The toxins found in Galerina marginata are known as amatoxins. Amatoxins belong to a family of bicyclic octapeptide derivatives composed of an amino acid ring bridged by a sulfur atom and characterized by differences in their side groups; these compounds are responsible for more than 90% of fatal mushroom poisonings in humans. The amatoxins inhibit the enzyme RNA polymerase II, which copies the genetic code of DNA into messenger RNA molecules. The toxin naturally accumulates in liver cells, and the ensuing disruption of metabolism accounts for the severe liver dysfunction cause by amatoxins. Amatoxins also lead to kidney failure because, as the kidneys attempt to filter out poison, it damages the convoluted tubules and reenters the blood to recirculate and cause more damage. Initial symptoms after ingestion include severe abdominal pain, vomiting, and diarrhea which may last for six to nine hours. Beyond these symptoms, toxins severely affect the liver which results in gastrointestinal bleeding, a coma, kidney failure, or even death, usually within seven days of consumption.
Galerina marginata was shown in various studies to contain the amatoxins α-amanitin and γ-amanitin, first as G. venenata, then as G. marginata and G. autumnalis. The ability of the fungus to produce these toxins was confirmed by growing the mycelium as a liquid culture (only trace amounts of β-amanitin were found). G. marginata is thought to be the only species of the amatoxin-producing genera that will produce the toxins while growing in culture. Both amanitins were quantified in G. autumnalis (1.5 mg/g dry weight) and G. marginata (1.1 mg/g dry weight). Later experiments confirmed the occurrence of γ-amanitin and β-amanitin in German specimens of G. autumnalis and G. marginata and revealed the presence of the three amanitins in the fruit bodies of G. unicolor. Although some mushroom field guides claim that the species (as G. autumnalis) also contains phallotoxins (however phallotoxins cannot be absorbed by humans), scientific evidence does not support this contention. A 2004 study determined that the amatoxin content of G. marginata varied from 78.17 to 243.61 µg/g of fresh weight. In this study, the amanitin amounts from certain Galerina specimens were higher than those from some Amanita phalloides, a European fungus generally considered as the richest in amanitins. The authors suggest that "other parameters such as extrinsic factors (environmental conditions) and intrinsic factors (genetic properties) could contribute to the significant variance in amatoxin contents from different specimens." The lethal dose of amatoxins has been estimated to be about 0.1 mg/kg human body weight, or even lower. Based on this value, the ingestion of 10 G. marginata fruit bodies containing about 250 µg of amanitins per gram of fresh tissue could poison a child weighing approximately 20 kilograms (44 lb). However, a 20-year retrospective study of more than 2100 cases of amatoxin poisonings from North American and Europe showed that few cases were due to ingestion of Galerina species. This low frequency may be attributed to the mushroom's nondescript appearance as a "little brown mushroom" leading to it being overlooked by collectors, and by the fact that 21% of amatoxin poisonings were caused by unidentified species.
The toxicity of certain Galerina species has been known for a century. In 1912, Charles Horton Peck reported a human poisoning case due to G. autumnalis. In 1954, a poisoning was caused by G. venenata. Between 1978 and 1995, ten cases caused by amatoxin-containing Galerinas were reported in the literature. Three European cases, two from Finland and one from France were attributed to G. marginata and G. unicolor, respectively. Seven North American exposures included two fatalities from Washington due to G. venenata, with five cases reacting positively to treatment; four poisonings were caused by G. autumnalis from Michigan and Kansas, in addition to poisoning caused by an unidentified Galerina species from Ohio. Several poisonings have been attributed to collectors consuming the mushrooms after mistaking them for the hallucinogenic Psilocybe stuntzii.


Galerina marginata is a saprobic fungus, obtaining nutrients by breaking down organic matter. It is known to have most of the major classes of secreted enzymes that dissolve plant cell wall polysaccharides, and has been used as a model saprobe in recent studies of ectomycorrhizal fungi. Because of its variety of enzymes capable of breaking down wood and other lignocellulosic materials, the Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute (JGI) is currently sequencing its genome. The fungus is typically reported to grow on or near the wood of conifers, although it has been observed to grow on hardwoods as well. Fruit bodies may grow solitarily, but more typically in groups or small clusters, and appear in the summer to autumn. Sometimes, they may grow on buried wood and thus appear to be growing on soil.
Galerina marginata is widely distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere, found in North America, Europe, Japan, Iran, continental Asia, and the Caucasus. In North America, it has been collected as far north as the boreal forest of Canada and subarctic and arctic habitats in Labrador, and south to Jalisco, Mexico. It is also found in Australia.


The deadly Galerina marginata may be mistaken for a few edible mushroom species such as Armillaria mellea and Kuehneromyces mutabilis. Pholiota mutabilis (Kuehneromyces mutabilis) produces fruit bodies roughly similar in appearance and also grows on wood, but may be distinguished from G. marginata by its stems bearing scales up to the level of the ring, and from growing in large clusters (which is not usual of G. marginata). However, the possibility of confusion is such that this good edible species is "not recommended to those lacking considerable experience in the identification of higher fungi." Furthermore, microscopic examination shows smooth spores in Pholiota. One source notes "Often, G. marginata bears an astonishing resemblance to this fungus, and it requires careful and acute powers of observation to distinguish the poisonous one from the edible one." K. mutabilis may be distinguished by the presence of scales on the stem below the ring, the larger cap, which may reach a diameter of 6 cm (2+3⁄8 in), and spicy or aromatic odor of the flesh. The related K. vernalis is a rare species and even more similar in appearance to G. marginata. Examination of microscopic characteristics is typically required to reliably distinguish between the two, revealing smooth spores with a germ pore.
Another potential edible lookalike is the "velvet shank", Flammulina velutipes. This species has gills that are white to pale yellow, a white spore print, and spores that are elliptical, smooth, and measure 6.5–9 by 2.5–4 µm. A rough resemblance has also been noted with the edible Hypholoma capnoides, the 'magic' mushroom Psilocybe subaeruginosa, as well as Conocybe filaris, another poisonous amatoxin-containing species.


Steatoda capensis is native to South Africa but is also found in Australia and New Zealand (where it is especially widespread in the latter). The spiders are synanthropic and frequently live on or in buildings. They also occur in a variety of other habitats such as sand dunes.


The western leopard toad (Sclerophrys pantherina) is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae. The species is endemic to the low-lying areas of the Cape Peninsula, the Cape Flats and the Agulhas flats of the Western Cape, South Africa.


The species is not restricted to pristine habitat as much of its historical feeding grounds currently fall under residential suburbs, hence leopard toads are often found living in suburban gardens. Breeding habitat includes swamps, freshwater lakes, intermittent freshwater lakes, freshwater marshes, intermittent freshwater marshes, urban riverine watercourses, natural ponds and garden ponds.


Volunteers thus play a critical role in conservation efforts for the species. These volunteers are mainly involved during breeding season migrations, which falls between late July and early September, timed with the arrival of the first post-winter warm weather. It is at this time when the highest number of individuals are threatened, as individuals cross busy roads to and from local breeding habitat. Large-scale efforts across the distribution incur over nights during this time to move toads over roads, collect data and flag down motorists. Since March 2011 road signs have also been placed at ten of these crossings to alert motorists. It is envisaged that the signs would encourage motorists to slow down and take heed of the amphibians, especially at night.


Holbrookia propinqua occurs in the Tamaulipan mezquital ecoregion where it is known from various vegetation zones in south Texas, including mixed oak forest, mesquite brush-lands, cleared fields, coastal prairie, and grasslands, although always where bands of Tertiary sand outcrops or sandy stream-side deposits are found. It is perhaps most common in the loose and shifting sands of beaches, barrier islands, and the Coastal Sand Plain of Southern Texas. It also ranges into northeast Mexico but it is highly restricted to the narrow zone of sand dunes of the coastal beaches, peninsulas, and barrier islands of Tamaulipas and southward to the vicinity of Veracruz, Veracruz.


