and chestnut. It can also be found among pines and junipers. It is common at altitudes of 0–1,400 metres (0–4,593 ft) above sea level.


Bastard balm grows well as an edging in a sunny woodland or as a scrubby border. It is attractive to insects. Cultivars include 'Royal Velvet Distinction'.


Mellilla is a monotypic moth genus in the family Geometridae erected by Augustus Radcliffe Grote in 1873. Its only species, Mellilla xanthometata, the orangewing moth, was first described by Francis Walker in 1862. It is found in most of eastern North America.
The wingspan is about 16–21 mm. Adults have been recorded on wing in early spring and again in late June in two generations per year. Adults are active during both the day and night.
The larvae feed on Gleditsia triacanthos.


Eggs are laid in the soil by females. When the larvae hatch, they climb into a flower, and await visiting solitary bees. With their well-developed claws, the larvae attach themselves to the bee and return with it to its nest. Here, they feed on the bee's eggs and the pollen and nectar it had collected. The larva pupates in the bee's nest, and leaves the nest to seek a mate directly afterwards.
The beetle and its life cycle are described in detail by Gerald Durrell in his autobiographical book My Family and Other Animals.


Meloe violaceus, the violet oil beetle, is a species of oil beetle belonging to the family Meloidae subfamily Meloinae.
These beetles are present in most of Europe, in the eastern Palearctic realm, in the Near East, and in North Africa.
This species is characterized by hypermetamorphosis, a kind of complete insect metamorphosis in which, in addition to the normal stages of larva, nymph and imago, they have several others, with great differences in appearance and way of life.
The body of Meloe violaceus is 10–30 millimetres (0.4–1.2 in) long, females are somewhat larger than the males. These beetle are black-blue or violet-blue, head and pronotum are very finely dotted and the elytra are quite shorter than the abdomen, as in other Meloinae species.
The adults live on a sunny, dry area with flowering plants, feeding on pollen.
In May–June the female digs into the soil 20–30 millimetres (0.8–1.2 in) deep cylindrical holes, where they lay a very large quantity of eggs (about 2,000–10,000).
After about a month larvae emerge from eggs and climb up on grass or on flowers, waiting to cling to the thorax of approaching potential host insects seeking pollen or nectar.
The larvae have an exclusively parasitic life, primarily in the nests of solitary bees, or sometimes of locusts. If the larvae have inadvertently selected a honey bee, they die in the hive and may cause serious damage.
When the host female bee lays eggs in its cells, the first-stage larva of the violet oil beetle eats the eggs of the bee, increases in volume and becomes the second-stage larva, which continues its development eating honey and pollen. The larva, after other two stages, forms the nymph and finally the imago.


Adults of the common cockchafer reach sizes of 25–30 mm; the forest cockchafer is a little smaller (20–25 mm). The two species can best be distinguished by the form of their tail end: it is long and slender in the common cockchafer, but shorter and knob-shaped at the end in the forest. Both have a brown colour.
 Male cockchafers have seven "leaves" on their antennae, whereas the females have only six.
Using soil bioacoustics, larvae of the common cockchafer (Melolontha melolontha) and the forest cockchafer (M. hippocastani) can be distinguished by a buzzing sound that they make by rubbing their mandibles together. Stridulation appears to be species-specific.  Isolated larva rarely make noise, but those in the same area make lots of noise. It has been suggested that the behavior may warn grubs of competition for the available food supply.
The species M. pectoralis looks similar, but its pygidium is rounded. The cockchafer should not be confused with the similar European chafer (Rhizotrogus majalis), which has a completely different life cycle, nor with the June beetles (Phyllophaga spp.), which are native to North America, nor with the summer chafer (or "European June bug", Amphimallon solstitiale), which emerges in June and has a two-year life cycle. (All of these are Scarabaeidae, have white grubs, and are turf pests.)


Adults appear at the end of April or in May and live for about five to seven weeks. After about two weeks, the female begins laying eggs, which she buries about 10 to 20 cm deep in the earth. She may do this several times until she has laid between 60 and 80 eggs. The common cockchafer lays its eggs in fields, whereas the Forest Cockchafer stays in the vicinity of the trees. The preferred food for adults is oak leaves, but they will also feed on conifer needles.
The larvae, known as "white grubs" or "chafer grubs", hatch after four to six weeks. They feed on plant roots, for instance potato roots. The grubs develop in the earth for three to four years, in colder climates even five years, and grow continually to a size of about 4–5 cm, before they pupate in early autumn and develop into an adult cockchafer in six weeks.
The cockchafer overwinters in the earth at depths between 20 and 100 cm. They work their way to the surface only in spring.
Because of their long development time as larvae, cockchafers appear in a cycle of every three or four years; the years vary from region to region. There is a larger cycle of around 30 years superimposed, in which they occur (or rather, used to occur) in unusually high numbers (10,000s).


