The eastern imperial eagle is somewhat varied in hunting techniques but almost exclusively takes its prey on the ground. It is possible some prey, such as fledgling birds, are taken from low perches in ambushes but this is seemingly unverified. They are also known to capture prey in water or from the edge of waterways and may even become waterlogged, especially when capturing birds. Imperial eagles typically still hunt, watching for prey at length from a moderately low perch (usually a tree branch but virtually any perch from rocks to bushes to power poles), then often making a short stoop or dive to the ground once prey is spotted. Alternately, they may make a longer dive onto prey from a low soaring flight, often using any vegetation available to obscure their approach. Some prey are known to be captured on foot, including insects and burrowing mammals, the latter reportedly by waiting by the entrance of the animal’s burrow. Occasionally, this species will pirate foods from other eagles (and other species of bird of prey), especially during winter, and also tandem hunts in pairs as well. The eastern imperial eagle is, like most active predators, an opportunist who exploits any prey they are capable of overpowering. Their prey spectrum is highly varied, including somewhere between 200 and 300 prey species, a total number of prey species only a bit short of the occasionally sympatric common buzzard (Buteo buteo) which may be 500 times more numerous overall. In the nations of Kazakhstan and Hungary alone, the total recorded prey spectrum is 154 and 126 species, respectively. Small to medium-sized mammals are the most regularly selected prey, with a preference for hares, various rodents, especially ground squirrels, hamsters and  voles, as well as insectivores. Furthermore, various birds are taken, at times as much as or more so than mammals, especially the young or fledglings of various medium-sized to larger birds. Birds may locally become the primary foods in some parts of the winter range. Reptiles are taken secondarily in most of the range but can be locally somewhat important and fish and invertebrates, including insects, may be taken rarely.
The prey type historically most often associated with the eastern imperial eagle, at least in Europe, has been ground squirrels and hamsters. While these are significant, the primary prey type can vary and often hares or hedgehogs appear to take the primary position in recent studies. The largest European dietary study to date, a multi-year analysis from Hungary, showed that European hare (Lepus europaeus) were the primary foods, making up 27.4% of a total of 8,543 prey items. The second best represented prey in Hungary was the European hamster (Cricetus cricetus), at 12.71% of the diet. Similarly, in Slovakia and the Czech Republic, the European hare was the main prey, comprising 40.2% of 562 prey items and 41.3% of 109 prey items, respectively. The European hamster was the 4th most frequent prey in Slovakia but second most common prey species in the Czech Republic. As presented in the multi-year studies from Hungary, a seeming decline of the European ground squirrel (Spermophilus citellus) population is the cause of their reduced importance in the imperial eagle’s diet, with this species being the primary prey in 1975-1991 (51% of 606 prey items from 1975 to 1985) to contributing almost nothing in 2005-2017. It is possible with reintroductions of the European ground squirrel underway in central Europe, that this prey species may again become more significant in the eastern imperial eagle’s diet again here. In Tyva Republic, the long-tailed ground squirrel (Spermophilus undulatus) still dominates the food of imperial eagles, making up 60.1% of 168 prey items.  In studies of two different areas of Bulgaria, one showed European hares as the main prey (25%) in the Dervent heights and southern white-breasted hedgehog (Erinaceus concolor) (32.5%) in the other, Saker mountain. In East Thrace, Turkey, the same hedgehog was the most important prey, comprising 23.1% of 582 prey items and 21.2% of the prey biomass.
In warmer, southerly areas, the primary prey species seem to generally be smaller. In Georgia, social voles (Microtus socialis) were the primary food, comprising about 15% of 341 prey items. For wintering imperial eagles, the most frequent live prey (though carrion was mainly eaten) was Sundevall's jird (Meriones crassus). Both of these small rodents probably average only about 35 to 60 g (1.2 to 2.1 oz) in body mass. Numerous other small mammals may also be occasionally taken including several species each of hedgehogs, shrews and moles, beyond the common hare, at least 7 other species of lagomorphs, about a dozen species each of murid rodents and cricetid rodents (especially hamsters and voles), 5 species of zokor and assorted dormice and jerboas. Thus, eastern imperial eagles appear to prefer rodents and similar small mammals that are burrow-dwelling and/or partial to ground dwelling in open grass or fields along wooded edges.
Assorted bird species may factor heavily into the diet of eastern imperial eagles. More than 120 bird species are known to be taken by this eagle. European studies reflect the high importance of common pheasants (Phasianus colchicus), in Europe a non-native gamebird (although the imperial eagle also encounters and hunts the species extensively in its native range as well), in their foods. In the aforementioned large Hungarian study, pheasants were the third most frequently taken prey species, making up 12% of the diet. In the Czech Republic, the pheasant ranked third as well. In Slovakia, the pheasant was second only to the hare in frequency, comprising 17.3% of the foods, although exclusively juvenile and hen pheasants (no cocks) were reportedly taken. In Bulgarian studies, the domestic chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) seems to take the place of pheasants in their diet, making up 10.8% and 20.8% at Saker mountain and Dervent heights and second most frequently taken prey at both, respectively. The largest study of the eastern imperial eagle’s dietary habits known occurred in the vast Naurzum Nature Reserve in Kazakhstan, where 11,079 prey items were reviewed. The prey spectrum was exceptionally diverse here, with no one prey reliably being favored by the imperial eagle pairs, despite an ample colony of yellow ground squirrel (Spermophilus fulvus) and russet ground squirrel (Spermophilus major) being nearby and at least three other species of eagles with nearby nesting sites presenting possible resource competition. Without presenting the metrics, apparently birds were the highest volume prey for the imperial eagles, especially corvids, namely the rook (Corvus frugilegus) and Eurasian magpie (Pica pica), numerous species of duck as well as Eurasian kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) and little bustards (Tetrax tetrax). In East Thrace, Turkey, the second most regularly taken prey species is the yellow-legged gull (Larus michahellis), which comprised more than 12% of the diet by number and 13.8% of the prey biomass. Additionally in East Thrace, a high volume of white storks (Ciconia ciconia) was taken, making up 11.3% of the biomass. In Bulgaria, similar prey were important secondary foods, i.e. Caspian gulls (Larus cachinnans) at 9.78% of the diet in the Saker mountain area, while white stork made up 10.42% of the diet at Dervent heights. A study of wintering eastern imperial eagles in the Bharatpur district of India showed that this species was generally more inactive but also more likely to capture its own food (rather than through scavenging or kleptoparasitism) than 4 assorted other eagle species in the area. Like other eagles here, the imperial eagles most often fed on various water birds, mainly the nestlings of late-nesting painted storks (Ciconia leucocephalus), black-headed ibis (Threskiornis melanocephalus), Oriental darters (Anhinga melanogaster) and a couple of species of cormorant. However, the imperial eagle in particularly here took to regularly hunting various adult water birds especially ducks, geese and large rails and had a mean daily food intake (not mean prey size) of 539 g (1.188 lb). In the Saurashtra region of India, imperial eagles were observed to show a preference for hunting diving water birds, including Eurasian coots (Fulica atra) and diving ducks, which they would hunt in a style reminiscent of the white-tailed eagle, forcing them to dive as they circled over the water and capturing them as they came to the water’s surface to breathe. Numerous pigeons and doves may also be taken fairly often, such as in Slovakia where rock pigeons (Columba livia) were the 3rd most often regular prey at 11.79% of the diet. In general, a picture emerges of the imperial eagle’s dietary preference for relatively large birds with conspicuous behaviour, relatively slow flight, who can be struck on or near the ground and/or have vulnerable nesting sites or conspicuous young, such as gamebirds, waterfowl, other water birds and corvids.
European studies of the eastern imperial eagle’s diet rarely reflect prey outside of the main preferred classes of mammals and birds, however studies from somewhat outside Europe show respectable numbers of reptiles may be taken. In Georgia, reptiles amounted to 29.62% of the food, comprised largely either of Caucasian agama (Paralaudakia caucasia) or other unidentified smallish lizards. A larger class of reptiles were regular secondary prey in East Thrace in Turkey, namely Greek tortoise (Testudo graeca) and Hermann's tortoise (Testudo hermanni), with tortoises altogether comprising 11.1% of the diet by number and 13.7% of the prey biomass. Tortoises can be significant in the diet elsewhere as well, especially in more arid climes. Although snakes do not seem to be typically quantitatively important, eastern imperial eagles have no problem occasionally subduing large snakes, such as Aesculapian snakes (Zamenis longissimus), or very aggressive venomous snakes, such as Russell's viper (Daboia russelii) (the latter taken in their wintering Indian quarters). In Hungary, very small numbers of invertebrates (mostly insects such as ground beetles) and fish were found amongst the foods of imperial eagles. Carrion is eaten through the year by eastern imperial eagles, but most heavily during winter. For example, in the wintering population of Jordan, 53.7% of the dietary intake of the species was made up of carrion. However, in some breeding populations, apparently the eagles can come to rely on dead or already injured prey inadvertently provided by humans, largely due to intensive agricultural practices, as was the case in the Czech Republic. In one area of Slovakia, although imperial eagles also hunted, the adult eagles routinely practiced kleptoparasitism while nesting, regularly robbing other species of raptorial bird of their fresh catches. Almost any mammal or bird will be readily eaten when dead or dying by imperial eagles, with at least 10 species of ungulate known to be consumed thusly and providing an ample source of meat.