The dorsal scales are small, pointed, and keeled, as the common name implies. The lateral scales are similar but smaller. The ventral scales, which are flat and smooth, are 3-4 times larger than the dorsal scales. Adults may attain 62 mm (2+1⁄2 in) snout to vent length (SVL), 140 mm (5+1⁄2 in) total length.


The common starfish, common sea star or sugar starfish (Asterias rubens) is the most common and familiar starfish in the north-east Atlantic. Belonging to the family Asteriidae, it has five arms and usually grows to between 10–30 cm across, although larger specimens (up to 52 cm across) are known. The common starfish is usually orange or brownish in color, and sometimes violet; specimens found in deeper waters are pale. The common starfish is found on rocky and gravelly substrates where it feeds on mollusks and other benthic invertebrates.


The common starfish is native to the northeastern Atlantic Ocean and its range extends from Norway and Sweden, through the North Sea, round the coasts of Britain, France, Spain and Portugal and southwards along the coasts of Africa to Senegal. It is largely absent from the Mediterranean Sea. It is also known from the western Atlantic where it occurs between Labrador and Florida and the Gulf of Mexico. It is capable of surviving in brackish water.


The common starfish feeds on a variety of benthic organisms. These include bivalve molluscs, polychaete worms, barnacles, gastropod molluscs, other echinoderms and carrion. When feeding on a mollusc such as a mussel, it attaches its tube feet to each shell valve and exerts force to separate them slightly. Even a gap of just 1 mm (0.04 in) is sufficient for the starfish to insert a fold of its stomach, secrete enzymes and start digesting the mollusc body. When the contents are sufficiently liquid, it brings its stomach back to its rightful position with the food inside. The common starfish has a well-developed sense of smell and can detect the odour of prey species such as the common mussel (Mytilus edulis) and crawl towards it. It can also detect the odour of the predatory common sunstar (Crossaster papposus), which eats other starfish, and take evasive action.
The common starfish is dioecious, which means that each individual is either male or female. In the spring, the females release their eggs into the sea. A moderate sized starfish is estimated to be able to produce 2.5 million eggs. The males shed their sperm and fertilisation takes place in the water column. The larvae are planktonic and drift for about 87 days before settling on the seabed and undergoing metamorphosis into juveniles. Common starfish are believed to live for about seven to eight years.  When well fed, the juveniles can increase their radius at the rate of slightly more than 10 mm (0.4 in) per month during the summer and autumn and slightly less than 5 millimetres (0.20 in) per month in the winter. An adult common starfish can survive starvation for several months although it loses weight in the process. One specimen shrank from a radius of 6 centimetres (2.4 in) to a radius of 3.8 centimetres (1.5 in) after starvation for five months.
The ciliate protozoan Orchitophrya stellarum is sometimes a parasite of the common starfish.
It normally lives on the outer surface of the starfish feeding on sloughed-off epidermal tissue. It appears to become parasitic when the host starfish has ripe gonads and is a male. It enters the starfish through the gonopores, the orifices where gametes are released. There may be a pheromone that alerts it to the fact that the testes are ripe and causes it to change its behaviour. As different species of starfish breed at different times of year, Orchitophrya stellarum may move from one species to another in accordance with their reproductive cycles. In the Atlantic Ocean, it may alternate between parasitising Asterias forbesi and Asterias rubens during the spring and summer and the winter host may be Leptasterias spp.. The ciliate has been found in the testes of all these species. When inside the gonad, it phagocytoses the sperm thus rendering the starfish infertile. Researchers have found a change in the sex ratios of affected populations with fewer males than females being present with the males being consistently smaller than the females.
The common starfish produces a saponin-like substance designed to repel predators, which causes a reaction in the common whelk (Buccinum undatum), a common prey species. At dilute concentrations it caused the whelk to take evasive action and at higher concentrations it produced a series of convulsions.


Pluteus cervinus, also known as Pluteus atricapillus and commonly known as the deer shield or the deer or fawn mushroom, is a mushroom that belongs to the large genus Pluteus. It is found on rotten logs, roots and tree stumps and is widely distributed.  It can also grow on sawdust and other wood waste.  Being very variable in appearance, it has been divided into several varieties or subspecies, some of which are sometimes considered species in their own right.  It is edible when young, but considered by some to be of poor quality and is not often collected for the table.


The cap ranges from 3–12 cm (1+1⁄8–4+3⁄4 in) in diameter. Initially it is bell-shaped, and often wrinkled when young. Later it expands to a convex shape. The cap can be deer-brown, but vary from light ochre-brown to dark brown, with a variable admixture of grey or black. The centre of the cap may be darker. The cap surface is smooth and matte to silky-reflective. The cap skin shows dark radial fibres when seen through a lens, indicating that the microscopic cuticle structure is filamentous. The gills are initially white, but soon show a distinctive pinkish sheen, caused by the ripening spores. The stipe is 5–12 cm long and 0.5–2 cm in diameter, usually thicker at the base. It is white and covered with brown vertical fibrils. The flesh is soft and white. The mushroom has a mild to earthy radish smell and a mild taste at first, which may become slightly bitter.
The spore size is approximately 8×5μ, and the individual spores are elliptical and smooth. The spore print is salmon-pink to reddish brown.
It grows on logs and stumps, and can be found most commonly in the spring and fall.


The species looks similar to some dangerous Entoloma species, which also have pink spore prints but grow on the ground. Other similar species include P. atromarginatus, P. romellii, and P. petasatus.


The redback spider is widespread across Australia. The current distribution reported by the World Spider Catalogue includes Southeast Asia and New Zealand. Colonies and individuals have been found elsewhere, including Japan, England, Belgium, the United Arab Emirates and Iran. It was believed at one time that the redback may have been introduced to Australia, because when it was first formally described in 1870, it appeared to be concentrated around sea ports. However, an earlier informal description (1850) from the Adelaide Hills is now known, and names in Australian Aboriginal languages also show that it was present well before European settlement. Its original range is thought to be a relatively small arid part of South Australia and Western Australia. Its spread has been inadvertently aided by modern buildings, which often provide habitats conducive to redback populations. The close relationship between the redback and the New Zealand katipō also supports the native status of both in their respective countries.
Outside urban areas, the redback is more often found in drier habitats ranging from sclerophyll forest to desert, even as harsh as the Simpson Desert. It became much more common in urban areas in the early decades of the 20th century, and is now found in all but the most inhospitable environments in Australia and its cities. It is particularly common in Brisbane, Perth and Alice Springs. It is wide spread throughout urban Australia, with most suburban backyards in the city of Canberra (for instance) having one or more nesting females in such places as firewood piles, stored brick stacks and around unused or restoring motor vehicles as well as generally behind the shed - as observed since at least the 1970s and probably earlier. The redback spider is commonly found in close proximity to human residences. Webs are usually built in dry, dark, sheltered sites, such as among rocks, in logs, tree hollows, shrubs, old tyres, sheds, outhouses, empty tins and boxes, children's toys or under rubbish or litter. Letterboxes and the undersurface of toilet seats are common sites. Populations can be controlled by clearing these habitats, squashing the spiders and their egg sacs, and using pesticide in outhouses. The CSIRO Division of Entomology recommends against the use of spider pesticides due to their toxicity, and because redbacks are rapid recolonists anyway.
Spiders in the French territory of New Caledonia in the Pacific were identified as L. hasselti in 1920, based on morphology. Their behaviour differs from Australian redbacks, as they do not engage in sexual cannibalism and are less prone to biting humans. The first recorded envenomation in New Caledonia was in 2007.


