The pink-necked green pigeon is primarily a frugivore, taking a range of fruits, particularly figs (Ficus). Fruit of other trees are taken as well, including Glochidion, Breynia, Vitex, Macaranga, Muntingia, Melastoma, Oncosperma and Bridelia. Shoots, buds and seeds are also taken, but much less commonly so, often by quite a substantial margin. In one study of the frugivores of Sulawesi 55 observations were made of this species feeding and every one was of it eating fruit, mostly figs. The species feeds in the mid-canopy of the forest and rarely feeds in the understory or on the ground. It is described as being agile when clinging on fine branches to reach fruits at the end. Like other members of the genus Treron, the gizzard is muscular and contains grit, which is used to grind and digest seeds inside fruit. Studies of closely related species have found that not every individual has grit, and it is likely the same is true of this species. It is social, feeding in small groups or, where an abundant source of food is found, quite large flocks of up to 70 birds. The species also roosts communally, and can form roosting flocks of hundreds of birds.
There is no defined breeding season and it has been recorded breeding all year across its range. The task of building the nest is divided by sex, with the male being responsible for collecting the nesting material and the female building it. The nest itself is a simple and flimsy platform of twigs and finer material. Two eggs are laid, which are white and measure 26.8 mm–28.9 mm × 20.3 mm–21.8 mm (1.06 in–1.14 in × 0.80 in–0.86 in). The nest is placed in a tree, shrub or hedge, and can be quite close to the ground, ranging from 1 to 10 m (3.3–32.8 ft). The breeding biology of this species is virtually unknown, with only a single breeding report from Singapore. In that report, the pair shared incubation duties, with the male incubating during the day and the female at night, with the incubation time being 17 days. On hatching the chicks are brooded continuously for the first few days of life, as with incubation the male broods during the day and the female at night. Chicks are near-naked and have brown skin with a few white pin feathers on hatching. Chicks leave the nest 10 days after hatching, but remain in the nesting area for a few days after hatching, and continue to be fed by their parents.


An adaptable species, T. vernans has fared well with human-made changes to its range. It has readily moved into cities and is common in Singapore's protected areas and even its gardens, and has become more common over time. In spite of suffering some hunting pressure in Thailand, Malaysia and Sumatra, and being targeted by the cage bird trade, it remains common there and across most of its range. Because it is not considered to be in any danger of extinction it has been evaluated as least concern by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.


Triadica sebifera is a tree native to eastern China and Taiwan.  It is commonly called Chinese tallow, Chinese tallowtree, Florida aspen, chicken tree, gray popcorn tree, or candleberry tree.
The seeds (as well as from those of Triadica cochinchinensis) are the sources of stillingia oil, a drying oil used in paints and varnishes. The fatty coat of the seeds, used for candle and soap making,  is known as stillingia tallow; hence its common name.  It is relevant to biodiesel production because it is the third most productive vegetable oil producing crop in the world, after algae and oil palm.  The leaves are used as herbal medicine to treat boils. The plant sap and leaves are reputed to be toxic, and decaying leaves from the plant are toxic to other species of plants.  The species is classified as a noxious invader in the southern U.S.
This species and T. cochinchinensis were formerly classified in the genus Stillingia, as Stillingia sebifera and Stillingia discolor (hence the name still used for the oil and tallow). The specific epithet sebifera is derived from Latin sebum (meaning "tallow") and fero (meaning "to bear"), thus "tallow-bearing". At some time before 1950, this tree was reclassified into the genus Sapium as Sapium sebiferum, and many papers about the oil still refer to the tree by this name. In 2002 or so it was reclassified again into the genus Triadica with its present name.


The simple, deciduous leaves of this tree are alternate, broad rhombic to ovate in shape and have smooth edges, heart shaped and sometimes with an extended tail often resembling the bo tree, Ficus religiosa. The leaves are bright green in color and slightly paler underneath. They become bright yellows, oranges, purples and reds in the autumn. The tree is monoecious, producing male and female flowers on the same plant.
The waxy green leaves set off the clusters of greenish-yellow and white flowers at bloom time. The flowers occur in terminal spike-like inflorescences up to 20 cm long. Light green in color, these flowers are very conspicuous in the spring. Each pistillate (female) flower is solitary and has a three-lobed ovary, three styles, and no petals. They are located on short branches at the base of the spike. The staminate (male) flowers occur in clusters at the upper nodes of the inflorescence.
Fruits are three-lobed, three-valved capsules. As the capsules mature, their color changes from green to a brown-black. The capsule walls fall away and release three globose seeds, about 12 mm in diameter and weighing about
0.15 g, with a white, tallow-containing covering. Seeds usually hang on the plants for several weeks. In North America, the flowers typically mature from April to June and the fruit ripens from September to October.


Triadica sebifera is native to China and Taiwan, and was introduced to Japan during the Edo period. It is also found in the southeastern United States, Puerto Rico, Costa Rica, India, Martinique, Sudan, and southern France.
Thought to have been introduced in colonial times by Benjamin Franklin,{} the tree has become naturalized from North Carolina southward along the Atlantic and the entire Gulf coast, where it grows profusely along ditchbanks and dikes. It grows especially well in open fields and abandoned farmland coastal prairie regions featuring disturbed ground—such as abandoned farmland, spoil banks, roadsides, and storm-damaged forests—and along the edges of the Western Gulf coastal grasslands biome, sometimes forming monocultures. The Chinese Tallow Tree is listed as an invasive species to the state of South Carolina.


The seed's white waxy aril is used in soap making. The seed's inner oil ("stillingia oil") is toxic but has industrial applications.
The nectar is non-toxic, and it has become a major honey plant for beekeepers. The honey is of high quality, and is produced copiously during the month of June, on the Gulf Coast. In the Gulf coast states, beekeepers migrate with their honey bees to good tallow locations near the gulf.
The tree is ornamental, fast growing, and a provides shade. It is especially noteworthy if grown in areas that have strong seasonal temperature ranges with the leaves becoming a multitude of colours rivaling maples in the autumn. It is not choosy about soil types or drainage, but will not grow in deep shade. It has naturalized all over in Japan, and is reasonably hardy. It should not be planted outside of its native range due to its invasive tendencies.


The tallow tree is a non-native species to many places around the world. Its introduced status in North America along with the harm it causes to ecosystems makes the tree considered an invasive species there. Tallow trees present a danger of expansion that can hurt local ecosystems by out-competing native vegetation and creating a monoculture. The monoculture lowers species diversity and overall resilience of the area. The tree's tenacious nature, high growth rates, and high reproductive ability contribute to its invasive success. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, tallow trees begin producing viable seed in as soon as three years. They can spread by root sprouts and cuttings and are quick to invade after a disturbance occurs in an area, due to the clearing out of land. A single tallow tree can produce nearly 100,000 viable seeds annually that can remain in the soil for several years before sprouting. A mature stand can produce 4,500 kilograms of seeds per hectare per year. These seeds are easily carried to different places by birds and water. Tallow trees can remain productive for 100 years. It is also extremely hard to kill—its poisonous features in its leaves and berries leave it with few to no predators, and its short generation time means even freshly cut trees can quickly regrow. Currently, herbicides and prescribed fire are the only effective treatments available to contain and control Chinese tallow. The USDA is evaluating the flea beetle (Bikasha collaris) as a natural control agent.
In the Houston area, Chinese tallow trees account for a full 23 percent of all trees, more than any other tree species and is the only invasive tree species in the 14 most common species in the area. The Texas Department of Agriculture lists Chinese Tallow as one of the 24 most invasive plants, and includes Chinese Tallow in a list of Noxious and Invasive Plants which are illegal to sell, distribute or import into Texas. Herbivores and insects have a conditioned behavioral avoidance to eating the leaves of Chinese tallow tree, and this, rather than plant toxins, may be a reason for the success of the plant as an invasive.
In Europe, the species features on the Union list of invasive alien species. This means it is now illegal to import or sell this plant in the European Union.


In parts of the USA biological control of the Chinese tallow tree has been considered, using the flea beetle Bikasha collaris, whose larvae attack the roots, and the moth Gadirtha fusca, whose caterpillers attack the leaves. In those areas, the resulting prospect of losing the Chinese tallow as a honey source has caused concern in beekeepers.


The species has several synonyms and former names:
Carumbium sebiferum (L.) Kurz, Forest Fl. Burma 2: 411, 412. 1877.
Croton sebiferh. ("sebiferus"), Sp. Pl.: 1004. 1753.
Excoecaria sebifera (L.) Müll.Arg. in DC., Prodr. 15(2): 1210. 1866.
Stillingia sebifera (L.) Michx., Fl. Bor.-Amer. 2: 213. 1803.
Sapium chihsinianum S. K. Lee, Acta Phytotax. Sin. 5: 121, pl. 22. 1956.
Sapium discolor var. wenhsienensis S. B. Ho, Fl. Tsingliensis 1(3): 451, fig. 155. 1981.
Sapium pleiocarpum Y. C. Tseng, Acta Phytotax. Sin. 20: 105, fig. 1. 1982.
Sapium sebiferum (L.) Roxb., Fl. Ind. Ed. 1832, 3: 693. 1832.
Sapium sebiferum var. cordatum S. Y. Wang, Fl. Henan 2: 480. 1988.
Sapium sebiferum var. dabeshense B. C. Ding & T. B. Chao, Fl. Henan 2: 481. 1988.
Sapium sebiferum var. multiracemosum B. C. Ding & T. B. Chao, Fl. Henan 2: 480, fig. 1394. 1988.
Sapium sebiferum var. pendulum B. C. Ding & T. B. Chao, Fl. Henan 2: 481. 1988.
Seborium chínense Raf., Sylva Tellur.: 63. 1838, nomen superfl.
Seborium sebiferum  (L.) Hurus., Bot. Mag. (Tokyo) 61: 30. 1948.
Triadica sinensis Lour., Fl. Cochinch.: 610. 1790.


Tribulus terrestris is an annual plant in the caltrop family (Zygophyllaceae) widely distributed around the world. It is adapted to grow in dry climate locations in which few other plants can survive. It is native to warm temperate and tropical regions in southern Eurasia and Africa. It has been unintentionally introduced to North America and Australia. An aggressive and hardy invasive species, T. terrestris is widely known as a noxious weed because of its small woody fruit – the bur – having long sharp and strong spines which easily penetrate surfaces, such as bare feet or thin shoes of crop workers and other pedestrians, the rubber of bicycle tires, and the mouths and skin of grazing animals.


