Allagrapha aerea, the unspotted looper moth or copper looper moth, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. The species was first described by Jacob Hübner in 1803. It is found in eastern North America from southern Ontario to the Florida Panhandle and west to western Nebraska.
The wingspan is 28–42 mm. Adults are on wing from April to September or to October in the south. There are two generations per year.
The larvae are probably general feeders on herbaceous plants. Larvae have been recorded on Urtica, Aster umbellatus and soybeans.


Allenrolfea occidentalis, the iodine bush, is a low-lying shrub of the Southwestern United States, California, Idaho, and northern Mexico.
It grows in sandy, often salty, distinctly alkaline soils, such as desert washes and saline dry lakebeds.  It is a common halophyte member of the alkali flat ecosystem.


The knobby green stems are fleshy and appear jointed at the internodes between segments.  Often the segments are so short they are nearly round. The leaves appear as flaky scales scattered across the surface of the stems. The genus was named for the English botanist Robert Allen Rolfe.
The seeds of iodinebush have been used as food in North America in prehistory.


Allium acuminatum, also known as the tapertip onion or Hooker's onion, is a species in the genus Allium native to North America.


It is found the Western United States and Canada. It has been reported from every state west of the Rocky Mountains, plus British Columbia.


Allium acuminatum produces bulbs that are spherical, less than 2 cm across and smelling like onions.  Scape is up to 40 cm tall, wearing an umbel of as many as 40 flowers. The flowers are pink to purple with yellow anthers. The plant also produces two or three grooved leaves which tend to wither prior to bloom. Its native habitats include open, rocky slopes, among brush and pines.
The onions were eaten by first peoples in southern British Columbia.  They were harvested in either early spring or late fall and usually cooked in pits. Both the bulb and the flowering stalk are edible; however, in the culinary arts, the stalk possesses a more pleasant flavour.


Allium cernuum, known as nodding onion or lady's leek, is a perennial plant in the genus Allium. It grows in open areas in North America.


Allium cernuum is a herbaceous perennial growing from an unsheathed elongated conical bulb which gradually tapers directly into several keeled (thin and flat) grass-like leaves, 2–4 millimetres (3⁄32–5⁄32 inch) in width. Each mature bulb bears a single flowering stem, which terminates in a downward nodding umbel of white or rose, campanulate (bell-shaped) flowers that bloom in July and August. The flowers are arranged into downward facing umbels and each flower is about 5 mm (3⁄16 in) across, pink or white with yellow pollen and yellow anthers. A. cernuum does not have bulblets in the inflorescence. The flowers mature into spherical crested fruits which later split open to reveal the dark shiny seeds.


In addition to other species of Allium, wild garlic, field garlic, and wild leek look similar. Any onion-like plant which lacks the expected odor should be suspect of being a similar-looking poisonous species, namely deathcamas.


The species has been reported from much of the United States, Canada and Mexico including in the Appalachian Mountains from Alabama to New York State, the Great Lakes Region, the Ohio and Tennessee River Valleys, the Ozarks of Arkansas and Missouri, and the Rocky and Cascade Mountains of the West, from Mexico to Washington. It has not been reported from California, Nevada, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, New Jersey, Delaware, New England, or much of the Great Plains. In Canada, it grows from Ontario to British Columbia.
Despite its wide geographical distribution, it is absent from much of its range. In the southern part of its range in North America it is limited to mountainous habitats, and in other parts of its North American range it is limited to local and disjunct population.  It is absent from North Dakota and most of the Great Plains states and intermountain region of the U.S. In Minnesota it is listed as a threatened species.
It can be found growing in deciduous woodlands, to open grasslands.


Although it is important to distinguish from poisonous deathcamas, the plant is edible and has a strong onion flavor, often used in cooking.
It is grown in gardens for its distinctive nodding flowers that are white, pink, or maroon; it is winter hardy in U.S. Department of Agriculture hardiness zones 3–9.


Allium drummondii, also known as Drummond's onion, wild garlic and prairie onion, is a North American species of onion native to the southern Great Plains of North America. It is found in South Dakota, Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Texas, New Mexico, and northeastern Mexico.
Allium drummondii is a bulb-forming perennial. The flowers appear in April and May, in a variety of colors ranging from white to pink.  It is common, considered invasive in some regions.


This species of Allium is gathered by Native Americans for its small edible bulbs.  These contain a considerable amount of inulin, a non-reducing sugar that humans cannot digest.  Because of this, these onions must be heated for a long period of time in order to convert the inulin into digestible sugars.


Allium neapolitanum is a bulbous herbaceous perennial plant in the onion subfamily within the Amaryllis family. Common names include Neapolitan garlic, Naples garlic, daffodil garlic, false garlic, flowering onion, Naples onion, Guernsey star-of-Bethlehem, star, white garlic, and wood garlic.
Its native range extends across the Mediterranean Region from Portugal to Turkey. The species is cultivated as an ornamental and has become naturalized in many areas, including Pakistan, Australia, New Zealand, and in southern and western parts of the United States. It is classed as an invasive species in parts of the U.S., and is found primarily in the U.S. states of California, Texas, Louisiana, and Florida.
Allium neapolitanum produces round bulbs up to 2 cm (0.79 in) across. The scape is  up to 25 cm (9.8 in) tall, round in cross-section but sometimes with wings toward the bottom. The inflorescence is an umbel of up to 25 white flowers with yellow anthers.
Allium neapolitanum seems to have beta-adrenergic antagonist properties.


Allium oleraceum, the field garlic, is a Eurasian species of wild onion. It is a bulbous perennial that grows wild in dry places, reaching 30 centimetres (12 in) in height. It reproduces by seed, bulbs and by the production of small bulblets in the flower head (similarly to Allium vineale). Unlike A. vineale, it is very rare with A. oleraceum to find flower-heads containing bulbils only. In addition, the spathe in A. oleraceum is in two parts.
Its specific epithet oleraceum means "vegetable/herbal" in Latin and is a form of holeraceus (oleraceus).


Allium oleraceum grows to a height of about 12 in (30 cm). The underground bulb is up to 0.8 in (2 cm) in diameter. The main stem is usually rounded, but is occasionally flattened, and bears two to four leaves and a terminal inflorescence composed of a number of small, stalked, pinkish-brown flowers and sometimes a few bulblets. The papery bracts have long points which often much overtop the flowers, the stamens of which do not protrude.


Allium oleraceum is widespread across most of Europe, with additional populations in Turkey and the Caucasus. It is sparingly naturalised in scattered locations in North America.
In the United Kingdom, A. oleraceum is found in dry, grassy places, usually steeply sloping and calcareous soils, and on open sunny banks in river floodplains. A. oleraceum is scattered throughout England and very scattered in Wales, Scotland and Ireland. Erosion of coastal areas leads to a reduction in the available habitat for this species, leading to population declines. The highest altitude from which it has been recorded in Britain is 365 m (1,200 ft) in Dovedale, Derbyshire.
Allium oleraceum subsp. girerdii was formerly included, but is now classified as Allium oporinanthum.


Allium stellatum, the autumn onion or prairie onion, is a North American species of wild onion native to central Canada and the central United States. It ranges from Ontario and Saskatchewan south to Tennessee and Texas.
Allium stellatum grows in rocky, sandy soil. It is a perennial forming a bulb. The scape is up to 1–2 feet (30–60 cm) tall with tufts of leaves, which are thick, hard, and rounded on the back. The leaves die back as the umbel of pink to purple flowers forms in early August. The bulbs are strongly flavored but edible.
The species name stellatum is botanical Latin for "starry", and refers to the umbels.  This species was described for science by John Bellenden Ker Gawler in 1813.


Allium ursinum, known as wild garlic, ramsons, cowleekes, cows's leek, cowleek, buckrams, broad-leaved garlic, wood garlic, bear leek, Eurasian wild garlic or bear's garlic, is a bulbous perennial flowering plant in the amaryllis family Amaryllidaceae. It is native to Europe and Asia, where it grows in moist woodland. It is a wild relative of onion and garlic, all belonging to the same genus, Allium. There are two recognized subspecies: A. ursinum subsp. ursinum and A. ursinum subsp. ucranicum.


The Latin specific name ursinum translates to 'bear' and refers to the supposed fondness of the brown bear for the bulbs; folk tales describe the bears consuming them after awakening from hibernation.  Another theory is that the "ursinum" may refer to Ursa Major, as A. ursinum was perhaps one of the most northerly distributed Allium species known to the ancient Greeks, though this hypothesis is disputed. Common names for the plant in many languages also make reference to bears.
Cows love to eat them, hence the modern vernacular name of cows's leek. In Devon, dairy farmers have occasionally had the milk of their herds rejected because of the garlic flavour imparted to it by the cows having grazed upon the plant.
Ramsons is from the Saxon word hramsa, meaning "garlic". There is evidence it has been used in English cuisine since Celtic Britons  over 1,500 years ago.
Early healers among the Celts, Teutonic tribes and ancient Romans were familiar with the wild herb and called it herba salutaris, meaning 'healing herb'.


Allium ursinum is a bulbous, perennial herbaceous monocot, that reproduces primarily by seed. The narrow bulbs are formed from a single leaf base and produce bright green entire, elliptical leaves up to 25 cm (9.8 in) long x 7 cm (2.8 in) wide with a petiole up to 20 cm (7.9 in) long. The inflorescence is an umbel of six to 20 white flowers, lacking the bulbils produced by some other Allium species such as Allium vineale (crow garlic) and Allium oleraceum (field garlic). The flowers are star-like with six white tepals, about 16–20 mm (0.63–0.79 in) in diameter, with stamens shorter than the perianth.
It flowers in the British Isles from April to June, starting before deciduous trees leaf in the spring. The flower stem is triangular in cross-section and the leaves are broadly lanceolate, similar to those of the toxic lily of the valley (Convallaria majalis).


It is native to temperate regions of Europe, from Britain east to the Caucasus. It is common in much of the lowland British Isles with the exception of the far north of Scotland, Orkney, Shetland, and the Channel Islands. The ursinum subspecies is found in western and central Europe, while the ucrainicum subspecies is found in the east and southeast.


Allium ursinum has been credited with many medicinal qualities and is a popular homeopathic ingredient. It is often used for treating cardiovascular, respiratory, and digestive problems, as well as for the sterilisation of wounds.
Various minerals are found in much higher amounts in Allium ursinum than in clove garlic. It is sometimes called the “magnesium king” of plants because of the high levels of this mineral found in the leaves. Magnesium is known as the anti-stress mineral and protects the circulatory system, especially the heart.