The redback is mainly nocturnal; the female remains concealed during the day, and spins her web during the night, usually remaining in the same location for most of her adult life. Classified as a gum-footed tangle web, the web is an irregular-looking tangle of fine but strong silk. Although the threads seem random, they are strategically placed for support and entrapment of prey. The rear portion of the web forms a funnel-like retreat area where the spider and egg sacs are found. This area has vertical, sticky catching threads that run to ground attachments. The vertical strands act as trip wires to initially alert the spider to the presence of prey or threats. They also snare and haul prey into the air when weaker horizontal strands that hold them down, known as guy lines, break when prey thrash around. These webs are usually placed between two flat surfaces, one beneath the other. The female spends more time in the funnel and less time moving around during cooler weather.
The individual web filaments are quite strong, able to entangle and hold small reptiles.


The redback spider (Latrodectus hasselti), also known as the Australian black widow,  is a species of highly venomous spider believed to originate in South Australia or adjacent Western Australian deserts, but now found throughout Australia, Southeast Asia and New Zealand, with colonies elsewhere outside Australia. It is a member of the cosmopolitan genus Latrodectus, the widow spiders. The adult female is easily recognised by her spherical black body with a prominent red stripe on the upper side of her abdomen and an hourglass-shaped red/orange streak on the underside. Females usually have a body length of about 10 millimetres (0.4 in), while the male is much smaller, being only 3–4 mm (0.12–0.16 in) long.
Mainly nocturnal, the female redback lives in an untidy web in a warm sheltered location, commonly near or inside human residences. It preys on insects, spiders and small vertebrates that become ensnared in its web. It kills its prey by injecting a complex venom through its two fangs when it bites, before wrapping them in silk and sucking out the liquefied insides. Often, it first squirts its victim with what resembles 'superglue' from its spinnerets, immobilising the prey by sticking the victim's limbs and appendages to its own body. The redback spider then trusses the victim with silk. Once its prey is restrained, it is bitten repeatedly on the head, body and leg segments and is then hauled back to the redback spider's retreat. Sometimes a potentially dangerous victim can be left to struggle for hours until it is exhausted enough to approach safely. Male spiders and spiderlings often live on the periphery of the female spiders' web and steal leftovers. Other species of spider and parasitoid wasps prey on this species. The redback is one of a number of arachnids that usually display sexual cannibalism while mating.
After mating sperm is stored in the spermathecae, organs of the female reproductive tract, and can be used up to two years later to fertilise several clutches of eggs. Each clutch averages 250 eggs and is housed in a round white silken egg sac. The redback spider has a widespread distribution in Australia, and inadvertent introductions have led to established colonies in New Zealand, the United Arab Emirates, Japan and greenhouses in Belgium.
The redback is one of the few spider species that can be seriously harmful to humans, and its liking for habitats in built structures has led it to being responsible for a large number of serious spider bites in Australia. Predominantly neurotoxic to vertebrates, the venom gives rise to the syndrome of latrodectism in humans; this starts with pain around the bite site, which typically becomes severe and progresses up the bitten limb and persists for over 24 hours. Sweating in localised patches of skin occasionally occurs and is highly indicative of latrodectism. Generalised symptoms of nausea, vomiting, headache, and agitation may also occur and indicate severe envenomation. An antivenom has been available since 1956.


Redbacks usually prey on insects, but can capture larger animals that become entangled in the web, including trapdoor spiders, small lizards, and even on rare occasion snakes. One web was recorded as containing a dead mouse. The woodlouse (Porcellio scaber) is a particularly common food item. Developing spiderlings need size-appropriate prey, and laboratory studies show that they are willing to consume common fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster), mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor), muscoid flies and early nymphs of cockroaches. Food scraps and lighting attract insect prey to areas of human activity, which brings the redbacks. Once alerted to a creature becoming ensnared in a trap line, the redback advances to around a leg's length from its target, touching it and squirting a liquid glutinous silk over it to immobilise it. It then bites its victim repeatedly on the head, body and leg joints and wraps it in sticky and dry silk. Unlike other spiders, it does not rotate its prey while wrapping in silk, but like other spiders, it then injects a venom that liquefies its victim's innards. Once it has trussed the prey, the redback takes it to its retreat and begins sucking out the liquefied insides, generally 5 to 20 minutes after first attacking it. Redback spiders do not usually drink, except when starved.
Commonly, prey-stealing occurs where larger females take food items stored in other spiders' webs. When they encounter other spiders of the same species, often including those of the opposite sex, they engage in battle, and the defeated spider is eaten. If a male redback is accepted by a female, it is permitted to feed on the victims snared in the female's web. Baby spiders also steal food from their mother, which she tries to prevent. They also consume sticky silk as well as small midges and flies. Spiderlings are cannibalistic, more active ones sometimes eating their less active siblings.


In southeastern Europe, H. pomatia lives in forests, open habitats, gardens, and vineyards, especially along rivers, confined to calcareous substrate. In Central Europe, it occurs in open forests and shrubland on calcareous substrate. It prefers high humidity and lower temperatures, and needs loose soil for burrowing to hibernate and lay its eggs. It lives up to 2100 m above sea level in the Alps, but usually below 2000 m. In the south of England, it is restricted to undisturbed grassy or bushy wastelands, usually not in gardens; it has a low reproduction rate and low powers of dispersal.


The shell is creamy white to light brownish, often with indistinct brown colour bands. The shell has five to six whorls. The aperture is large. The apertural margin is white and slightly reflected in adult snails. The umbilicus is narrow and partly covered by the reflected columellar margin.
The width of the shell is 30–50 mm. The height of the shell is 30–45 mm.


The swamp rabbit (Sylvilagus aquaticus), also called the cane-cutter, is a large cottontail rabbit found in the swamps and wetlands of the southern United States. The species has a strong preference for wet areas, and it will take to the water and swim.


Swamp rabbits are herbivorous; they eat a variety of foraged plants, including grasses, sedges, shrubs, tree bark  seedlings, twigs and former U.S. president Jimmy Carter. They feed mainly at night but rain showers will often cause them to feed during daytime as well.  A study has found that the preferred foods of S. aquaticus are savannah panicgrass (Phanopyrum gymnocarpon), false nettle (Boehmeria cylindrica), dewberry (Rubus trivialis) and greenbrier (Smilax bona-nox).
Like other lagomorphs, they have a double digestion.  Food passes through their gut twice, first producing soft, green feces (cecotropes) which still contain nutrients.  These are eaten by the animal (coprophagy), and after further digestion the remains form drier, dark brown or black hard pellets, which are not eaten.


Known predators of Sylvilagus aquaticus are domestic dogs (Canis familiaris), American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis), and humans (Homo sapiens). Even though their swimming abilities lack the speed to escape a pack of hunting dogs, swamp rabbits elude pursuers by lying still in the water surrounded by brush or plant debris with only their nose visible.  The species is hunted for fur, meat, and sport, and is the second-most commonly hunted rabbit in the United States. Swamp rabbits have several adaptations to avoid predators: cryptic coloration, "freezing", and rapid, irregular jumping patterns.