The size of prey taken by eastern imperial eagles can be fairly variable, though is not generally as impressively varying as the golden eagle’s prey sizes. Most live prey taken by eastern imperial eagles weighs less than 2 kg (4.4 lb). According to Watson (2010), the prey of imperial eagles is fairly evenly spread from 63 g (2.2 oz) up to 2,000 g (4.4 lb), with a peak focus (at around 25%) on prey weighing 500 and 1,000 g (1.1 and 2.2 lb) and a mean estimated prey size of 565 g (1.246 lb). Many of the prey species taken by imperial eagles are relatively large as adults such as European hares and bobak marmots (Marmota bobac), which were the second most often taken mammalian prey species in Kazakhstan, but generally, these eagles take juvenile specimens of both hares and marmots rather than prime adults. The mean weight of European hares and bobak marmots taken in Kazakhstan was estimated at 1.5 kg (3.3 lb) and 1.4 kg (3.1 lb), in both cases no less than a third of the average adult weight attainable by the species. In contrast, the smallest staple prey in Kazakhstan were small rodents (i.e. mice, voles) that weighed an estimated 30 g (1.1 oz). Similarly, the upper size of hare typically taken in Slovakia was estimated at 1.4 kg (3.1 lb). In Hungary, staple prey size was estimated at between 250 g (8.8 oz) and 2.5 kg (5.5 lb). However, the eastern imperial eagle is capable of taking large, impressive prey as well. In some cases, they are capable of taking adult hares, including the typical European hares but also other species such as mountain hare (Lepus timidus) and the Tolai hare (Lepus tolai). They have taken adults of numerous larger water birds averaging over the expected prey weight of 2 kg (4.4 lb), although (at least for wading birds such as stork) nestlings are most often preyed upon, including greylag goose (Anser anser), greater white-fronted goose (Anser albifrons), bean goose (Anser fabalis), bar-headed goose (Anser indicus), knob-billed duck (Sarkidiornis melanotos), common crane (Grus grus), great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo), white stork and black stork (Ciconia nigra). Eastern imperial eagles also attack the young of ungulates at times, reportedly neonatal and mildly older calves and lambs of similar size to the eagles themselves, including species such as argali (Ovis ammon), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), Arabian sand gazelle (Gazella marica) and goitered gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa). At the opposite end of the scale in vertebrate prey, imperial eagles are known to take mammals down to the size of the 7 g (0.25 oz) Eurasian harvest mouse (Micromys minutus) and birds down to the size of the 21.4 g (0.75 oz) Eurasian tree sparrow (Passer montanus). In Kazakhstan, the estimated size of all prey taken varied from approximately 2 g (0.071 oz) for a locust to 5 kg (11 lb) for the largest bird prey (i.e. cranes and geese) and 5.7 kg (13 lb) for the largest mammals taken (i.e. adult marmots and domestic lambs (Ovis aries)). It is known that eastern imperial eagles will also prey upon great bustards (Otis tarda), though the female is possibly taken as she is about as large as a crane or large goose, it is unlikely that the eagle can take the much larger adult males of this huge ground bird, since imperial eagles apparently even avoids adult male birds of much smaller species such as pheasants.
Eastern imperial eagles select broadly overlapping prey with mammalian carnivorans but also fairly regularly attack these as prey. Foxes are widely known in the foods of imperial eagles but at times at visited as carrion. Most attacks on red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) are on juvenile, other than perhaps small females, adults at average weights of up to 6 to 10 kg (13 to 22 lb) in some areas are probably too large for this eagle to overpower. However attacks and successful predation has been committed on adult corsac foxes (Vulpes corsac) as well as probably bengal foxes (Vulpes bengalensis). Beyond small weasels, which are probably no issue for large eagles to attack, larger mustelids may too be attacked including European (Mustela putorius) and steppe polecats (Mustela eversmanii) and stone martens (Martes foina). Small or kitten domestic cats (Felis catus) are sometimes prey for eastern imperial eagles and juvenile Pallas's cats (Otocolobus manul) may too be vulnerable to this eagle.


The eastern imperial eagle is a powerful bird of prey but frequently overlaps in range with multiple other eagle species and that may require them to share both habitats and prey. The golden eagle is generally a larger, more powerful bird. It is also more tends to be a bolder, more aggressive predator than the imperial eagle and may be able to attack much larger prey. While the mean prey body mass relative to the eagle’s weight is probably similar between the two species, an estimated 15% of golden eagle prey will weigh over 5 kg (11 lb). In its very extensive range, the golden eagle’s distribution includes nearly all areas occupied by breeding eastern imperial eagles. Furthermore, there is considerable overlap in prey species selected by these species. There is a natural partitioning between the two Aquila species and that comes in the form of habitat preferences. The golden eagle takes to, usually but not always, rocky and uneven terrain, so favors mountainous areas with alpine meadows to access for prey. This is quite different from the eastern imperial eagle preference for flat or somewhat rolling interface between wood stands and fields at low elevations. However, in some areas, especially eastern Europe, eastern imperial eagles have been driven to higher elevations and more montane habitats that are typically the haunts of golden eagles by persecution, habitat destruction and other interferences by humans, usually with mixed to minor success as the golden species is scarce at best locally and unlikely to produce competition. There is surprisingly little information on conflicts between these two eagle species. In the Naurzum Nature Reserve of Kazakhstan the golden and eastern imperial eagle, and to some extent also both white-tailed eagles and steppe eagles, were recorded nesting with a fairly close proximity to each other. The eagle species here would even use nests built by the other species and seemed to have similar or broadly overlapping food habits, but no interspecies conflicts were detected. On the contrary, in the Altai Republic, it appears that golden and eastern imperial eagles are considered to fill a largely similar ecological niche in abutting areas and do compete for nesting sites. In some cases in Europe, golden and eastern imperial eagles will engage in a territorial display if prompted against one another.
Of a similar distribution to eastern imperial eagles, both in their mid-Eurasian breeding ground and southerly Indo-African wintering grounds, are the steppe eagle and the greater spotted eagle. There is a fair amount of habitat partitioning between the three species, however, with the steppe eagle preferring flat, often almost treeless steppe while the greater spotted eagle prefers more densely wooded and wetter habitats generally than imperial eagles such as taiga bogs. Diet however can overlap considerably, especially with steppe eagles as both it and the imperial species are largely attracted to colonies of ground squirrels in Central Asia. While steppe eagles occur much more broadly in Africa during winter and a similarly narrow extent in the Indian subcontinent as eastern imperials, greater spotted eagles are similarly as rare as imperial eagles in Africa but spread farther in Asia than either the steppe or imperial species. In all three species, by winter they are attracted to more open habitats ranging from savanna to wetlands and even semi-desert. The ecology of wintering eastern imperials was studied at length in Bharatpur district of India in contrast to the steppe and greater spotted eagle as well as the resident Indian spotted eagle and shorter-distance migrant Pallas's fish eagle. It was found that the feeding opportunities sought were largely similar (nestling water birds were often favored) by all five eagle species and that a hierarchy was formed, though each species competed most regularly with others of their own species. The eastern imperial eagle was, by and large, dominant in correspondence to its slightly larger size than the other booted eagles and rivaled the similarly-sized Pallas's fish eagle as the top avian predator in this raptor community. The steppe eagle, despite being only scarcely smaller than an imperial eagle, was usually subordinate to imperial eagles and had a much lower estimated average daily food intake, 141 g (5.0 oz) against an average of 539 g (1.188 lb) for the imperial. However, the mean daily intake of Pallas's fish eagle was slightly higher still at 623 g (1.373 lb) and the fish eagle would perch slightly higher than the imperials as well. In one case, a flock of 9 steppe eagles was able to pirate a freshly caught coot from an imperial eagle. The imperial was the most inactive forager here, having spent 36% of observed hours foraging, against 45% for steppe eagles, 46% for Pallas's fish eagle, 49% for greater spotted eagle and 65% for Indian spotted eagle. Other studies on the interactions of eastern imperial eagles also support that it is dominant during winter over similar species such as steppe and the spotted eagles at competitive feeding spots. In the Korean peninsula, similarly as in the Indian subcontinent, wintering eastern imperial eagles (though rare) can reportedly be seen more than singly concentrated where there are ample numbers of water birds along with other large eagles. Next to nothing is known about the ecology of the rare, seldom-observed wintering population of eastern imperial eagles in east Africa but it is claimed to usually be seen in the company of “other brown eagles”.
As its preferred habitat seldom overlaps with larger eagles such as golden eagles and white-tailed eagles, the eastern imperial eagle is usually the top avian predator in its breeding grounds. In particular, smaller raptors with largely overlapping diets (i.e. ground squirrels, hamsters, voles & lagomorphs) and habitat preferences such as saker falcons (Falco cherrug) and long-legged buzzards (Buteo rufinus) are often at a disadvantage in direct competition with the eagle species. In Slovakia, some pairs of imperial eagle were reported to kleptoparasitize other raptors as a matter of routine. Here, four species consisting of saker falcons, western marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus), black-winged kite (Elanus caeruleus) and Eurasian sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) as well as red foxes were all robbed of their catches with a remarkable degree of success by imperial eagles. The eagles so heavily depleted the falcons catches that the falcons’ nesting attempts failed. A still swifter falcon than the saker, the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) was observed successfully robbing imperial eagles and a few other raptorial birds several times when the species nested near each other in the lower Sakmara river of Russia (although in one case, a juvenile peregrine was killed by the golden eagle it was attempting to rob). Interestingly, many of the imperial eagles kills that were robbed by the peregrines were other species of bird of prey. In Tartarstan, Russia it was found that eastern imperial eagles have begun nesting in atypical habitats and locations, namely the old nests of white-tailed eagles in isolated trees amongst open wetlands and old nests of greater spotted eagle in densely wooded bogs. Despite the remaining presence of both other eagle species in the area, competition is probably not the driver for the imperial eagle altering its nesting habits but instead it is likely due to the heavy human-caused depletion of the imperial eagles preferred prey of ground squirrels and hamsters in the area, with the wetland-located nests putting them close to currently reliable alternate primary foods, mainly water birds.