The budgerigar (/ˈbʌdʒərɪˌɡɑːr, -əriː-/ BUJ-ər-ih-gar, -ə-ree-; Melopsittacus undulatus), also known as the common parakeet or shell parakeet, is a small, long-tailed, seed-eating parrot usually nicknamed the budgie (/ˈbʌdʒi/ BUJ-ee), or in American English, the parakeet. Budgies are the only species in the genus Melopsittacus. Naturally, the species is green and yellow with black, scalloped markings on the nape, back, and wings. Budgies are bred in captivity with colouring of blues, whites, yellows, greys, and even with small crests. Juveniles and chicks are monomorphic, while adults are told apart by their cere colouring, and their behaviour.
The species is the only member of the genus Melopsittacus, which is the only genus in the  Melopsittacini tribe.
The origin of the budgerigar's name is unclear. First recorded in 1805, budgerigars are popular pets around the world due to their small size, low cost, and ability to mimic human speech. They are likely the third most popular pet in the world, after the domesticated dog and cat. Budgies are nomadic flock parakeets that have been bred in captivity since the 19th century. In both captivity and the wild, budgerigars breed opportunistically and in pairs.
They are found wild throughout the drier parts of Australia, where they have survived harsh inland conditions for over five million years. Their success can be attributed to a nomadic lifestyle and their ability to breed while on the move. The budgerigar is closely related to lories and the fig parrots.


Budgerigar fossils can be dated back 50,000–70,000 years. Several possible origins for its name have been proposed. First, it may be a mispronunciation or alteration of the Gamilaraay word gidjirrigaa ([ɡ̊iɟiriɡaː]) or gijirragaa from the Yuwaalaraay. Second is a modification budgery or boojery (Australian English slang for "good") and gar ("cockatoo"). Alternative spellings include budgerygah and betcherrygah, the latter used by indigenous people of the Liverpool Plains in New South Wales. While many references mention "good" as part of the meaning, and a few specify "good bird", it is quite possible that reports by those local to the region are more accurate in specifying the direct translation as "good food".
The budgerigar was first described by George Shaw in 1805, and given its current binomial name by John Gould in 1840. The genus name Melopsittacus, from Ancient Greek, means "melodious parrot". The species name undulatus is Latin for "undulated" or "wave-patterned".
Alternative names for the budgerigar include the shell parrot, the warbling grass parakeet, the canary parrot, the zebra parrot, the flight bird, the scallop parrot. Although more applicable to members of the genus Agapornis, the name lovebird has been applied to them from their habit of mutual preening. The budgerigar was thought to be the link between the genera Neophema and Pezoporus based on the barred plumage. However, recent phylogenetic studies using DNA sequences place the budgerigar very close to the lories (tribe Loriini) and the fig parrots (tribe Cyclopsittini).


Wild budgerigars average 18 cm (7 in) long, weigh 30–40 grams (1.1–1.4 oz), 30 cm (12 in) in wingspan, and display a light green body colour (abdomen and rumps), while their mantles (back and wing coverts) display pitch-black mantle markings (blackish in fledglings and immatures) edged in clear yellow undulations. The forehead and face is yellow in adults. Prior to their adult plumage, young individuals have blackish stripes down to the cere (nose) in young individuals until around 3–4 months of age. They display small, iridescent blue-violet cheek patches and a series of three black spots across each side of their throats (called throat patches). The two outermost throat spots are situated at the base of each cheek patch. The tail is cobalt (dark-blue); and outside tail feathers display central yellow flashes. Their wings have greenish-black flight feathers and black coverts with yellow fringes along with central yellow flashes, which only become visible in flight or when the wings are outstretched. Bills are olive grey and legs blueish-grey, with zygodactyl toes.
In their natural Australian habitat, Budgerigars are noticeably smaller than those in captivity. This particular parrot species has been bred in many other colours and shades in captivity (e.g. blue, grey, grey-green, pieds, violet, white, yellow-blue). Pet store individuals will commonly be blue, green, or yellow. Like most parrot species, budgerigar plumage fluoresces under ultraviolet light – a phenomenon possibly related to courtship and mate selection.
The upper half of their beaks is taller than the bottom half, covering the bottom when closed. The beak does not protrude much, due to the thick, fluffy feathers surrounding it, giving the appearance of a downward-pointing beak that lies flat against the face. The upper half acts as a long, smooth cover, while the bottom half is just about a half-sized cup-piece. These beaks allow the birds to eat plants, fruits, and vegetables.
The colour of the cere (the area containing the nostrils) differs between the sexes, being royal blue in males, pale brown to white (nonbreeding) or brown (breeding) in females, and pink in immatures of both sexes (usually of a more even purplish-pink colour in young males). Some female budgerigars develop brown cere only during breeding time, which later returns to the normal colour. Young females can often be identified by a subtle, chalky whiteness that starts around the nostrils. Males that are either Albino, Lutino, Dark-eyed Clear or Recessive Pied (Danishpied or harlequin) always retain the immature purplish-pink cere colour their entire lives.
Behaviours and head shape also help indicate sex. Veterinarians can determine the sex of a bird by invasive examination or samples of blood, feather, or eggshell.
Mature males usually have a cere of light to dark blue, but in some particular colour mutations it can be purplish to pink – including Dark-eyed Clears, Danish Pieds (Recessive Pieds) and Inos, which usually display much rounder heads. The behaviour of males can distinguish them from females. Males are typically cheerful, extroverted, highly flirtatious, peacefully social, and very vocal.
Female ceres are pinkish while immature. As they age, they move from being beigish or whitish outside breeding condition into brown (often with a 'crusty' texture) in breeding condition and usually display flattened backs of heads (right above the nape). Females are more dominant and less socially tolerant. This behavior is more pronounced around other females than with males.
Budgerigars have tetrachromatic colour vision, although all four classes of cone cells will not operate simultaneously unless under sunlight or a UV lamp. The ultraviolet spectrum brightens their feathers to attract mates. The throat spots in budgerigars reflect UV and can be used to distinguish individual birds. While ultraviolet light is essential to the good health of caged and pet birds, inadequate darkness or rest results in over-stimulation.