Like many weedy species, this plant has numerous common names according to the world region, including goat's-head, bindii, bullhead, burra gokharu, bhakhdi, caltrop, small caltrops, cat's-head, devil's eyelashes, devil's-thorn, devil's-weed, puncture vine, and tackweed.


The stems radiate from the crown to a diameter of about 10 cm (3.9 in) to over 1 m (3 ft 3 in), often branching. They are usually prostrate, forming flat patches, though they may grow more upwards in shade or among taller plants.


Stems branch from the crown and are densely hairy. Leaves are opposite and pinnately compound. Densely hairy leaflets are opposite and up to 3 mm (0.12 in) long.


The flowers are 4–10 mm (0.16–0.39 in) wide, with five lemon-yellow petals, five sepals, and ten stamens. In Southern California, it blooms from April through October, where it is highly invasive in waste places and disturbed sites.


After the flower blooms, a fruit develops that easily falls apart into five burs. The burs are hard and bear two to four sharp spines, 10 mm (0.39 in) long and 4–6 mm (0.16–0.24 in) broad point-to-point. These burs strikingly resemble goats' or bulls' heads, characteristics which give the bur its common names in some regions. The "horns" are sharp enough to puncture bicycle tires and other air-filled tires. They can also cause painful injury to bare feet and can injure the mouths of livestock grazing on the plant.
Within each bur, seeds are stacked on top of each other, separated by a hard membrane. As an adaptation to dry climates, the largest seed germinates first, while the others may wait until more moisture is available before germinating. The bur spines point upward, where they stick into feet and fur of animals, serving the purpose of seed dispersal. This causes damage to domesticated livestock and degrades wool.


Native to the Mediterranean region, T. terrestris is widespread throughout the world from latitudes 35°S to 47°N. It is distributed across warm temperate and tropical regions of southern Europe, southern Asia, throughout Africa, New Zealand, and Australia. It is present across the United States and in Central and South America. Over the 20th century, the vine appeared in California and became distributed northward, eventually appearing in British Columbia, Canada where it is classified as a noxious weed.
A network of fine rootlets arise from the taproot to take advantage of soil moisture, by which the plant can survive in arid conditions. It grows in almost any soil, but thrives in dry, loose, sandy soils, and even in sand or in deserts. It can prosper in heavier soils, especially if fertile or moist, and on compacted soils along roadsides.


The plant is widely naturalized in the Americas and also in Australia south of its native range. In some states in the United States, it is considered a noxious weed and an invasive species. It is a declared plant (infestations described under "caltrop") in South Australia.


The leaves and shoots are eaten in East Asia. The stems have been used as a thickener, added to diluted buttermilk to give it the appearance of undiluted buttermilk. There is some evidence that T. terrestris was used in traditional medicine.


Although its extract has been used as a dietary supplement since the 1980s in belief that it increases testosterone levels to aid body building or sexual enhancement in men, T. terrestris did not consistently affect testosterone levels in controlled studies, has not been proven to be safe, and may adversely interact with prescription drugs. High-quality research on T. terrestris extract has not been conducted, and no reviews indicate that it has strength-enhancing properties, or anabolic steroid effects for use as a body-building supplement or sexual enhancement. The Australian Institute of Sport discourages athletes from using T. terrestris supplements.


Phytochemicals of T. terrestris include steroidal saponins.


In areas where it is an invasive species, T. terrestris is often sought to be eradicated. However, T. terrestris is considered a hardy plant, and its seeds remain viable for up to three years, making complete eradication difficult.


In smaller areas, T. terrestris is best controlled with manual removal, using a hoe to cut the plant off at its taproot. While this is effective, removing the entire plant by gripping the taproot, stem or trunk and pulling upward to remove the taproot is far more effective. This requires monitoring the area and removing the weed throughout the preseeding time (late spring and early summer in many temperate areas). This will greatly reduce the prevalence of the weed the following year. Mowing is not an effective method of eradication, because the plant grows flat against the ground.
Another avenue of physical eradication is to crowd out the opportunistic weed by providing good competition from favorable plants. Aerating compacted sites and planting competitive desirable plants, including broad-leaved grasses such as St. Augustine, can reduce the effect of T. terrestris by reducing resources available to the weed.
In June 2014, the town of Irrigon, Oregon, announced it would pay a bounty of one dollar for each large trash bag of puncturevine.


Chemical control is generally recommended for home control of T. terrestris. There are few pre-emergent herbicides that are effective. Products containing oryzalin, benefin, or trifluralin will provide partial control of germinating seeds. These must be applied prior to germination (late winter to midspring).
After plants have emerged from the soil (postemergent), products containing 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), glyphosate, and dicamba are effective on T. terrestris. Like most postemergents, they are more effectively maintained when caught small and young. Dicamba and 2,4-D will cause harm to most broad-leaved plants, so the user should take care to avoid over-application. They can be applied to lawns without injuring the desired grass. Glyphosate will kill or injure most plants, so it should only be used as a spot treatment or on solid stands of the weed.  A product from DuPont called Pastora is highly effective but expensive and not for lawn use.


Toxic compounds in the plant are known to cause liver damage when ingested at harmful dosages. When ingested, phylloerythrin accumulates in the blood as a byproduct of chlorophyl degradation; however, adverse reactions have not been confirmed in humans.
In sheep, consumption of T. terrestris causes tribulosis, also known as 'geeldikkop', which is a type of photodermatitis. Two alkaloids that seem to cause limb paresis (staggers) in sheep that eat Tribulus terrestulis are the beta-carboline alkaloids harman (harmane) and norharman (norharmane). The alkaloid content of dried foliage is about 44 mg/kg.


Larvae live in bee nests of mostly Megachilidae family species and are parasitic. While in the nest they feed on the bees' larvae or pollen. When they mature into an adult they begin feeding on yarrow, milkweed, and other plants of yellow colouration. The species males are 5–11 millimetres (0.20–0.43 in) long while females are 7–15 millimetres (0.28–0.59 in).


The scaly-breasted lorikeet (Trichoglossus chlorolepidotus) is an Australian lorikeet found in woodland in eastern Australia. The common name aptly describes this bird, which has yellow breast feathers broadly edged with green that look like scales.


The scaly-breasted lorikeet was first described by German zoologist Heinrich Kuhl in 1820. Other names this bird is known by include the gold and green lorikeet, greenie, green lorikeet, green and yellow lorikeet, green keet, green parrot, green leek, and green leaf. It is often colloquially referred to as a "scaly". Its specific epithet is derived from the Ancient Greek root khlōros 'green, yellow', and lepidōtos 'scaly'.


The scaly-breasted lorikeet is about 23 cm (9.1 in) long. The crown and sides of head are emerald-green slightly tinged with blue, while the feathers of the back of the neck and throat and breast are yellow, broadly edged with green, giving scaly appearance. The tail is green with the base of the outer tail-feathers marked with orange-red. The lower flanks, thighs and undertail-coverts green are strongly marked with yellow, while the underwing-coverts are orange-red. They have orange-red eyes, and their bills (beaks) are dark coral-red. Their legs are generally grey-brown.
Male and female are similar in external appearance. Juveniles appear similar to adults, but their tails are shorter. Eyes are pale brown or black, and bills are brown with some yellow markings or orange with brown markings.


This lorikeet is common in most timbered areas of Eastern Australia from Bamaga, the tip of North Queensland, south to Illawarra district on the New South Wales south coast; also on some offshore islands. They are generally confined to coastal plains and adjacent tablelands; occasionally found along watercourses west of the Great Dividing Range. They are abundant and mostly sedentary in north; less numerous and nomadic in the south. They favour open, lightly timbered areas and melaleuca thickets.


Scaly-breasted lorikeets are extremely noisy birds and attract attention by their screeching and chattering. The contact call of these birds is a metallic, rolling, continuous screech in flight. They have a shrill chatter when feeding. While resting, they have a soft, gentle twitter. Although, these birds can be quite noisy as mating season draws nearer. These birds are often making loud tweets/squawks when looking for their food.


Scaly-breasted lorikeets have similar habits to the related rainbow lorikeet, and the two species often group together in mixed flocks. Both species feed mainly on nectar, such as that from the broad-leaved paperbark (Melaleuca quinquenervia), and pollen, but they also eat blossoms, berries, other fruit, and insects and their larvae. They are very fond of cultivated fruits and often cause damage in orchards; they also raid sorghum and maize crops to feed on unripe milky grain.


The scaly-breasted lorikeet adapts fairly well to captivity, and is playful and quiet, although it can be aggressive. A blue mutation, with dark blue plumage and white breast markings, has been bred in Australia.


Polyphlebium venosum, the veined bristle-fern or bristle filmy fern, is a fern in the family Hymenophyllaceae. It is only found in wet forests, mainly growing as an epiphyte on the shady side of the soft tree fern, Dicksonia antartica.  It also grows on logs, trunks of trees and rarely on trunks of Cyathea species or on wet rock-faces. It is found in the wetter parts of  Eastern Australia and New Zealand. P. venosum has poor long-distance dispersal compared to other ferns due to its short lived spore. Notable features of Polyphlebium venosum include it being one cell layer thick, 5–15 cm in length, having many branching veins and a trumpet shaped indusium.


The species was first described by Robert Brown in 1810, as Trichomanes venosum. The precise circumscription of the genus Trichomanes varies considerably between sources. As of October 2019, the Checklist of Ferns and Lycophytes of the World followed the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I) in using a narrow circumscription of Trichomanes, and placed this species in Polyphlebium as P. venosum. It has also been placed in the genus Crepidomanes (another of the eight genera into which Trichomanes is divided in PPG I) as Crepidomanes venosum. On the other hand, as of October 2019, Plants of the World Online used a broad circumscription of Trichomanes, so retaining Brown's original name.


Trichophorum cespitosum, commonly known as deergrass or tufted bulrush, is a species of flowering plant in the sedge family. It was originally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1753 as Scirpus cespitosus, but was transferred to the genus Trichophorum by the Swedish botanist Carl Johan Hartman in 1849, becoming Trichophorum cespitosum.


Trichophorum cespitosum is a densely tufted perennial sedge often growing gregariously. The wiry stems are round in cross section and slightly ridged, and grow up to 1 ft (30 cm) long. The leaves are reduced to several pointed sheaths at the base of the stem. The blade of the uppermost sheath is longer than that of the few-flowered spike-rush (Eleocharis quinqueflora), an otherwise similar plant, which has a small squarish upper leaf blade. The brownish inflorescence is a very small, narrow terminal head, with the basal pointed, ribbed green glume the same length as the rest of the head. The fruit is an ovoid, three-sided nut 2 mm (0.08 in) in diameter.