It grows in deciduous woodlands with moist soils, preferring slightly acidic conditions. In the British Isles, colonies are frequently associated with bluebells (Hyacinthoides non-scripta), especially in ancient woodland. It is considered to be an ancient woodland indicator species.


All parts of the Allium ursinum  plant are edible and have culinary uses, including the flower which can be used to garnish salads.
The leaves of the Allium ursinum  are the most popular part to be used in food. Leaves can be used in raw salads and carry a very subtle garlicky flavour similar to that of garlic chives. When picked the leaves bruise, making them smell even stronger. When cooked the flavour of the leaves becomes softer and sweeter.
The leaf is often chopped and used to replace garlic and other herbs in many recipes. The bulb can be used in a similar way to clove garlic.
Popular dishes using the plant include pesto, soups, pasta, cheese, scones and Devonnaise.


The leaves of A. ursinum are edible; they can be used as salad, herb, boiled as a vegetable, in soup, or as an ingredient for a sauce that may be a substitute for pesto in lieu of basil.  Leaves are also often used to make garlic butter. The stems are preserved by salting and eaten as a salad in Russia. A variety of Cornish Yarg cheese has a rind coated in wild garlic leaves. The leaves can be pickled in the same way as Allium ochotense known as mountain garlic in Korea. The bulbs and flowers are also edible. It is used for preparing herbed cheese, a Van speciality in Turkey.
The leaves are also used as fodder. Cows that have fed on ramsons give milk that tastes slightly of garlic, and butter made from this milk used to be very popular in 19th-century Switzerland.
The first evidence of the human use of A. ursinum comes from the Mesolithic settlement of Barkær (Denmark), where an impression of a leaf has been found. In the Swiss Neolithic settlement of Thayngen-Weier (Cortaillod culture),  a high concentration of pollen from A. ursinum was found in the settlement layer, interpreted by some as evidence for the use of A. ursinum as fodder.


Plants that may be mistaken for A. ursinum include lily of the valley, Colchicum autumnale, Arum maculatum, and Veratrum viride or Veratrum album, all of which are poisonous. In Europe, where ramsons are popularly harvested from the wild, people are regularly poisoned after mistakenly picking lily of the valley or Colchicum autumnale.
Grinding the leaves between the fingers and checking for a garlic-like smell can be helpful, but if the smell remains on the hands, one can mistake a subsequent poisonous plant for bear garlic. When the leaves of A. ursinum and Arum maculatum first sprout, they look similar, but unfolded Arum maculatum leaves have irregular edges and many deep veins, while ramsons leaves are convex with a single main vein. The leaves of lily of the valley are paired, dull green and come from a single reddish-purple stem, while the leaves of A. ursinum emerge individually are initially shiny and are bright green.


As its name suggests, A. ursinum is an important food for brown bears. The plant is also a favourite of wild boar.
A. ursinum is the primary larval host plant for a specialised hoverfly, ramsons hoverfly (Portevinia maculata).
The flowers are pollinated by bees.


Allodus podophylli, the mayapple rust, is a plant pathogen. This fungal parasite forms tiny bright orange cups on the underside of leaves of mayapple.
While the name Puccinia podophylli is often used, in 2012 the name Allodus podophylli was resurrected based on DNA evidence.


Allotria is a monotypic moth genus in the family Erebidae. Its only species, Allotria elonympha, the false underwing moth, is found in eastern North America. Both the genus and the species were first described by Jacob Hübner, the genus in 1823 and the species in 1818.
The wingspan is 33–44 mm. Adults are on wing from March to September.
The larvae feed on various deciduous trees, such as black gum (Nyssa sylvatica), hickory and walnut.


Allotropa virgata is in the family Ericaceae and is the only species of the genus Allotropa. It is a perennial plant that gets its common names from the distinct white and red or maroon stripes along its erect peduncle. A. virgata are nongreen as they lack chlorophyll, instead obtaining nutrition from neighboring green plants through a fungal intermediate.
Its common names include sugarstick, candystriped allotropa and barber's pole.


Allotropa virgata was first collected by the Wilkes Expedition in the Cascade Mountains of Washington in the late 1800s. It is found in the oak, coniferous and hardwood forests of the Pacific Northwest. It grows from 75 to 3000 meters in elevation in the High Sierra Nevada, High Cascade Range and up through British Columbia. There is also suitable habitat in Idaho, Nevada, and Montana.


Allotropa virgata feeds primarily on matsutake mushroom (Tricholoma matsutake) mycelium, and also possibly that of the similar Tricholoma magnivelare. Allotropa virgata was listed as a 'sensitive' species in 1998. It is a clonal species that spreads through its extensive lateral root system, to lengths up to 4 feet and 2 feet deep. Because it spreads underground through buds on the lateral roots, it is able to survive ground fires if the host tree of its fungal hosts are not killed as well.
Allotropa virgata is pollinated by bumblebees, sweat bees, and some Lepidoptera species.


Allotropa virgata has an underground stem (rhizome) with brittle roots. The scale-like leaves are along the striped peduncle with a raceme-like inflorescence. The peduncle is persistent after the seeds have been dispersed and tends to turn brown. The bracts of the inflorescence are less than 3 cm and the pedicels are not recurved. The stems stand up to 40 centimeters tall. Standing dead stems, which darken to a reddish-brown with no white, from prior years' growth are often present.
The individual flowers generally do not have sepals but if they do, have 2 to 4. Often the petals of the flower are incorrectly considered sepals. The corolla has 5 white petals in a cup shape, all petals are free and concave. From the corolla there are 10 protruding stamens, maroon in color, with dehiscent anthers. The superior ovary has 5 chambers with a style under 2 mm and a disk-like stigma. The short nectary is disk-like as well with 10 lobes.
The fruit of A. virgata are capsules which dehisce lengthwise through the ovary wall near the center of each of the 5 chambers. This dehiscence allows the many fusiform seeds from each chamber to be dispersed.


Alnus alnobetula is a common tree widespread across much of Europe, Asia, and North America. Many sources refer to it as Alnus viridis, the green alder, but botanically this is considered an illegitimate name synonymous with Alnus alnobetula subsp. fruticosa.


It is a large shrub or small tree 3–12 metres (10–39+1⁄2 ft) tall with smooth grey bark even in old age. The leaves are shiny green with light green undersurfaces, ovoid, 3–8 centimetres (1+1⁄4–3+1⁄4 in) long and 2–6 cm broad. The flowers are catkins, appearing late in spring after the leaves emerge (unlike other alders which flower before leafing out); the male catkins are pendulous, 4–8 cm long, the female catkins 1 cm long and 0.7 cm broad when mature in late autumn, in clusters of 3–10 on a branched stem. The seeds are small, 1–2 millimetres (1⁄32–3⁄32 in) long, light brown with a narrow encircling wing.
The roots of Alnus viridis subsp. sinuata have nitrogen-fixing nodules. A study in Alaska showed that Sitka alder seedlings were able to invade coal mine spoils and can be used for revegetation and stripmine reclamation.


There are four to six subspecies, some treated as separate species by some authors:
Alnus viridis subsp. viridis – Central Europe
Alnus viridis subsp. suaveolens – Corsica (endemic)
Alnus viridis subsp. fruticosa – Northeast Europe, northern Asia, northwestern North America
Alnus viridis subsp. maximowiczii (A. maximowiczii) – Japan
Alnus viridis subsp. crispa (A. crispa, mountain alder) – northeastern North America, Greenland
Alnus viridis subsp. sinuata (A. sinuata, Sitka alder or slide alder) – western North America, far northeastern Siberia
Alnus viridis is classed as an environmental weed in New Zealand.


It is sometimes used for afforestation on infertile soils which it enriches by means of its nitrogen-fixing nodules, while not growing large enough to compete with the intended timber crop. A. sinuata can add 55 lbs of nitrogen per acre per year to the soil. Alnus viridis leaves have been used in the traditional Austrian medicine externally or internally as tea for treatment of infections and fever.


Alnus incana, the grey alder or speckled alder, is a species of tree in the birch family, with a wide range across the cooler parts of the Northern Hemisphere.


It is a small- to medium-sized tree 15–20 metres (49–66 ft) tall with smooth grey bark even in old age, its life span being a maximum of 60 to 100 years. The leaves are matte green, ovoid, 5–11 centimetres (2–4+1⁄4 in) long and 4–8 cm (1+1⁄2–3+1⁄4 in) broad. The flowers are catkins, appearing early in spring before the leaves emerge, the male catkins pendulous and 5–10 cm (2–4 in) long, the female catkins 1.5 cm (5⁄8 in) long and one cm broad when mature in late autumn. The seeds are small, 1–2 millimetres (1⁄32–3⁄32 in) long, and light brown with a narrow encircling wing. The grey alder has a shallow root system, and is marked not only by vigorous production of stump suckers, but also by root suckers, especially in the northern parts of its range. The wood resembles that of the black alder (Alnus glutinosa), but is somewhat paler and of little economic value.


There are four to six subspecies, some treated as separate species by some authors:
Alnus incana subsp. incana; grey alder — Northern Europe and northwestern Asia, and central and southern Europe in mountains, mainly in the regions of the Alps, Carpathians and the Caucasus
Alnus incana subsp. hirsuta (Spach) Á. & D.Löve (=A. hirsuta Spach); Manchurian alder — In mountains of Northeast Asia and Central Asia
Alnus incana subsp. kolaensis (N.I.Orlova) Á. & D.Löve. — Subarctic northeast Europe
Alnus incana subsp. oblongifolia (=Alnus oblongifolia); Arizona alder — Madrean Sky Islands of southwestern North America, in Arizona, New Mexico, and Northwestern Mexico
Alnus incana subsp. rugosa (Du Roi) R.T.Clausen (=A. rugosa Du Roi); speckled alder — Much of Canada below the tree line, and the Northeastern United States
Alnus incana subsp. tenuifolia (Nutt.) Breitung (=A. tenuifolia Nutt.); mountain alder, or thinleaf alder — Western North America, including New Mexico to California and Alaska; the roots have nitrogen-fixing nodules.


Alnus incana is a light-demanding, fast-growing tree that grows well on poorer soils. In central Europe, it is a colonist of alluvial land alongside mountain brooks and streams, occurring at elevations up to 1,500 metres (4,900 ft). However, it does not require moist soil, and will also colonize screes and shallow stony slopes. In the northern part of its range, it is a common tree species at sea level in forests, abandoned fields and on lakeshores. Several species of Lepidoptera use grey alder as a food plant for their caterpillars. In the boreal forest area of Canada, A. incana is often associated with black spruce in the forest type termed black spruce–speckled alder. The larvae of the alder woolly sawfly sometimes cause considerable defoliation to the grey alder.
A. rugosa provides cover for wildlife, is browsed by deer and moose, and the seeds are eaten by birds.