The eastern imperial eagle may be characterized as an occasional and opportunistic predator of other birds of prey. The following raptorial birds have been known to fall prey this eagle: the lesser spotted eagle (Clanga pomarina), European honey buzzard (Pernis apivorus), black kite (Milvus migrans), hen harrier (Circus cyaneus), Montagu's harrier (Circus pygargus), western marsh harrier, Eurasian sparrowhawk, northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), common buzzard (Buteo buteo), long-legged buzzard, rough-legged buzzard (Buteo lagopus), Ural owl (Strix uralensis), tawny owl (Strix alucco), little owl (Athene noctua), long-eared owl (Asio otus), short-eared owl (Asio flammeus), Eurasian hobby (Falco subbuteo), common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus), lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni), merlin (Falco columbarius), red-footed falcon (Falco vespertinus), saker falcon and peregrine falcon. Although it may be classed properly as an apex predator, eastern imperial eagles have fallen prey to other birds of prey on rare occasions. An instance of predation was reportedly committed by a white-tailed eagle. Furthermore, imperial eagles may be vulnerable at their nest to nighttime ambushes by Eurasian eagle-owls (Bubo bubo).


The eastern imperial eagle is a fairly solitary bird, with rarely more than a pair occurring, although some small gatherings recorded at waterholes or food during migrant or winter. Pairs on the breeding grounds engage in aerial displays with loud calling and extensive high circling, which like most of accipitrids is likely for the purposes territorial proclamation to other eagles of their species. The display is often interspersed with mock dives and talon showing. One or both members of a pair may participate in the aerial display. If an interloper does not leave during the first part of the display, the territorial skirmish then may become physical and it sometimes leads to cartwheeling with interlocked talons, falling until they nearly hit the ground. Despite the fairly impressive display, it is generally of slightly shorter duration than the similar one done by golden eagles. In East Thrace, Turkey, the mean nearest nest distance between actively breeding pairs was 10.44 km (6.49 mi). In the Irkutsk Oblast near Lake Baikal, the mean distance of the central area of nests (each pair had more than one nest on territory) was 17 km (11 mi). The breeding season lasts from late March to September throughout the range but in their former range in Pakistan (where it is now extirpated as a breeder) was said to extend from November to April. The pair constructs a very large nest of sticks, which may average up to 1.2 to 1.5 m (3 ft 11 in to 4 ft 11 in) across and 60 to 70 cm (24 to 28 in) in depth. However, nests for the species have been recorded to measure up to 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in) or more across and 1.8 to 2 m (5 ft 11 in to 6 ft 7 in) deep. Nests can outmatch in size those even of larger species such as golden eagles. Nests are frequently lined with various materials, including twigs, grass, fur, debris and greenery. Usually eastern imperial eagles build their nest in tall trees but recorded down to as low as 2 m (6.6 ft) in low scrub or, rarely, on cliff or ground (later as recorded in the Sayan mountains of Kazakhstan). Nest sites have been found anywhere from in the depth of a forest to forest edge to a solitary tree that may be visible for miles in open plains. Nesting sites in both Turkey and Georgia were consistently under 450 m (1,480 ft) elevation. In Georgia, denser mixed forests with openings were favored alternately with more arid, isolated stands of juniper (Juniperus ssp.) and pistachio (Pistacia vera); in Turkey, poplar (Populus ssp.) (44%) and oak (Quercus ssp.) (40%) were favored. In extensive Russian studies, 78% of nests were in conifers when compared with Kazakhstan where deciduous trees are more prevalent, however in the latter country conifers are still used where they are found. Unusual nest sites in agricultural land of Slovakia include one next to a railroad and another next to a busy road. The eastern imperial eagle has also been recorded as nesting on electric poles and towers in Russia and Kazakhstan. In several cases they aggressively took over the nests from steppe eagles that were previously nesting on the electric towers. Often one nest is used but sometimes a 2nd or 3rd is constructed by the imperial eagle pair may exist on a home range.
The mother eastern imperial eagle lays 2 to 3 eggs at intervals of 2 or more days. The average clutch size in Georgia was 2.09. In the Czech Republic, the average clutch size was 2.27. 81 nests from Russia had a mean clutch size of 2.1. Exceptional clutch sizes of up to four eggs have been recorded in Kazakhstan. The eggs are a dull buffish white colour overall and are sparsely marked with grey, purplish or, occasionally, brown spots. A sample of 150 eggs were found to have measured from 63 to 82.5 mm (2.48 to 3.25 in) in height by 52.5 to 62.5 mm (2.07 to 2.46 in), with an average of 73.3 mm × 56.5 mm (2.89 in × 2.22 in). In Georgia, the average dimensions of eggs was measured in a sample of 20 as 72.3 mm × 57.5 mm (2.85 in × 2.26 in) with a mean weight of 136.8 g (4.83 oz). As was recorded in 13 cases in Slovakia, if eggs are lost early into incubation, around March or April, a replacement clutch may be laid, though always the parent eagles used an alternate nest when this occurred. In southeast Europe egg laying peaks at about mid-February to March while in central Asia, it is in first half of April shifting late April further north. The incubation starts with the 1st egg, with males only infrequently taking a shift. The incubation stage lasts for 43 days. In Bulgaria, two females were recorded to do 90.8-94.1% of the incubating. The eaglets hatch at intervals of several days, with one usually being distinctly larger than the rest. However, cases of siblicide are infrequent compared to the golden eagle and, when not interrupted by human interference, prey population crashes and nest collapses, nest frequently bear two fledglings. At 14 days of age, the first feathers through down, while feathers on the back starting at 21 days. Feathers cover the down by 35–40 days but sometimes the down persists about head and neck for up to 45 days. Feathering is complete at 55 days and first flight attempts by 60 days onward. Mostly the female broods the young and male captures prey in this species (as is often the case in booted eagles in which males rarely engage in direct brooding). From when the young are 40 days onward, the female eastern imperial eagle typically resumes hunting and takes to a perch nearby. Male does not appear to bring prey directly to the nest instead to nearby branch for female to dismantle. One or two large prey items last 1–2 days but small prey may require up to 5-6 daily prey deliveries. Fledgling may variously occur at anywhere from 63 to 77 days. After leaving the nest the young linger near it for 2–3 days. Breeding success was once considerable in Russia at about 1.5 young per pair.


Breeding success is somewhat variable in the eastern imperial eagle. In the Czech Republic the 1-3 pairs found to be nesting in 1998-2009 had an average number of 1.53 fledglings. In the Hungarian population, it was recorded that from fewer than one fledgling per pair that average had increased to 1.15 fledglings per pair in 2001-2009. In 2011 in Bulgaria, with a gradual increase of the population to 20 occupied territories, success rate was shown to be about 1 fledgling per pair. By 2014, productivity was reported as averaging similarly at 1.03 fledgling per pair in Bulgaria. In Austria, the average number of fledglings per successful pair was 1.63. Of 27 breeding Austrian breeding attempts, 22 were successful. In East Thrace, Turkey, the breeding success was estimated at 1.01 fledglings per pair. Pairs living in the Marmara region were more productive than those in the Dervent heights (1.05 vs 0.91). Breeding success in Hungary reportedly was driven largely by the  age of the nesting pair, with mature adults more likely to show adaptability to changes in habitat and prey, and secondarily to habitat composition. In particular, nesting success tends to higher in lowland areas against higher elevation nests.  Post-dispersal in Bulgaria, the most significant cause of juvenile mortality per radio-tagging studies was shown to be electrocution (59% of the mortalities), followed by poisoning and shooting. The radio-tracking studies of Bulgarian juveniles showed survival rates were 59.1% in the 1st year of life, 83.3% for the 2nd year, 80% for the 3rd year. Furthermore, 50% of the mortalities of the Bulgarian juveniles occurred in Bulgaria while 43% occurred after they’d migrated to Turkey. Electrocution by collision with power lines are likely major causes of mortality almost throughout the range. Furthermore, other deadly collisions with manmade objects, including automobiles and wind turbines, are also a persistent threat. Like other birds of prey, eastern imperial eagles are occasionally vulnerable to Haematozoa, helminths and viruses as well as maggot infection in a wound by blowflies. Studies to determine if there’s a skewered sex ratio of offspring for eastern imperial eagles in Kazakhstan and secondarily in Serbia determined that the ratio of males to females was nearly equal and stable. For example pairs in the Naurzum Nature Reserve showed during study to produce 123 males and 116 females from 1998-2004. Further study in Kazakhstan showed that adult survivorship was about 84%, which is somewhat low for long-lived raptor, but nonetheless reproductive rate shown to be sufficient to maintain a stable breeding population. While breeding success in areas such as Naurzum reserve may be successful, in non-pristine habitats of Kazakhstan the breeding population may not necessarily be self-sustaining. In Bulgaria, estimates of adult survivorship were from 75 to 94%. Against the overall stability of Kazakhstani imperial eagles and the gradual increased success of European nesting eagles, a rapidly declining population has been noted with alarm, in nearly at the species’ eastern limits as breeder in Lake Baikal. Here fledgling success has decreased from roughly 71% to about 52%.