Flatter mires in the Alps and other montane regions are often dominated by deergrass and cottongrass (Eriophorum angustifolium), forming a community that turns brown in winter. It only grows at the margins of active bogs, being dominated by sphagnum moss (Sphagnum spp.) in the raised central areas, but becomes dominant itself when drainage is undertaken. In wet heathland it may be associated with heather (Calluna vulgaris) and purple moor grass (Molinia caerulea), and provide grazing for deer, cattle and sheep.


The cabbage looper (Trichoplusia ni) is a medium-sized moth in the family Noctuidae, a family commonly referred to as owlet moths. Its common name comes from its preferred host plants and distinctive crawling behavior. Cruciferous vegetables, such as cabbage, bok choy, and broccoli, are its main host plant; hence, the reference to cabbage in its common name. The larva is called a looper because it arches its back into a loop when it crawls.
While crucifers are preferred, over 160 plants can serve as hosts for the cabbage looper larvae. The adult cabbage looper is a migratory moth that can be found across North America and Eurasia, as far south as Florida and as far north as British Columbia. Its migratory behavior and wide range of host plants contribute to its broad distribution.
The cabbage looper larva is a minor vegetable pest, especially for crucifers. While it is not significantly destructive, it is becoming difficult to manage due to its broad distribution and resistance to many insecticides. Numerous methods are being researched in order to control this species.


The cabbage looper larva is a type of cabbage worm, a general term for a Lepidopteran pest that primarily feeds on crucifers. They closely resemble each other, in that they are all smooth and green, but they are not closely related in terms of phylogeny. In fact, none of the cabbage worms bear close phylogenetic relations, as they are all from different families. The cabbage looper is a member of the family Noctuidae, one of the largest families in Lepidoptera. It is related to other vegetable pests, like the cutworm and armyworms.


Trichoptilium is a monotypic genus containing the single species Trichoptilium incisum, which is known by the common names yellowdome and yellowhead. This is a plant in the daisy family which is native to the Mojave and Sonoran Deserts of the United States and Mexico.


Trichoptilium incisum sends up stems from a basal rosette of sharply-toothed leaves which are covered in curly hairs and oil glands. Atop each stem is a small rounded bright yellow flower head with only disc florets. Each head is a hemispherical button about a centimeter in diameter. The fruit is bristly with pappus.


Trichordestra legitima, the striped garden caterpillar, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. The species was first described by Augustus Radcliffe Grote in 1864. It is found in eastern North America, from Newfoundland to Florida, west to Texas, north to Saskatchewan.
The wingspan is 25–39 mm. Adults are on wing from June to September. There is one generation per year.
The larvae feed on wide range of woody and herbaceous plants, including asparagus, aster, bean, broomrape, cherry, clover, dogbane, goldenrod, grasses, milkweed, mustard, pea, pokeweed, raspberry, tobacco, violet, willow and yarrow. Preferred hosts include various slender grasses, including Muhlenbergia and Agrostis.


Trichostema lanatum, the woolly bluecurls, is a small evergreen shrub or sub-shrub native to arid coastal chaparral regions of California and the northern parts of Baja California.
Trichostema lanatum is many-branched and grows to 1.5 m (5 ft) tall, with narrow, pointed green leaves.  The smooth-petaled blue flowers are borne in dense clusters, with the stem and calyces covered in woolly hairs of blue, pink, or white. Flowers are present from March to June.
Spanish explorers in California called the plant romero, the Spanish term for rosemary, and that common name is still sometimes used.


Trichostema lanatum is cultivated as an ornamental plant, and several cultivars have been developed. It attracts hummingbirds and bumblebees.
It is aromatic and glandular. Native Americans used it for a variety of medicinal and other purposes.
It makes a flavorful tea.


Trichostema lanceolatum, with the common names vinegarweed and camphor weed, is an annual flowering herb of the mint family native to western North America.
The common name 'vinegarweed' originated due to its foliage containing volatile oils that have a strong vinegar odor.  The oils have phytotoxic properties, which help the plant compete by killing or injuring other plant species.


The plant is native to the Western United States from the Pacific Coast Ranges in Washington and Oregon, through California, and to northern Baja California state in México. It is found from above sea level to 2,200 metres (7,200 ft) in elevation.
California habitats it grows in include: chaparral; coastal sage scrub; and Northern, Southern, and Foothill oak woodlands.


Trichostema lanceolatum is an annual herbaceous wildflower, growing under 1 metre (3.3 ft) in height.
The soft-hairy foliage has lanceolate leaves, 0.8–3 inches (2.0–7.6 cm) long. In hot weather the vinegar smell of the plant becomes intense as the oils in the tissues permeate the air.
The bilaterally symmetrical flowers, of pale blue to purple, are in long clusters in leaf axils on short green stems. The blooming period is from August to October.
Plants reproduce only by seed that are primarily dispersed by falling to the ground below the parent plant.


The indigenous peoples of California used this as a traditional medicinal plant, as a cold and fever remedy, a pain reliever, and a flea insect repellent.


Tridax procumbens, commonly known as coatbuttons or tridax daisy, is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae.  It is best known as a widespread weed and pest plant. It is native to the tropical Americas, but it has been introduced to tropical, subtropical, and mild temperate regions worldwide. It is listed as a noxious weed in the United States and has pest status in nine states.


Its common names include coatbuttons and tridax daisy in English, jayanthi(ಜಯoತಿ) in Kannada, cadillo chisaca in Spanish, herbe caille in French, jayanti veda (जयंती वेद) and "Avanti" in Sanskrit,"Ghajadvu" in Gujarati "Kumminnippacha", (കുമ്മിനിന്നിപാച്ച) "Kurikootticheera",(കുറികോട്ടിച്ചിചിറ) "Muriyampachila" (മുരിയമ്പാചില), "Odiyancheera", (ഒഡിയൻ‌ചിറ) "Railpoochedi, (റൈലാപൂച്ചെഡി) "Sanipoovu",(ഷാനിപോവ്) "Thelkuthi", (തെക്കുത്തി) "Chiravanakku", (ചിരവനാക്ക്) in Malayalam, bikhalyakarani in Assamese, ghamra in Hindi, Tridhara (ত্রিধারা) in Bengali, bishalya karani (ବିଶଲ୍ୟକରଣୀ) in Oriya, kambarmodi, Jakhamjudi & tantani (कंबरमोडी, जखमजुडी & टनटनी) in Marathi, gayapaaku (గాయపాకు) & gaddi chemanthi (గడ్డి చామంతి) & balapaaku (బలపాకు) in Telugu,vettukaaya poondu or thatha poo or kinatruppasan (கிணற்றுப்பாசான்)  in Tamil, Ghaburi (ઘાબુરી) in Gujarati kotobukigiku in Japanese and tīn túkkæ (ตีนตุ๊กแก; 'gecko feet') in Thai. in Urdu it is known as zagh mai hayat.


The plant bears daisylike yellow-centered white or yellow flowers with three-toothed ray florets. The leaves are toothed and generally arrowhead-shaped. Its fruit is a hard achene covered with stiff hairs and having a feathery, plumelike white pappus at one end. Calyx is represented by scales or reduced to pappus. The plant is invasive in part because it produces so many of these achenes, up to 1500 per plant, and each achene can catch the wind in its pappus and be carried some distance. This plant can be found in fields, meadows, croplands, disturbed areas, lawns, and roadsides in areas with tropical or semi-tropical climates.  It is listed in the United States as a Noxious Weed and regulated under the Federal Noxious Weed Act.


Traditionally, Tridax procumbens has been in use in India for wound healing and as an anticoagulant, antifungal, and insect repellent. Tridax procumbens is also used as treatment for boils, blisters, and cuts by local healers in parts of India.


The flavonoid procumbenetin has been isolated from the aerial parts of Tridax procumbens. Other chemical compounds isolated from the plant include alkyl esters, sterols, pentacyclic triterpenes, fatty acids, and polysaccharides. Several main active chemical compounds were found to be present. But toxicological knowledge is scarce and more research described to be needed on this plant.


Tridens flavus, the purpletop tridens, red top, or greasegrass, is a large, robust perennial bunchgrass native to eastern North America.
It widespread throughout its range and is most often found in man-made habitats, such as hay meadows and lawns.
The seeds are purple, giving the grass its common name. The seeds are also oily, leading to its other common name, "greasegrass". It reproduces by seed and tillers.
The grass is often confused with the similar looking Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense), although it is only distantly related. Tridens flavus is easily distinguished by its short, hairy ligule.
It is a larval host to the common wood nymph, crossline skipper, little glassywing, and the Zabulon skipper.


Trifolium aureum, known by the various common names large hop trefoil, large trefoil, large hop clover, golden clover or hop clover, is a species of flowering plant native to much of Eurasia.
Large hop trefoil is a small erect herbaceous biennial plant growing to 10–30 cm tall. Like all clovers, it has leaves divided into three sessile leaflets, each leaflet 15–25 mm long and 6–9 mm broad. Its yellow flowers are arranged into small, elongated round inflorescences 12–20 mm diameter, located at the end of the stem. Each individual flower is decumbent. As they age, the flowers become brown and paper-like. The fruit is a pod usually containing two seeds.
The closely related Trifolium campestre (hop trefoil) is a similar, but shorter, spreading, species with smaller leaves and flowers. The middle leaflet of its leaves also has a short rachis.


The plant is very common, and grows well on poor, undisturbed grounds. While it probably has good nutritive values, perennial species are favored as forage.


Trifolium aureum is native throughout Europe (in Russia this includes non-European Ciscaucasia and western Siberia; in Spain only in the north-east; and in the European portion of the Ukraine this includes Crimea);  western and northern Asia and the Middle East (in Armenia; Azerbaijan; Georgia; northern Iran; Lebanon; and Turkey); and Africa (limited to the Canary Islands).
Trifolium aureum is widely naturalized in North America: it was first introduced to the U.S. (by way of Pennsylvania) in 1800, where it is now found in the western (as far north as Alaska) and eastern regions of the country, but not in the middle, or very much in the southern states. It is also now found in Canada in all of its southerly provinces (with a possible exception being Manitoba).


Large hop trefoil, Trifolium aureum,  may be confused with other plants that have three leaflets and small yellow flowers, such as hop trefoil (T. campestre), lesser hop trefoil (T. dubium), black medick (Medicago lupulina),  and yellow woodsorrel (Oxalis stricta).