The tree is cultivated in parks and gardens. The cultivar 'Aurea', with green-gold leaves, has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.
It is sometimes used for afforestation on non-fertile soils which it enriches by means of nitrogen fixing bacteria in its root nodules.
Alder is an excellent tree for coppicing and pollarding. Its cut branches may be fed to browsing livestock such as cows and goats, then used for kindling, firewood, or light construction - while root systems fertilize adjacent agricultural plots via nitrogen fixation.
The Zuni people use the bark of the tenuifolia subspecies to dye deerskin reddish brown.
The Ho-Chunk people eat the bark of the rugosa subspecies when their stomachs are "sour" or upset.


Alnus rhombifolia, the white alder, is an alder tree native to western North America, from British Columbia and Washington east to western Montana, southeast to the Sierra Nevada, and south through the Peninsular Ranges and Colorado Desert oases in Southern California. It occurs in riparian zone habitats at an altitudes range of 100–2,400 metres (330–7,870 ft). While not reported in northern Baja California, it has been predicted on the basis of its climatic adaptation to occur there also. Alnus rhombifolia is primarily found in the chaparral and woodlands, montane, and temperate forests ecoregions.


Alnus rhombifolia is a medium-sized deciduous tree growing to 15–25 metres (49–82 ft) (rarely to 35 metres (115 ft)) tall, with pale gray bark, smooth on young trees, becoming scaly on old trees. The leaves are alternate, rhombic to narrow elliptic, 4–10 centimetres (1.6–3.9 in) long and 2–5 centimetres (0.79–1.97 in) broad, with a finely serrated margin and a rounded to acute apex; they are thinly hairy below.
The flowers are produced in catkins. The male catkins are pendulous, slender, 3–10 centimetres (1.2–3.9 in) long, yellowish, and produced in clusters of two to seven; pollination is in early spring, before the leaves emerge. The female catkins are ovoid, when mature in autumn 10–22 millimetres (0.39–0.87 in) long and  7–10 millimetres (0.28–0.39 in) broad, on a  1–10 millimetres (0.039–0.394 in) stem, superficially resembling a small conifer cone. The small winged seeds disperse through the winter, leaving the old woody, blackish 'cones' on the tree for up to a year after.
The white alder is closely related to the red alder (Alnus rubra), differing in the leaf margins being flat, not curled under. Like other alders, it is able to fix nitrogen, and tolerates infertile soils.


Some Plateau Indian tribes use white alder for female health treatment needs.


Alnus rubra, the red alder,
is a deciduous broadleaf tree native to western North America (Alaska, Yukon, British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, California, Idaho and Montana).


The name derives from the bright rusty red color that develops in bruised or scraped bark.


Alnus rubra grows from Southeast Alaska to central coastal California, nearly always within about 200 kilometres (120 mi) of the Pacific coast, except for an extension 600 km (370 mi) inland across Washington and Oregon into northernmost Montana. It can be found from sea level to elevations of 900 m (3,000 ft).


In southern Alaska, western British Columbia and the northwestern Pacific Coast Ranges of the United States, red alder grows on cool and moist slopes; inland and at the southern end of its range (California) it grows mostly along the margins of watercourses and wetlands. It is shade intolerant.
In moist forest areas, Alnus rubra will rapidly cover a former burn or clearcut, often preventing the establishment of conifers. It is a prolific seed producer, but the small, wind-dispersed seeds require an open area of mineral soil to germinate, and so skid trails and other areas disturbed by logging or fire are ideal seedbeds. Such areas may host several hundred thousand to several million seedlings per hectare in the first year after landscape disturbance.
Twigs and buds of alder are only fair browse for wildlife, but deer and elk browse the twigs in fall and twigs and buds in the winter and spring. Beaver occasionally eat the bark, though it is not a preferred species. Several finches eat alder seeds, notably common redpoll and pine siskin, and as do deer mice. Tent caterpillars often feed on the leaves, but the trees usually recover within a year.
The tree hosts the nitrogen-fixing actinomycete Frankia in nodules on roots. This association allows alder to grow in nitrogen-poor soils, and makes the species an important early colonizer of disturbed forests and riparian areas. This self-fertilizing trait allows red alder to grow rapidly, and makes it effective in covering disturbed and/or degraded land, such as mine spoils. Alder leaves, shed in the fall, decay readily to form a nitrogen-enriched humus.


Red alder is associated with coast Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii subsp. menziesii), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), grand fir (Abies grandis), western redcedar (Thuja plicata), and Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) forests.
Along stream banks, it is commonly associated with willows (Salix spp.), red osier dogwood (Cornus stolonifera), Oregon ash (Fraxinus latifolia), and bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum).
To the southeast of its range it is replaced by white alder (Alnus rhombifolia), which is a tree of similar stature, but which differs in the leaf margins not being rolled under, lack of distinct lobes, and lack of membranous wings on seed margins. In the high mountains it is replaced by the smaller and more shrub-like Sitka alder (Alnus viridis subsp. sinuata), and east of the Cascade Mountains by thinleaf alder (Alnus incana subsp. tenuifolia).


A russet dye can be made from a decoction of the bark, apparently due to the tannin it contains, and was used by Native Americans to dye fishing nets so as to make them less visible underwater.


Native Americans used red alder bark to treat poison oak reactions, insect bites, and skin irritations. Blackfeet Indians used an infusion made from the bark of red alder to treat lymphatic disorders and tuberculosis. Recent clinical studies have verified that red alder contains betulin and lupeol, compounds shown to be effective against a variety of tumors.


In addition to its use as a nitrogen fixer, red alder is occasionally used as a rotation crop to discourage the conifer root pathogen Phellinus weirii (causing laminated root rot).
Alnus rubra are occasionally planted as ornamental trees and will do well in Swales, riparian areas, or on stream banks, in light-textured soils that drain well. Red alder does not thrive in heavy, wet clay soils. If planted domestically, alders should be planted well away from drainpipes, sewage pipes, and water lines, as the roots may invade and clog the lines.


Alder lumber is not considered to be a durable option for outdoor applications, but due to its workability and ease of finishing it is increasingly used for furniture and cabinetry. Because it is softer than other popular hardwoods such as maple, walnut and ash, alder has historically been considered of low value for timber. However it is now becoming one of the more popular hardwood alternatives as it is economically priced compared to many other hardwoods. In the world of musical instrument construction, red alder is valued by some electric guitar / electric bass builders for its balanced tonality. Alder is frequently used by Native Americans for making masks, bowls, tool handles, and other small goods.
The appearance of alder lumber ranges from white through pinkish to light brown, has a relatively soft texture, minimal grain, and has medium luster. It is easily worked, glues well, and takes a good finish.


Because of its oily smoke, A. rubra is the wood of choice for smoking salmon.


Red alder is often used by scientists as a biomonitoring organism to locate areas prone to ozone pollution, as the leaves react to the presence of high ozone levels by developing red to brown or purple discolorations.


With a current inventory of about 7.4 billion cubic feet, red alder comprises 60 percent of the total hardwood volume in the Pacific Northwest, and is by far the most valuable hardwood in term of diversity of products, commercial value, and manufacturing employment. Increasing value of alder logs, combined with a better understanding of the species' ecological role, has led some land managers to tolerate and, in some cases, manage for alder. Since most forest land in the Northwest is managed for conifer production, however, over 80,000 hectares of timberland are sprayed with herbicides annually in Oregon alone to control red alder and other competing hardwood species. Red alder's rapid early growth can interfere with establishment of conifer plantations Herbicide spraying of red alder over large areas of coastal Oregon and Washington has resulted in a number of lawsuits claiming this spraying has caused health problems, including birth defects and other human health effects.
In addition to adding soil nitrogen, rotations of red alder are used to reduce laminated root rot (introduced via Phellinus weirii) in Douglas-fir forests. Nurse stands of red alder may also reduce spruce weevil damage in Sitka spruce stands on the Olympic Peninsula Alder continues to attract interest as log values approach and often exceed those of Douglas-fir. This interest is limited by red alder's total stand productivity, which is significantly lower than that of Douglas-fir and western hemlock.


Alnus serrulata, the hazel alder or smooth alder, is a thicket-forming shrub in the family Betulaceae. It is native to eastern North America and can be found from western Nova Scotia and southern New Brunswick south to Florida and Texas.


Alnus serrulata is a large shrub or small tree that may grow up to 2.5–4 m (8.2–13.1 ft) high and 15 cm (5.9 in) in diameter. The scientific name originates from alnus which is an old name for alder; serrulata points to the finely-toothed leaf margins which it possesses. It takes about 10 yrs to mature. The plant prefers moist soil near streams, pond margins, and riversides. It usually has multiple stems from its base and reddish-green flowers. The broad, flat, dark green leaves are about 2 to 4 inches long.
Leaf: The simple, round leaves are obovate, 2 to 5 in long, 1.2 to 2.8 in wide, obtuse, wider at middle, and V-shaped base. Veins are pinnate and conspicuous. Leaves have a smooth texture above and hairy texture below. The upper side of the leaves are dark green and the undersides are pale green.
Flower: The flowers are monoecious, meaning that both sexes are found on a single plant. Male (Staminate) catkins are 1.6-2.4 in long; female (Pistillate) catkins are 1/2 in long. Reddish-green flowers open in March to April.
Fruit: The ovate, dark brown, cone-like fruit is hard with winged scales. Seeds are produced in small cones and do not have wings. Fruit usually matures during fall and is quite persistent.
Twig: The twigs are reddish-brown and have a 3-angled-pith; young twigs are covered with hairs.
Bark: The bark is brownish gray, smooth, and has a bitter and astringent taste.


Alnus serrulata is mainly located in eastern North America. It ranges from Maine to Northern Florida, west to southeastern Oklahoma, Missouri, and Illinois. It also grows along the Mississippi river. It is not present in northern New Hampshire and Vermont. Smooth Alder is classified as an facultative wetland species in the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains and an obligate wetland species in the North and Midwest.


Alnus serrulata can be found in a habitats such as streambanks, riversides, and swamps. Water use is high and it requires sun or part-sun. It also requires moist soil that has a pH of 6.8-7.2. Alnus serrulata needs 5–10-foot spacing in wildlife habitat.


Because the plant resides in riversides or stream streambanks, it usually functions as a stabilizer and restorer for those habitats. It is also used to treat astringent, diuretic, emetic, ophthalmic, and purgative symptoms. A tea made from the bark is said to work as a treatment for diarrhea, coughs, toothaches, sore mouth, and the pain of birth.