Distribution area
Budgerigars are nomadic and flocks move on from sites as environmental conditions change. Budgerigars are found in open habitats, primarily in scrublands, open woodlands, and grasslands of Australia. The birds are normally found in small flocks, but can form very large flocks under favourable conditions. The nomadic movement of the flocks is tied to the availability of food and water. Budgerigars have two distinct flight speeds which they are capable of switching between depending on the circumstance. Drought can drive flocks into more wooded habitat or coastal areas. They feed on the seeds of spinifex and grass, and sometimes ripening wheat.
Outside of Australia, the only long-term establishment of naturalised feral budgerigars is a large population near St. Petersburg, Florida. Increased competition for nesting sites from European starlings and house sparrows is thought to be a primary cause of the Florida population declining from the 1980s. The more consistent, year-round conditions in Florida significantly reduced their nomadic behaviour.
The species has been introduced to various locations in Puerto Rico and the United States.
Budgerigars feed primarily on grass seeds. The species also opportunistically depredates growing cereal crops and lawn grass seeds. Due to the low water content of the seeds they rely on the availability of freshwater.


Breeding in the wild generally takes place between June and September in northern Australia and between August and January in the south, although budgerigars are opportunistic breeders and respond to rains when grass seeds become most abundant. They show signs of affection to their flockmates by preening or feeding one another. Budgerigars feed one another by eating the seeds themselves, and then regurgitating it into their flockmate's mouth. Populations in some areas have increased as a result of increased water availability at farms. Nests are made in holes in trees, fence posts or logs lying on the ground; the four to six eggs are incubated for 18–21 days, with the young fledging about 30 days after hatching.
In the wild, virtually all parrot species require a hollow tree or a hollow log as a nest site. Because of this natural behaviour, budgerigars most easily breed in captivity when provided with a reasonable-sized nest box.
The eggs are typically one to two centimetres long and are pearl white without any colouration if fertile. Female budgerigars can lay eggs without a male partner, but these unfertilised eggs will not hatch. Females normally have a whitish tan cere; however, when the female is laying eggs, her cere turns a crusty brown colour. Certain female budgies may always keep a whitish tan cere or always keep a crusty brown cere regardless of breeding condition. A female budgerigar will lay her eggs on alternating days. After the first one, there is usually a two-day gap until the next. She will usually lay between four and eight eggs, which she will incubate (usually starting after laying her second or third) for about 21 days each. Females only leave their nests for very quick defecations, stretches and quick meals once they have begun incubating and are by then almost exclusively fed by their mate (usually at the nest's entrance). Females will not allow a male to enter the nest, unless he forces his way inside. Clutch size ranges from 6 to 8 chicks. Depending on the clutch size and the beginning of incubation, the age difference between the first and last hatchling can be anywhere from 9 to 16 days. At times, the parents may begin eating their own eggs due to feeling insecure in the nest box.
There is evidence of same-sex sexual behaviour amongst male budgerigars. It is originally hypothesised that they did this as a form of "courtship practice" so they were better breeding partners for females, however an inverse relationship exists between participation in same-sex behaviour and pairing success.


Breeding difficulties arise for various reasons. Some chicks may die from diseases and attacks from adults. Other budgerigars (virtually always females) may fight over the nest box, attacking each other or a brood. Another problem may be the birds' beaks being under-lapped, where the lower mandible is above the upper mandible.
Most health issues and physical abnormalities in budgerigars are genetic. Care should be taken that birds used for breeding are active, healthy and unrelated. Budgerigars that are related or have fatty tumours or other potential genetic health problems should not be allowed to breed. Parasites (lice, mites, worms) and pathogens (bacteria, fungi and viruses), are contagious and thus transmitted between individuals through either direct or indirect contact. Nest boxes should be cleaned between uses.
Splay leg is a relatively common problem in baby budgerigars and other birds; one of the budgerigar's legs is bent outward, which prevents it from being able to stand properly and compete with the other chicks for food, and can also lead to difficulties in reproducing in adulthood. The condition is caused by young budgerigars slipping repeatedly on the floor of a nest box. It is easily avoided by placing a small quantity of a safe bedding or wood shavings in the bottom of the nest box. Alternatively, several pieces of paper may be placed in the box for the female to chew into bedding.


Eggs take about 18–20 days before they start hatching. The hatchlings are altricial – blind, naked, unable to lift their head and totally helpless, and their mother feeds them and keeps them warm constantly. Around 10 days of age, the chicks' eyes will open, and they will start to develop feather down. The appearance of down occurs at the age for closed banding of the chicks. Budgerigars' closed band rings must be neither larger nor smaller than 4–4.2 mm (0.16–0.17 in).
They develop feathers around three weeks of age. (One can often easily note the colour mutation of the individual birds at this point.) At this stage of the chicks' development, the male usually has begun to enter the nest to help his female in caring and feeding the chicks. Some budgerigar females, however, totally forbid the male from entering the nest and thus take the full responsibility of rearing the chicks until they fledge.
Depending on the size of the clutch and most particularly in the case of single mothers, it may then be wise to transfer a portion of the hatchlings (or best of the fertile eggs) to another pair. The foster pair must already be in breeding mode and thus either at the laying or incubating stages, or already rearing hatchlings.
As the chicks develop and grow feathers, they are able to be left on their own for longer periods of time. By the fifth week, the chicks are strong enough that both parents will be comfortable in staying out of the nest more. The youngsters will stretch their wings to gain strength before they attempt to fly. They will also help defend the box from enemies, mostly with their loud screeching. Young budgerigars typically fledge (leave the nest) around their fifth week of age and are usually completely weaned between six and eight weeks old. However, the age for fledging, as well as weaning, can vary slightly depending on the age and the number of surviving chicks. Generally speaking, the oldest chick is the first to be weaned. Although it is logically the last one to be weaned, the youngest chick is often weaned at a younger age than its older sibling(s). This can be a result of mimicking the actions of older siblings. Lone surviving chicks are often weaned at the youngest possible age as a result of having their parents' full attention and care.
Hand-reared budgies may take slightly longer to wean than parent-raised chicks. Hand feeding is not routinely done with budgerigars, due to their small size and because young parent raised birds can be readily tamed.