Trifolium campestre, commonly known as hop trefoil, field clover and low hop clover, is a species of flowering plant native to Europe and western Asia, growing in dry, sandy grassland habitats, fields, woodland margins, roadsides, wastelands and cultivated land. The species name campestre means "of the fields".


It is a herbaceous annual plant, growing to 10–30 cm tall, with distinctive yellow flowerheads that superficially resemble hop flowers.  Each flowerhead is a cylindrical or spherical collection of 20–40 individual flowers. The flowers become brown upon aging and drying, enclosing the fruit, a one-seeded pod. The leaves are alternate and trifoliate, with three oblong or elliptical leaflets 4–10 mm long.
This species is very closely related to large hop trefoil (Trifolium aureum).


Hop trefoil is an important clover in agriculture because its foliage is good for feeding livestock and replenishing soil. It is not generally planted, but is considered a valuable herb when found growing in a pasture. It has become naturalised in North America, particularly in the west and south of the continent.


Trifolium depauperatum is a species of clover known by the common names cowbag clover, poverty clover, and balloon sack clover.


The plant is native to western North America from British Columbia to California, as well as  to western South America in Peru and Chile. It is a common plant of many types of habitat, including coastal prairie and mixed evergreen forest.


Trifolium depauperatum is a small annual herb growing upright or decumbent in form. The leaves are made up of oval leaflets up to 2 centimeters long which are smooth, toothed, lobed, or blunt-tipped. The inflorescence is a head of flowers up to 1.5 centimeters long. The flower has a pinkish purple white-tipped corolla up to a centimeter long. It becomes inflated as the fruit developed.


Trifolium depauperatum has several varieties, which can include:
Trifolium depauperatum var. amplectens — Balloon sack clover,  Pale bladder clover.
Trifolium depauperatum var. depauperatum — Cowbag clover.
Trifolium depauperatum var. hydrophilum
Trifolium depauperatum var. truncatum — Dwarf sack clover.


Trifolium dubium, the lesser trefoil, suckling clover, little hop clover or lesser hop trefoil, is a flowering plant in the pea and clover family Fabaceae. This species is generally accepted as the primary plant to represent the traditional Irish shamrock.
It is native to Europe, but can be found in many parts of the world as an introduced species.
It is probably an allotetraploid with 2n=32 that arose from the crossing of Trifolium campestre and T. micranthum.


Lesser hop trefoil, Trifolium dubium,  may be confused with other plants that have three leaflets and small yellow flowers, such as large hop trefoil (T. aureum), hop trefoil (T. campestre), black medick (Medicago lupulina),  and yellow woodsorrel (Oxalis stricta).


Trifolium fragiferum, the strawberry clover, is a herbaceous perennial plant species in the bean family Fabaceae. It is native to Europe, Asia, and parts of Africa. It is present in other places, such as sections of North America, as an introduced species. It is also cultivated as a cover crop and for hay and silage, as green manure, and as a bee plant.


This is a perennial herb that spreads via stolons to form mats or clumps of herbage. The leaves are compound, each with three serrated oval leaflets up to 2 to 2.5 centimeters long. The inflorescence is a head of flowers around a centimeter long when first flowering. It increases in size to two centimeters as the fruits develop, the sepals becoming thin and inflated, fuzzy and pinkish in color, to resemble a strawberry or raspberry.


Strawberry clover is cultivated as a cover crop and for hay and silage, as green manure, and as a bee plant. It is good for cover on flood-prone lands or areas with soil salinity. It is known as a weed in some areas. Several agricultural cultivars have been developed, including 'Salina', 'Palestine', and 'Fresa'.


Trifolium hirtum is a species of clover known by the common name rose clover. It is native to Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa. It is present elsewhere as an introduced species and it is cultivated as a cover crop and animal fodder. It was introduced to California from Turkey in the 1940s as a forage crop, and today it is a widespread roadside weed there.
It is a hairy annual herb growing erect in form. The leaves have oval leaflets up to 2.5 centimeters long and bristle-tipped stipules. The inflorescence is a head of flowers about 1.5 centimeters wide. Each flower has a calyx of sepals with long, needlelike lobes that may harden into bristles with age. The calyces are coated in long hairs. The flower has a pink corolla 1 or 1.5 centimeters long.


Trifolium hybridum, the alsike clover, is a species of flowering plant in the pea family Fabaceae. The stalked, pale pink or whitish flower head grows from the leaf axils, and the trifoliate leaves are unmarked. The plant is up to 40 centimetres (1.3 ft) tall, and is found in fields and on roadsides – it is also grown as fodder (hay or silage). The plant blooms from spring to autumn (April to October in the northern hemisphere). Originating in mainland Europe, it has become established as an introduced plant in the British Isles and throughout the temperate regions of the world.


Despite its scientific name, alsike clover is not of hybrid origin. The plant gets its common name from the town of Alsike in Sweden from which Linnaeus first described it. He thought it was a cross between white clover (T. repens) and red clover (T. pratense), but in this he was mistaken and it is a separate species.


Alsike clover is a perennial plant with a semi-erect, sparsely branched, grooved stem, hairy in its upper regions. The leaves are alternate and stalked with small stipules. The leaves have three blunt-tipped ovate, unspotted leaflets with finely toothed margins. The inflorescence has a long stalk and is densely globose. The individual florets have a five-lobed calyx and an irregular corolla consisting of five pink petals, one upstanding "standard", two lateral "wings" and the lower two fused to form a "keel". There are ten stamens and a single carpal.
The plant can irritate skin if handled.


Alsike clover is native to much of southern Europe and southwestern Asia, especially in mountainous regions. It is widely cultivated and used as a forage crop and for this purpose the subspecies T. h. hybridum is used and this has become naturalised further north in Europe and in other parts of the world. Its natural habitat is fields, meadows, roadsides, banks and waste ground. When added to seed mixtures, it seldom persists once the sward has closed up.


Trifolium incarnatum, known as crimson clover or Italian clover, is a species of flowering plant in the family Fabaceae, native to most of Europe. It has been introduced to other areas, including the United States and Japan.
This upright annual herb grows to 20–50 cm (8-20") tall, unbranched or branched only at the base. The leaves are trifoliate with a long petiole, each leaflet hairy, 8–16 mm across, with a truncated or bilobed apex. The flowers are produced throughout the spring and summer, rich red or crimson, congested on an elongated spike inflorescence 3–5 cm tall and 1.5 cm broad; the individual flowers are up to 10–13 mm long and have five petals. The banner of each flower does not sit upright, but folds forward.


Crimson clover is commonly used in agriculture as a nitrogen-fixing cover crop. The plant uses associations with Rhizobia bacteria to fix nitrogen. The plant is widely grown as a protein-rich forage crop for cattle and other livestock, and is suitable to be made into hay. It is commonly grazed by domestic and wild ruminants. It is often used for roadside erosion control, as well as beautification, however it tends to eliminate all other desirable spring and early-summer species of native vegetation in the area where it is planted.
Crimson clover's flowers and the sprouts, which are visually and gustatorily similar to alfalfa sprouts are edible. They can be added as an ingredient in salads, sandwiches, and other dishes, made into tisanes, and can be dried and ground into flour. 100 grams of crimson clover sprouts contains 23 calories, 4g of protein, 2g of fiber, and provides 38 percent of the RDI of vitamin K, as well as 14 percent of the RDI of vitamin C. It has extremely small amounts of calcium, iron, phosphorus, zinc, selenium and magnesium. Like all raw eaten sprouts, they possess the risk of Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Listeria, and Bacillus cereus contamination. However, many reputable facilities in the United States attempt to regulate and test these crops for such bacteria.


In mild winter areas, such as coastal California and the Pacific Northwest, crimson clover typically behaves as a winter annual. The seeds germinate in the first rains of late summer or autumn. The plants grow through the winter, and have a major flush of bloom in late spring. In dry summer climates, the plants die after maturing seeds. In sites having sufficient summer moisture, plants can continue growth and flowering; and may even behave as short lived perennials.


It is sown as quickly as possible after the removal of a grain crop at the rate of 20–22 kg/ha. It is found to succeed better when only the surface of the soil is stirred by the scarifier and harrow than when a plowing is given. It grows rapidly in spring, and yields an abundant crop of greenery. Only one cutting, however, can be obtained, as it does not shoot again after being mown.


USDA, NRCS (n.d.). "Trifolium incarnatum". The PLANTS Database (plants.usda.gov). Greensboro, North Carolina: National Plant Data Team. Retrieved 15 December 2015.
Young-Mathews, Annie (February 2013). "Plant guide for crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum)" (PDF). USDA. Retrieved May 21, 2019.
Heuzé V., Tran G., Maxin G., 2016. Crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum). Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/247 Last updated on April 19, 2016, 11:33
"Health Benefits of Clover Sprouts". LIVESTRONG.COM. Retrieved 2019-02-25.
"Crimson Clover: Pictures, Flowers, Leaves and Identification | Trifolium incarnatum". www.ediblewildfood.com. Retrieved 2019-02-25.
Meathead (2011-06-11). "Why Raw Sprouts May be the Riskiest Food in Your Grocery Store". Huffington Post. Retrieved 2019-02-25.
Foodsafety.gov. "Sprouts: What You Should Know". www.foodsafety.gov. Retrieved 2019-02-28.
Flora Europaea: Trifolium incarnatum
Ecoflora: Trifolium incarnatum
FAO factsheet: Trifolium incarnatum
Ajilvsgi, Geyata. (2003). Wildflowers of Texas. Shearer Publishing, Fredericksburg, Texas (USA). ISBN 0-940672-73-1.
Robert W. Freckmann Herbarium, University of Wisconsin Page with several photos.
Ultrastructural details seen on the surface of a "crimson clover", Trifolium incarnatum flower petal.


Trifolium pratense, the red clover, is a herbaceous species of flowering plant in the bean family Fabaceae, native to Europe, Western Asia, and northwest Africa, but planted and naturalized in many other regions.


Red clover is a herbaceous, short-lived perennial plant, variable in size, growing to 20–80 cm (8–31 in) tall. It has a deep taproot which makes it tolerant to drought and gives it a good soil structuring effect. The leaves are alternate, trifoliate (with three leaflets), each leaflet 15–30 mm (0.6–1.2 in) long and 8–15 mm (0.3–0.6 in) broad, green with a characteristic pale crescent in the outer half of the leaf; the petiole is 1–4 cm (0.4–1.6 in) long, with two basal stipules that are abruptly narrowed to a bristle-like point. The flowers are dark pink with a paler base, 12–15 mm (0.5–0.6 in) long, produced in a dense inflorescence, and are mostly visited by bumblebees.