Alopecurus pratensis, known as the meadow foxtail or the field meadow foxtail, is a perennial grass belonging to the grass family (Poaceae). It is native to Europe and Asia.
This common plant is found on grasslands, especially on neutral soils. It is found on moist, fertile soils, but avoids waterlogged, light or dry soils. The species forms dense swards leading to low botanical diversity.
This species is widely cultivated for pasture and hay, and has become naturalised in many areas outside its native range, including Australia and North America.


It flowers from April until June – one of the earliest grasses to do so. Any survey work carried out in mid-summer may miss the grass as a result of this.
It can grow to a height of about 110 centimetres (43 in). The stem is erect and hard at the shaft, the sheathes being smooth and cylindrical. The leaves are about 5 millimetres (0.20 in) wide and hairless. Meadow foxtail has a cylindrical inflorescence with glumes about 5–10 millimetres (0.20–0.39 in) wide and spikelets about 4–6 millimetres (0.16–0.24 in) long.
The ligule is 1–2.5 millimetres (0.039–0.098 in) long, with a slightly tattered top.


Alopecurus pratensis has two common relatives, marsh foxtail (Alopecurus geniculatus) and black grass (A. myosuroides). It is often confused with timothy (Phleum pratense).  Timothy flowers later, from June until August. Its spikelets have twin hornlike projections arranged in cylindrical panicles, while meadow foxtail has a single soft awn.


The caterpillars of some lepidopterans use it as a foodplant, e.g. the Essex skipper (Thymelicus lineola). Additionally, male mosquitoes can often be found on this flower drinking the nectar out of it.


Alophia drummondii, commonly called propeller flower, is a species of flowering plant in the family Iridaceae. It is native to the North and South America, where it ranges from the U.S. states of Arkansas and Oklahoma southward into Mexico. There is also an apparent disjunct population in Paraguay.
Its natural habitat is in sandy soils of open prairies and woodlands, often growing around partially shaded forest edges.
Alophia drummondii is an herbaceous perennial with a bulbous base. Its leaves are linear-lanceolate and folded along the midrib. Each plant produces a few flowers, which only last a single day. Its tepals are dark purple with a yellow and reddish-brown base. It typically blooms from May to July.


Alternanthera philoxeroides, commonly referred to as alligator weed, is a native species to the temperate regions of South America, which includes Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. Argentina alone hosts around 27 species that fall within the range of the genus Alternanthera. Its geographic range once covered only the Parana River region of South America, but it has since expanded, having been introduced to over 30 countries, such as the United States, Japan, China, Australia, New Zealand and many more. This invasive species is believed to have been accidentally introduced to these non-native regions through sediments trapped by, or attached to, tanks and cargo of ships travelling from South America to these various areas.


Alternanthera philoxeroides can thrive in both dry and aquatic environments and is characterized by whitish, papery flowers along its short stalks, irregular, or sprawling hollow stems, and simple and opposite leaf pattern sprouting from its nodes. It is also considered a herbaceous plant due to its short-lived shoot system. It produces horizontal stems, otherwise known as stolons, that can sprout up to 10 metres (33 ft) in length and thanks to its hollow stems, floats easily. This results in large clusters of stem amassing and create dense mats along the surface. Bisexual flowers are small, white, and born on dense, axillary spikes (type of raceme). Presence of a peduncle is a key trait that distinguishes this species from the sessile inflorescences of Alternanthera sessilis. While seed production has been observed in its native range, there is currently no record of viable A. philoxeroides seeds in the introduced range. The weed's intricate root system can either allow them to hang free in the water to absorb nutrients or directly penetrate the soil/sediment and pull their nutrients from below.


Alternanthera philoxeroides is considered a major threat to ecosystems because of the adverse effects it poses on both aquatic and terrestrial environments, as well as the negative influence it has on society. The species features on the list of invasive alien species of Union Concern since 2017. This means that import and trade of this species is forbidden in the whole of the European Union.


The presence of this invasive species disrupts the natural flow of water due to the dense mats created by its clusters of stems. It out competes the native vegetation for space and solar energy through these dense mats because they form large clusters and limit the amount of light that submerged vegetation receives. These compact clusters of stems also disturb the regular exchange of gases that occurs underneath the surface that directly influences aerobic processes, such as photosynthesis. Aside from driving down the population of native aquatic vegetation, A. philoxeroides can also influence the growth and yield of crops in pastures and fields. These dense mats can affect the natural flow of water that is used in irrigation systems and as well as affect the quality of the water by increasing the sedimentation present in the water. Both of these factors must remain undisturbed for crops to grow well, and thus to provide a healthy yield for farmers, which will be discussed in the later section on its impacts on society.  On top of this, the likelihood of flooding is higher due to the impaired drainage caused by the dense mats, which in turn can also damage crops. This invasive species also has other negative impacts on the environment.


Dense mats formed by this species influence the natural flow of water, which can impede various recreational activities, such as boating and fishing. The disruption of flow can also have a negative impact on infrastructure when it comes to energy, such as the use of hydro-electric dams to power generators. The dense mats also present suitable ecological conditions that mosquitoes can thrive off of. This is a commensal relationship between mosquitoes and A. philoxeroides because mosquitoes receive a breeding ground and the plant gains nothing nor loses anything. The increased population of mosquitoes can bring an increased risk of mosquito-borne diseases in humans. Furthermore, the dense mats produced by A. philoxeroides may not present suitable ecological conditions for native species or humans to thrive off.


This invasive plant depends solely on vegetative means to reproduce and disperse itself in the area it has invaded and established its roots. In its native geographic range, the species spreads to through means of producing viable seeds; however, it has been observed within its non-native ranges that it rarely produces viable seeds. To accommodate this, the A. philoxeroides reproduces through fragmentation; the plant can regenerate itself from small portions of stems or small leaf cuttings. These small fragments of the plant can then be dispersed through human means and natural means; once it is dispersed, the fragments can then find suitable ecological conditions and root themselves and regenerate.


In aquatic environments, the A. philoxeroides can easily disperse its fragments by being sucked into the path of the waterways. In terrestrial environments, the small fragments of stems and leaf cuttings can be dispersed through the natural movement of soil caused by erosion. Thus, the geographic range of this invasive species can easily be expanded by any means necessary due to its ability to regenerate from practically nothing.


Early detection is the best bet to ensure that the invasive species does not successfully colonize a non-native region because of its ability to regenerate and propagate from small portions of its stem or leaf cuttings. However, when that is not possible, the best that can be done is to limit and control the presence of A. philoxeroides in an area. Alternanthera philoxeroides can only establish itself in shallow waters no deeper than 2 metres (2 yards), so one method of control is to erect barriers in shallower areas to limit the amount of suitable space the plant has. When it comes to terrestrial environments, overpopulating the area with native species can limit the suitable space available for it. However, this method is only effective before the invasive plant has asserted itself in an area. Lastly, as previously mentioned, this plant is only able to produce viable seeds in its native geographic range and not in the areas it has invaded. Learning why that is - what ecological conditions make it produce only sterile seeds - could be key to developing further preventative measures against it.


Alypia octomaculata, the eight-spotted forester, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. It is found in the eastern part of the United States and in parts of Canada and Mexico.
The moth is black, with 2 whitish or yellowish spots in each wing.  The wingspan is 30–37 mm. The moth flies from April to June in one generation in the north. In the south it has a second generation, which flies in August.
The larvae feed on Virginia creeper.


Amaranthus retroflexus is a species of flowering plant in the family Amaranthaceae with several common names, including red-root amaranth, redroot pigweed, red-rooted pigweed, common amaranth, pigweed amaranth, and common tumbleweed.


Amaranthus retroflexus, true to one of its common names, forms a tumbleweed. It is native to the tropical Americas, but is widespread as an introduced species on most continents in a great number of habitats. This is an erect, annual herb reaching a maximum height near 3 m (9.8 ft). The leaves are nearly 15 cm (5.9 in) long on large individuals, the ones higher on the stem having a lance shape and those lower on the plant diamond or oval in shape. The plant is monoecious, with individuals bearing both male and female flowers. The inflorescence is a large, dense cluster of flowers interspersed with spiny green bracts. The fruit is a capsule less than 2 mm (0.079 in) long with a "lid" which opens to reveal a tiny black seed. Another of A. retroflexus's common names is "pigweed" because it grows where hogs are pasture-fed.


This plant is eaten as a vegetable in different places of the world. No species of genus Amaranthus is known to be poisonous, but the leaves contain oxalic acid and may contain nitrates if grown in nitrate-rich soils, so the water should be discarded after boiling. The young shoots and leaves can be eaten raw. The leaves are high in calcium, iron, protein, and phosphorus.
A. retroflexus was used for a multitude of food and medicinal purposes by many Native American groups in the US West.  It is among the species consumed as a vegetable in Mexican markets as Quelite quintonil.
It is used in the Indian state of Kerala to prepare a popular dish known as thoran by combining the finely cut leaves with grated coconut, chili peppers, garlic, turmeric and other ingredients.
The seeds are edible raw or toasted, and can be ground into flour and used for bread, hot cereal, or as a thickener.


Like many other species of Amaranthus,  this plant may be harmful and even deadly when fed to cattle and pigs in large amounts over several days. Such forage may cause fatal nephrotoxicity, presumably because of its high oxalate content. Other symptoms, such as bloat or methylglobineamia in the most severe cases, might reflect its high nitrate content. However, when supplied in moderation, it is regarded as an exceptionally nutritious fodder.


A. retroflexus is a weed and has developed resistance against fomesafen in Northeast China.


Perennial bulbous geophyte with one to two erect solid stems which appear in late summer. The inflorescence bears 2–12 showy fragrant funnel-shaped flowers on a 'naked' (leafless) stem, which gives it the common name of naked-lady-lily. The pink flowers which may be up to 10cm in length, appear in the autumn before the leaves (hysteranthy) which are narrow and strap shaped.


Amaryllis belladonna is one of the two species in the genus Amaryllis as currently circumscribed.
The specific epithet belladonna is derived from the Italian bella donna, which means beautiful lady. There are many common names around the world, for instance in the Azores, Portugal one name is meninas para a escola (girls go to school) referring to the flowers blooming when the girls in their pink uniforms are starting the new school year.


Amaryllis belladonna is found in South Africa, where the plants are found growing among rocks.