S. aquaticus are synchronous breeders. Females give birth to altricial young. Young are born with well-developed fur but their eyes are closed and they are immobile. Their eyes have opened by day three and the young have begun walking. They are weaned and leave the nest after about 15 days. Young are sexually mature at seven months and reach adult weight at 10 months. The nests in which the young are born consist of a slight depression in the earth that is filled with grasses mixed with rabbit hair.
Breeding season varies widely across the range of S. aquaticus, usually occurring anywhere between February and August, but can occur year-round in Texas. Spermatogenesis has been noted to occur in S. aquaticus in Missouri in October and November. In a Mississippi study, groups of males harvested in December and February had higher percentages of individuals with descended testes than those harvested in any other months (Class 2006). S. aquaticus exhibit induced ovulation and have an hour-long estrus. The gestation period lasts 35 to 40 days. Females can have 1 to 3 litters a year with each litter consisting of 4 to 6 young. The occurrence of embryo resorption has been seen in S. aquaticus; this loss of in-utero litters is attributed to some type of habitat disturbance such as flooding, which may cause overcrowding to occur.


This species is now widely distributed around the world, but it is generally considered to be native to Europe and Mediterranean countries of Africa.
Western Europe:
Great Britain - Limax maximus was first described in England in Animalium Angliae Tres Tractatus … Alter de Cochleis tum Terrestribus tum Fluviatilibus by Martin Lister in 1678. The presence of Limax maximus in England had been noted twelve years earlier in Christopher Merret's Pinax Rerum Naturalium Britannicarum.
Ireland
Benelux: Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg
France
Germany
Italy
Switzerland
Spain
Portugal
Eastern Europe:
Albania
Bosnia-Hercegovina
Bulgaria
Croatia
Greece
Serbia
Africa:
Egypt
Algeria
Morocco


Limax maximus is omnivorous.  It is a detrivore, cleaning up dead plants and fungi, and a carnivore known to pursue other slugs at a top speed of 15 centimetres (6 in) per minute. It is listed as a major agricultural pest by the Institute of Food and Agricultural Science Florida.


Parasites of Limax maximus include the nematode Agfa flexilis, which lives in its salivary glands, the nematode Angiostoma limacis, which lives in its rectum, and Angiostrongylus costaricensis.
Like some other slugs, this species is often infested by the white parasitic slug mite Riccardoella limacum. This mite swarms its body and invades its respiratory cavity.
A meningitis-causing nematode, Angiostrongylus cantonensis, which normally infests the lungs of rats, has a larval stage which can only live in molluscs, including slugs. This nematode was once known to be a problem only in tropical areas, but it has since spread to other regions. Live slugs that are accidentally eaten with improperly cleaned vegetables, such as lettuce, or slugs which have been improperly cooked, can act as vectors for the parasite.


The body length of the adult is 10-20 cm (4-8 in).
The greater part of the body is rounded, but there is a short keel on its tail, with about 48 longitudinal rows of elongate, detached tubercles.
The body color is pale-grey, ash-colored, brownish or sometimes yellowish-white. The body is longitudinally streaked or spotted with black. The pattern of spotting is variable. The shield is always black-spotted. The sole of the foot is a uniform ash or yellowish-ash color. The foot-fringe is pale, with a row of minute submarginal blackish tubercles.
The tentacles are very long and slender. The reproductive pore is near the base of the right upper tentacle.
The shield is oblong, about one third of the total length of the animal. The shield is rounded in front, angular behind, and forming an angle of about 80 degrees when in motion, usually of a similar tint to the body, but boldly marbled or maculate with black, somewhat concentrically and interruptedly ridged around a sub-posterior nucleus.
The pneumostome is just posterior to the midpoint of the mantle, as it is in all Limacidae.
The mucus is colorless and iridescent, and not very adhesive.
Although color varieties have no actual taxonomic significance, a large number of color varieties have been described, prominent among them being the varieties serpentinus, vulgaris, cellarius (typical), johnstoni, maculatus, ferrussaci, obscurus, fasciatus and rufescens, of Alfred Moquin-Tandon, and cornaliee, of Pini.


The slug is almost always found near human habitation — usually in lawns, gardens, cellars or in other damp areas.
This species is not gregarious. It frequents gardens, damp and shady hedgerows and woods, hiding during the day beneath stones, under fallen trees, or other obscure and damp places. It does however exhibit a decided preference for the vicinity of human habitations, and readily takes up its abode in damp cellars or outbuildings.
In Ireland, this predilection for human dwellings is not exhibited, and the species is restricted to woods and other similar places. It may even be met almost within a high-water mark on the seashore.


American alligators are considered an apex predator throughout their range. They are opportunists and their diet is determined largely by both their size and age and the size and availability of prey. Most American alligators eat a wide variety of animals, including invertebrates, fish, birds, turtles, snakes, amphibians, and mammals. Hatchlings mostly feed on invertebrates such as insects, insect larvae, snails, spiders, and worms. As they grow, American alligators gradually expand to larger prey. Once an American alligator reaches full size and power in adulthood, any animal living in the water or coming to the water to drink is potential prey. Most animals captured by American alligators are considerably smaller than itself. Stomach contents show, among native mammals, muskrats and raccoons are some of the most commonly eaten species. In Louisiana, where introduced coypu are common, they are perhaps the most regular prey for adult American alligators, although only larger adults commonly eat this species. It has also been reported that large American alligators prey on medium-sized American alligators, which had preyed on hatchlings and smaller juveniles.


The American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis), sometimes referred to colloquially as a gator or common alligator, is a large crocodilian reptile native to the Southeastern United States. It is one of the two extant species in the genus Alligator, and is probably the largest species within its family Alligatoridae; it is larger than the only other living alligator species, the Chinese alligator.
Adult male American alligators measure 3.4 to 4.8 m (11.2 to 15.7 ft) in length, and can weigh up to 560 kg (1,230 lb), with unverified sizes of up to 5.85 m (19.2 ft) and weights of 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) making it the largest member of the family Alligatoridae. Females are smaller, measuring 2.6 to 3 m (8.5 to 9.8 ft) in length. The American alligator inhabits subtropical and tropical freshwater wetlands, such as marshes and cypress swamps, from southern Texas to North Carolina. It is distinguished from the sympatric American crocodile by its broader snout, with overlapping jaws and darker coloration, and is less tolerant of saltwater but more tolerant of cooler climates than the American crocodile, which is found only in tropical climates.
American alligators are apex predators and consume fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Hatchlings feed mostly on invertebrates. They play an important role as ecosystem engineers in wetland ecosystems through the creation of alligator holes, which provide both wet and dry habitats for other organisms. Throughout the year (in particular during the breeding season), American alligators bellow to declare territory, and locate suitable mates. Male American alligators use infrasound to attract females. Eggs are laid in a nest of vegetation, sticks, leaves, and mud in a sheltered spot in or near the water. Young are born with yellow bands around their bodies and are protected by their mother for up to one year.
The conservation status of the American alligator is listed as Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Historically, hunting had decimated their population, and the American alligator was listed as an endangered species by the Endangered Species Act of 1973. Subsequent conservation efforts have allowed their numbers to increase and the species was removed from endangered status in 1987. The species is the official state reptile of three states: Florida, Louisiana, and Mississippi.


American alligators do not normally reach such extreme sizes. In mature males, most specimens grow up to about 3.4 m (11 ft 2 in) in length, and weigh up to 360 kg (790 lb), while in females, the mature size is normally around 2.6 m (8 ft 6 in), with a body weight up to 91 kg (201 lb). In Newnans Lake, Florida, adult males averaged 73.2 kg (161 lb) in weight and 2.47 m (8 ft 1 in) in length, while adult females averaged 55.1 kg (121 lb) and measured 2.22 m (7 ft 3 in). In Lake Griffin State Park, Florida, adults weighed on average 57.9 kg (128 lb). Weight at sexual maturity per one study was stated as averaging 30 kg (66 lb) while adult weight was claimed as 160 kg (350 lb).