The red clover is native to Europe, Western Asia, and northwest Africa, but it has been naturalized in other continents, like North and South America. Specifically, the red clover was brought to Argentina and Chile over 100 years ago, although it is not clear how exactly it was introduced. The red clover has become increasingly important as a source of economic stability in Chile, which has made the need for pollinators even more important. One important pollinator, which was also brought from Europe, is Bombus ruderatus, or the large garden bumblebee. This bumblebee has been one of the important pollinators of red clover in South America and other countries such as New Zealand. In India the highest producer of Red Clover seed is the Agriculture Department of Kashmir’s Fodder Seed Production Station Aru, in south Kashmir’s Anantnag district of Jammu & Kashmir. Two red clover accessions were deposited in National Gene Bank of India from Fodder Seed Production Station Aru in 2019 vide IC-635999 and IC-636000 by ICAR.


It is widely grown as a fodder crop, valued for its nitrogen fixation, which increases soil fertility. For these reasons, it is used as a green manure crop. Several cultivar groups have been selected for agricultural use, mostly derived from T. pratense var. sativum. It has become naturalised in many temperate areas, including the Americas and Australasia as an escape from cultivation.
Due to its beauty, it is used as an ornamental plant.
Red clover's flowers and leaves are edible, and can be added as garnishes to any dish. They can be ground into a flour.
The flowers often are used to make jelly and tisanes, and are used in essiac recipes. Their essential oil may be extracted and its unique scent used in aromatherapy.
Trifolium pratense's perennial nature affords sustained, reliable growth. Furthermore, the species' ability to fix nitrogen promotes protein rich growth, enables it to support a wide range of wildlife including deer, turkeys, and rabbits. These characteristics make Trifolium pratense useful for hunters interested in attracting game. The pink flowers afford high visibility levels and facilitate such attraction and may be used by wildlife remediation teams and conservationists seeking to build wildlife bridges to connect fragmented habitats.


Trifolium pratense is used in traditional medicine of India as deobstruent, antispasmodic, expectorant, sedative, anti-inflammatory and antidermatosis agent.
In alternative medicine, red clover is promoted as a treatment for a variety of human maladies, including symptoms of menopause, coughs, disorders of the lymphatic system and a variety of cancers. Several systemic reviews and meta-analyses concluded that red clover extract reduces the frequency of menopause hot flashes. Most added that further research is needed to confirm the results. There is no evidence in the human trial literature that red clover has been tested for effects on cough, lymphatic system or cancer prevention/treatment. Dietary amounts of red clover are safe, but dietary supplement extracts may cause rash-like reactions, muscle ache, headache, nausea, vaginal bleeding in women, and slow blood clotting.
Red clover contains coumestrol, a phytoestrogen. Due to its activity on oestrogen receptors, red clover is contraindicated in people with a history of breast cancer, endometriosis, ovarian cancer, uterine cancer, uterine fibroids or other oestrogen-sensitive conditions, although some authors have suggested the high isoflavone content counteracts this, and even provides benefits in these conditions.
Due to its coumarin derivatives, T. pratense should be used with caution in individuals with coagulation disorders or currently undergoing anticoagulation therapy.
It is metabolised by CYP3A4 and therefore caution should be used when taking it with other drugs using this metabolic pathway.


Red clover is subject to bacterial as well as fungal diseases, including the red clover rust, Uromyces trifolii-repentis var. fallens. Other problems include parasitic nematodes (roundworms) and viruses.


Trifolium pratense is the national flower of Denmark and the state flower of Vermont.


Trifolium repens, white clover, is a herbaceous perennial plant in the bean family Fabaceae (previously referred to as Leguminosae). It is native to Europe, including the British Isles, and central Asia and is one of the most widely cultivated types of clover. It has been widely introduced worldwide as a forage crop, and is now also common in most grassy areas (lawns and gardens) of North America, Australia and New Zealand. The species includes varieties often classed as small, intermediate and large, according to height, which reflects petiole length.  The term 'white clover' is applied to the species in general, 'Dutch clover' is often applied to intermediate varieties (but sometimes to smaller varieties), and 'ladino clover' is applied to large varieties.


It is a herbaceous, perennial plant. It is low growing, with heads of whitish flowers, often with a tinge of pink or cream that may come on with the aging of the plant. The heads are generally 1.5–2 centimetres (1⁄2–3⁄4 in) wide, and are at the end of 7 centimetres (2+3⁄4 in) peduncles or inflorescence stalks. The flowers are mostly visited by bumblebees and often by honey bees. The leaves are trifoliolate, smooth, elliptic to egg-shaped and long-petioled and usually with light or dark markings. The stems function as stolons, so white clover often forms mats, with the stems creeping as much as 18 cm (7 in) a year, and rooting at the nodes. The leaves form the symbol known as shamrock. Almost always, a white clover will be trifoliolate. However, one can, but only sometimes, possess four or more leaflets.


Trifolium repens subsp. macrorrhizum (Boiss.) Ponert
Trifolium repens var. nevadense (Boiss.) C.Vicioso
Trifolium repens var. ochranthum K.Maly
Trifolium repens var. orbelicum (Velen.) Fritsch
Trifolium repens var. orphanideum (Boiss.) Boiss.
Trifolium repens subsp. prostratum Nyman


It is native in Europe and Central Asia, ubiquitous throughout the British Isles, introduced in North America, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Japan and elsewhere, and globally cultivated as a forage crop.
White clover has been used as a model organism for global research into ecology and urban evolution.  As part of the Global Urban Evolution Project (GLUE) scientists from 26 countries examined the  production of cyanide by over 110,000 clover plants from 160 cities. Cyanide can be useful to clover plants as a deterrent to herbivores.
Analyzing urban-rural differences, scientists found that cyanide production tended to increase with distance from the center of cities, suggesting that clover populations were adapting to factors commonly found in urban centers worldwide. Possible factors could include temperature (freezing is related to cyanide content), herbivory pressures, and drought stress. As clover habitats, the downtowns of cities may more closely resemble other far-flung cities than nearby rural areas.


Trifolium repens is a tetraploid (4n=32) with two diploid ancestors. In order to increase genetic diversity for breeding, research is focused on finding these ancestors. Proposed ancestors of Trifolium repens include Trifolium nigrescens, Trifolium occidentale, Trifolium pallescens, and Trifolium uniflorum. Additionally, it is possible that one of the diploid ancestors has yet to be analyzed, either because it has not been discovered or is extinct.


White clover has been described as the most important forage legume of the temperate zones.  Symbiotic nitrogen fixation (up to 545 kilograms per hectare per year (486 lb/acre/a) of N, although usually much less, e.g. about 110 to 170 kilograms per hectare per year (98 to 152 lb/acre/a)) in root nodules of white clover obviates synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use for maintaining productivity on much temperate zone pasture land.  White clover is commonly grown in mixtures with forage grasses, e.g. perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne).  Such mixtures can not only optimize livestock production, but can also reduce the bloat risk to livestock that can be associated with excessive white clover in pastures. Such species mixtures also tend to avoid issues that could otherwise be associated with cyanogenic glycosides (linamarin and lotaustralin) intake on pure or nearly pure stands of some white clover varieties. However, problems do not inevitably arise with grazing on monocultures of white clover, and superior ruminant production is sometimes achieved on white clover monocultures managed to optimize sward height.
Formononetin and biochanin A play a role in arbuscular mycorrhiza formation on white clover roots, and foliar disease can stimulate production of estrogenic coumestans in white clover.  However, while there have been a few reports of phytoestrogenic effects of white clover on grazing ruminants, these have been far less common than such reports regarding some varieties of subterranean and red clover. Among forage plants, some white clover varieties tend to be favored by rather close grazing, because of their stoloniferous habit, which can contribute to competitive advantage.


White clover grows well as a companion plant among lawns, grain crops, pasture grasses, and vegetable rows. It is often added to lawn seed mixes, as it is able to grow and provide green cover in poorer soils where turfgrasses do not perform well. White clover can tolerate close mowing and grazing, and it can grow on many different types and pHs of soil (although it prefers clay soils). As a leguminous and hardy plant, it is considered to be a beneficial component of natural or organic pasture management and lawn care due to its ability to fix nitrogen and out-compete weeds. Natural nitrogen fixing reduces leaching from the soil and by maintaining soil health can reduce the incidence of some lawn diseases that are enhanced by the availability of synthetic fertilizer. For these reasons, it is often used as a green manure and cover crop.


In India, T. repens  is considered a folk medicine against intestinal helminthic worms, and an experimental in-vivo study validated that the aerial shoots of T. repens bear significant anticestodal (anti-tapeworm) properties.


Triglochin maritima is a species of flowering plant in the arrowgrass family Juncaginaceae. It is found in brackish marshes, freshwater marshes, wet sandy beaches, fens, damp grassland and bogs. It has a circumboreal distribution, occurring throughout the northern Northern Hemisphere. In the British Isles it is common on the coast, but very rare inland.


It is similar to marsh arrowgrass (Triglochin palustris) but has the following differences: it has stolons, is stouter. The leaves are fleshy and not furrowed above. It is not very aromatic. The raceme are more dense and like sea plantain. The flowers are fleshier. The fruits are oval, 4 mm long, 2 mm wide.
It varies in height from 200–750 mm (8–30 in). It flowers in May to August; flowers are greenish, 3 petalled, edged with purple, 3 mm (1⁄8 in) across, in a long spike. Common names include seaside arrowgrass, common arrowgrass, sea arrowgrass and shore arrowgrass.
It can be an annual or perennial.
Triglochin concinna is a synonym of this species.
This plant is toxic, as it can produce cyanide. This species has been known to cause losses in cattle, with green leaves being more toxic than dried material.


Trigona fulviventris was first described by Félix Édouard Guérin-Méneville in 1845. It is a member of the order Hymenoptera, which includes ants, bees, wasps, and sawflies and part of the family Apidae, which includes other bees such as bumble bees, honey bees, and orchid bees. It is further categorized in the genus Trigona, a genus of stingless bees.
Two subspecies of T. fulviventris have been identified: T. f. fulviventris and T. f. guianae. These subspecies are distinguished by coloration; morphological studies have shown that the subspecies cannot be easily separated by strictly morphological analyses.