Leaves of A. belladonna begin growing in early spring, or during late autumn. They last for a few weeks to a few months until they wither away, and a flower stalk will begin growing. When found in the wild, Amaryllis belladonna is pollinated by hawk moths and carpenter bees. The flower has a long-tubed, pale perianth, which fully expands at night. This flower will then release a sweet fragrance, that contains acyclic terpenoid alcohol, linalool and abundant nectar, that attracts pollinators to it. A. belladonna seeds are soft and fleshy, and appear white or pinkish. They are dispersed through wind dispersal during the winter time. This is to coincide with the first winter rain during March, and April. Seeds will germinate in as early as two weeks, but will not develop into a fully flowering plant until three to six years later.
All parts of the A. belladonna plant are toxic and contain several different alkaloids, such as lycorine, pancracine and amaryllidine. This can cause vomiting and diarrhea in humans. In wildlife these toxins will affect grazing species, and will cause drooling, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal distress, lethargy, and heart or renal failure. Deer will avoid eating this plant, possibly due to an evolutionary relationship.


The bulbs are best planted just below the surface of the soil, with the neck of the bulb level with the surface. In colder climates mulching or lifting and overwintering is required. The bulbs may be propagated from offsets. Amaryllis bulbs require little watering and are drought tolerant. This plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


Several compounds have been found in A. belladonna bulbs, including, 1,4-dihydroxy-3-methoxy powellan, which is an alkaloid. It has been observed that alkaloids in this plants bulb have properties to fight against malaria caused by P. falciparum.


The white-breasted waterhen (Amaurornis phoenicurus) is a waterbird of the rail and crake family, Rallidae, that is widely distributed across South and Southeast Asia. They are dark slaty birds with a clean white face, breast and belly. They are somewhat bolder than most other rails and are often seen stepping slowly with their tail cocked upright in open marshes or even drains near busy roads. They are largely crepuscular in activity and during the breeding season, just after the first rains, make loud and repetitive croaking calls.


Adult white-breasted waterhens have mainly dark grey upperparts and flanks, and a white face, neck and breast. The lower belly and undertail are cinnamon or white coloured. The body is flattened laterally to allow easier passage through the reeds or undergrowth. They have long toes, a short tail and a yellow bill and legs. Sexes are similar but females measure slightly smaller. Immature birds are much duller versions of the adults. The downy chicks are black, as with all rails.
Several subspecies are named for the populations that are widely distributed. The nominate subspecies is described from Sri Lanka but is often widened to include chinensis of mainland India and adjoining regions in Asia, west to Arabia and east nearly to Japan. The remaining subspecies are those from islands and include insularis of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, midnicobaricus of the central Nicobars, leucocephala of Car Nicobar, maldivus of the Maldives, javanicus of Java and leucomelanus of Sulawesi and the Lesser Sundas.


Their breeding habitat is marshes across tropical Asia from Pakistan east to Indonesia. They are mainly seen in the plains but have been known from the higher hills such as in Nainital (1300m) and the High Range (1500m) in Kerala. These large 32 cm (13 in) long rails are permanent residents throughout their range. They make short distance movements and are known to colonize new areas. They have been noted as some of the early colonizers on the volcanic island of Rakata. Although most often found near freshwater, they are also found near brackish water and even the seashore when there is no freshwater as on the volcanic Barren Island in the Andamans.


These birds are usually seen singly or in pairs as they forage slowly along the edge of a waterbody mainly on the ground but sometimes clambering up low vegetation. The tail is held up and jerked as they walk. They probe with their bill in mud or shallow water, also picking up food by sight. They mainly eat insects (large numbers of beetles have been recorded), small fish (which are often carefully washed in water), aquatic invertebrates and grains or seeds such as those of Pithecolobium dulce. They may sometimes feed in deeper water in the manner of a moorhen.
The nesting season is mainly June to October but varies locally. They nest in a dry location on the ground in marsh vegetation, laying 6-7 eggs. Courtship involves bowing, billing and nibbling. The eggs hatch in about 19 days. Both sexes incubate the eggs and take care of the chicks. Chicks often dive underwater to escape predation. Adults are said to build a roost or brood nest where young chicks and the adults roost.
Many rails are very secretive, but white-breasted waterhens are often seen out in the open. They can be noisy especially at dawn and dusk, with loud croaky calls. The Andamans population insularis is said to make duck like quack calls.


Local names of this bird are often formed by onomatopoeia (based on the sound it makes), for example ruak-ruak in Malay and korawakka in Sinhala.; although differently formed local names are also not uncommon, such as "Dahuk" in Bengali (used in Bangladesh and the Bengali-speaking areas of India) , "Dauk" (ডাউক) in Assamese, "Gur-gu-aa" in Boro and "Vo-kurwak" in Karbi. In Odisha it is called as "Daahuka" in Odia (ଡାହୁକ). In maharashtra it is called as "pankombadi"(पाणकोंबडी) or kuak kombadi (कुवाक कोंबडी) in marathi. In Malayalam they are called 'kulakozhi'(കുളക്കോഴി). They are also called “kanbili” in The Maldives. In Kannada they are called 'hundukoli' (ಹುಂಡುಕೋಳಿ). In Tamil they are called "Kaanaangkozi (கானாங்கோழி)
The naturalist writer Eha humorously describes the call of this species:
"It began with loud harsh roars which might have been elicited from a bear by roasting it slowly over a large fire, then suddenly changed to a clear note repeated like the coo of a dove."


The azure-crowned hummingbird (Saucerottia cyanocephala) is a species of hummingbird in the family Trochilidae.
It is found in Belize, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, and Nicaragua.
Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forest. The males have a metallic blue crown, while the females are identifiable by a more dull blue or greenish crown. It forages on arthropods (often searching bark and clusters of pine needle) as well as nectar from flowers. The species seems to be territorial based on how available resources are, and like most hummingbirds is likely polygamous. Its nests are generally cup shaped used from local resources, but in an urban setting the species has been known to even use objects such as telephone wires in its construction.
This species was formerly placed in the genus Amazilia. A molecular phylogenetic study published in 2014 found that the genus Amazilia was polyphyletic. In the revised classification to create monophyletic genera, the azure-crowned hummingbird was moved to the resurrected genus Saucerottia.


The rufous-tailed hummingbird (Amazilia tzacatl) is a medium-sized hummingbird in the "emeralds", tribe Trochilini of subfamily Trochilinae. It is found from east-central Mexico through Central America and Colombia into Ecuador and Venezuela.


The rufous-tailed hummingbird is 9 to 11 cm (3.5 to 4.3 in) long and weighs approximately 5 g (0.18 oz). The adult male of the nominate subspecies has a green head and upperparts except for chestnut-brown lores and uppertail coverts. The tail is also mostly chestnut-brown, giving the species its English name; the feathers' outer webs and tips are bronze green. The throat, upper breast, and sides are green; the throat feathers sometimes have thin white edges giving a scalloped effect. The lower breast is gray, the belly white, and the undertail coverts chestnut-brown. The adult female's lower breast is a paler gray than the male's and the scalloping on the throat is more pronounced. Juveniles have a cinnamon wash to the lower breast and sides and the feathers of the lower back and rump have narrow cinnamon tips. The outer half of the bill's maxilla is black and the inner half red; the mandible is red with a black tip.
A. t. handleyi has the same color pattern as the nominate but is significantly larger and darker. A. t. fuscicaudata is smaller than the nominate and has a shorter and stouter bill. A. t. jucunda's maxilla is pinkish brown rather than black; its belly is a darker gray than the nominate's and the bronze green on the tail is narrower. A. t. brehmi is similar to jucunda and fuscicaudata but has longer wings and tail. It has a longer bill than fuscicaudata and reduced green on the tail like jucunda.


The subspecies of the rufous-tailed hummingbird are found thus:
A. t. tzacatl, from the eastern Mexican states of Veracruz and Oaxaca south through Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica into most of Panama (It apparently skips El Salvador.)
A. t. handleyi, Isla Escudo de Veraguas off the Caribbean coast of northwestern Panama
A. t. fuscicaudata, the Cauca River and Magdalena River valleys of northern and western Colombia east into western Venezuela's Lara and Táchira states
A. t. brehmi, the upper Güiza River in Colombia's Nariño Department
A. t. jucunda, from Chocó Department in western Colombia south through western Ecuador to Loja Province
The South American Classification Committee (SACC) of the American Ornithological Society extends the range of A. t. jucunda into Peru.
The rufous-tailed hummingbird inhabits open, non-forested, landscapes such as clearings, gardens, and the edges of forest. It is also found in low, young, brushy, secondary forest. It frequently comes to feeders. In elevation the rufous-tailed hummingbird ranges from sea level to 1,200 m (3,900 ft) in Mexico, to 1,850 m (6,100 ft) in Costa Rica, 1,800 m (5,900 ft) in Colombia, and 1,700 m (5,600 ft) in Venezuela. It is found as high as 2,500 m (8,200 ft) in Ecuador but that elevation is thought be local or seasonal.


Like most hummingbirds, the rufous-tailed feeds on nectar and small insects. It is common at sugar water feeders and often seen in coffee and banana plantations. It is extremely territorial and aggressive at feeding sites such as flower patches and feeders, from which it chases other hummingbirds and large insects.


The rufous-tailed hummingbird is polygynous. Though it is aggressive while feeding, the species sometimes nests in loose colonies. Its breeding season varies widely across its range, but is within the February to November span. The female is entirely responsible for nest building, incubation of eggs, and care of nestlings. She lays two white eggs in a compact cup nest constructed from plant fibers, leaves, and spiderwebs covered with lichens and mosses. It is typically placed up to 6 m (20 ft) high on a thin horizontal twig. Incubation takes 15 to 19 days, and fledging another 18 to 22 days.


The rufous-tailed hummingbird's song is "varied, high, thin, squeaky chirping, tsi, tsi-tsi-tsit tsi-tsitsi tsi-si-si." Its calls are "a fairly hard, smacking tchik-tchik...or...tchi tchi..., at times repeated insistently" and "dry, hard chips often run into a rattling chirr-rr-rr-rr-rr".


The IUCN has assessed the rufous-tailed hummingbird as being of Least Concern. It has a very large range and a population estimated at more than five million mature individuals, though that number is thought to be decreasing. The species might actually benefit from human activity, as deforestation provides open spaces. The species frequents coffee and banana plantations and readily comes to feeders.


The violet-crowned hummingbird (Leucolia violiceps) is a medium-sized hummingbird. It is 10 cm long and weighs approximately 5 g.
The bird is best distinguished by its violet-colored cap, from where it gets its name.  Adults are colored predominantly a dark olive green for their upperparts and tail.  The underparts are predominantly white. The bill of the male is straight and very slender.  It is red in coloration, and shows a black tip.  The female is less colorful than the male.
The breeding habitat is in arid scrub of southeastern Arizona in the United States to southwestern Mexico, (the Madrean Sky Islands), and it is typically a mountain species. Outside its breeding range, it will occasionally stray from southernmost California to southwest Texas.  The female builds a nest in a protected location in a shrub or tree.  Females lay two white eggs.  This hummingbird is partially migratory, retreating from northernmost areas during the winter.
These birds feed on nectar from flowers and flowering trees using a long extendable tongue or catch insects on the wing.
This species was formerly placed in the genus Amazilia. A molecular phylogenetic study published in 2014 found that Amazilia was polyphyletic. In the revised classification to create monophyletic genera, the violet-crowned hummingbird was one of three species to be placed in the resurrected genus Leucolia.