The budgerigar has been bred in captivity since the 1850s. Breeders have worked to produce a variety of colour, pattern and feather mutations, including albino, blue, cinnamon-ino (lacewinged), clearwinged, crested, dark, greywinged, opaline, pieds, spangled, dilute (suffused) and violet.
"English budgerigars", more correctly called "show" or "exhibition budgerigars", are about twice as large as their wild counterparts and have puffier head feathers, giving them a boldly exaggerated look. The eyes and beak can be almost totally obscured by these fluffy head feathers. English budgerigars are typically more expensive than wild-type birds, and have a shorter life span of about seven to nine years. Breeders of English budgerigars show their birds at animal shows. Most captive budgerigars in the pet trade are more similar in size and body conformation to wild budgerigars.
Budgerigars are social animals and require stimulation in the shape of toys and interaction with humans or with other budgerigars. Budgerigars, and especially females, will chew material such as wood. When a budgerigar feels threatened, it will try to perch as high as possible and to bring its feathers close against its body in order to appear thinner.
Tame budgerigars can be taught to speak, whistle and play with humans. Both males and females sing and can learn to mimic sounds and words and do simple tricks, but singing and mimicry are more pronounced and better perfected in males. Females rarely learn to mimic more than a dozen words. Males can easily acquire vocabularies ranging from a few dozen to a hundred words. Pet males, especially those kept alone, are generally the best speakers.
Budgerigars will chew on anything they can find to keep their beaks trimmed. Mineral blocks (ideally enriched with iodine), cuttlebone and soft wooden pieces are suitable for this activity. Cuttlebones also supply calcium, essential for the proper forming of eggs and bone solidity. In captivity, budgerigars live an average of five to eight years, but life spans of 15–20 years have been reported. The life span depends on breed, lineage, and health, being highly influenced by exercise and diet. Budgerigars have been known to cause "bird fancier's lung" in sensitive people, a type of hypersensitivity pneumonitis. Apart from a handful of illnesses, diseases of the species are not transmittable to humans.


All captive budgerigars are divided into two basic series of colours; namely, white-based (blue, grey and white) and yellow-based (green, grey-green and yellow). Presently, at least 32 primary mutations (including violet) occur, enabling hundreds of possible secondary mutations (stable combined primary mutations) and colour varieties (unstable combined mutations).


Male specimens of budgerigars can be skilled at mimicking human speech.
Puck, a male budgerigar owned by American Camille Jordan, holds the world record for the largest vocabulary of any bird, at 1,728 words. Puck died in 1994, with the record first appearing in the 1995 edition of Guinness World Records.
In 2001, recordings of a budgerigar called Victor got some attention from the media. Victor's owner, Ryan B. Reynolds of Canada, stated Victor was able to engage in contextual conversation and predict the future. Although some believe the animal was able to predict his own death as was claimed, further study on the subject is difficult without the bird. As of 2001, the recordings still remain to be verified by scientific analysis. Critics argue Victor's speech in the recordings is not coherent enough to be determined as spoken in context.
The budgerigar "Disco" became Internet famous in 2013. As of 2021, Disco had been viewed over 22,481,975 times on his YouTube channel. Some of Disco's most repeated phrases included, "I am not a crook" and "Nobody puts baby bird in a corner!". Disco died in 2017.


The song sparrow (Melospiza melodia) is a medium-sized New World sparrow. Among the native sparrows in North America, it is easily one of the most abundant, variable and adaptable species.


Adult song sparrows have brown upperparts with dark streaks on the back and are white underneath with dark streaking and a dark brown spot in the middle of the breast. They have a brown cap and a long brown rounded tail. Their face is gray with a brown streak through each eye. They are highly variable in size across numerous subspecies (for subspecies details, see below). The body length ranges from 11 to 18 cm (4.3 to 7.1 in) and wingspan can range from 18 to 25.4 cm (7.1 to 10.0 in). Body mass ranges from 11.9 to 53 g (0.42 to 1.87 oz). The average of all races is 32 g (1.1 oz) but the widespread nominate subspecies (M. m. melodia) weighs only about 22 g (0.78 oz) on average. The maximum lifespan in the wild is 11.3 years. The eggs of the song sparrow are brown with greenish-white spots. Females lay three to five eggs per clutch, with an average incubation time of 13–15 days before hatching.
In the field, they are most easily confused with the Lincoln's sparrow and the Savannah sparrow. The former can be recognized by its shorter, grayer tail and the differently-patterned head, the brown cheeks forming a clear-cut angular patch. The Savannah sparrow has a forked tail and yellowish flecks on the face when seen up close.