Trigona fulviventris individuals are morphologically characterized by the expression of two projections, called tubercles on their labra as well as the presence of four mandibular teeth. The two identified subspecies of T. fulviventris, T. f. fulviventris and T. f. guianae, can be distinguished by differences in metasomal coloration. T. f. fulviventris metasoma are rust-colored with some differences in tone between individuals, while T. f. guianae metasoma and the rest of the body are black, sometimes expressing some reddish tones. T. fulviventris individuals are among the largest of their genus, ranging in size from 5 to 6.5 millimeters in length.


Trigona fulviventris feeds mostly on pollen and nectar. Known species of plant from which T. fulviventris feeds are Passiflora vitifolia, Pavonia dasypetala, Heliconia imbricata, Quassia amara, Dioclea, Lantana camara, Tabebuia, Asystasia, Insertia, Psychotria, Stromanthe, Justicia aurea, Heliconia tortuosa, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Impatiens walleriana, and Fuchsia. However, they have also been observed to forage opportunistically on fungi, dead animals, flesh, and fecal matter as well.


Trigona fulviventris nests are made in the ground, often near buttresses and roots of large trees, and have also been found in urban areas (particularly in crevices in walls of buildings). There is one entryway to each nest, which is made large enough for many individuals to pass through at once. Their nest cavities are enclosed by a thick resin bitumen. Nests are cylindrical in shape and very rigid, with no documented ornamentation.


Within the nest, storage pots for pollen and nectar are between 0.7 and 1.0 centimeters in diameter and are partially separated from each other. These storage pots are located to the sides of and underneath the brood. Brood cells are oval in shape and are organized in regular, horizontal combs; there are between twenty and thirty combs of brood cells in a nest on average. Brood cell construction in T. fulviventris is asynchronous.


Trigona fulviventris is one of the most widely distributed bees of the genus Trigona and is found in Mexico, Belize, Colombia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, and the Panama Canal Zone. It is more commonly found at low- and mid-altitudes and has been observed to withstand a wide range of humidities. Habitats in which T. fulviventris colonies make their homes include both tropical dry and tropical wet forests.


New T. fulviventris colonies are established in the spring every year when one or more workers from a previous colony leave their nest and begin scouting divots in tree trunks for a new nest location. These bees have been shown to mark these sites with pheromones, often leaving odor trails to lead to desirable nest locations. However, these pheromones can also attract rival T. fulviventris colonies, which can lead to aggressive encounters between the attracted workers and the new nest-initiation workers (further described in Nest Initiation Aggression below). Once it is determined which workers will inhabit the new area, gynes (reproductive females) will mate with a swarm of males mid-flight and enter the new nest to initiate a new colony.


Individual T. fulviventris foragers were evaluated for their flower constancy with respect to floral scent and were shown to have definite and specific preferences for a single floral scent. In one study, between 78 and 87 percent of foragers were observed to visit flowers that had the same distinct floral scent during successive foraging events, suggesting that chemical cues are important to flower constancy. Furthermore, T. fulviventris foragers were more likely to favor the same floral scent as the first forager to return to the nest, indicating that T. fulviventris foragers carry and relay food odors to other foragers inside the nest. When presented with flowers of different coloration, foraging T. fulviventris individuals seemed to distinctly prefer one color to the others, indicating that visual components are also important to flower constancy.


Scent marking, in which bees mark flowers that have already been foraged from with a pheromone, increases foraging efficiency and has been documented in various bees including honey bees, bumblebees, and sweat bees. T. fulviventris individuals have been observed to scent-mark flowers they have already visited and reject flowers that have been visited in the preceding forty-five minutes. However, this behavior was not observed with every foraging situation; one study showed that scent-marking occurred when T. fulviventris workers visited Priva mexicana flowers, but not when they visited Crotalaria cajanifolia flowers. This indicates that scent-marking is not always the most favorable foraging strategy and is context-dependent. For instance, P. mexicana flowers are deep and require bees to climb inside the flower to reach the nectar, which is costly in terms of both time and energy; therefore, it is not worth expending energy and time on foraging on a P. mexicana flower that has already been visited. However, C. cajanifolia flowers are relatively easier to forage from, so visiting a C. cajanifolia flower that has already been visited is not as costly for a T. fulviventris worker.


Trigona fulviventris individuals have been observed to abstain from engaging in aggressive behaviors with individuals of other species, particularly larger species like humans. However, T. fulviventris engages in aggressive behavior with smaller arthropods as well as other T. fulviventris individuals, particularly those of other colonies, especially during nest initiation.


The heads of T. fulviventris workers have been analyzed for the presence of chemicals that can act as pheromones and attack signals. These chemicals are stored in the individuals’ mandibular glands, and the most prominent chemicals expressed by T. fulviventris individuals are nerol (at a rate of about fifty percent) and octyl caproate (at a rate of about twenty percent). Nerol release has been shown to decrease the number of bees leaving the nest by nearly half, while increasing behaviors such as biting and wing vibration. These chemicals can also act as attraction chemicals, attracting members of the colony to an individual captured by a predator outside the nest.


Many bees of the genus Trigona have been identified as expressing aggressive defense behaviors, such as biting and attacking, mediated by the release of attack pheromones from workers when intruders invade their nests. It has been widely reported that, even when large intruders invade T. fulviventris nests or nests are presented with a crushed T. fulviventris individual, there are no attacking or biting behaviors observed. However, later studies have shown that alarm responses do exist in T. fulviventris individuals, particularly in response to smaller arthropods capturing individuals outside the nest, although to a lesser extent than other, more aggressive Trigona species. These responses, which are mediated by pheromones, include leaving the nest to follow or swarm a predator that has captured an individual, as well as biting predators.


While T. fulviventris does not regularly engage in interspecific aggression, there have been many reports of aggression within the species, especially as it relates to nest initiation. As explained earlier, nest initiation occurs when one or more workers mark an attractive site with pheromones. These pheromones can attract workers from other colonies, which results in aggression between the two groups. If the two opposing colonies are represented by about the same number of workers, then the encounter results in a "stalemate" and neither group inhabits the marked site. If, however, one group is represented in much greater numbers, they are permitted to establish a new colony at the marked site. This pheromone-marking and aggression leads to the even distribution of T. fulviventris nests so as to minimize the amount of aggression between colonies (i.e. as a result of pheromone signals, no two nests are established in close proximity to lessen the likelihood of intraspecific aggression).


Trigona fulviventris individuals are capable of distinguishing nestmates from non-nestmates through recognition of a range of compounds. These compounds include hydrocarbons and fatty acids that are present in T. fulviventris wax as well as locally available floral oils that are present in plant material used to construct nests.  These odor cues are important to judging which individuals are nestmates and which are not, which is necessary in determining which individuals to engage in aggressive encounters with. The amount of time that passes between the first encounter of two bees and the start of aggression between them, called mean latency, is negatively correlated with the occurrence of aggression. In other words, the longer it takes two bees to initiate aggressive behaviors, the less likely it will be that there will be aggression between them. This relationship could be a result of variations in the magnitudes of the differences in olfactory signals two bees put out. For instance, if one T. fulviventris bee has only a slightly different signal than another bee, it will take longer to analyze this difference and engage in an aggressive behavior. In contrast, a large difference in signal is more likely to be noticed immediately and aggressive behaviors can occur more quickly, decreasing the mean latency.


Trigona fulviventris, like other Trigona bees, does not display stinging behavior. Some bees in the genus Trigona have been shown to harbor vestigial stinging accessories; these vestigial structures are largely absent in T. fulviventris individuals.


The sticky resin used by T. fulviventris workers in building their nests has been prized by Colombian fisherman as an effective means of caulking fishing canoes that have sprung leaks.


Trigonodes hyppasia, the triangles or semi-looper, is a moth in the family Erebidae. The species was first described by Pieter Cramer in 1779. It is largely cosmopolitan, found throughout Borneo, Fiji, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, São Tomé and Príncipe, Taiwan, Thailand, Zimbabwe, northern Australia, and almost all African countries.


The wingspan is about 30–46 mm. Antennae of male ciliated. Mid and hind tibia hairy. Body pale ochreous brown, slightly suffused with fuscous or dark grey brown. Forewings with a large black white-edged triangular patch easily distinguished below the cell from near base to towards outer angle. A similar smaller patch found beyond the cell on vein 5, with some pale fulvous behind it. A slightly sinuous submarginal pale line with patches of black suffusion found inside it and a series of black specks beyond it. A dark marginal line can be seen as well. Hindwings with indistinct medial line and fuscous suffused outer area.
Larva has yellow upper half and brown ventral part. The yellow part is broken by longitudinal brown bands, which faints towards posterior and becomes intensive again in prolegs. Eggs olive green and speckled rusty red. First few instars are green with three lateral purple brown lines. Late instars are yellowish. Pupa within a slight cocoon of white silk, which spun amongst leaves.
The larvae feed on Chrysopogon, Eleusine Glycine, Indigofera, Kummerovia, Medicago, Phaseolus, Rhynchosia and Nephelium species.


Trigonopeltastes delta, the delta flower scarab or D beetle, is a diurnal species of scarab beetle native to the southeastern United States, though their range extends as far north as New Jersey.


Adults measure 8-10 millimeters in length, and can be identified by the yellow triangle on the pronotum, which resembles the defensive coloration of many wasps and has been theorized to act as Batesian mimicry. They can be found from late spring through the summer on the flowers, including those of Queen Anne's lace and New Jersey tea.


The generic name is derived from Greek words meaning "triangular shield", with the specific name "delta" referring to the pattern on the dorsal side of the beetle's prothorax, which is reminiscent of the Greek letter delta.


T. brevifacies is native to the eastern states of Australia and has been collected from Tasmania, New South Wales, Victoria, and southern Queensland. T. brevifacies is also present in New Zealand as it was introduced to control a number of agricultural pests.


Like all Trigonospila species, T. brevifacies can be recognised by its distinctive markings. They are primarily black with pearly whitish to golden transverse bars on the thorax and abdomen.
T. brevifacies is frequently confused with T. cingulata in locations where both species co-occur. T. cingulata appears to much more common than T. brevifacies, particularly in Queensland, New South Wales, and the Australian Capital Territory. It is believed T. cingulata is a parasitoid of chrysomelid beetle larvae in the genus Paropsis, which are abundant herbivores in many Australian environments. Only T. brevifacies is known to be present in New Zealand.
T. brevifacies can be easily distinguished from T. cingulata by colouration of the abdomen. The black and white abdominal markings of T. cingulata are continuous, crisp stripes from the dorsal to ventral sides of the abdomen, whereas the black markings of T. brevifacies typically are more or less triangular spots on the anterior margin of each the third, fourth, and fifth abdominal tergites which may or may not be quite diffused. The sides of the abdomen in both sexes of T. brevifacies are yellow.