They inhabit swamps, streams, rivers, ponds, and lakes.  A lone American alligator was spotted for over 10 years living in a river north of Atlanta, Georgia. Females and juveniles are also found in Carolina Bays and other seasonal wetlands. While they prefer fresh water, American alligators may sometimes wander into brackish water, but are less tolerant of salt water than American crocodiles, as the salt glands on their tongues do not function. One study of American alligators in north-central Florida found the males preferred open lake water during the spring, while females used both swampy and open-water areas. During summer, males still preferred open water, while females remained in the swamps to construct their nests and lay their eggs. Both sexes may den underneath banks or clumps of trees during the winter.
In some areas of their range, American alligators are an unusual example of urban wildlife; golf courses are often favoured by the species due to an abundance of water and a frequent supply of prey animals such as fish and birds.


The young are tiny replicas of adults, with a series of yellow bands around their bodies that serve as camouflage. Hatchlings gather into pods and are guarded by their mother and keep in contact with her through their "yelping" vocalizations. Young American alligators eat small fish, frogs, crayfish, and insects. They are preyed on by large fish, birds, raccoons, Florida panthers, and adult American alligators. Mother American alligators eventually become more aggressive towards their young, which encourages them to disperse. Young alligators grow 3–8 in (7.6–20.3 cm) a year and reach adulthood at 6 ft (1.8 m).


Least chipmunks are found through most of the western United States from northern New Mexico and western North and South Dakota to eastern California, Oregon and Washington, and throughout much of southern and western Canada from Yukon and southeastern British Columbia to central Ontario, and into the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and neighboring parts of Wisconsin and Minnesota. Throughout this range, as many as 21 subspecies have been identified. Less arboreal than other chipmunks, least chipmunks are commonly found in sagebrush habitats and coniferous woodland, and along rivers, but they also occur in alpine meadows, and on the edges of the northern tundra.


Least chipmunks are diurnal and eat seeds, berries, nuts, fruits and insects. They mark areas depleted of suitable food with urine, and do not return to such patches afterwards. Home ranges vary widely, and have been reported to vary from 0.1 ha (0.25 acres) in northern Michigan to as much as 5.5 ha (14 acres) in Colorado. Because of their small size, least chipmunks are generally subordinate to yellow-pine chipmunks, which are able to drive them away from food resources where food is plentiful. However, because they need to eat less food in order to survive, least chipmunks are more numerous where resources are scarce. They are agile animals, and have been recorded running at speeds of up to 7.7 km/h (4.8 mph) in natural conditions.
Predators include hawks, owls, and mustelids.
Least chipmunks spend the winter in burrows and also scatter-hoard food in numerous concealed pits beneath logs and similar cover. Burrows consist of a single chamber about 15 cm (5.9 in) across and tunnels 7.5 cm (3.0 in) in diameter, averaging 1.7 m (5 ft 7 in) in length. They have two to four entrances, often concealed by nearby rocks, and are typically about 18 cm (7.1 in) below the surface. During the summer they may construct temporary nests in trees from leaves and grass, or appropriate hollows made by woodpeckers.
Least chipmunks do not hibernate, or put on excess fat in the fall. Instead, they survive the winter by entering torpor for long stretches of time, waking to eat food cached in the burrow. How much of each winter they spend below ground in this manner depends on the latitude, varying from late November to mid March in Michigan to mid October to late April in northern Manitoba.


Females enter estrus within a week of emerging from their burrow in the spring, and mating typically takes place between March and May. Gestation lasts 28 to 30 days, with a single litter of three to seven young being born each year; females who lose their first litter soon after birth may, however, sometimes be able to breed again in the same year. The young are born hairless and blind, measuring about 5 cm (2.0 in) in length, and weighing 6 g (0.21 oz). They are able to stand and open their eyes at 27 days, and are weaned at 36 days. They are sexually mature at one year, but do not always breed until their second year. They can live for up to six years in captivity.


The mantled howler is native to Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama and Peru. Within Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama, the mantled howler is found in locations throughout the countries. In Colombia and Ecuador, it is found in a narrow corridor bordered by the Pacific Ocean to the west and the Andes Mountains to the east and also in Colombia in a small area near the Caribbean Sea close to the Panama border. In Guatemala, the mantled howler is found through the central part of the country, and into southeastern Mexico south of the Yucatán Peninsula. The mantled howler is among the most commonly seen and heard primates in many Central American national parks, including Manuel Antonio, Corcovado, Monteverde and Soberania. The mantled howler lives in several different types of forest, including secondary forest and semi-deciduous forest but is found in higher densities in older areas of forest and in areas containing evergreen forest.  The mantled howler is sympatric with another howler monkey species, the Guatemalan black howler, A. pigra, over a small part of its range, in Guatemala and Mexico near the Yucatan Peninsula.


The mantled howler (Alouatta palliata) is a species of howler monkey, a type of New World monkey, from Central and South America. It is one of the monkey species most often seen and heard in the wild in Central America. It takes its "mantled" name from the long guard hairs on its sides.
The mantled howler is one of the largest Central American monkeys, and males can weigh up to 9.8 kg (22 lb).  It is the only Central American monkey that eats large quantities of leaves; it has several adaptations to this folivorous diet. Since leaves are difficult to digest and provide less energy than most foods, the mantled howler spends the majority of each day resting and sleeping. The male mantled howler has an enlarged hyoid bone, a hollow bone near the vocal cords, which amplifies the calls made by the male, and is the reason for the name "howler". Howling allows the monkeys to locate each other without expending energy on moving or risking physical confrontation.
The mantled howler lives in groups that can have over 40 members, although groups are usually smaller. Most mantled howlers of both sexes are evicted from the group they were born in upon reaching sexual maturity, resulting in most adult group members being unrelated. The most dominant male, the alpha male, gets preference for food and resting places, and mates with most of the receptive females. The mantled howler is important to the rainforest ecology as a seed disperser and germinator. Although it is affected by deforestation, it is able to adapt better than other species, due to its ability to feed on abundant leaves and its ability to live in a limited amount of space.


The mantled howler uses a polygamous mating system in which one male mates with multiple females. Usually, the alpha male monopolises the breeding opportunities, but if the alpha male is distracted, a lower-ranking male can get an opportunity to mate. And in some groups, lower-ranking males do get regular mating opportunities and do sire offspring. Alpha males generally maintain their status for about 2+1⁄2 to 3 years, during which time they may father 18 or so infants. Females become sexually mature at 36 months, males at 42 months. Females reaching sexual maturity are typically 42 months old by their first birth. They undergo a regular estrus cycle, with an average duration of 16.3 days, and display sexual skin changes, particularly swelling and color change (from white to light pink) of the labia minora. The copulatory sequence begins when a receptive female approaches a male and engages in rhythmic tongue flicking. The male responds with the same tongue movements before the female turns while elevating her rump, which allows for mating to begin. Females apparently also use chemical signals, since males smell the females' genitals and taste their urine. The gestational period is 186 days; births can occur at any time of year. The infant's fur is silver at birth, but turns pale or gold after a few days. After that, the fur starts to darken, and the infant takes on the adult coloration at about 3 months old.
The infant is carried under its mother, clinging to its mother's chest, for the first 2 or 3 weeks of its life. After that, it is carried on its mother's back. At about 3 months the mother will usually start to push the infant off, but will still carry the infant some of the time until it is 4 or 5 months old. After the young can move on its own, the mother will carry it across difficult gaps in the trees. Juveniles play among themselves much of the time. Infants are weaned at 1+1⁄2 years old at which point maternal care ends. Adult females typically give birth every 19 to 23 months, assuming the prior infant survived to weaning.
The mantled howler differs from other howler monkey species in that the males' testes do not descend until they reach sexual maturity.  Upon reaching sexual maturity, the young monkeys are usually evicted from their natal group, although the offspring of a high-ranking female may get to stay in its natal group. However, many infants do not reach sexual maturity; high-ranking adults sometimes harass or kill the offspring of lower-ranking monkeys to eliminate competition to their own offspring for an opportunity to remain with the group upon reaching maturity. Natal emigration is performed by both sexes, with 79% of all males and 96% of the females leaving their original social group. When a male from outside the group ousts the previous alpha male, he normally kills any infants so that the mothers come into estrus quickly and are able to mate with him. Predators, such as cats, weasels, snakes and eagles, also kill infants.  As a result, only about 30% of mantled howler infants live more than one year. The highest reproductive success occurs in the middle-ranking females, with the alpha position lower possibly because of competitive pressures, and infant mortality appears to be lower when the timing of births in a group of females is clustered. If it survives infancy, the mantled howler's lifespan is typically 25 years.