The eastern imperial eagle has declined greatly through history. At one time, people of eastern Europe and adjacent parts of Russia used to admire and even revere this eagle as a "sacred bird". It was widely referred to as the "cross-bearing eagle" (because of the shape of the white spots on its wings). According to folklore, the imperial eagle was able to divert the hailstorm clouds from the area it inhabited, and it was thus able to save farmers' crops. Therefore, the monarchy of Austria-Hungary once chose the imperial eagle to be its heraldic animal. Despite the historic reverence for the species, it was not spared the negative and hostile view of all birds of prey that arose throughout Europe and its colonies in the 17th century onwards, and the resulting persecution of essentially all birds of prey, including the eastern imperial eagle. However, almost certainly the leading cause of this species' decline was the practice of felling old trees on field boundaries that were the nest sites for the eagle. Among other reasons for its decline were the depletion (both incidental and intentional) of prey species and the incidental consumption by the eagles of poison baits, left out to eliminate wolves. As with other eagles in Eurasia, the Industrial revolution allowed access to poisons and firearms, which made the killing of eagles far easier and hastened their decline. Towards the end of the 19th century, 1824 nests were recorded in Bulgaria, but by 1979 only 5 to 12 pairs remained in the country. Similarly, from a population once numbering in the thousands, the Hungarian population of imperial eagles was driven down to only 10-15 pairs by 1975-1980. In Greece, the eastern imperial eagle was extirpated altogether as a breeding species. While the declines further east in the species range have been less studied, more or less the same threats likely persist throughout the range. Some reserves in central Russia and Kazakhstan have retained semi-stable populations, due in no small part to their isolation. However, the eastern imperial eagle has also been extirpated as a breeding species from Pakistan and Afghanistan.
Today, dedicated conservationists and biologists are working extensively to remediate and reverse the decline of eastern imperial eagle. The species was uplisted to Vulnerable in 1994 and global protection initiatives were begun around this time. By 1996, it was estimated that there were 363-604 pairs in all of Europe (including European Russia). After a couple of decades of recovery efforts, by 2000-2010, the number of breeding pairs in Europe was estimated at up to 1800-2200, a significant increase. Peak numbers in Europe may fall along the European Green Belt. The strongest increases were in Hungary where from 10-15 pairs in the late 1970s an estimated total of 105 nesting pairs by the late 2000s. Conversions and conservation of lowland wildlands, has allowed the numbers of pairs using less ideal mountainous habitat decrease from 50% to 15% of breeding imperials, as they’ve shifted to more ideal lowland habitat. The nation’s imperial eagle population has been continuously protected and monitored since 1975. Further efforts in Hungary were the mitigation of human-eagle conflicts through education in Hungary as poisoning (whether these eagles are the main target or not) continues, as well as general coordination with landowners and agricultural interests as the eastern imperial eagles are often required to forage in such areas. Other increases or returns to former parts of their range include have been noted in the Morava region of southwestern Slovakia as well as some parts of the Czech Republic, Serbia and Austria. However, overall 85% of the population in the Carpathian mountains region that forms the bulk of the land in eastern Europe was restricted to the Great Hungarian Plain, and were isolated from other populations. In Slovakia, the gap in the distribution in the Carpathian basin has led to concern about genetic isolation. Upon review, the genetic isolation of the two Slovakian populations was determined to be "marginally significant". The number of pairs of eastern imperial eagles increased in Bulgaria from 20 in 2009 to 24 in 2013. Among the efforts untaken to restore the Bulgarian populations were mitigating hazardous electrical poles, 608 were insulated within eagle territories, while also 483 supplemental feedings were given to 14 pairs from October to March. In Turkey, the number of imperial eagle pairs in recent estimates during the 21st century was widely placed at 35-150 pairs, probably closer to the higher number as there is evidence for there being 30-50 pairs in the East Thrace region alone.
In some areas of western Russia and in Kazakhstan, the eastern imperial eagle has maintained the nearest thing to a population stronghold. In 2011, the total estimated number of pairs was estimated at 3000-3500 in Russia and 3500-4000 in Kazakhstan. Though only 1534 breeding territories found firsthand, only some parts of the range were surveyed. According to Russian and Kazakh studies, cattle grazing in taiga forest edge appeared to benefit imperial eagles since they encourage habitat for prey, especially ground squirrels. In Kazakhstan moister conditions, possibly correlated with climate change seems to have increased populations of yellow ground squirrels and 2nd growth trees which both are likely to have caused a localized increase there. In Naurzum Nature Reserve alone nearly 300 imperial eagles may congregate in winter, making it a “critical refugium” for this species. On the other hand, precipitous decline has been detected in the Lake Baikal region of Russia and the species may be on its way to local extinction there. In the 1950s, imperial eagle pairs in the Baikal area numbered 250-300 strong. A strong decline was already noted by the mid-1980s when 150-200 pairs remained. However, the reduction hastened even more to merely 70 pairs in 1999. The Baikal imperial eagles during monitoring from 1950 to 1999 showed no overall changes in habitat or pair occupancy. In the 1998-1999 period, fledgling success was also found to drop considerably. Satellite study of migrating birds from Lake Baikal at migration stopovers and winter sites was reviewed but only 4 eagles were studied so results could not clearly determine whether depletions were mostly occurring at this time rather than during breeding. The reason for the sharp declines of the Baikal imperial eagles are not fully understood but are likely correlated with habitat destruction and human land use changes followed by pesticide use and other toxic threats through bioaccumulation. Reductions have also been reported in the lower Ural mountains region of Russia with largely similar threats but it is not known what the exact rate of reduction is here. Although gone from Pakistan as a breeding species, it continues to be a key wintering site as around 150 eagles are estimated to winter in Pakistan.


The  steppe eagle (Aquila nipalensis) is a large bird of prey. Like all eagles, it belongs to the family Accipitridae. The steppe eagle's well-feathered legs illustrate it to be a member of the subfamily Aquilinae, also known as the "booted eagles". This species was once considered to be closely related to the non-migratory tawny eagle (Aquila rapax) and the two forms have previously been treated as conspecific. They were split based on pronounced differences in morphology and anatomy; two molecular studies, each based on a very small number of genes, indicate that the species are distinct but disagree over how closely related they are.
The steppe eagle is in many ways a peculiar species of eagle. It is a specialized predator of ground squirrels on the breeding ground, also taking other rather small mammals and other prey, doing so more often when ground squirrels are less consistently found. In rather treeless areas of the steppe habitats, these eagles tend to nest on a slightly rise, often on or near an outcrop, but may even the flat, wide-open ground, in a rather flat nest. They are the only eagle to nest primarily on the ground. Usually one to three eggs are laid and, in successful nests, one to two young eagles fledge. The steppe eagle undertakes a massive migration from essentially its entire breeding range, moving en masse past major migration flyways, especially those of the Middle East, Red Sea and the Himalayas. In winter, though less closely studied than during breeding, the steppe eagle is remarkable for its sluggish and almost passive feeding ecology, focusing on insect swarms, landfills, carrion and the semi-altricial young of assorted animals, lacking the bold and predatory demeanor of their cousin species. Although still seen by the thousands at migration sites in larger numbers than other migrating eagles of these areas, the steppe eagle's entire population has declined precipitously. The threats to this species consist of increasing steppe fires and pests around the nests (both probably increased by the warming climate) which can cause a large volume of nest failures. Rivaling these factors, declines are being exacerbated by disturbance and persecution via humans, as well  trampling of nests by livestock. Free-flying steppe eagles are also being killed in alarmingly large numbers, especially in the stronghold nation for breeding of Kazakhstan, by electrocutions on dangerous electricial wires and pylons. Due to these and other reasons, the decline of the species is thought to be considerably in excess of 50%. Therefore, the species is considered to be endangered by the IUCN. The steppe eagle appears on the flag of Kazakhstan and is the national bird of both Kazakhstan and Egypt.


The steppe eagle is a large, bulky and robust-looking eagle. It is mainly dark brown in colour with a longish but very thick neck and a relatively small head that nonetheless features a strong bill and long gape-line. It appears long-winged and has a longish and rather rounded tail and markedly well-feathered (almost with disheveled looking feathers) legs. Steppe eagles tend to perch somewhat upright and usually do so in the open, often utilizing isolated trees, posts, rocks or other suitable low lookouts such as mounds or straw-piles. The species often is seen on the ground where may stand for long periods of the day and walk with horizontal posture and with wingtips just exceed the tail-tip. Steppe eagles, like tawny eagles, can be relatively tame and approachable, at least compared to many of the other Aquila eagles. The adult is a somewhat variable brown with darker centers to the greater coverts. More pronouncedly in the eastern part of the range, adults have normally prominent pale rufous to dull orange-yellow to yellow-brown patches on the nape and hindcrown. Any other paler areas (such as the feather tips of the back and uppertail coverts) are obscured on perched adults. The massive gape-line runs to level with the rear of eye (further emphasized by dark border against paler chin) and is longer than in any other Aquila eagles including tawny eagles. Combined with their deep-set eyes, it lends steppe eagles an altogether rather fierce facial expression. Steppe eagle juveniles are almost invariably paler than adults, with some ranging overall from umber-brown to tawny-buff but then some are darker and more deeply brown. Juveniles tend to be brown to grey-brown on the upperparts but for generally rufous-buff nape patch (more so on eastern population). The juveniles bear conspicuously and broadly white-tipped black about the greater coverts, wings and tail and a bold but narrow cream band on the brown medians. The juvenile steppe eagle's white uppertail coverts is generally concealed when perched; the underparts are usually the same as the upperparts but may be somewhat paler tawny-buff hue. Upon their 2nd year, the plumage is still much as the 1st year appearance but show the pale tips to secondaries, median coverts and tail as often well-worn and narrower; by the start of 2nd winter the, tips of retained juvenile flight-feathers and coverts are heavily abraded and very thin. By the end of 2nd winter, often the immatures look very worn and have nearly lost pale tips altogether and from 3rd year onward manifest a variable mix of old and new feathers. Generally, immatures are often rather scruffy in appearance until adult-like plumage attained at year five, after which the feathers generally appear more compact. Adults have brown to hazel eyes, while juveniles have distinctly dark brown eyes; the cere and feet are yellow at all ages.