Though a habitat generalist, the song sparrow favors brushland and marshes, including salt marshes across most of Canada and the United States. They also thrive in human dominated areas such as in suburbs, agricultural fields, and along roadsides. Permanent residents of the southern half of their range, northern populations of the song sparrow migrate to the southern United States or Mexico during winter and intermingle with the native, non-migratory population. The song sparrow is a very rare vagrant to western Europe, with a few recorded in Great Britain and Norway.
These birds forage on the ground, in shrubs or in very shallow water. They mainly eat insects and seeds. Birds in salt marshes may also eat small crustaceans. They nest either in a sheltered location on the ground or in trees or shrubs. Song sparrows with areas of shrub cover in their territory, away from the intertidal coastline, have greater over-winter survival, as well higher reproductive success.


The song sparrow has been the subject of several studies detailing the physiological reactions of bird species to conditions such as daylight length and differing climatic conditions. Most birds gain mass in their reproductive organs in response to some signal, either internal or external as the breeding season approaches. The exact source of this signal varies from species to species - for some, it is an endogenous process separate from environmental cues, while other species require extensive external signals of changing daylight length and temperature before beginning to increase the mass of their reproductive organs. Male specimens of M. melodia gain significant testicular mass in response both to changes in the daily photoperiod and as a result of endogenous chemical signals. Females also undergo significant ovarian growth in response to both photo-period and endogenous signals. Hormone levels in both males and females fluctuate throughout the breeding season, having very high levels in March and late April and then declining until May. These studies suggest that there are multiple factors at work that influence when and how the song sparrow breeds other than just increasing day length.
Due to the myriad subspecies of the song sparrow and the extremely varied climate of southern California, where many of these subspecies make their homes, physiological studies were undertaken to determine how climatic conditions and local environment influenced the bill size of M. melodia subspecies. The bill of a bird is highly important for thermoregulation as the bare surface area makes a perfect place to radiate excess heat or absorb solar energy to maintain homeostasis. Knowing this, comparisons of bill length between individual song sparrows collected in different habitats were made with regard to the primary habitat type or microclimate that they were collected in. Larger beaked subspecies were strongly correlated with hotter microclimates - a correlation that follows from the conditions of Allen's Rule.


The sparrow species derives its name from its colorful repertoire of songs. Enthusiasts report that one of the songs heard often in suburban locations closely resembles the opening four notes of Ludwig van Beethoven's Symphony No. 5. The male uses a fairly complex song to declare ownership of its territory and attract females.
Singing itself consists of a combination of repeated notes, quickly passing isolated notes, and trills. The songs are very crisp, clear, and precise, making them easily distinguishable by human ears. A particular song is determined not only by pitch and rhythm but also by the timbre of the trills. Although one bird will know many songs—as many as 20 different tunes with as many as 1000 improvised variations on the basic theme,—unlike thrushes, the song sparrow usually repeats the same song many times before switching to a different song.
Song sparrows typically learn their songs from a handful of other birds that have neighboring territories. They are most likely to learn songs that are shared between these neighbors. Ultimately, they will choose a territory close to or replacing the birds that they have learned from. This allows the song sparrows to address their neighbors with songs shared with those neighbors. It has been demonstrated that song sparrows are able to distinguish neighbors from strangers on the basis of song, and also that females are able to distinguish (and prefer) their mate's songs from those of other neighboring birds, and they prefer songs of neighboring birds to those of strangers.
A 2022 study by Duke University also found that male song sparrows memorize a 30-minute long playlist of their songs and use that information to curate both their current playlist and the following one. The findings suggest that male song sparrows deliberately shuffle and repeat their songs possibly to keep a female's attention.


The song sparrow is one of the most polytypic bird species in North America, rivaling other variable species on a global scale, such as the horned lark, the yellow wagtail, the golden whistler, and the island thrush. There have been a total of 52 subspecies named altogether, of which 25 are still recognized following a systematic morphological review. A high quality reference genome has recently been created for this species, which will allow for comprehensive genomic analyses of the differences between the several morphologically diverged subspecies.


Small, brownish, long-winged forms with strong black streaks.
Melospiza melodia melodia (Wilson, 1810). The nominate subspecies. Eastern half of North American range except coastal areas south from New York State. In winter, they migrate southeastwards. Very contrasting, very light with black streaks below, and gray margins to back feathers. This population includes the forms named as M. m. juddi Bishop, 1896; M. m. acadica Thayer and Bangs, 1914; M. m. beata (non Bangs) Todd, 1930; M. m. euphonia Wetmore, 1936; M. m. callima Oberholser, 1974; and M. m. melanchra Oberholser, 1974.
Melospiza melodia atlantica Todd, 1924. Inhabits the Atlantic Coast sand dunes and salt marshes from New York State southwards. Differs from nominate by a gray back. Includes M. m. rossignolii Bailey, 1936.
Melospiza melodia montana Henshaw, 1884. The subspecies west of melodia to the Rocky Mountains. Some birds from the northern part of its range migrate to north-west Mexico in winter. Similar to nominate, but larger, duller coloration and more slender bill. Includes M. m. fisherella Oberholser, 1911.