T. brevifacies is an economically important parasitoid of a number of larvae of Lepidoptera and has been deployed in New Zealand as a biocontrol agent of a number of pest species including the light brown apple moth Epiphyas postvittana (Lepidoptera : Tortricidae) and the potato tuber moth Phthorimaea operculella (Lepidoptera : Gelechiidae). T. brevifacies was initially introduced to New Zealand to control the light brown apple moth Epiphyas postvittana and released a number of times between 1967 and 1973 to control a number of other pests. However it competes with many native parasitoids, because it is polyphagous on Lepidoptera. Of the 18 confirmed and published hosts (below), at least 10 are known pests in agriculture or forestry.


T. brevifacies is the only species of Trigonospila for which substantial host records exist. The species is polyphagous and known to parasitise at least 18 species of Lepidoptera in 8 families. Some of these are non target species and T. brevifacies is found to compete with many native parasitods
Carposinidae
Carpinosina adreptella (Walker)
Gelechiidae
Helcystogramma sp.
Phthorimaea operculella Zeller
Geometridae
Pasiphila lunata (Philpott)
Tortricidae
Cnephasia jactatana (Walker)
Ctenopseustis obliquana (Walker)
Epalxiphora axanana (Meyrick)
Epiphyas postvittana (Walker)
Planotortrix excessana (Walker)
Planotortrix notophaea (Walker)
Pyrgotis lagiatana (Walker)
Strepsicrates macropetana (Meyrick)
Oecophoricae
Eutorna phalocosma (Meyrick)
Hierodoris atychioides (Butler)
Pterophoridae
Aciptilia monospilalis (Walker)
Platyptilia falcatalis (Walker)
Pyralidae
Epipaschia costigeralis (Walker)
Stathmopodidae
Stathmopoda skelloni (Butler)


Trillium albidum is a species of flowering plant in the bunchflower family Melanthiaceae. It is the only trillium characterized by a stalkless white flower. The species is endemic to the western United States, ranging from central California through Oregon to southwestern Washington. In the San Francisco Bay Area, it is often confused with a white-flowered form of Trillium chloropetalum. In northern Oregon and southwestern Washington, it has a smaller, less conspicuous flower.
Trillium albidum was first described by John Daniel Freeman in 1975. The specific epithet albidum means "white", a reference to the uniformly white flower color of this distinctive species. It is commonly known as the giant white wakerobin or white toadshade.


Trillium albidum is a perennial herbaceous plant that persists by means of underground rhizomes. There are three large leaf-like bracts arranged in a whorl about a scape that rises directly from the rhizome, growing to 22 to 58 cm (8.5 to 23 in) in height. The bracts are sessile and broadly ovate, each 10 to 20 cm (4 to 8 in) long and 12 to 15 cm (4.5 to 6 in) wide. The bracts are green and weakly mottled with brown or dark green spots (which often fade later in the season).
Each stem produces one flower, which is held on top of the bracts. The fragrant flower has three lance-shaped green sepals and three wider white (sometimes pink or purple-tinged) petals measuring 4.8 to 8 cm (2 to 3 in) long and 2.2 to 3 cm (1 to 1 in) wide (although there is a conspicuously small-flowered subspecies as noted in the previous section).
Trillium albidum subsp. albidum and T. albidum subsp. parviflorum are distinguished on the basis of multiple characters:
In the region between Corvallis, Oregon and the Columbia River, the species is variable and difficult to identify to subspecies level. The directional arrows in the table above point toward the subspecies that dominates with respect to that character.
Trillium albidum is the only sessile-flowered Trillium species characterized by white flowers. Throughout most of its range, this characteristic is sufficient to identify the species, but in the San Francisco Bay Area where both T. albidum and a white-flowered variety of T. chloropetalum occur, the two species are distinguished by their reproductive organs. The latter has dark purple stamens and carpels while those of T. albidum are almost invariably white or pale green, with occasional purple stain.
This plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


Trillium albidum was one of five new species described by John Daniel Freeman in 1975 (the others being T. decipiens, T. foetidissimum, T. kurabayashii, and T. reliquum). The specific epithet albidum, which means "white", refers to its uniformly white flower. Despite being one of the most distinctive species in subgenus Sessilium, the taxon was treated under the misapplied epithet chloropetalum for almost 75 years. To alleviate the confusion, Freeman gave a completely new treatment of Trillium chloropetalum (Torr.) Howell that dissociated the latter from T. albidum.
The following infraspecific names are accepted by most naming authorities:
Trillium albidum subsp. albidum
Trillium albidum subsp. parviflorum (V.G.Soukup) K.L.Chambers & S.C.Meyers
The two subspecies are distinguished by overall size as well as the size and shape of the flower petals. In subsp. parviflorum, the scape is just half the length of the typical subspecies while the petals are consistently shorter and narrower.
In 2002, Case described two distinct but related Trillium species, T. albidum J.D.Freeman and T. parviflorum V.G.Soukup. Some naming authorities still consider both of these species names to be valid while other authorities consider the latter name to be a synonym for T. albidum subsp. parviflorum, in which case the two species originally described by Case become a single species. In any case, there is evidence that T. albidum and T. albidum subsp. parviflorum are less closely related to each other than the latter is to T. luteum, a sessile trillium species native to eastern North America.


Trillium albidum has the widest range of any sessile-flowered trillium in western North America, from central California through Oregon to southwestern Washington. In northern California, its range extends eastward from the Pacific coast through the Klamath Mountains into the Sierra Nevada. The type specimen was collected in Josephine County in southern Oregon. The southern edge of its range overlaps with that of T. chloropetalum in the San Francisco Bay Area. The intermediate populations found in this region may be due to hybridization of the two species.
The typical subspecies Trillium albidum subsp. albidum ranges from northern California to central Oregon while T. albidum subsp. parviflorum is found in northwestern Oregon and southwestern Washington. In the region where the two subspecies overlap, from the Umpqua River north to the Columbia River, there are populations of considerable variation, which complicates identification at the subspecies level based on morphological characters alone. In southwestern Oregon, just north of the California line, there is a population of plants with flowers that are pale yellow or creamy (not white) with no purple pigments whatsoever. Since these plants grow at the higher elevations, flowering is delayed to May or early June. Evidently this taxon has not been named.
Trillium albidum is found in diverse habitats, on the moist slopes of mixed deciduous-coniferous forests, among shrubs and thickets, and along stream banks and river beds.


Flowering typically occurs in the spring, from mid March to early May. In California, flowers bloom between February and June.
Like other Trillium species, T. albidum has a one-leaf vegetative stage followed by a three-leaf vegetative (juvenile) stage. After several years of vegetative growth, the plant finally reaches its three-leaf reproductive (flowering) stage. It has an indefinite life span of many years.


Trillium catesbaei, also known as bashful trillium, Catesby's trillium, or bashful wakerobin, is a species of flowering plant in the family Melanthiaceae. It is found in the southeastern United States where its northern limit includes the Great Smoky Mountains and other parts of North Carolina and Tennessee. Its southernmost natural occurrence is in Escambia County, Alabama. Most of its populations are in the Piedmont from North Carolina to Alabama, under deciduous trees such as American beech, various oak and hickory species, and tulip poplar. Like most trilliums, it prefers moist, humus-rich soil in shade.
Trillium catesbaei is a perennial herbaceous plant that spreads by means of underground rhizomes. Stems are up to 45 cm tall, with white, pink, or rose-colored flowers that sometimes turn darker pink as they get older. Sometimes the flowers are hidden behind green or yellow bracts (hence the "bashful" part of one of the common names).


Trillium chloropetalum, also known as giant trillium, giant wakerobin, or common trillium, is a species of flowering plant in the family Melanthiaceae. It is endemic to the western U.S. state of California, being especially frequent in and around the San Francisco Bay Area.


Trillium chloropetalum is a perennial, clump-forming herbaceous plant with a thick underground rhizome. Like all trilliums, it has a whorl of three bracts (leaves) and a single trimerous flower with 3 sepals, 3 petals, two whorls of 3 stamens each, and 3 carpels fused into a single ovary with 3 stigmas. Since its flower has no stalk, T. chloropetalum belongs to subgenus Sessilium, the sessile-flowered trilliums. It is one of the largest of all Trillium species, with a scape (stem) from 20 to 70 cm (7.9 to 27.6 in) long. The bracts are broadly ovate, 7 to 21 cm (2.8 to 8.3 in) long and 7 to 18 cm (2.8 to 7.1 in) wide, usually with brownish mottling but sometimes unmottled. Petal color is highly variable, typically ranging from pale greenish yellow to greenish bronze (or purplish green) to dark purple. A variety that lacks yellow pigments has petal colors ranging from white to reddish-purple. The flower petals enclose purple stamens, 15 to 30 mm (0.59 to 1.18 in) long, and a purple ovary. Flowering occurs from late February to early April.
In the San Francisco Bay Area, a white-petaled form of T. chloropetalum is often confused with T. albidum, which also has white petals. The former is distinguished by the purple pigment in its anther connective tissue, a character lacking in T. albidum.


In 1856, John Torrey described Trillium sessile var. chloropetalum based on a specimen collected by John Milton Bigelow two years earlier in the "redwoods" of California. At the time, Bigelow was exploring the valleys and tributaries of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers, but the precise original location of his specimen remains unknown. In 1903, Thomas Jefferson Howell described the species Trillium chloropetalum based on Torrey's variety. The epithet chloropetalum means "green-petaled".
In 1975, John Daniel Freeman published an influential revision of subgenus Sessilium that included the description of a new species Trillium albidum J.D.Freeman and a completely new circumscription of Trillium chloropetalum (Torr.) Howell. By separating out white-flowered T. albidum, Freeman was able to provide a rational circumscription of T. chloropetalum that includes the following taxa:
Trillium chloropetalum var. chloropetalum
Trillium chloropetalum var. giganteum (Hook. & Arn.) Munz
The petals of T. chloropetalum var. chloropetalum always show yellow pigments but these are often masked by purple or other pigments. In contrast, the petals of T. chloropetalum var. giganteum lack yellow pigments altogether. The former is characterized by the green-petaled form described by Torrey while the latter includes a white-flowered form of T. chloropetalum distinguished from T. albidum by the presence of dark purple stamens and carpels.
Freeman's treatment of Trillium chloropetalum is widely (if not universally) accepted. Some authorities consider Trillium chloropetalum var. giganteum to be a synonym for Trillium chloropetalum, but even those authorities cite Freeman.