In flight, the steppe eagle appears as a large, impressive and visibly heavy raptor with a well-projecting large head and bill and rather broad neck and long, broad wings. They evidence proportionately long arms, especially in the larger eastern birds. The wings tend to be held almost parallel-edged and square-ended with 7 very elongated emarginations. Often juveniles can tend to appear somewhat narrower winged. The broad body of the species often looks suspended underneath and the tail appears rounded or even wedge-shaped, measuring about 3/4 of the length of wing-base. The wingspan is about 2.6 times greater than the total body length. On the upperwings, steppe eagles show a pale greyish primary patch that is often quite large and obvious (especially on non-adults), often being pale at the base on the greater primary coverts but on adults (especially dark birds) much less marked. On the underwing, a very small carpal crescent may be present but can vary from invisible to slightly more marked. The flight feathers are greyish and all have 7–8 well-spaced blackish bars (albeit less conspicuously than on spotted eagles), while the fingers are plain blackish. Adults are basically all fairly uniform dark brown (wings can be negligibly greyer or rarely yellowish brown). Adults may evidence in flight some whitish patches on back and tail coverts that are varying from insignificant to fairly prominent. Adult eagles that do show a dark-barred greyish primary patch usually have that confined to a wedge-shape on inner primaries though can sometimes be rather more prominent. Below adults show dark-barred grey flight feathers and tail with the broad blackish trail edges and wing ends being rather distinctive; the wing linings are often slightly paler to darker than remiges and often with an obscure remnant of broken paler central band. Juveniles are quite distinctive in flight if seen in reasonable view. Above, juveniles are pale greyish-brown to yellow-brown about the body and forewing-coverts, have a broad whitish U above the tail. They possess broad white tips to the blackish greater coverts, flights feathers and tail creating obvious whitish bars on the wings and trailing edges as well as a large and prominent whitish patch covering much of the inner primaries (causing barring to stand out more so and offsetting plain black wing end). On its underside, the juvenile is mid-brown to brownish-yellow with a paler throat and creamy crissum. Below, the creamy central wing band is even broader than above, while the greater coverts all white with some dark centres on primaries (rare extreme pale individuals appear to have almost uniform paler colour on the entire wing lining and lesser and medians buffish-white to pale sandy, often whitish pale primary-wedges). Despite reports that some juvenile 1st years have subtle or no central wing bands, these are believed to be cases where these feathers exist but are obscured by long median coverts. At the end of the first year, the young steppe eagle tends to have pale tips to wings, tail and upperwing coverts become rather abraded; thereafter the development young evidence much variation due to individual differences. Usually, by the end of 2nd winter, the wing looks even more worn and uneven in pattern, with any newly acquired narrowly white-tipped quills clearly longer than old worn juvenile ones that have lost their pale tips. From the 3rd winter on, the pale parts clearly reduced, flight feathers and tail often appear quite ragged and by the 4th year start to more resemble adults. From the end of the 3rd year to when they obtain adult plumage, the eagles tend to have adult-like broad blackish trailing edges and tail often coupled with dark-barred grey base to black fingers and traces of the pale band along greater underwing-coverts. Maturity is obtained between the 4th and 5th years, not at 6–7 years as previously reported despite some presumed five-year-old eagles still have flecks of pale on the wing coverts and the throat and more subtle nape patches than they will ultimately manifest.


In many circumstances, the steppe eagle can be very difficult to distinguish from other similar eagles, often especially during passage and winter. Adults are often confused with spotted eagles but are best separated by their much more broad build, far greater wing areas with longer, more rectangular or squarish wing tips and longer, more conspicuous fingers, larger head (rather than small and bull-headed) and larger overall size. Compared to the spotted eagles, the flight of the steppe eagle is more aquiline, i.e. more powerful, labored and deep while spotted eagles tend to fly more like buzzards. The lesser spotted eagle (Clanga pomarina), the most similarly marked of spotted eagles, is particularly less powerful looking with a shorter neck, much smaller wing areas, shorter fingers and tail and less extensive, baggy leg-feathering. The greater spotted eagle (Clanga clanga) is also smaller and slighter but to a reduced extent. When plumage is clear to see, steppe eagles have more clearly and more extensively barred quills and lack the clear carpal arcs of the two widespread spotted eagles but these differences are obscured at greater distances.  Some subadult steppe eagles, with their paler brown wing-coverts above and below and only traces of white underwing bands and clearly pale primary patch above in particular quite resemble the plumage of older lesser spotted eagles. The white wing bars of steppe eagles are usually more conspicuous than those of the lesser spotted eagle. At close range, the steppe eagle has a deeper gape than lesser and greater spotted eagles and has rounded rather than oval nostrils. When seen perched, either on a perch or on the ground, spotted eagles of all three species tend to stand quite tall and upright, emphasizing their more slender and lightly feathered legs, while the steppe eagle sits more horizontally and is always far bulkier than even the biggest greater spotted eagles. Some particularly dark adult and subadult steppe eagles with obscured paler wing feathers can greatly resemble adult greater spotted eagles (the latter species can appear almost blackish in certain lights) and would need to be identified by the differences in size and form. The Indian spotted eagle (Clanga hastata) has a deep gape reminiscent of the steppe eagle but is much slighter in overall size, being similar in size  or even smaller than a lesser spotted eagle, and has even less conspicuous whitish wing markings than the lesser spotted. As a result of their rough similarities, many young steppe eagles are misidentified, particularly from a distance, with spotted eagles although generally, identification is possible via a combination of structure and plumage features. Juvenile steppe eagles are normally readily identified by distinctive plumage features but can recall juvenile eastern imperial eagles, the latter has a longer and less rounded tail, a more prominent (rather than deeply set) bill, has a much paler and more buff overall colour while the chest is overlaid with brown streaking and the quills are unbarred. Imperial and steppe eagles are often similar in size, with more western breeding birds usually being somewhat smaller when seen side by side with an imperial eagle and the eastern steppe eagles being of similar average size (but even larger maximum size) compared to full-grown imperial eagles. Steppe eagles are told from tawny eagles by that species being smaller and less bulky with shorter wings, a smaller gape, a more slender neck and a relatively longer tail. Both the tawny and steppe eagle tend to have a distinct S-shape curvature to the trailing edge of the wings. When perched on the ground, the tawny eagle tends to stand more upright, while the steppe eagle often appears to assume a more elongated, horizontal posture. Plumage variations of tawny eagles can render them a surprisingly close colour to the usually darker, duller and browner steppe eagle (especially so in south Asia), but they never obtain the distinct whitish wing band of the young steppe eagle nor the nape patch of most adult steppes. Despite slight individual and clinal variations, the steppe eagle, unlike the tawny eagle, is not polymorphic. These aforementioned eagles present the main possibilities for confusion, less likely mistakes can potentially range from relatively dainty and much smaller Wahlberg's eagles (Hieraeetus wahlbergi) (generally quite different in features but somewhat similarly hued) in Africa to the somewhat bigger but differently structured golden eagles (much longer tail, relatively smaller bill and much smaller gape, different wing shape, more aquiline build and bigger feet and talons) in much of the range.


Although the breeding range is rather extensive, the steppe eagle is essentially confined to nesting in only four large nations: Russia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia and China. However, the steppe eagle once bred in Europe. Here, they bred into the 20th century in at least southeasternmost Ukraine and perhaps elsewhere in eastern Europe. These eagles still rarely occur as breeders in southwest Russia from Stavropol to Astrakhan. The steppe eagle is still mapped to breed down to Makhachkala and Maykop to as far west as Leningradskaya, up north as far as the lower Volga and down to the Caspian Sea nearly as far as Makhachkala and south of Fort-Shevchenko. The breeding range extends through appropriate habitat in much of Kazakhstan, from north of Nur-Sultan south to (albeit spottily) to Kyzylorda as well as around the former Aral Sea. From their main breeding areas to the north, steppe eagles breed also marginally in northeastern Kyrgyzstan and perhaps northern Uzbekistan. The breeding distribution is essentially continuous as sweep far to the east in Russia as Transbaikal and Altai. The steppe eagle also breeds in large stretches of western and northern China such as Tian Shan, Xinjiang,  the Gobi area, Gansu, Ningxia, northern Tibet (by far their southernmost breeding area), Inner Mongolia and reach their eastern breeding limits in Manchuria and elsewhere in northeastern China. The species breeding range is also quite broad into Mongolia excluding the northern portion. The steppe eagle is entirely migratory, wintering in east and, to a lesser extent, southern Africa. Their African range can extend western to southern Sudan, almost throughout east Africa, to the easternmost part of Democratic Republic of the Congo. The southern African wintering range extends to central Angola, northern and eastern Namibia south to Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Eswatini and northern South Africa, including former Transvaal and northern Natal as well as rarely south of the Orange River In South Africa, steppe eagles are reportedly often frequent only in the lowveld of Kruger National Park area. The steppe eagle's wintering range also extends into the Middle East. They occur broadly in the season in several central and southern parts of the Arabian Peninsula as well as regularly in eastern Iraq and western Iran with odd ones north to Turkey and Georgia. Although sometimes recorded as occurring "somewhat" in Arabia, more extensive surveying has revealed that many, if not more, steppe eagles wind up winter in the peninsula rather than Africa, and that the largest ever winter numbers were recorded in Saudi Arabia, where around 7200 individuals (or perhaps up to 9% of the current world population) were recorded near Riyadh. As many as 3000 have also been similarly recorded in the nation of Oman. Other nations to host wintering steppe eagles include Yemen, Azerbaijan and Syria as well as, albeit rarely doing so, in the United Arab Emirates, Lebanon and Kuwait.