The white-fronted amazon (Amazona albifrons) also known as the white-fronted parrot, or spectacled amazon parrot, is a Central American species of parrot. They can imitate a range from 30 to 40 different sounds. Like other large parrots, the white-fronted parrot has a long potential life span, usually around 40 years.


The white-fronted amazon nests in tree cavities. Their breeding season is usually in the spring, starting in February and ending in the summer (in June and July in most areas). After breeding, the female will lay an average of three to four white eggs. Eggs are incubated for about 26 days and chicks leave the nest at the age of about 60 days from hatching.


The lilac-crowned amazon (Amazona finschi) is a parrot endemic to the Pacific slopes of Mexico. Also known as Finsch's amazon, it is characterized by green plumage, a maroon forehead, and violet-blue crown and neck.
The binomial of this bird commemorates the German naturalist and explorer Otto Finsch.
In 2006, BirdLife International classified this species as vulnerable. In 2014, IUCN uplisted this species to Endangered.


The plumage of an adult lilac-crowned amazon is primarily green with yellowish underparts and black edging. The forehead is a maroon color with a light blue-lilac neck, nape, and crown. The cheeks and ear coverts are a greenish yellow that lacks the edging that is present in most of the plumage. The primary feathers are dark blue with the secondary feathers being green while being tipped with the same dark blue coloring. Furthermore, the initial five secondary feathers have a bright red speculum on the edge of the feathers. The wing coverts, underside of the flight feathers, and the tail are green while the tail is tipped with a yellowish coloring similar to that of the cheeks and ear coverts. Their beak, orbital rings, and legs are a palebrown-grey coloring. The irides of adult lilac-crowned parrots are amber colored.
Juvenile lilac-crowned amazons are visually similar to their adult forms except for minor differences. One difference is that the iris of juveniles are a dark brown as opposed to the amber coloring that is found in adults. The other major difference is that there less maroon colored feathers on the forehead of juveniles. After about one year juveniles begin to acquire these adult features.


The lilac-crowned amazon's endemic range spans along the pacific coast of Mexico, beginning in southeastern Sonora and southwestern Chihuahua down to southern Oaxaca. In Sinaloa and northern Nayarit the geographic range of the lilac-crowned parrot is above 375 meters of elevation and does not reach sea level until southern Nayarit, where it remains so through Jalisco and Oaxaca.
The lilac-crowned amazon's natural habitat in Mexico is often threatened. Decline in population size has been recorded in almost all of its natural habitat locations. Based on collection of data and resident accounts, Amazona finschi population range has decreased by 20% due to habitat loss.
An increasingly growing population of approximately 100 individuals is found in Southern California especially in the San Gabriel Valley and Orange Country. This increase could also be attributed to a more reliable source of measurement of population than in past years. These populations often are found in residential areas and occasionally in nesting groups with red-crowned parrots in native conifer forests or non-native captive plants.


The lilac-crowned amazon's breeding season is from February to June. They have a 28-day incubation period and a 60-day period of nestling growth. They tend to nest in natural cavities of trees in dry forests. Females have a clutch size ranging from 1-4 eggs which usually results in an average brood size of 1.8 nestlings and a reproductive output of 0.99 fledglings per egg-laying female. Ultimately outcomes of reproductive efforts results in 0.70 independent young per egg-laying pair.
These low success rates could be attributed to the climate variability in dry forests, which could have an effect on clutch size, reproductive output and success.


Hand reared lilac-crowned amazons can be quite friendly in captivity and can learn quite a vocabulary, even though they are not known as talkers. They make good companion parrots.


The red-crowned amazon (Amazona viridigenalis), also known as the red-crowned parrot, green-cheeked amazon or Mexican red-headed parrot, is an endangered amazon parrot native to northeastern Mexico and southern Texas in the United States. A 1994 study estimated wild populations of between 2,000 and 4,300 mature individuals; the IUCN Red List considers it a globally endangered species with a decreasing population. The main threats to the native bird's survival are the illegal export of trapped birds from Mexico to the United States for the pet trade and the destruction of their natural habitat, the lowland forests of northeastern Mexico.


Their appearance is generally green with the most notable features being a bright red forehead and crown, dark blue streak behind the eyes, and light green cheeks. It is not uncommon for red-crowned amazons to have splashes of red and blue under their wings and have light yellow-tipped tails. They have a white eye-ring which brings out their eyes. Their iris color can range from a bright yellow to a deep red, although juveniles' eyes are gray until maturity. Red-crowned amazons usually have horn colored beaks and ceres but these can sometimes have black highlights. Their legs are flesh-colored or gray. They are approximately 11-13 inches in length from the beak to the tip of the tail feathers with a wingspan of 15-16 inches. Amazon parrots are not sexually dimorphic, so the only true way to know a parrot's sex is by genetic testing. Their average weight is 270g.


Their natural range is across the lowlands of northeastern Mexico, and the southern tip of Texas. Red-crowned amazons are a resident (non-migratory) species in their native range, but they can wander outside of their breeding range to follow a food source. Feral birds have bred in urban communities of southern California, southern Florida and the island of Oahu in Hawaii.
On June 4th, 2019, the Corpus Christi Ecological Services Field Office of the US Fish & Wildlife Service announced to the public that the USFWS considers the red-crowned parrot native to Texas in the Rio Grande Valley. However, because parrots were not mentioned in the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, birds in the Texas portion of their range are not entitled to USFWS protection, and must rely on enacted state and local laws. It is considered an Imperiled species (S2) in Texas. The USFWS estimated that there are roughly 700 wild red-crowned parrots in the Rio Grande Valley of Texas in 2019, and historical records place parrots in South Texas as early as 1885. The numbers of wild parrots in the United States now rivals populations in Mexico, due to their adaptation to urban life. However, the IUCN and other resources consider the bird to be non-native to all parts of the United States, including southern Texas. NatureServe considers the species to be "Imperiled".


They gather in large flocks being noisiest in the morning and evening. The characteristic screeching heard of these birds usually occurs when they travel in a large flock to a new feeding area. Their diet consists of seeds, fruits, flowers and nectar. Red-crowned amazons nest in tree cavities, like most other parrots. Amazons are one of the easiest parrots to read the behavior of, as their eye color shows their pinning exceptionally well. Red-crowned amazons pin their eyes when they are excited, either positively or negatively, about something in their environment. It is easy to make out the dilations of the pupil against the bright iris. This pinning, combined with different behavioral signs, can let a fellow parrot or an owner know how the parrot is feeling. An angry parrot may fan its tail feathers while a content, affectionate parrot may purr, or bend their head down to be scratched.


The generic name Amblyospiza was coined by Carl Jakob Sundevall in 1850 and means "blunt, finch", referencing the very large bill, while the specific name albifrons refers white forehead of the males. The thick-billed weaver was formally described as Pyrrhula albifrons in 1831 by the Irish zoologist and politician Nicholas Aylward Vigors from the collection of Henry Ellis, the specimens of which were attributed to Algoa Bay and environs in the Eastern Cape.


Ambrosia chamissonis is a species of ragweed known by the common names silver burr ragweed, silver beachweed and (silver) beach bur(r).
It is known from most of the coastline of western North America from Alaska to Baja California, where it is a resident of beaches and other sandy coastal habitats.


Ambrosia chamissonis is a large, sprawling perennial herb exceeding 3 metres (9.8 ft) in maximum width. The stems are roughly or softly hairy and longitudinally ridged. The plentiful leaves are a few centimeters long, woolly and silver-green, and variable in shape.
The plant is monoecious, with male and female flowers on each individual. Staminate (male) flower heads containing many pale colored florets occur at the tip of the inflorescence, with pistillate (female) flower heads clustered below them. Each pistillate head contains a single tiny flower which develops into a fruit. The fruit is a brown bur up to a centimeter wide covered in sharp spines.


Ambrosia deltoidea is a North American species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae known by the common names triangle bur ragweed, triangle bursage, and triangleleaf bursage.


The plant is native to the Sonoran Desert region of North America, where it can be found in Baja California, Baja California Sur, and Sonora in Mexico, with its distribution extending north into Arizona in the United States.
This shrub grows in desert habitat, such as desert grasslands and shrublands. It is a dominant or codominant species, and one of the most abundant plants, in the Arizona Upland Subdivision of the Sonoran Desert. It may occur in upper and lower bajadas, but it is most often found in the ecotone between them. It can be found in open areas. It grows on steep, rocky slopes alongside cacti such as the saguaro and paloverde such as the yellow paloverde. Other plants in the habitat include condalia, ocotillo, jatropha, and prickly pears. The bursage easily invades grassland that has been overgrazed. Areas protected from grazing have less bursage.


Ambrosia deltoidea is a shrub growing from a taproot with many lateral and adventitious roots. The plant produces many thin branches growing up to about half a meter tall. It generally has many dead branches tangled in the living crown. It is drought-deciduous. The leaves are no more than 2 centimeters long. The branches and new leaves are coated thinly in woolly fibers; the leaves become hairless with age.
The inflorescence is a spike of several staminate flower heads. There are often some pistillate heads just below these, with some pistillate heads borne on lateral branches. The fruit is an achene covered in spines. The achenes are usually dispersed when they stick to animals. The plant has been observed to have a lifespan of about 50 years.


This plant acts as a nurse plant for other species, providing shade and increased soil nitrogen for young growing plants. It also protects seedlings from herbivory. It is the main nurse plant for saguaro in Organ Pipe National Monument. It also serves as nurse plant for yellow paloverde, ocotillo, and some prickly pear species. Most bursage plants are associated with a perennial plant.
This plant is not palatable to mammals and it is not grazed by livestock.
Airborne allergens from this plant can cause contact dermatitis in humans.


Ambrosia dumosa, the burro-weed or white bursage, a North American species of plants in the family Asteraceae. It is a common constituent of the creosote-bush scrub community throughout the Mojave desert of California, Nevada, and Utah and the Sonoran Desert of Arizona and northwestern Mexico (Baja California, Baja California Sur, Sonora, Chihuahua).
Ambrosia dumosa has been studied to determine allelopathic interactions with creosote bush, Larrea tridentata, which produces a chemical that inhibits the growth of A. dumosa. Other studies have suggested that A. dumosa roots produce a chemical that causes them to grow away from conspecific roots, preventing competition for water resources. In addition to burro-weed, A. dumosa is also commonly called white bursage, and burrobush.