Trillium chloropetalum is endemic to California. Some authorities claim the species ranges across ten California counties, from Monterey County on the central California coast to Lake County in the north central part of the state:
Alameda, Contra Costa, Lake, Marin, Monterey, Napa, San Mateo, Santa Clara, Santa Cruz, Sonoma
Other authorities claim that T. chloropetalum has a broader range that extends northward to Siskiyou County or southward to Santa Barbara County.
T. chloropetalum is found at the edges of redwood forests and chaparral, usually on moist slopes, canyon banks, and alluvial soils.


The variety Trillium chloropetalum var. giganteum, with its deep maroon flower petals, gained the Award of Garden Merit (AGM) from the Royal Horticultural Society in 1993.


Trillium erectum, the red trillium, also known as wake robin, purple trillium, bethroot, or stinking benjamin, is a species of flowering plant in the family Melanthiaceae. The plant takes its common name "wake robin" by analogy with the European robin, which has a red breast heralding spring. Likewise Trillium erectum is a spring ephemeral whose life-cycle is synchronized with that of the forests in which it lives. It is native to the eastern United States and eastern Canada from northern Georgia to Quebec and New Brunswick.


Trillium erectum is a perennial herbaceous plant that grows to about 40 cm (16 in) in height with a spread of 30 cm (12 in). It can tolerate extreme cold in winter, surviving temperatures down to −35 °C (−31 °F).
Like all trilliums, its parts are in groups of three, with a 3-petalled flower above a whorl of pointed triple leaves. The petals are dark reddish brown, maroon, purple, pale yellow, or white. The ovary is dark purple to maroon regardless of petal color. If the flower is successfully pollinated, the petals wither, leaving behind a fruit that ripens to a dark red berry-like capsule, 1 to 1.5 centimeters long.


Trillium erectum shares many anatomical details with other North American Trillium species. These species hybridize in the wild, which has led some researchers to group them into a species complex, specifically, a syngameon of semispecies.
The combinations of traits that are supposed to differentiate members of the complex from one another are sometimes inconsistently combined in wild populations. This has led some researchers to declare the individual species invalid, and refer to the species complex collectively as T. erectum (sensu lato). Others acknowledge the existence of introgression and hybrid swarm formation between some or all complex members, but maintain that the named species within the complex represent convenient groups with common features.
Members of the T. erectum complex have flowers with the following commonalities: (1) petals that are coarse and stiff in texture (in contrast with the wavy edges of other species), (2) petals that do not change color after pollination, (3) petals with prominent, netted veins, (4) fleshy stigmas that are attached to the ovary separately, without a common style, and (5) conspicuous, deeply-ridged ovaries.
North American members of the T. erectum species complex:
T. cernuum
T. erectum
T. flexipes
T. rugelii
T. simile
T. sulcatum
T. vaseyi
The Asian species T. camschatcense, resembles the North American T. flexipes very closely, and itself has close relatives with similar floral features. However, trillium speciation in this group of Asian species is characterized by differences in chromosome number, with hybrids more definitively distinguishable from parent species by karyotype.
T. apetalon
T. camschatcense
T. channellii
T. × hagae
T. smallii
T. tschonoskii


Trillium erectum was first described by the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in 1753. The specific epithet erectum means "upright, erect", a reference to the erect pedicel of some forms of this species. In many populations, however, the pedicel leans or declines, sometimes declining beneath the leaves, making the name somewhat inappropriate.
In 1803 André Michaux introduced the name Trillium rhomboideum to describe a form of T. erectum with black fruit in "the high mountains of North Carolina". The specific epithet rhomboideum refers to the broadly rhombic leaves of this (and all) forms of T. erectum. Michaux also described Trillium rhomboideum var. atropurpureum, a variety with large, dark purple petals. A decade later in 1813, Frederick Traugott Pursh referred to Michaux's variety more simply as Trillium erectum var. atropurpureum. Perhaps unaware of these taxonomic developments, other botanists subsequently described Trillium atropurpureum. The epithet atropurpureum means "dark-purple coloured", a reference to the petal color of certain forms of T. erectum. Indeed, in some locales T. erectum is commonly known as the purple trillium.


As of October 2021, Plants of the World Online (POWO) accepts two infraspecific names:
Trillium erectum var. album (Michx.) Pursh
Trillium erectum var. erectum
POWO lists 30 synonyms for variety erectum and 3 synonyms for variety album. Michaux introduced the term album in 1803 by describing Trillium rhomboideum var. album, a variety with a smaller flower and white petals. Pursh gave a similar description for Trillium erectum var. album in 1814. The word album means "bright, dead-white", a reference to the variety's white petals, a distinctive feature noted by both Michaux and Pursh.
John Kunkel Small raised T. rhomboideum var. album Michx. to species rank in 1903. In his description, he added long anthers to the list of characters cited by Michaux while expanding the range of the taxon to include North Carolina, Tennessee, and Georgia. In 1917, R.R. Gates recognized the existence of two distinct forms of T. erectum with white petals, one of which was represented by the previously mentioned Trillium album (Michx.) Small. This prompted Ralph Hoffmann to propose Trillium erectum f. albiflorum, a white-flowered form of T. erectum that occurs occasionally and spontaneously throughout the range of the species. Thus the distinct taxa recognized by Gates were fully realized by 1922.
POWO cites the Flora of North America (FNA) as an authority for Trillium erectum var. album (Michx.) Pursh. The treatment of the variety in FNA expands the original concept described by Michaux to include the occasional white-flowered red trillium found throughout the range of the species. Under this scheme, all non-white petal colors (including yellow) comprise the typical variety (var. erectum). Thus FNA lumps the two forms recognized by Gates into a single taxon. In contrast, the treatment given in the Flora of the Southeastern United States (FSUS) aligns with Michaux by describing a white-flowered variety of T. erectum restricted to the foothills of the Great Smoky Mountains, specifically, in North Carolina and Tennessee. FSUS suggests that variety album may be genetically distinct from variety erectum, while other evidence suggests there is little genetic difference between the two varieties.


Trillium erectum is native to eastern North America. Its range extends from northern Georgia in the southeastern United States to Quebec and New Brunswick in eastern Canada, and as far west as Michigan and southern Ontario. The species is known to occur in the following provinces and states:
Canada: New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Quebec
United States: Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia
Trillium erectum var. album (as described in the Flora of the Southeastern United States) occurs in western North Carolina, eastern Tennessee, and other areas surrounding the Great Smoky Mountains, primarily at elevations less than 450 m (1,480 ft).
As of October 2019, Trillium erectum is globally secure. It is critically imperiled in Delaware, Illinois, and Rhode Island.


Trillium erectum is a carrion-scented flower. It produces fetid or putrid odors purported to attract carrion fly and beetle pollinators. The fetid odor is described as that of a wet dog. The common name stinking benjamin refers to this characteristic of the plant. "Benjamin" is a corruption of the word benzoin, which itself is a corruption of the word "benjoin", a plant-based organic compound used in the manufacture of perfume. Despite the origins of the common name, the chemical basis of carrion-scented flowers is not well understood.


The root of the red trillium was used by various indigenous peoples of North America as an aid in childbirth, hence the common name birthwort or birthroot (which is sometimes corrupted to bethroot). Root tea was used for menstrual disorders, to induce childbirth, and to aid in labor. The Cherokee peoples used a poultice of the whole plant to treat tumors, inflammation, and ulcers.
The leaves contain calcium oxalate crystals and crystal raphide, and should not be consumed by humans.
Trillium erectum is cultivated as a flowering ornamental plant. Although not as showy as T. grandiflorum, the flowers of some forms of T. erectum can be quite striking, especially since it tends to form large clumps. It has received the Award of Garden Merit from the Royal Horticultural Society.


Trillium grandiflorum, the white trillium, large-flowered trillium, great white trillium, white wake-robin or French: trille blanc, is a species of flowering plant in the family Melanthiaceae. A monocotyledonous, herbaceous perennial, the plant is native to eastern North America, from northern Quebec to the southern parts of the United States through the Appalachian Mountains into northernmost Georgia and west to Minnesota. There are also several isolated populations in Nova Scotia, Maine, southern Illinois, and Iowa.
Trillium grandiflorum is most common in rich, mixed upland forests. It is easily recognised by its attractive three-petaled white flowers, opening from late spring to early summer, that rise above a whorl of three leaf-like bracts. It is an example of a spring ephemeral, a plant whose life-cycle is synchronised with that of the deciduous woodland which it favours.
White trillium often occurs in dense drifts of many individuals. The G. Richard Thompson Wildlife Management Area in the Blue Ridge Mountains is renowned for an extensive stand of white trillium that blooms each spring. Over a two square mile area along the Appalachian Trail near Linden, Virginia there is a spectacular annual display of white trilliums estimated at near ten million individuals.


Trillium grandiflorum is a perennial that grows from a short rhizome and produces a single, showy white flower atop a whorl of three leaves. Flowering stems are 20-40 cm tall. The leaves are often called bracts as the "stem" is then considered a peduncle (the rhizome is the stem proper, aboveground shoots of a rhizome are branches or peduncles); the distinction between bracts (found on pedicels or peduncles) and leaves (borne on stems). A single rootstock will often form clonal colonies, which can become very large and dense.
The erect, odorless flowers are large, especially compared to other species of Trillium, with 4 to 7 cm (1.5 to 3 in) long petals, depending on age and vigor. The petals are shaped much like the leaves and curve outward. They have a visible venation, though this is not as heavily marked as on the leaves. Their overlapping bases and curve give the flowers a distinctive funnel shape. Between the veined petals, three acuminate (ending with a long point) sepals are visible; they are usually a paler shade of green than the leaves, and are sometimes streaked with maroon. The flowers are perched on a pedicel (i.e., flower stalk) raising them above the leaf whorl, and grow pinker as they age. The flowers' stigmas are slender, straight or mostly so, narrowing at the end. The white petals are much longer than the green sepals. The flowers have six stamens in two whorls of three, which persist after fruiting. The styles are white and very short compared to the 9–27 mm (0.35–1.06 in) anthers, which are pale yellow, but become a brighter shade when liberating pollen due to the latter's color. The ovaries are six-sided with three greenish-white stigmas that are at first weakly attached, but fuse higher up. The fruit is a green, mealy and moist orb, and is vaguely six-sided like the ovary.