Unusually, a few overwintering steppe eagles have been now recorded in Kazakhstan, apparently near Shymkent, in the Aksu-Zhabagly Nature Reserve, the valley of the Syr Darya, the Chardara Dam and towns of the East Kazakhstan Region. In south Asia, the species in winter may occur from Afghanistan (rarely wintering still in the Nuristan Province) and in much of the Indian subcontinent. Pakistan's Poonch and Jhelum valleys of Azad Kashmir are known to host a mean of 154 steppe eagles per study area. In India, they may occur mainly south to Madhya Pradesh, the Indo-Gangetic Plain, the Deccan Peninsula and Himalayan zone, Mizoram, Assam and southern Orissa. Vagrants have been recorded in India to Periyar National Park, Mahendragiri, Kanyakumari Wildlife Sanctuary and Mudumalai National Park. The wintering range extends east to Tibet (although the species is said to be gone from Lhasa in recent years), Nepal, Burma and broadly in east China from southeastern Guizhou to Hainan and southwestern Guangdong. Recent wintering records reflect the species as lingering seasonally at different points of the non-breeding season, albeit very seldom, in central and southern Myanmar, western Thailand, peninsular Malaysia and northern Vietnam. The species may have been aided in expanding their eastward wintering range by deforestation practice.


The steppe eagle appears broadly in many nations between their central Eurasian breeding areas and their generally tropical Indo and African wintering grounds. As a matter of fact, the largest concentrations of the species tend to occur at times of passage. The steppe eagle can also vagrate not infrequently far away from traditional migration sites, and has turned up in many areas from western Europe to as far east as Japan. Vagrant steppe eagles have been recorded in at least the following nations or regions: at least 6 nations in west Africa Morocco, Tunisia, the Netherlands, Finland (at least 50 times) as well as Spain and France, the Czech Republic, Bulgaria and Romania (in both of which they once bred but were extirpated), Greece Mordovia, Yakutia, the Korean Peninsula and probably down to Borneo in Asia. Migration sites include both mountainous ridges and the larger seas along their routes. Steppe eagles predominantly use two main migration routes: one radiates across the Middle East and Arabia, with many birds stopping to winter, but many too migrate around the Red Sea to winter in Africa while the other main migration path frequently involves farther eastern breeding eagles moving along many ridges and prominent flyways before radiated across a broad path through the Himalayas, in order to reach the south Asian and other Asian wintering sites. Less known or less frequently migration paths before these well-known routes of passage may lead steppe eagles around the Black Sea in the west and, much more frequently, around the Caspian Sea farther east. Nations known to be visited by steppe eagles almost exclusively in migratory passage include Egypt, most but not all of Syria, Turkmenistan and Afghanistan and much of east China from Tuquan County to about Xiamen. Points of migration bottleneck, where large numbers of steppe eagles are frequently recorded, are known in areas including Israel, especially around Eilat, Suez (in Egypt), Bab-el-Mandeb (in Yemen), some parts of the nation of Georgia and, in the Himalayan region, especially within Nepal but also sometimes en masse in Pakistan and northern India. Migration sites of minor significance are less known but include Alborz.


The steppe eagle tends to breeds in open dry country, within the characteristic habitat it is named after: the steppe both in both upland and lowland areas. In Kazakhstan, it is known to generally occur in drier parts of the steppe than some other raptors like harriers. This species generally avoids utilizing agricultural land such as arables and most other human-fragmented areas, however, they can be somewhat tolerant of nesting near roads. Associated habitats are frequented when breeding such as flat plains, arid grassland, semi-desert and even desert edge. Most members of the species breed at lower levels but largely in eastern part of the range also will nest in poorly vegetated dry rocky hillsides such as granite massifs and upland valleys, though generally avoid truly mountainous areas. Wintering steppe eagles often occur much more frequently in human-modified areas in order to access easy foods. These include landfills and livestock carcass dumps, these being used frequently everywhere from Arabia to India. More natural habitats used most often by wintering steppe eagles tend to be various wetlands or other waterways where they are available. In winter, mostly savanna and grasslands are the predominant habitat used in Africa, also sometimes dry woodland. Study in Botswana indicated that wintering steppe eagles there appeared to be indifferent to land use changes by humans. In Zambia and Malawi, it was found that the steppe eagle was only frequent in high-elevation plateau areas from 370 to 2,400 m (1,210 to 7,870 ft) metres above sea level. Use of plateaus was also frequent in Zimbabwe, often where open savanna woods of Acacia stand as well as the use of cultivated areas such as wheat stubble fields by eagles. Iraqi wintering steppe eagles often used dump sites as well as deserts and semi-arid areas, with more steppe, other grassland and mountain slopes used in northern Iraq in winter. In Armenia steppe eagles are apparently frequent in old fields and orchards. In south Asia they usually use open country and often frequents large lakes and other wetlands near arid areas but may accept, or even prefer, more heavily wooded areas (however the first records from peninsular Malaysia seem to be from open areas created by deforestation). Although usually a breeder of lowlands, it has been known to live at elevations of up to 2,300 m (7,500 ft) and locally to 3,000 m (9,800 ft) in mountains, on passage can occur to over 4,500 m (14,800 ft) sometimes even to 7,925 m (26,001 ft), as was recorded on Mount Everest. Compared to other Palearctic migrating eagles, the steppe eagle seems to perhaps be slightly more tolerant of a wider range of climatic conditions, including rather humid conditions in India provided subsistence is available as well as up to 50 cm (20 in) of snow cover in Kazakhstan (living off of urban pests).


Steppe eagles appeared to have evolved the strategy of migrating from their breeding grounds, due in large part to the temporary seasonal availability of their main prey, ground squirrels. They probably migrate in greater numbers than any other eagle in the world and can appear to be frequent enough at migration sites that they may mask less numerous migrating eagles that are mistakenly missed in their ranks. The migratory behaviour of this species is arguably amongst the best-studied aspect of its entire biology. Autumn migration often begins around October on fairly broad fronts, and may peak around late October. It usually ends in late November to December but steppe eagles frequently travel somewhat nomadically while not breeding and so individuals may not reach their winter terminus point until about January. Spring migration usually commences in February, peaking early from late February to March, with likely all gone from Africa by the end of the latter month, then continuing in a diminishing trickle into April and May. In passage at Suez, the steppe eagle is one of the earlier migrating raptors on average alongside the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), averaging about a month sooner in passage than the common buzzard (Buteo buteo) (the most common migrant there) and slightly sooner than the lesser spotted eagle, as well as much sooner than some other raptors there. On average, the wintering period in Africa is relatively brief, at a mean of about up to about 4 months (down to about 2), while adult steppe eagles spend up to 7 months (max of around 5 months for a young eagle) on their breeding grounds. In autumn records from Africa, younger eagles migrate the earliest and adults the latest. Radio-tagging studies confirmed, much as in the lesser spotted eagle, that in spring juveniles migrated later, wandering about more so and came back to the summering grounds much later. One young steppe eagle that was banded in passage in the United Arab Emirates wintered initially in Yemen before returning for the summer to Kazakhstan, then migrating to eastern Africa the following winter, showing that they can change their migratory habits over time. Many studies corroborate that steppe eagles generally migrate lesser distances as they age.
Peak movements around the Red Sea show as many as 76,000 steppe eagles moving over Bab-el-Mandeb in the fall of 1987, with up to 65,000 (in 1981) in Suez and up to 75,000 in Eilat, Israel in the year 1985. Once migrating steppe eagles enter Africa in autumn, no mass migrations have been recorded anywhere for the species in the continent. Although not large, some semi-significant spring movements were detected in Egypt, despite none being recorded in the fall. In autumn, steppe eagles usually pass over Bab-el-Mandeb in the north of Red Sea while in spring they predominantly cross to the south of the Red Sea around Suez. The mean number of steppe eagles that annually pass over Eilat in spring are estimated at 28,032 with a mean peak day of 10 March, making them roughly the fourth most common migrating raptor in spring there (and they often pass in intermingled flocks with other soaring raptors, but not those with powered flight). In Eilat, steppe eagles constitute 6.4% of all raptors seen, nearly all of the Aquila eagles seen and, among those that could be aged, an estimated 60–70% of the steppes seen were thought to be adults. More unusually, the steppe eagle may be the only raptor to also use Israel as a common migratory flight path in autumn as well as spring, with even commoner migrating raptors such as common buzzards and European honey buzzards (Pernis apivorus) being rare there in the fall. In Nepal over 2.5 weeks starting on 20 October, nearly 7852 steppe eagles were tallied, making up more than 80% of the recorded migrating raptors, with peak times of movement being between 10:00 AM and 4:00 PM, especially between noon and 2:00 PM. Over 3 years of study in Nepal, 21,447 steppe eagles were recorded (as many as 1102 within a day and a mean of about 15.2 an hour) at the counting sites. Strong evidence of east-to-west migratory movements, rather than south or northbound, has been made in the Kathmandu Valley. It was indicated based on the directional studies that especially juveniles from the eastern part of the breeding may be more frequently migrate westbound to reach wintering areas such as the Middle East and Africa. On the contrary, juveniles and subadults during the wintering season seem to considerably outnumber adults in the Indian subcontinent so many do head due south. Of 3381 ageable steppe eagles in passage in Nepal, 56% were juveniles or immature, 44% were adults; of 7852 eagles, 58% migrated in groups of 1–5, 30% in 5–20 groups and 12% in larger flocks. In Himachal Pradesh of India, about 11,000 steppe eagles were recorded in autumn migration in 2001 and about 40% less were counted the next spring. This study indicated different migratory paths being used in the seasons, presumably following the winds predominant direction around the terrain, with the westerly autumn migration mostly in the western Himalayas and the easterly spring migration more so in the east of Nepal. Staging areas are not well-delineated in India but appear to concentrate around feeding sites such as landfills. A single female that was radio-tagged in Mongolia was recorded to travel southwest and stop in southeastern Tibet, which is also the southernmost part of the species breeding range. The data from this female indicated that not all steppe eagles move to warmer climates and, based on that she remained stationary until her return to Mongolia, that she was not nomadic as many eagles of the species are. During return spring migration, the steppe eagles in passage in Nepal will reportedly amass into groups of approximately 5 to 20 eagles at only about 20 to 70 m (66 to 230 ft) above the terrain before rising up to cross between the snow-covered peaks.