Ambrosia dumosa, a form of ragweed, is a highly branched shrub 20 to 90 cm in height. The younger stems are covered with soft gray-white hairs. Approximately obovate leaves are 1 to 3 times pinnately compound or deeply lobed and generally clustered on short branches. The leaves are 0.5 to 4 cm long and also covered in soft gray-white hairs.
Its inflorescence is yellow with staminate and pistillate headson a single plant (monoecious). Staminate heads have many flowers and are 3 to 5 mm in diameter with a 5 to 8 lobed involucre. Pistillate heads are 2 flowered and lack corollas.
Ambrosia dumosa has spherical bur-like fruits ranging in color from golden to purple to brown. Along with microscopic hairs, the fruit has 12 to 35 flat and straight spines which are 5 to 9 mm in length and scattered over the surface.
Ambrosia dumosa becomes dormant during drought, losing all of its leaves to prevent water loss by transpiration; drought deciduous. During this time, it can still be recognized by the presence of longitudinal stripes on smaller stems.
Like other types of Ambrosia, this is a ragweed, wind-blown pollen from burro-weed can cause serious allergic reactions. Increasing cases in Mojave Desert as the population grows from Joshua Tree, CA to Las Vegas, NV.


Ambrosia psilostachya is a species of ragweed known by the common names Cuman ragweed and perennial ragweed, and western ragweed.


The plant is widespread across much of North America (United States, Canada, and northern Mexico). It is also naturalized in parts of Europe, Asia, Australia, and South America. It is a common plant in many habitat types, including disturbed areas such as roadsides.


Ambrosia psilostachya is an erect perennial herb growing a slender, branching, straw-colored stem to a maximum height near two meters, but more often remaining under one meter tall. Leaves are up to 12 centimeters long and vary in shape from lance-shaped to nearly oval, and they are divided into many narrow, pointed lobes. The stem and leaves are hairy.
The top of the stem is occupied by an inflorescence which is usually a spike. The species is monoecious, and the inflorescence is composed of staminate (male) flower heads with the pistillate heads located below and in the axils of leaves. This bloom period is from June through November.
The pistillate heads yield fruits which are achenes located within oval-shaped greenish-brown burs about half a centimeter long. The burs are hairy and sometimes spiny. The plant reproduces by seed and by sprouting up from a creeping rhizome-like root system.


Ambrosia psilostachya is a host plant for the caterpillars of Bucculatrix transversata, Cosmopterix opulenta, Exaeretia gracilis, Gnorimoschema saphirinella, Schinia sexplagiata; the beetles Zygogramma disrupta, Zygogramma suturalis; and the grasshopper Spharagemon collare.


This plant had a number of medicinal uses among several different Native American tribes, including the Cheyenne, Kumeyaay (Diegueno), and  Kiowa people.


Ambrosia psilostachya contains a group of phytochemicals called psilostachyins.


Ambrosia trifida,  the giant ragweed, is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae. It is native to North America, where it is widespread in Canada, the United States, and northern Mexico.


It is present in Europe and Asia as an introduced species, and it is known as a common weed in many regions. Its common names include great ragweed, Texan great ragweed, giant ragweed, tall ragweed, blood ragweed, perennial ragweed, horseweed, buffaloweed, and kinghead.


This is an annual herb usually growing up to 2 m (6 ft 7 in) tall, but known to reach over 6 m (20 ft) in rich, moist soils. The tough stems have woody bases and are branching or unbranched. Most leaves are oppositely arranged. The blades are variable in shape, sometimes palmate with five lobes, and often with toothed edges. The largest can be over 25 cm (9.8 in) long by 20 cm (7.9 in) wide. They are borne on petioles several centimeters long. They are glandular and rough in texture. The species is monoecious, with plants bearing inflorescences containing both pistillate and staminate flowers. The former are clustered at the base of the spike and the latter grow at the end. The fruit is a bur a few millimeters long tipped with several tiny spines.


This species is well known as a noxious weed, both in its native range and in areas where it is an introduced and often invasive species. It is naturalized in some areas, and it is recorded as an adventive species in others. It grows in many types of disturbed habitat, such as roadsides, and in cultivated fields. Widespread seed dispersal occurs when its spiny burs fall off the plant and are carried to new habitat by people, animals, machinery, or flowing water. The plant is destructive to native and crop plants because it easily outcompetes them for light.
Herbicide resistant giant ragweed populations were first identified in the late 1990s. Across much of the midwestern United States, populations resistant to group 2 (ALS-inhibitors) and group 9 (glyphosate) are present, though resistant to multiple herbicide modes of action has not yet been documented. There remains concern that herbicide resistance is more widespread than documented and many states like Minnesota offer free screening of giant ragweed for herbicide resistance   For chemical control, use of group 4 (2-4D) and group 10 (glufosinate) are effective.


Also, interest is great in preventing the spread of this plant because its pollen is a significant human allergen. It is one of the most familiar allergenic ragweeds, and residents of different regions begin to experience allergic symptoms as the plant spreads into the area.


Native Americans had a number of uses for the plant as traditional medicine. The Cherokee used it as a remedy for insect stings, hives, fever, and pneumonia, and the Iroquois used it to treat diarrhea.
Giant ragweed has been used successfully as a compost activator and an ingredient in sheet mulch gardens.


Amelanchier arborea (downy serviceberry or common serviceberry), is native to eastern North America from the Gulf Coast north to Thunder Bay in Ontario and Lake St. John in Quebec, and west to Texas and Minnesota.
Other common names are "shadberries" (as their blossoming coincides with the shad runs in New England), "Juneberries" (because the berries usually set on in June), and "Service" or "Sarvice" berries because their blooms mean that the muddy back roads into the "coves and hollers" of Appalachia will soon be passable for circuit-riding preachers and the communities will be able to have Sunday services again. (Some say, more morbidly, that it means the ground is soft enough to dig, which means that those who died over winter can be buried and have services said over them.)
Amelanchier arborea is generally 5–12 m (16–39 ft) tall. Occasionally, it can grow up to 20 metres (66 ft) tall and reach into the overstory. The trunk can be up to 15 cm (6 in) in diameter (rarely to 40 cm or 16 in). The bark is smooth and gray.
The buds are slender with a pointed tip, and usually more than two scales visible. The leaves are ovate or elliptical, 4–8 cm (1+1⁄2–3+1⁄4 in), rarely 10 cm (4 in), long and 2.5–4 cm (1–1+5⁄8 in) wide, with pointed tips and finely serrated margins. A characteristic useful for identification is that the young leaves emerge downy on the underside. The fall color is variable, from orange-yellow to pinkish or reddish.
It has perfect flowers that are 15–25 mm (5⁄8–1 in) in diameter, with 5 petals, emerging during budbreak in early spring. The petals are white. Flowers are produced on pendulous racemes 3–5 cm (1+1⁄4–2 in) long with 4–10 flowers on each raceme. The flowers are pollinated by bees. The fruit is a reddish-purple pome, resembling a small apple in shape. They ripen in summer and are very popular with birds.
It also commonly hybridizes with other species of Amelanchier, the hybrid Amelanchier × grandiflora being one example, and identification can be very difficult as a result.


This species tolerates varying light levels, but is at its best in full sun. It requires good drainage and air circulation and should be watered during drought. It is often confused with other species in the nursery trade. Propagation is by seed, divisions and grafting.
The edible fruit is drier than some other serviceberries, and it is harvested locally for pies and jams, and has been known to be used for wine; they were also used by Native Americans to make bread.
Some report that the sweetened juice tastes like Dr. Pepper and some nurseries sell them as "The Dr. Pepper Tree", but the fruit is not used in the soft drink.


Amelanchier utahensis, the Utah serviceberry, is a shrub or small tree native to western North America. This serviceberry grows in varied habitats, from scrubby open slopes to woodlands and forests.


Amelanchier utahensis is a spreading plant, reaching a maximum of five meters (16 feet) in height. It is deciduous, bearing rounded or spade-shaped often toothed green leaves and losing them at the end of the season. In April and May the shrub blooms in short inflorescences of white flowers, each with five widely spaced narrow petals. The fruits are pomes. The Utah serviceberry is browsed by desert bighorns, elk, and mule deer, as well as many birds and domesticated livestock.


For the Utah serviceberry, the core mountainous range is delimited by the Colorado–New Mexico–Wyoming Rocky Mountains in the east, the Front ranges of Utah at the west, and the south in central Arizona-western New Mexico by the Mogollon Rim and White Mountains (Arizona) region of east Arizona and New Mexico.
The rest of the range is centered on mountain ranges of the Great Basin, and extending west to the Sierra Nevada and chaparral and woodlands in California and as far south as extreme northern Baja California, and then in the north to southwestern Montana with Idaho.


Ammophila breviligulata (American beachgrass or American marram grass) is a species of grass native to eastern North America, where it grows on sand dunes along the Atlantic Ocean and Great Lakes coasts. Beachgrass thrives under conditions of shifting sand, sand burial, and high winds; it is a dune-building grass that builds the first line of sand dunes along the coast. Beachgrass is less vigorous in stabilized sand, and is only infrequently found further inland than the coastal foredunes. On the Atlantic coastline of North America, Ammophila breviligulata has been observed as far south as North Carolina, and is often planted in dune restoration projects. Ammophila breviligulata was introduced to the Pacific coast of North America in the 1930s. It is proving to be invasive, and is increasingly important to coastal ecology and development in Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia.


Ammophila breviligulata is perennial grass which produces an extensive rhizome system. The leaves have deeply furrowed upper surfaces and smooth undersides, and grow 1 to 3 feet (0.3 to 0.9 m) tall. The plant's inflorescence is a spike-like panicle that can reach 10 inches (25 cm) long; The spikelet is single-flowered, awnless. The seed head appears in late July or August. The species name breviligulata derives from the Latin brevis ("short") and ligula ("tongue"), which refers to a feature of grass leaves called the ligule.
Ammophila breviligulata is quite similar in appearance and ecology to a second species of beachgrass, Ammophila arenaria (European beachgrass). As Nick Page has summarized, "Ammophila breviligulata is distinguished from A. arenaria by smaller ligules (1–3 mm versus 10–30 mm long in A. arenaria), wider and less inrolled leaves, longer flower spike (25–35 cm versus 15–25 cm long in A. arenaria), and scaly rather than puberulent leaf veins on the upper leaf surface."