Large, dark, diffuse dark streaks. A study of mtDNA allozyme variation of most forms in this group concluded that they are of comparatively recent origin and that island populations are apparently derived independently from each other.
Melospiza melodia maxima Gabrielson & Lincoln, 1951, giant song sparrow. W Aleutian Islands (Attu to Atka Island), resident. The largest subspecies, about the size of the California towhee. Very gray overall, long, diffuse streaks. Bill long and slender.
Melospiza melodia sanaka McGregor, 1901, Aleutian song sparrow. Aleutians from Seguam Island east to Stepovak Bay, Alaska, and islands to the south of Alaskan Peninsula; resident. Similar to maxima; grayer still and bill even more slender. Includes the Semidi song sparrow, M. m. semidiensis Brooks, 1919, which may be a distinct subspecies however. Also includes the population from Amak Island named M. m. amaka Gabrielson & Lincoln, 1951 (Amak song sparrow) which was extirpated due to habitat destruction, apparently disappearing in the weeks around New Year's Eve, 1980/1981 (there were unconfirmed sightings in 1987 and 1988).
Melospiza melodia insignis Baird, 1869, Bischoff song sparrow. Kodiak, Afognak, Sitkalidak, and Raspberry Islands, and Kukak and Katmai on Alaska Peninsula; many migrate south in winter. A darkish gray, medium-sized form.
Melospiza melodia kenaiensis Ridgway, 1900, Kenai song sparrow. Resident; Pacific coast of Kenai Peninsula and Prince William Sound islands; some resident, some migrant. Smaller and browner than insignis.
Melospiza melodia caurina Ridgway, 1899, Yakutat song sparrow. Northern Gulf of Alaska coast, many migrate to Pacific Northwest in winter. A smaller version of kenaiensis.
Melospiza melodia rufina (Bonaparte, 1850), sooty song sparrow. Outer islands of Alexander Archipelago and Haida Gwaii (Queen Charlotte Islands); most are resident. A very dark, rufous, and small form. Includes M. m. kwaisa Cumming, 1933.
Melospiza melodia morphna Oberholser, 1899. Coastal region of central British Columbia south to NW Oregon; resident. Lighter, more rufous than rufina. Previously M. m. cinerea (non Gmelin) (Audubon, 1839); M. m. phaea Fisher, 1902 are Central Oregon hybrids between this subspecies and M. m. cleonensis.
Melospiza melodia merrilli Brewster, 1896. Occurs between the ranges of morphna and montana south to N Nevada; some migrate south in winter. Includes M. m. ingersolli McGregor, 1899 and M. m. inexspectata Riley, 1911 (Riley song sparrow; inexpectata is a common lapsus). Doubtfully distinct; intermediate between morphna and montana in appearance also and may be hybrid birds.
Melospiza melodia cleonensis McGregor, 1899. SW Oregon west of Cascade Mountains south to NW California. Brownish-buffish, notably on the flanks; no gray on back; underside with somewhat diffuse chestnut streaks.


Small, well-marked and short-winged brownish forms. All resident, except occasional birds from upland populations.
Melospiza melodia gouldii Baird, 1858. Coastal central California, except San Francisco Bay. A very brown and clear-marked subspecies; buffish (not light gray) fringes of upper back. M. m. santaecrucis Grinnell, 1901 are hybrids with birds from southwards and Central Valley populations.
Melospiza melodia samuelis (Baird, 1858), San Pablo song sparrow. N San Francisco Bay and San Pablo Bay saltmarshes. A small, tiny-billed subspecies with dirty olive upperpart background.
Melospiza melodia maxillaris Grinnell, 1909, Suisun song sparrow. Suisun Bay marshes. Dark upperparts; brown with gray mantle edges; plump bill base.
Melospiza melodia pusillula Ridgway, 1899, Alameda song sparrow. E San Francisco Bay saltmarshes. Yellowest subspecies, paler than samuelis and clear yellow hue below.
Melospiza melodia heermanni Baird, 1858. Central coastal California and Central Valley south to N Baja California. Similar in color to maxillaris but medium-sized mainland subspecies. Some N-S variation with birds becoming blacker on backs, local populations once separated as M. m. cooperi Ridgway, 1899 and M. m. mailliardi Grinnell, 1911. The latter, occurring around Modesto, may be distinct.
Melospiza melodia graminea Townsend, 1890. Described from Santa Barbara Island, California Channel Islands. A smaller, pale-gray version of heermanni. Originally called Santa Barbara song sparrow; birds from the Coronado Islands were described as M. m. coronatorum Grinnell and Daggett, 1903, those from San Miguel Island as M. m. micronyx Grinnell, 1928 and those from San Clemente, Santa Rosa and Anacapa Islands as M. m. clementae Townsend, 1890. Hybrid population with heermanni on Santa Cruz Island. Extirpated on Santa Barbara (and possibly San Clemente) by feral cats, c. 1967–1970.


Small, pale, streaks rufous; all resident.
Melospiza melodia fallax (Baird, 1854), desert song sparrow. Sonoran and parts of Mojave Deserts to E Arizona. A pale ruddy desert form. Synonyms are M. m. saltonis Grinnell, 1909, M. m. virginis Marshall and Behle, 1942 and M. m. bendirei Phillips, 1943.
Melospiza melodia rivularis Bryant, 1888. Central Baja California. Similar to fallax, lightly streaked breast and long slender bill.
Melospiza melodia goldmani Nelson, 1899. Not yet found outside El Salto area, Sierra Madre Oriental. Dark reddish brown back with brownish streaks just as in morphna.


Black-spotted, white throats; all resident.
Melospiza melodia adusta Nelson, 1899. Río Lerma drainage from Zacapú to Lake Yuriria. Bold black pattern on belly and back, clear white throat. Birds become less ruddy brown going east.
Melospiza melodia villai Phillips and Dickerman, 1957. Headwaters of Río Lerma near Toluca. Darker and duller brown than adusta, distinctly large.
Melospiza melodia mexicana Ridgway, 1874. Hidalgo to Puebla. Duller and paler than adusta, birds becoming grayish going south. Includes M. m. azteca Dickerman, 1963 and M. m. niceae Dickerman, 1963. "M. m. pectoralis" (ex von Müller, 1865) cannot be assigned to a known song sparrow population.
Melospiza melodia zacapu Dickerman, 1963.