16 radio-tagged eagles that returned in their first spring migration to their Kazakh summering grounds were recorded to winter as first-year juveniles either, in roughly equal measure, in the Arabian Peninsula or southern Africa, and covered straight-line distances, ranging from 3,489 to 9,738 km (2,168 to 6,051 mi), although individually could meander up to 20,644 km (12,828 mi) for one eagle migrating from wintering grounds Botswana. Of the 16 returning Kazakhstan eagles, spring migration lasted an average of 40 days, ranging individually from 38 to 54 days and covered a mean of 355 km (221 mi) each day. The migration path generally led the eagles around almost every direction of the Red Sea, many also passing over Israel and some wrapping around the Caspian Sea. A different radio-tagging study of 19 juveniles (about 57% of which survived) from Russian or Kazakh sites found that autumn movements in the 1st year migration averaged 4,222 km (2,623 mi) and confirmed not only that they freely changed wintering sites anywhere from India to southern Africa but they never returned, surviving or not, to their natal site in the 1st year, instead return to wandering widely across the northern steppe. The 1st migration averaged 52 days and were much briefer for females than for males, with the discrepancies more pronounced for eagles originating from the Altai Mountains. 15 birds tracked in this study were found to have migrated most frequently to winter in south Pakistan (right along the borderlands to India) or in eastern Turkmenistan. Spring migration began on a mean date of 25 March for the 15 young eagles and lasted about 26 days on average, covering a mean of 3,925 km (2,439 mi), with females initiating migration on average 18 days later than males and migrating more briefly, more quickly and more often with fewer stops than males. 9 eagles which were tracked successfully in their first spring passage in this study wandering widely mostly in natural steppe hunting for squirrels and 8 of these tracked to their 2nd autumn migration took about 1.5 times shorter on their 2nd autumn passage and migrated about 17% less far on average.


The steppe eagle is an opportunistic predator like other Aquila eagles but has a number of dietary and foraging peculiarities. They prey mainly on small-sized mammals, with some birds (such as queleas) and reptiles and (mostly in winter) frequently insects (such as termites and locusts) and carrion. Despite their opportunistic nature, the steppe eagle is a somewhat specialized predator on particular mammals such as ground squirrels while breeding and, during non-breeding times, feeds on various foods but is often peculiarly narrow in dietary selection, preferring massed food sources that require little effort for them to obtain. Various other small or medium-sized mammals can become the most significant prey locally on the breeding grounds, such as voles, pikas and zokors and, generally more secondarily, marmots, hares, gerbils, hedgehogs and others. During the breeding season, one resource claimed that prey mostly weighs 50 to 250 g (1.8 to 8.8 oz). Another account estimated that about 95% of prey weighed less than 250 g (8.8 oz), although predominantly over 63 g (2.2 oz). However, yet another resource claimed that staple prey for steppe eagles could weigh anywhere from 50 g (1.8 oz) up to 1,500 g (3.3 lb). Even the latter estimate may be conservative in size range, with prey species varying widely in size from very small insects from colonies to unexpectedly large mammals (and seldom birds) apparently killed near nests. On the other hand, a preference has indeed been detected for smaller burrowing mammals (i.e. probably under 250 g (8.8 oz) or so). Studies have determined where only larger species of burrowing mammals are predominant (even the larger species of ground squirrel), the steppe eagles appear to attain comparatively sparse nest densities, only occurring in high densities where the smaller burrowers are profuse. Ecological partitioning to limit interspecific competition may be a factor that dictates the steppe eagle's preference for relatively small prey. The breeding steppe eagle mainly hunts in a low soaring or gliding flight, at a maximum of 200 m (660 ft), diving or making short, accelerated stoops onto their prey. Usually, they tend to capture their prey on the ground. Steppe eagles have been recorded in both Kazakhstan and Mongolia to tactfully avoid casting a shadow before descending onto prey and may drop stones to provide a distraction, a probable form of tool use. In the Kazakh observation, the steppe eagles quickly became used to agricultural activity adjacent to prey accesses while they hunted. They also may hunt in any season on the ground, moving with a shambling gait as necessary, and may give chase on foot to both vertebrate and insect prey. Steppe eagles can often ambush prey by standing in wait next to burrows, suddenly pouncing quickly onto the quarry upon its emergence. Steppe eagles have been seen in China to buzz through locust swarms on the wing as well as to taking avian prey from over 200 m (660 ft) above the ground in a dive. Tandem hunting by pairs has been recorded during the breeding season while, in winter and migration, these may be the most social of all eagles, often sharing by up to the dozens abundant food sources. The non-breeding steppe eagle flocks may even seem to assist one another in procuring prey from which they themselves are not likely to be able to directly profit and may repeatedly assist each other until all flock members are satiated. If confirmed, this mutually beneficial foraging strategy between presumably unrelated eagles is truly unique. Much like the tawny eagle, the steppe eagle will readily rob other raptors of their catches, approaching from any angle and pursuing closely until the victim is forced to land or drop its food.


The single prey species most strongly associated with the steppe eagle is the little ground squirrel (Spermophilus pygmaeus). In some areas, as much as 98% of the diet reportedly can be little ground squirrels. This is a smallish ground squirrel though it is actually not greatly smaller than many other Eurasian ground squirrels, at a mean adult weight of about 235.2 g (8.30 oz). The little ground squirrel once reached densities of around 30–40 per hectare and provided a reliable food source for these eagles. However, this species has plummeted in population density, in Kalmykia for instance going down from abundant in diverse habitats to perhaps locally extinct before gradually trickling back up in numbers (which continue to be a mere shadow of what they once were). The local steppe eagles of Kalmykia continue to show a strong preference for little ground squirrels. A continued primary reliance on little ground squirrels by steppe eagles was also found recent in studies from Saratov and Lake Baskunchak as well. Out of Russian, in the Karaganda Region of Kazakhstan, little ground squirrels again were an important identified food source, at 19.25% of 400 prey items. In the general area between the Aral Sea and the Caspian Sea, 112 prey items were led by little ground squirrels, at just over 33%. However, in this data, the little ground squirrels were closely followed in number (29.7%) by the yellow ground squirrel (Spermophilus fulvus), which, with seasonal weights ranging from 500 to 2,000 g (1.1 to 4.4 lb), is the largest of Eurasian ground squirrels. The little ground squirrel is only found in a substantial portion of the western part of the range, so elsewhere steppe eagles tend to prey on different prey species while breeding, though generally continue to take small burrowing mammals, of course.
Around Lake Balkhash in Kazakhstan, the main prey was reportedly the red-cheeked ground squirrel (Spermophilus erythrogenys), a slightly larger ground squirrel than the little species at a mean adult weight of 355 g (12.5 oz). Other prey noted here included Pallas's pika (Ochotona pallasi), Libyan jird (Meriones libycus) and tolai hare (Lepus tolai). In Xinjiang, reportedly the main prey species is the 415 g (14.6 oz) long-tailed ground squirrel (Urocitellus undulatus). In the Altai region, the leading prey may be the Siberian zokor (Myospalax myospalax), which is the size of a large ground squirrel at an adult weight of about 453 g (0.999 lb). However, some report in the Altai region that the main prey is the long-tailed ground squirrel and the migration arrival times do seem to correspond closely with this species hibernation emergence period. Yet another primary prey resource reported for steppe eagles in the Altai is the much larger gray marmot (Marmota baibacina). All the primary prey in the previously little reported Altai population are as adults well over what is considered the typical prey size range for this eagle, such as long-tailed ground squirrels, zokors and marmots as well as ptarmigan, and in turn, this may favor the large size of the steppe eagles from this region. On the contrary, other predominant prey in steppe eagle nests can be even smaller than ground squirrels. In Mongolia, the main prey by a large margin was reportedly the Brandt's vole (Lasiopodomys brandtii), which weigh about 40 g (1.4 oz). In the Transbaikal region, the main prey may be the Daurian pika (Ochotona dauurica), which weighs about 155 g (5.5 oz). This pika can account for around 39%, as was the case in 62 prey items, (and perhaps up to 62% locally) of the diet in the region. Another study reported a very different primary food source for the Transbaikal, which was the young of the much larger Tarbagan marmot (Marmota sibirica), which were estimated in the study to be from 55 to 77% of the annual diet. Even more conflicting data found that some Transbaikal steppe eagles derived as much as 70% of their foods from long-tailed and Daurian ground squirrels (Spermophilus dauricus). It is possible that in both Altai and Transbaikal that the shifts to differing reported primary prey species are responses of the eagles to shifting prey availabilities as many burrowing mammals are subject to population cycles as well as human-sourced depletions. While rodents and some lagomorphs are usually favored in the diet, in some areas steppe eagles can live at least in part off of quite different prey such as long-eared hedgehogs (Hemiechinus auritus). Other notable prey taken regularly whilst breeding by steppe eagles includes steppe pika (Ochotona pusilla) (especially in the Volga region), alpine pika (Ochotona alpina), yellow steppe lemming (Eolagurus luteus) (especially in eastern Kazakhstan), or the slightly larger types of gerbil such as great gerbils (Rhombomys opimus) and Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus). The study of the Karaganda region of Kazakhstan with 400 prey items found illustrated that the steppe eagle is capable of deriving a living from a wide range of prey, with the foods led by rosy starling (Pastor roseus) (mostly fledglings), at 24%, unidentified Microtus voles, at 19.75%, followed by little ground squirrels, unspecified pikas (8.25%), European hares (Lepus europaeus) (5%) and grey partridges (Perdix perdix) (4.5%). An aptitude for avian prey was detected in Transbaikal particularly, including Daurian partridge (Perdix dauurica) and Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) (the latter at up to 15.6% of the diet). In Altai, assorted corvids (at up to 24.2% of the diet), probably mostly rooks (Corvus frugilegus) and Eurasian magpie (Pica pica), were important to diet as were willow ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus). Within the Saratov area, medium-sized birds were frequently reported in the diet, such as grey partridges, little bustards (Tetrax tetrax), northern lapwings (Vanellus vanellus) and rooks. A diversity of small passerines has been found in the diet, especially fledgling-age larks of various species, most frequently perhaps in Kazakhstan and Mongolia. A few reptiles found in the diet around nest have included at least sand lizard (Lacerta agilis), Caspian whipsnake (Dolichophis caspius) and steppe viper (Vipera ursinii).