Both species of beachgrass are noted for their association with stable sand dunes, and observations in regions where they were introduced to coasts indicate that they build the first line of dunes on coasts (the foredunes). The plants spread rapidly – 6 to 10 feet (1.8 to 3.0 m) annually – through the sand by subsurface runners (rhizomes), and can produce up to 100 stems per clump annually. They can tolerate burial in as much as 3 feet (0.9 m) of sand; sand burial stimulates the rhizomes to grow vertically, and is essential to plant vigor. The beachgrass species are also very good examples of xerophytes, being able to thrive on arid to semi-arid beach dunes. The plant has several mechanisms for adapting to heat stress or wind. The long narrow leaves can roll or fold, and the rough upper leaf surface, which contains the gas exchange openings (stomata), can orient itself away from the wind.
Beachgrass is a dominant species on foredunes, and is sometimes the only plant found there, but is unable to grow farther inland on stabilized dunes and soil. One reason for this that has been extensively studied by Wim van der Putten and his colleagues is based on the susceptibility of Ammophila species to soil pathogens such as nematodes. The density of these pathogens is low in freshly deposited sand, but builds up in the roots of beachgrass on stabilized sand. While the details are complex, the result is that beachgrass is largely limited to the foredunes that it builds, which are immediately adjacent to the water's edge and where sand is removed and redeposited fairly frequently.
Around the Great Lakes, it is limited to active dune habitats along the shores, and it is listed a threatened species in Minnesota where it reaches its most westerly natural range around Duluth.


Starting in the 19th century, A. arenaria was introduced to the Pacific coast of North America to help control beach sands; it serves this role so well that it is now considered invasive not only along this coast (from California north to British Columbia), but along nearly every coast worldwide where it has been introduced. Ammophila arenaria built foredunes (the dunes closest to the beach) that are typically about 14 feet (4.3 m) high, which is much higher than the dunes associated with the native dune grass species Leymus mollis.
In the 1930s, A. breviligulata was introduced to about 3,000 acres (1,200 ha) on the Clatsop Peninsula in Oregon. Since then, A. breviligulata has gradually supplanted A. arenaria in Oregon and Washington; the precise reason for the relative success of A. breviligulata isn't known. The most recognizable aspect of the changeover between the beachgrass species is that the foredunes of A. breviligulata are shorter than the foredunes of A. arenaria; foredunes of A. breviligulata are about 9 feet (2.7 m) high in this region. The diversity of other species that co-exist with mature stands of A. arenaria is comparable to the species diversity with A. breviligulata. However, the lower foredune height for the latter means that coastal ecosystems that had adapted to the fairly tall foredunes of A. arenaria are again changing, especially in the regions just behind the foredune and sheltered by it. Similarly, buildings and roads that were constructed under the presumption of continuing protection by the tall A. arenaria foredunes may now be threatened by shifting sand and by increased exposure to wind and water in storms.


Ammophila procera, the common thread-waisted wasp, is a species of thread-waisted wasp in the family Sphecidae. It is a common species, found in southern Canada, the United States, and Mexico, and south to Central America.
Ammophila procera generally live in open areas with soft or sandy soil where they can burrow nests. The adult female digs a burrow. After completing the burrow, it seals the entrance and makes flight around the area, memorizing landmarks such as rocks, plants, etc. It uses these landmarks to locate the burrow when it returns, sometimes days later.
It then captures and paralyzes prey, usually a moth caterpillar or sawfly larva, and drags it to the burrows where it lays a single egg on the prey. The female then seals the nest with dirt and debris. Despite sealing the nest, some females will "hijack" another's nest, replacing the egg in the nest with their own.
The egg typically hatches after two days, and the larva feeds on the caterpillar for about five days before it pupates within the nest. It emerges from the nest with fully formed wings. The adults feed primarily on flower nectar.


Amorpha canescens, known as leadplant, downy indigo bush, prairie shoestring, or buffalo bellows, is a small, perennial semi-shrub in the pea family (Fabaceae), native to North America. It has very small purple flowers with yellow stamens which are grouped in racemes. Depending on location, the flowers bloom from late June through mid-September. The compound leaves of this plant appear leaden (the reason for the common name "leadplant") due to their dense hairiness. The roots can grow up to 5 m (16 ft) deep and can spread up to 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) radially. This plant can be found growing in well-drained soils of prairies, bluffs, and open woodlands.


Typically between 0.3–1 m (1 ft 0 in – 3 ft 3 in) tall, leadplant can be identified by its small purple flowers grouped in long spikes and its grey-green leaflets that are alternate and pinnately compound. The plant produces fruits in the form of hairy legumes each with one seed inside. The flower and leafing pattern is similar to Amorpha fruticosa, however, A. canescens typically only grows to be 1 meter (3 ft 3 in) high and prefers drier habitats whereas A. fruticosa can grow to be 5 or 6 meters (16 or 20 ft) high and lives in wetter areas.


Leadplant is used for a variety of different purposes. Indigenous peoples such as the Oglala use the plant for medicinal purposes. Some indigenous tribes believed that the plant could aide in treating pinworms, eczema, rheumatism, neuralgia, open wounds, and cuts. The leaves of the plant were also used to make a tea and as a smoking mixture when dried, crushed and combined with buffalo fat. It is also provides many benefits to the ecosystems it is a part of, for example it provides valuable nutrition for grazing animals and helps prevent soil erosion. Leadplant may also be used in landscaping and gardening purposes due to its nitrogen fixing qualities and ability to help prevent erosion. Its nodulated roots are home to nitrogen fixing bacteria which help the plants grow.


Amorpha canescens was described by Frederick Pursh in 1814. It falls under subfamily Papilionoideae of the family Fabaceae. The specific epithet "canescens" is a botanical Latin term meaning "becoming grey". There have been further delineation beyond species of Amorpha canescens into distinct variants (such as the A. canescens var. glabrata) based on the amount of hairs and color of the leaves, however this further distinction is not typically accepted due to the wide variation in pubescence of the plant.


Amorpha canescens can be found in many locations throughout North America, ranging from southern parts of Canada south to Texas and New Mexico and spanning west to Montana and east to Michigan. Leadplant is typically found in dry prairie and savanna communities  Leadplant prefers drier, well-drained soil of many different textures including sandy, gravely, and rocky soils. Finding leadplant indicates minimal live-stock grazing and well-kept land that is not overgrown or that has experienced regular fire.


Ampelopsis cordata is a vine found in the U.S states Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Missouri, Mississippi, North Carolina, Nebraska, Ohio, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, West Virginia. It grows in open woodlands, flood plains, and river banks.


Ampelopsis glandulosa is a species of plant native to China, Japan, India, Nepal, Myanmar, Vietnam, and the Philippines.


Several varieties are distinguished:
var. hancei
var. kulingensis
var. glandulosa
var. heterophylla
var. brevipedunculata


Ampelopsis glandulosa is used as an ornamental plant in gardens.


Amphiagrion saucium, the eastern red damsel, is a species of narrow-winged damselfly in the family Coenagrionidae. It is found in North America.
The IUCN conservation status of Amphiagrion saucium is "LC", least concern, with no immediate threat to the species' survival. The population is stable. The IUCN status was reviewed in 2017.


Amphicarpaea bracteata (hog-peanut or ground bean) is an annual to perennial vine in the legume family, native to woodland, thickets, and moist slopes in eastern North America.


Leaves have three leaflets and are held alternately on twining stems.
Flowers are pink to white and bloom from late summer to autumn. The flowers are either open for cross-pollination or closed and self-pollinating.  The closed flowers may be above or below ground.
Seeds from open flowers are held in a flat pod, pointed at both ends, that dries when mature and twists to release the seeds. Seeds from closed flowers are held in round pods with a single seed each. The roots and the cooked seeds from under the ground are edible. The seeds which become subterranean from flowers on stolons give it the name peanut.


The black-throated sparrow (Amphispiza bilineata) is a small New World sparrow primarily found in the southwestern United States and Mexico. It is the only member of the genus Amphispiza; the five-striped sparrow, formerly also classified in Amphispiza, is now thought to be in the monotypic genus Amphispizopsis.
It is sometimes referred to as the desert sparrow, due to its preferred habitat of arid desert hillsides and scrub. This name usually refers to the desert sparrow of Africa and Asia.


Measurements:
Length: 4.7–5.5 in (12–14 cm)
Weight: 0.4–0.5 oz (11–14 g)
Wingspan: 7.7 inches (20 cm)
The black-throated sparrow is pale gray above, with a distinctive black and white head pattern. Immature birds are similar but lack a black throat. Its call is high and bell-like, and its song is a fairly simple, mechanical tinkling. It feeds primarily on insects and seeds, and travels in small groups, though larger groups may accumulate around sources of water in the desert.
It has a loose nest of grass twigs and plant fibers carefully hidden in brush 6–18 inches (15–46 cm) above the ground. Three or four white or pale blue eggs are laid.


Ampittia dioscorides, the common bush hopper or simply bush hopper, is a butterfly found in India, China, Indochina, Cambodia and on to Borneo, Sumatra and Java belonging to the family Hesperiidae.


Male. Upper.side. Forewing bright golden-yellow, costal line black, outer margin with a broad even black band, slightly but squarely bulged inward at the hinder angle, a broad black baud on the hinder margin with two golden-yellow spots in it, one a little before the middle, the other a little beyond the middle; a black band running up from the middle of the hinder marginal band to the costa one-third before the apex, throwing out a cross band from above its middle and joining the marginal
band; in some examples this diseal band is disconnected from the costa from the crossbar. Hindwing blackish-brown, with an irregular-shaped, short, broad, diseal, golden yellow band, composed of spots divided by the veins, the two centre ones elongated, the lower ones small. Cilia brown, touched in parts with golden-yellow, especially at the anal angle. Underside. Forewing as above, but the extreme outer margin is more or less golden-yellow. Hindwing with the ground colour golden-yellow, most of the wing covered with minute brown scales, the diseal patch as above, edged with pale in-own, and a series of pale brown sub-marginal spots all round the wing from the base to the anal angle. Antennae black, ringed with yellow, the cIub yellow on the underside and at the tip; palpi, head and body brown above, palpi and head marked with yellow, all yellow beneath.

Female. Upperside dark brown. Forewing with a yellow spot at the end of the cell, and a diseal series of yellow spots, two, sometimes three, divided by the veins, from near the costa, one-sixth from the apex, two in the middle of the disc in the median interspaces, and a small one in the interno-median interspace, an indistinctseries of sub-marginal yellowish spots on the upper half of the wing. Underside paler. Forewing with the spots as above put larger, a yellow sub-costal streak from the base to beyond the middle. Hindwing with many minute yellow scales in parts, a discal series of yellowish spots and a sub-marginal series.
— Charles Swinhoe, Lepidoptera Indica. Vol. X


Amsinckia menziesii is a species of plant in the family Boraginaceae, the borage or forget-me-not family.