Seen as a whole, the song sparrow is widespread and common enough to be classified as Species of Least Concern by the IUCN. The taxa mailliardi, maxillaris, samuelis (all Category 3), pusillula (Category 2), and graminea (Category 1) are listed as Species of Special Concern in California.


Melothria pendula, also known as the creeping cucumber or the Guadeloupe cucumber, is a plant in the Benincaseae tribe. The plant is especially prominent in southeast regions of the United States. The plant resembles the cultivated cucumber, possessing miniature yellow flowers, similar leaf shape, same leaf patterns, as well as similar growth patterns. The unripe berries strongly resemble minuscule watermelons.


The genus name Melothria is from Ancient Greek μηλοθρων : mēlothrōn 'kind of white grape' in reference to small grapevine fruits born by the genus. The specific name pendula means 'hanging'.


The ripe berries, which are black, have powerful laxative qualities when consumed. The root, vines, leaves, and flowers have unknown toxicity.


The berries, when unripe and light green can be eaten raw. Dogs are known to eat the leaves without any apparent side effects.


The larvae of Hypercompe cunigunda have been recorded feeding on this plant.


Some authorities use Pipilo crissalis or Pyrgisoma crissale to refer to the California Towhee, although the most widely regarded classification is Melozone crissalis.  The difference arises between the distinct classifications the bird has due to its close proximity to other Passerellidae.


The classification of this bird follows the Quinarian System popularized in the early 19th century to better identify birds.  The term Melozone crissalis was developed by Nicholas Vigors in 1839, an Irish politician and zoologist who popularized the Quinarian system around the world.


The California towhee's coloring is dull brown overall with light rust undertail covert feathers and buff or rust-colored streaks at the throat. There is little sexual dimorphism.
California Towhees have the short, rounded wings of a sparrow, as well as a long tail and thick beak which is used for cracking seeds. However, the towhees are larger and bulkier than sparrows. Both sexes of towhee generally grow to be 8.3-9.8 inches (21-25 cm) in length, with a wingspan of about 11.4 inches (29 cm). They weigh 1.3-2.4 oz (37-67 g). The California Towhee's color pattern is matte brown all around, barring a rusty patch beneath its tail and around its bill. This is true of both females and males.
It is around 20–25 cm (7.9–9.8 in) in length, and has a noticeably long tail of 8.2 to 11.6 cm (3.2 to 4.6 in). Its appearance suggests a large, plain sparrow. Males weigh from 48.6–61.2 g (1.71–2.16 oz), with an average of 53.9 g (1.90 oz), while females weigh from 46.3–61.2 g (1.63–2.16 oz), with an average of 51.8 g (1.83 oz). Among standard measurements, the wing chord is 7.9 to 10.4 cm (3.1 to 4.1 in), the bill is 1.3 to 1.6 cm (0.51 to 0.63 in) and the tarsus is 2.3 to 2.8 cm (0.91 to 1.10 in).


This bird's natural habitat is California's brush, chaparral, open woodlands, and along streams adjacent to desert slopes. It has widely adapted to parks and gardens and is found throughout Baja California, as well.  They can be found along the North Pacific coastline from Southern Oregon, USA to Baja California, Mexico.  The California towhee is a non-migratory bird and they only change their homes when finding a mate.
As these birds are of Least Concern in their natural habitats, they do not face any imminent threats to their livelihood.  According to the National Audubon Society, the three biggest threats to the California Towhee are fire weather, spring heat waves, and urbanization.  Fire weather may affect this towhee because they tend to hide in shrubbery.  If these birds are found in a very densely forested area during a wildfire, they would definitely be under threat, but due to their reproductive patterns, their general population would remain largely unaffected.  Spring heat waves affect populations by increasing the temperature, decreasing the supply of water and other resources, and can affect food chains.  This would affect the California towhee, but once again, not enough for the entire population to move into the Not Threatened bracket.  Urbanization may seem like the greatest threat to all species, however, this bird species has adapted well to living among and near people.
Currently, the California towhee's range will not decrease or increase, however, if global warming continues at the same or a more rapid pace, their range and population may be greatly reduced.  If the temperature of their range increases between 1.5-3.0° C during the summertime, they would gain at least a 2% range in available habitat, yet that still means they would have to migrate upwards.  If the temperature of their range increases between 1.5-3.0° C during the winter, they would lose at least 20% of their range and at most 77% of their range.  This highlights the fragility of the balance of their ecosystems, especially considering that they are not migratory birds.
Aside from the wild habitat they traditionally live in, they also find comfort among rural and suburban area.  This shows they are either reluctant to give up their given range or that they enjoy a greater quality of life within less densely populated human settlements.


The California towhee feeds on the ground or in low scrub where it prefers a variety of seeds, grasses, and herbs. When eating grass seeds, towhees can strip all seeds off at once using its beak. During breeding season, the California towhee supplements its diet with insects such as grasshoppers and beetles. Additionally, they may eat snails, millipedes, and spiders. It is most often seen traveling or feeding singly or in pairs. It is very active on the ground. The California Towhee uses a "double-scratch" maneuver when foraging, looking beneath leaves by lunging forward and hopping backwards, using its feet to scratch the ground and reveal food. Additionally, it visits feeders, often eating the millet that other birds disdain. Able to run rapidly for short distances, it keeps in constant contact with its mate—perhaps forming lifelong pairs.
While the towhee is seen drinking freely in the wild and in captivity, in drier habitats their water needs may be met mostly via feeding on insects and succulent foods.
The call consists of a single-note sound that different people hear as seet, tseek, tsip, cheet, cheenk or peenk and the song consists of a long repeating series ended with a trill.