On occasion, during summer, a steppe eagle may be able to take exceptionally large prey. The most regular large prey to appear in their diets are usually Tolai hare, at about 2 kg (4.4 lb), and assorted marmots. The upper size of marmots that the steppe eagle may attack is not well-established although all of the species regularly hunted by these eagles have extremely large average adult weights, i.e. around 8 kg (18 lb), but the typical size taken by this eagle is more likely around 1.5 kg (3.3 lb) (i.e. for small emergent juvenile marmots). The steppe eagle takes a diversity of mammalian carnivores including mountain weasel (Mustela atlaica), marbled polecat (Vormela peregusna), steppe polecat (Mustela eversmanii), kits of Eurasian badger (Meles meles) and possibly live adults (i.e. "fresh remains") of 2.7 kg (6.0 lb) corsac fox (Vulpes corsac) and 6 kg (13 lb) red fox (Vulpes vulpes). A surprisingly range of young ungulates have also been found in small numbers and it is likely that some are taken both as carrion and as kills, including goitered gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa), Mongolian gazelle (Procapra gutturosa), saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) and domestic goat (Capra aegagrus hircus). In newborns of these species, weights can vary from around 2 kg (4.4 lb) (in goats) to about 3.5 kg (7.7 lb) (in saiga antelope). The taking of large birds is less well-documented than predation on large mammals and in some cases both in summer and during non-breeding times certainly pertain to nestling predations, such as on storks and cranes, or to pilfering easy large fowl like chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) or domestic turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo).


The steppe eagle, despite being one of the most numerous and widely distributed of all eagles, is exceptionally poorly studied in its non-breeding dietary habits. This is due in large part to the nomadic behaviour displayed by most (but not all) steppe eagles during these times. Steppe eagles are fairly different from related species, being rather gregarious and non-predatory while away from their breeding grounds. Exceptionally, some steppe eagles have been known to overwinter in Altai Town, Kazakhstan, living reportedly off of brown rats (Rattus norvegicus) and rock doves (Columba livia). They are often seen congregating at feeding sites with easily obtained foods that are available in large quantities. In southern Africa, these eagles are often associated with rain fronts and the humidity that accompanies them. They do this largely to exploit a certain food source, termite alates. Termites are known to emerge more extensively in these conditions and so the steppe eagle, not unlike other long-distance migrant raptors, can become locally rather insectivorous to the exception of virtually any other foods. Most often, these eagles will fly down when it is noticed that termites are emerging or wait on foot and then grab them. According to one account these large eagles feed on termites "lumbering after their minuscule quarry in ludicrous fashion". They have also sometimes been seen to take termites in the air and feed on them in flight, not any easy task for such a large eagle. Roosts near termite colonies can contain several steppe eagles which may remain over days but generally depart whether well-fed or not if the rains disperse. In Namibia, the roosts used were the tops of quite small trees of only 2 to 3 m (6.6 to 9.8 ft) height. Although tiny with an average estimated weight of only 0.15 g (0.0053 oz), the harvester termite (Hodotermes mossambicus) (the main termite prey) have been deemed highly nutritious with a relatively high caloric value. It has been estimated that a steppe eagle would have to eat approximately 1600–2200 termites a day, which can be attainable in about 3 hours of feeding. The stomachs of 2 dissected steppe eagles contained 630 and 930 termite heads, respectively. In Zimbabwe, steppe eagles have also been seen in feeding masses in stubble fields picking out insects. However, it would reductive to consider the steppe eagle largely insectivorous in winter, since disproportionately the eagles seen feeding on termites in southern Africa were juveniles and immatures and many of the species winter outside of southern Africa; often wintering steppe eagles from other areas do not seem to live predominantly on insects. In east Africa, the diet of steppe eagles is poorly documented but is reported to consist largely of silvery mole-rats (Heliophobius argenteocinereus) and blesmols of the genus Cryptomys. Routine predation, probably on young or weak individuals, by steppe eagles has been recorded amongst flamingo colonies in east Africa. In several parts of Africa, steppe eagles may routinely visit and feed off of the colonies of the super-abundant bird, the red-billed quelea (Quelea quelea), with a noted focus on picking off the seemingly innumerous nestlings and fledglings of this small passerine. The steppe eagles will reportedly do so by ungracefully scrambling amongst the branches of the nesting colonies.
In the Indian subcontinent, the steppe eagle appears to fulfill the role of a weakly predatory opportunist. Individual Indian wintering steppe eagles are reported to feed at times of vulnerability of prey, including injured birds, eggs and young water birds from heronries, while groups of the eagles often occur around carrion, masses of stranded fish, poultry farms, garbage dumps and livestock carcass dumps. In Chari-Dhand wetlands, as many as 1000 steppe eagles have been seen to gather, presumably living largely off of vulnerable water birds. At the city dumps of Pune as many as 200 steppe eagles have been known to gather and feed. A carcass dump in Jorbeer near Bikaner was recorded to host an average of 43 steppe eagles per day during winter, with a peak number generally occurring in January and February (common dates from November to March and more rarely from September to May), with as many as 136 steppe eagles plus at least 9 other large raptors (mostly vultures), many of which are considered threatened species. It was found the Jorbeer carcass dumps enticed the steppe eagles to venture away from the normal wetland or wetland-adjacent areas used by steppe eagles in the area to the desert-like region, but feral dogs could, in some years, appear to chase off and cause the eagles to avoid this dump. A concentration of around 50 steppe eagle was seen to feed on swarms of locusts in Nepal. Perhaps to avoid competition (i.e. from vultures, jackals and so on) and to monopolize a food item, steppe eagles in India appear to come largely to smaller carcasses such as those of jungle cats (Felis chaus) and pythons. In the Banni Grasslands Reserve, steppe eagles are reported to largely hunt for food unlike in many other Indian reports, mainly on lesser bandicoot rats (Bandicota bengalensis), although also sometimes stole prey from other raptors. Similarly, active predation was unusually reported in Saurashtra and on larger prey including mongoose and Indian hare (Lepus nigricollis) as well as an unsuccessful attack on a mountain gazelle (Gazella gazella) fawn.
In the region of Bharatpur, Rajasthan, largely around Keoladeo National Park, the foraging activities of steppe eagles have been observed extensively. The steppe eagles seldom actively hunted, instead alternating between capturing nestlings from the heronries, especially nearly fledgling-age young of late nesting painted storks (Mycteria leucocephala), and engaging in kleptoparasitism towards other birds of prey, often doing so in groups of about three to nine eagles. More infrequently, steppe eagles in Bharatpur have been seen hunting flocking birds, fish (usually stranded), lizards and snakes. The steppes have been observed feeding on freshly killed young water birds at Bharatpur at daybreak and during early mornings and so may hunt while taking advantage of bright moonlight. Piracy against other raptors often resulted in food wastage, since the steppe eagles often forced the other raptors to drop their catch but the steppes were unable to intercept them and the kills were frequently lost into the water. In Bharatpur, the steppe eagles tended to perch relatively low compared to other eagles, at about 9 to 10 m (30 to 33 ft) in the trees, and to perch often for longer periods than other raptors, apparently while watching closely the activity of the other birds of prey. Of a total of 49 observed hours of activity for steppe eagles in Bharatpur, 45% of it was spent foraging, with a maximum foraging time of 69% during January, then reduced in March to only 17%. The daily food intake of individual steppe eagles was extremely low relative to their size, at only 141 g (5.0 oz). Instead of piracy, the steppe eagles often engaged each other in what can be considered a play display, almost exclusively between juvenile steppe eagles. In it, two birds circled 100 m (330 ft) or more, the higher bird circling closer and dropping toward the lower bird with extended feet, forcing it to roll over and present talons, they either immediately disengage with or without locking talons or descend looked for a few metres before separating; often steppes will fly purposely at a conspecific that is circling and fly up to a higher position so it can drop onto the other; in another incident, a steppe grabbed a plastic bag and let it go buffeting by the wind, then repeatedly caught it and let it go again, ultimately being joined by 5–6 other steppes in the "game'.
Less study has been conducted on feeding habits of the wintering and migrating steppe eagles in the Asia Minor, Middle East and Arabian Peninsula. What is known suggests that they, even more strongly than wintering steppe eagles in Indian subcontinent, today frequent various waste food sources inadvertently provided to them by humans. In Muscat, Oman, migrants largely from Kazakhstan were recorded to live off a mixture of refuse from the region's main landfill and large-scale carcass dump sites. As in the carcass dump areas of the Indian subcontinent, these carcass dumps often host a wide array of large birds of prey, both migrating species and non-migratory ones. In keeping with its size, steppe eagles dominated slightly smaller eagles and vultures and were in turn dominated by slightly larger eagles and much larger vultures. High use of slaughterhouses and cattle dump sites was recorded in winter in Iran. Interestingly, the Iranian slaughterhouses and dump sites hosted no first-year juveniles and few adults, but many steppe eagles either aged to 2 to 3 years of age (62.5%) or 4 to 5 years of age (33.3%). Foraging in both dump sites and available wetlands has been recorded in Iraq as well. Incidental feeding observations from Armenia suggests that steppe eagles in passage and in winter there are able to capture large quantities of voles or pirate them or similar small prey from smaller species of birds of prey.