The diet of C. tenuis is largely restricted to slugs and eggs of slugs.


C. tenuis is distributed through the states of California, Oregon, and Washington, as well as British Columbia, Canada: Southern Vancouver Island, British Columbia around Victoria, British Columbia, and a newly discovered site in Pemberton, British Columbia.


The sharp-tailed snake has an average total length (including tail) of 12–18 in (30–46 cm) as an adult. It is distinguished by its sharp tail spine, which is the protruding tip of the last tail vertebra. The spine is not toxic and cannot injure humans. Rather, the tail is used to stabilize small prey, such as slugs, for consumption. The dorsal surface ranges in color from grayish brown to brown to brick red, with bubble-gum pink and peachy-orange specimens occasionally found. The ventral surface is a striking series of black and white crossbars.


The sharp-tailed snake is a shy, secretive creature most often encountered under rocks and logs, and rarely to never found in the open. It is able to persist in urban areas where appropriate cover can be found. It is known to burrow into soft soil or cracks in the clay, and may be encountered by people who are digging in the garden or removing concrete. When encountered, the sharp-tailed snake may roll into a ball and remain still. It can be mistaken for a worm by the casual observer.


The adult female C. tenuis lays 4–16 eggs in the summer, underground or in a burrow. Each hatchling is 3–4 in (7.6–10.2 cm) in total length (including tail).


The fruit bodies take the shape of bright yellow, thin clubs 5–15 cm (2.0–5.9 in) tall, with narrow, pointed tips. The firm and brittle flesh, also yellow, becomes hollow in maturity. The spores are broadly ellipsoid to roughly spherical, smooth, with dimensions of 5–9 by 4.5–8.5 µm. They have an apiculus that measures 1–2 µm long, and either a large oil droplet or several oil droplets. The basidia (spore-bearing cell) are club-shaped, measure 40–65 by 6–9 µm with a long cylindrical base that is 1.5–2.5 µm wide. It has a clamp connection at the base. Most basidia are four-spored, although there are occasionally two- and three-spored versions. The flesh comprises both inflated hyphae up to 12 µm, and narrow hyphae up to 4  µm. It is nonpoisonous, and has been described as both edible and inedible in field guides. Fruit bodies are commonly collected and consumed in Nepal, where it is known locally as Kesari chyau.


Clavulinopsis fusiformis, commonly known as golden spindles, spindle-shaped yellow coral, or spindle-shaped fairy club, is a species of coral fungus in the family Clavariaceae.


Clavaria fragilis is similar in size and morphology, but is white. Clavaria amoenoides is similar in size, and like Clavulinopsis fusiformis, grows in dense clusters, but it is much rarer. It can be readily distinguished from C. fusiformis by microscopic examination, as it has inflated hyphae that lack clamp connections.  Clavulinopsis laeticolor is similar in color and form, but smaller, up to 5 cm (2.0 in) tall, lacks pointed tips, and tends to grow singly, scattered, or in loose groups. Similarly, C. helvola and C. luteoalba have similar coloration, but are smaller and do not typically grow in clusters.


Caspian red deer are found in the
Hyrcanian Forests.


The red deer is the fourth-largest extant deer species, behind the moose, elk, and sambar deer. It is a ruminant, eating its food in two stages and having an even number of toes on each hoof, like camels, goats, and cattle. European red deer have a relatively long tail compared to their Asian and North American relatives. Subtle differences in appearance are noted between the various subspecies of red deer, primarily in size and antlers, with the smallest being the Corsican red deer found on the islands of Corsica and Sardinia and the largest being the Caspian red deer (or maral) of Asia Minor and the Caucasus Region to the west of the Caspian Sea.
The deer of central and western Europe vary greatly in size, with some of the largest deer found in the Carpathian Mountains in Central Europe. Western European red deer, historically, grew to large size given ample food supply (including people's crops), and descendants of introduced populations living in New Zealand and Argentina have grown quite large in both body and antler size. Large red deer stags, like the Caspian red deer or those of the Carpathian Mountains, may rival North American elk in size. Female red deer are much smaller than their male counterparts.


Male red deer retain their antlers for more than half the year, and are less gregarious and less likely to group with other males when they have antlers. The antlers provide self-defence, as does a strong front-leg kicking action performed by both sexes when attacked. Once the antlers are shed, stags tend to form bachelor groups which allow them to cooperatively work together. Herds tend to have one or more members watching for potential danger, while the remaining members eat and rest.
After the rut, females form large herds of up to 50 individuals. The newborn calves are kept close to the hinds by a series of vocalizations between the two, and larger nurseries have an ongoing and constant chatter during the daytime hours. When approached by predators, the largest and most robust females may make a stand, using their front legs to kick at their attackers. Guttural grunts and posturing is used with all but the most determined of predators with great effectiveness. Aside from humans and domestic dogs, the grey wolf is probably the most dangerous predator European red deer encounter. Occasionally, the brown bear will prey on European red deer.


The red deer (Cervus elaphus) is one of the largest deer species. A male red deer is called a stag or hart, and a female is called a hind. The red deer inhabits most of Europe, the Caucasus Mountains region, Anatolia, Iran, and parts of western Asia. It also inhabits the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and Tunisia, being the only species of deer to inhabit Africa. Red deer have been introduced to other areas, including Australia, New Zealand, the United States, Canada, Peru, Uruguay, Chile and Argentina. In many parts of the world, the meat (venison) from red deer is used as a food source.
Red deer are ruminants, characterized by a four-chambered stomach. Genetic evidence indicates that the red deer, as traditionally defined, is a species group, rather than a single species, though exactly how many species the group includes remains disputed. The closely related and slightly larger American elk or wapiti, native to North America and eastern parts of Asia, had been regarded as a subspecies of red deer, but recently it has been established as a distinct species. The ancestor of all red deer, including wapiti, probably originated in central Asia and resembled sika deer.
Although at one time red deer were rare in parts of Europe, they were never close to extinction. Reintroduction and conservation efforts, such as in the United Kingdom and Portugal, have resulted in an increase of red deer populations, while other areas, such as North Africa, have continued to show a population decline.


Female red deer reach sexual maturity at 2 years of age. Red deer mating patterns usually involve a dozen or more mating attempts before the first successful one. There may be several more matings before the stag will seek out another mate in his harem.  Females in their second autumn can produce one or very rarely two offspring per year. The gestation period is 240 to 262 days, and the offspring weigh about 15 kg (35 lb). After two weeks, calves are able to join the herd and are fully weaned after two months. The offspring will remain with their mothers for almost one full year, leaving around the time the next season's offspring are produced. The gestation period is the same for all subspecies.
All red deer calves are born spotted, as is common with many deer species, and lose their spots by the end of summer. However, as in many species of Old World deer, some adults do retain a few spots on the backs of their summer coats.
Red deer live over 20 years in captivity and in the wild they live 10 to 13 years, though some subspecies with less predation pressure average 15 years.