Nests are typically found in low branches or shrubs about 0.5 to 4 m (1.6 to 13.1 ft) above ground. The nest is a bulky cup made of twigs, stems, grasses, and hair, and is constructed by female towhees.
The female incubates the nest of 2 to 4 eggs alone for 11-14 days. Eggs are laid from March through September with shells that are slightly glossy and pale bluish white with some brownish flecks concentrated mostly on the larger end. At the time of hatching, the young have sparse down feathers. Young leave the nest after 6-11 days.
The California Towhee breeding season lasts from early April to early August, peaking in late May or early June. Towhees may raise 2-3 broods each year.


Within the half century of 1966-2015, the population of the California Towhee was stable, with a slight decline in population due to increased temperatures and urbanization.  The organization, Partners in Flight estimates that 61% of actively breeding California towhees live in the United States, while the remainder live in Baja California, Mexico.  This bird has a global breeding population of around nine million birds spread across this range, making them a minimally threatened species.  While the species in general is not under threat, a sub-species of the California towhee in the Inyo mountains of Eastern California was previously down to around 200 breeding birds in the late 1990s.  They had been mostly displaced by increasing agricultural projects and destruction of habitat to accommodate these projects.
Because the California towhee is generally known to be a less threatened bird, these Inyo California towhees were not receiving the conservation efforts to be able to sustainably recover their populations and recover lost habitats.  If trends had continued, they might have required to have been repopulated by local wildlife sources, however, in 2001 the Bureau of Land Management enacted a reform to reduce mining, livestock agriculture, and general habitat displacement practices which has helped aid this subspecies to over 700 living birds today.  Although significant progress has been made, they still must be protected against human interventions and feral burros.


California Towhees have adapted to human presence in California. As suburbs and cities were developed in the state, towhees have moved into parks in lowland towns, as well as backyards with appropriate shrubbery. Consequently, they are found eating garden produce, such as apricots, plums, and peas.
Because they are ground foragers, California Towhees are more likely to be attracted by feed spread on the ground than in hanging feeders.


The canyon towhee (Melozone fusca) is a bird of the family Passerellidae.


The taxonomy of the group of towhees to which this species belongs is debated. At the higher level, some authors place the towhees in the family Fringillidae. Within the genus, there has been dispute about whether the canyon towhee is a distinct species from the California towhee (Melozone crissalis) found in coastal regions from Oregon and California in the United States through Baja California in Mexico.  At present, molecular genetics seems to have settled this issue in favour of separation of the species.


It is 19 to 25 cm (7.5 to 9.8 in) long, and has a noticeably long tail, at 8.2 to 11 cm (3.2 to 4.3 in). This species weighs from 36.5 to 67 g (1.29 to 2.36 oz), though on average weigh only around 45 g (1.6 oz). Among standard measurements, the wing chord is 8.2 to 10.1 cm (3.2 to 4.0 in), the bill is 1.4 to 1.7 cm (0.55 to 0.67 in) and the tarsus is 2.3 to 2.7 cm (0.91 to 1.06 in). It is earthy brown in color, with somewhat lighter underparts and a somewhat darker head with a rufous cap (except that birds in central Mexico have the cap the same color as the back); there is also a slightly reddish area beneath the tail. There is little sexual dimorphism.


Menecles insertus is a species of stink bug in the family Pentatomidae. It is found in North America.


Menispermum canadense, the Canadian moonseed, common moonseed, or yellow parilla, is a flowering plant in the family Menispermaceae, native to eastern North America, from southern Canada south to northern Florida, and from the Atlantic coast west to Manitoba and Texas. It occurs in thickets, moist woods, and the banks of streams.


It is a woody climbing vine growing to 6 metres (20 feet) tall. The leaves are palmately lobed, 5–20 centimetres (2–8 inches) in diameter with 3–7 shallow lobes, occasionally rounded and unlobed. The fruit are produced in 6–10 cm (2+1⁄4–4 in) diameter clusters of purple-black berries, each berry is 1–1.5 cm in diameter. The seed inside the berry resembles a crescent moon, and is responsible for the common name. The fruit is ripe between September and October, the same general time frame in which wild grapes are ripe. Both the leaves and fruit resemble those of grapes; confusion can be dangerous as moonseed fruit is poisonous.
The root is a rhizome, so one specimen can form colonies of genetically identical plants.


All parts of these plants are known to be poisonous.  The principal toxin is the alkaloid dauricine.  The fruit of Canada Moonseed are poisonous and can be fatal.  While foraging for wild grapes one should examine the seeds of the fruit to make sure one is not eating moonseeds:  moonseeds have a single crescent-shaped seed, while grapes have round seeds.  Differences in taste should also be an indicator of whether or not a specimen is grape or moonseed, moonseeds have a taste that is described as "rank". Also, the moonseed vine lacks tendrils, whilst the vine of the wild grape has forked tendrils.


The Cherokee used moonseed as a laxative, and as a gynecological and venereal aid. The root was used for skin diseases. The Lenape used it in a salve for sores on the skin. It has been used for a variety of medicinal uses by Americans of European descent.