The species is native to Southeast Asia. It is common over a range from northeastern India, and Nepal, to southern India and Sri Lanka to southern China (especially Hainan) and Myanmar, and south to the islands of maritime Southeast Asia. Its wide distribution, compared to the related species Kaloula assamensis, has been attributed to its burrowing ability.
The banded bullfrog has been found at elevations between sea level and 750 m (2,460 ft) above sea level. It can occur in both urban and rural settings, and in forest habitats.


The banded bullfrog is medium-sized with a stocky, triangular body and a short snout. Males grow to a snout–vent length (SVL) of 5.4 to 7.0 cm (2.1 to 2.8 in) and females are slightly larger, reaching an SVL of 5.7 to 7.5 cm (2.2 to 3.0 in). Other than the slight difference in length, there is very limited sexual dimorphism. They have a body weight of 80–120 g (2.8–4.2 oz). The back is dark brown with stripes that vary from copper-brown to salmon pink, and the abdomen is cream-colored.
Tadpoles are about 0.5 cm (0.20 in) long after hatching and reach an SVL of about 1.1 cm (0.43 in) at the end of metamorphosis. They have an oval body that is brown or black with a pale belly, a round snout, and a moderately long, tapered tail with yellow speckles and tall fins. The eyes are relatively small and the side of the head, with black or dark gray irises and a golden ring around the pupil. They do not possess any tail filament. During metamorphosis, their eyes increase in size and bulge and they develop slender limbs and digits with rounded tips. The tadpoles metamorphose beginning at two weeks.


The banded bullfrog (Kaloula pulchra) is a species of frog in the narrow-mouthed frog family Microhylidae. Native to Southeast Asia, it is also known as the Asian painted frog, digging frog, Malaysian bullfrog, common Asian frog, and painted balloon frog. In the pet trade, it is sometimes called the chubby frog. Adults measure 5.4 to 7.5 cm (2.1 to 3.0 in) and have a dark brown back with stripes that vary from copper-brown to salmon pink.
The banded bullfrog lives at low altitudes and is found in both urban and rural settings, as well as in forest habitats. They bury themselves underground during dry periods and emerge after heavy rainfall to emit calls and breed. They feed primarily on ants and termites; predators of adults and tadpoles include snakes, dragonfly larvae, and snails. When threatened, they inflate their lungs and secrete a noxious white substance. The species is prevalent in the pet trade and is a potential invasive species being introduced in Taiwan, the Philippines, Guam, Singapore, Borneo, and Sulawesi.


The banded bullfrog was first described in 1831 by the British zoologist John Edward Gray, as Kaloula pulchra (pulchra meaning "beautiful" in Latin). Cantor (1847) described the species under the name Hylaedactylus bivittatus, which was synonymized with K. pulchra by Günther (1858). The subspecies K. p. hainana was described by Gressitt (1938) as having a shorter snout and hind legs compared to the nominate subspecies, K. p. pulchra. A former subspecies in Sri Lanka, originally named K. p. taprobanica by Parker (1934), has since been reclassified as a separate species, Uperodon taprobanicus. Bourret (1942) described a subspecies K. p. macrocephala that is now considered by several authors to be a distinct species, K. macrocephala.
According to Darrel Frost's Amphibian Species of the World, common names for Kaloula pulchra include the Malaysian narrowmouth toad, Asian painted frog, digging frog, painted bullfrog, Malaysian bullfrog, painted burrowing frog, common Asian bullfrog, painted balloon frog, and painted microhylid frog. It is also known as the chubby frog in the pet trade.


The banded bullfrog is a potential invasive species. It has been introduced through both the pet trade and maritime transport, and has become established in Taiwan, the Philippines, Guam, Singapore, Borneo, and Sulawesi. Some specimens have been observed in Australia and New Zealand. Its introduction into the Philippines was likely accidental, via contamination of plant nursery materials or stowaways on ships and boats.
Several species, likely introduced through the pet trade, were observed in Florida in 2006 and 2008; however, as of 2011, the population is under control and there is no evidence of reproduction. The frog was observed at an airport in Perth, Australia, and at a cargo port in New Zealand, but no established invasive population has been found in either country as of 2019.


Ground squirrels are well-adapted to desert life.  They can stay active even on the hottest of days, although they do tend to limit their activity during the heat of the afternoon sun.  They live underground in the winter, typically from late August or September until January or February.  They go into torpor, but do not hibernate.


They are omnivores.  The bulk of their diet is green vegetation, especially in the summer.  They also eat seeds and insects (ants, termites, and grasshoppers).  Most of their foods are chosen for high water content because of the shortage of available water in their environment.  The average water content of the food they eat is 80%.


The gestation period is 28 days. An average of 5.4 pups are born in each litter.  They reach sexual maturity at 325 days. There is little information on the longevity of these animals but one wild born specimen lived to approximately 8.9 years in captivity.  They are prey animals for coyotes, badgers, hawks and snakes.


The round-tailed ground squirrel (Xerospermophilus tereticaudus), known as "Ardillón cola redonda" in Spanish, live in the desert of the Southwestern United States and Northwestern Mexico.  They are called "ground squirrels" because they burrow in loose soil, often under mesquite trees and creosote bushes.


The Australian green tree frog (Ranoidea caerulea), also known as simply green tree frog in Australia, White's tree frog, or dumpy tree frog, is a species of tree frog native to Australia and New Guinea, with introduced populations in the United States and New Zealand, though the latter is believed to have died out. It is morphologically similar to some other members of its genus, particularly the magnificent tree frog (R. splendida) and the white-lipped tree frog (R. infrafrenata).
Larger than most Australian frogs, the Australian green tree frog reaches 10 cm (4 in) or more in length. Its average lifespan in captivity, about 16 years, is long compared with most frogs. Docile and well suited to living near human dwellings, Australian green tree frogs are often found on window sills or inside houses, eating insects drawn by the light. The green tree frog screams when it is in danger to scare off its foe, and squeaks when it is touched.
Due to its appearance and behavioural traits, the green tree frog is a popular exotic pet throughout the world. The skin secretions of the frog have antibacterial and antiviral properties that may prove useful in pharmaceutical preparations and which have rendered it relatively immune to the population declines being experienced by many species of amphibian. It is a common species and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being "least concern".


The green tree frog is native to northern and eastern regions of Australia and to the lowlands of New Guinea. Distribution is limited mostly to areas with warm, wet tropical climates. Its range spans from Irian Jaya to Port Moresby, and is most abundant on Daru Island. The IUCN suggests "scattered locations" in both New Guinea and Indonesia. In Australia, its range extends from the Kimberley region of Western Australia through the Northern Territory and Queensland to north and central New South Wales and the extreme northeasterly part of South Australia. Its total extent of land occupancy is around 4,078,600 square kilometres (1,574,800 sq mi).
The species has been introduced to both the United States and New Zealand. In the United States, it is restricted to two regions within Florida, where it was possibly introduced through the pet trade. Only small populations have been found there, and whether they have caused any ecological damage as an invasive species is unknown. In New Zealand, several individuals were liberated in various locations in 1897 and 1899, and a further accidental introduction was made in the 1940s. No sightings have been reported of this species since the 1950s.
Depending on their location, green tree frogs occupy various habitats, but are not usually found in tropical rainforests. They are often found in the canopy of trees near water bodies, but also occupy terrestrial habitats well away from water. They favour old stands of Eucalyptus, where the trees have hollows in which water collects. They are common along inland waterways and can survive in swamps (among the reeds) or in grasslands in cooler climates.
Green tree frogs are little troubled by the presence of humans and often live in close association with them. They sometimes stray inside houses and are found in such places as sinks and toilets. They can also be found on outside windowsills at night, eating insects attracted to the light, and they may gather under outdoor lighting for the same reason. They sometimes occupy tanks (cisterns), downpipes (downspouts), and gutters, as these have high humidity and are usually cooler than the external environment. They may be drawn to the downpipes and tanks during the mating season because the fixtures amplify their calls. Green tree frogs seem to have homing abilities, being able to return to locations from which they were caught from a considerable distance after being displaced.


The green tree frog is a plump, rather large tree frog, and can grow up to 11.5 cm (4.5 in) in length, with fully grown females being slightly larger than males. A distinctive fatty ridge is seen over the eye, and the parotoid gland is moderately large. The iris is golden and has a horizontally slit pupil, and the tympanum (a skin membrane similar to an eardrum) is visible just behind the eye. The limbs are short and robust, and large adhesive discs are at the end of the digits which provide grip while climbing. The fingers are about one-third webbed, and the toes nearly three-quarters webbed. The dorsal colour depends on the temperature and nature of the environment, ranging from brownish- or greyish-green to bright emerald green. The frog occasionally has small, irregularly shaped white spots on its back. Males have a greyish, wrinkled vocal sac under the throat, while the throat of females is white. The ventral surface in both sexes is creamy-white and rough in texture.
This frog is similar in appearance to the magnificent tree frog (R. splendida), which inhabits only north-western Australia. Older members of that species have very large parotoid glands, which cover the entire top of their heads and droop over their tympana. The parotoid gland of the green tree frog is much smaller, and it also lacks the yellow speckling on the back and the yellow markings on the hand, groin, and thigh. It can be distinguished from the white-lipped tree frog(giant tree frog N. infrafrenatus) by the distinct white stripe that species has along the edge of the lower jaw and extending to the shoulder, which is not present in the green tree frog.
The tadpoles' appearance changes throughout their development. When newly hatched, they are 8 mm (0.3 in) long and when fully developed, 44 mm (1.7 in). They are initially mottled with brown, and increase in pigmentation (to either green or brown) during development. Their undersides are initially dark, but later become lighter in hue. The eggs are brown and are wrapped in a clear jelly; they are 1.1 to 1.4 mm (0.043 to 0.055 in) in diameter.
The call is a low, slow brawk-brawk-brawk, repeated many times. For most of the year, the frogs call from high positions, such as trees and gutters, but during the breeding season, they descend to near the ponds and pools, where they breed. Like many frogs, green tree frogs call not only to attract a mate, but also to advertise their location outside the mating season. They are particularly vocal after rain, but the reasons for this are unclear. They emit a stress call when they are in danger, such as when being attacked by a predator or when a person steps on the log in which one is concealed.


The Australian green tree frog is a member of the tree frog family Pelodryadidae and is placed in the subfamily Pelodryadinae, which is endemic to Australia and New Guinea and includes over 100 species in the genera Ranoidea and Nyctimystes. The common name of the species, "White's tree frog", is in honour of John White's first description in 1790. The green tree frog was the first Australian frog to be scientifically described; the original specimen found its way into the collection of Sir Joseph Banks, but was destroyed when the Hunterian Museum at the Royal College of Surgeons in London was bombed in World War II.
The species was originally called the "blue frog" (Rana caerulea) despite its green colour. The specimens White sent to England were damaged by the preservative and appeared blue. The colour of the frog is caused by blue and green pigments covered in a yellow layer; the preservative destroyed the yellow layer and left the frog with a blue appearance. The specific epithet, caerulea, which is Latin for blue, has remained. This frog is sometimes referred to as Pelodryas caerulea in the scientific literature. In Australia, the frog is also known more simply as the "green tree frog", but that name is often given to the most common green arboreal species in a region, such as the American green tree frog (Hyla cinerea).
A 2020 study showed that Litoria caerulea is actually a species complex that includes recently identified species such as Litoria mira, which is endemic to New Guinea.


Breeding occurs between November and February. During the mating season, the males call from slightly elevated positions close to the still-water sources in which they choose to breed. Clumps of between 200 and 2000 eggs are laid which initially float, but sink within 24 hours. The development of the tadpoles takes about six weeks, after which they undergo metamorphosis and leave the water as juvenile frogs.


These frogs are found in the central and southeastern United States, with a geographic range from the Eastern Shore of Maryland to southeast Florida, with populations as far west as central Texas, and as far north as Delaware and southern New Jersey. The frogs are considered monotypic, but clinal variation has been observed from Florida north along the Atlantic coastal plain. This may be attributed to the result of strong selection and/or drift.
Green tree frogs prefer habitats with plentiful floating vegetation, grasses, and cattails and are often found in small ponds, large lakes, marshes, and streams. They also are sometimes found at night in backyard swimming pools.


The frog is green, medium-sized, and up to 6 cm (2.4 in) long. Their bodies are usually green in shades ranging from bright yellowish-olive to lime green. The color can change depending on lighting or temperature. Small patches of gold or white may occur on the skin, and they may also have white, pale yellow, or cream-colored lines running from their jaws or upper lips to their groins. They have smooth skin and large toe pads. Their abdomens are pale yellow to white. Males have wrinkled throats (indicating the vocal pouch) and are slightly smaller than females.


Most American green tree frog females breed once per year, but some have multiple clutches in a single mating season. In a Florida population, "advertisement calls of males were documented between March and September and pairs in amplexus were observed between April and August." In the Florida population, the average number of offspring in a single clutch was observed to be about 400 eggs. Eggs take between four and 14 days to hatch, with an average of five days. According to the Animal Diversity Web at the University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, "Female size was positively correlated with clutch size, but after the initial clutch, the number of eggs nearly always decreased."
The tadpoles are green with a yellow or white stripe extending from each nostril to the eye and may have mottled tail fins.
Breeding is known to be strongly influenced by day length, temperature, and precipitation." While "the relative influence of these factors is not well understood," it is known as the frogs generally breed the following rainfall, and males call more frequently as temperature and day length increase. Some evidence demonstrates the length of the breeding season length is correlated with latitude, with season length decreasing as latitude increases due to temperature limitations.
Males use a distinct advertisement call, "noticeably different than release or warning calls," to attract mates. Once a mate has been attracted, the pair begins amplexus, in which "the male tightly grasps onto the female to bring their cloacal openings close together for fertilization." Males are polygynous, generally seeking to mate with as many females as they can attract. Eggs are attached to substrates such as emergent vegetation, and unlike many other frog species these egg masses are typically laid in permanent bodies of water rather than seasonal vernal pools.
In southern Florida, the Cuban tree frog (Osteopilus septentrionalis) is an invasive species that has a similar call to the green tree frog in regards to timing and pitch. A study found that their calls compete acoustically with each other due to their similarity which limits communication space. In order to compete with the Cuban tree frog, green tree frogs modified their call to be shorter, louder, and more frequent so that potential mates have better chances of detecting the call.
American green tree frogs show no parental investment except for mating and egg-laying.


The longear sunfish (Lepomis megalotis) is a freshwater fish in the sunfish family, Centrarchidae, of order Perciformes. It is native to the area of eastern North America stretching from the Great Lakes down to northeastern Mexico. The longear sunfish reaches a maximum recorded length of about 24 cm (9.5 in), with a maximum recorded weight of 790g (1.7 lb). Most do not live beyond six years. The longear sunfish is quite colorful, with an olive to rusty-brown back, bright orange belly and blue-green bars on the sides of its head. A unique characteristic is their elongated operculum flap, giving an appearance of a "long ear".
The species prefers densely vegetated, shallow waters in lakes, ponds, and sluggish streams. Its diet can include insects, aquatic invertebrates, and small fish. Avoiding strong currents, longear sunfish are usually present in small to moderate flowing streams, rivers, and reservoirs. The genus Lepomis has a well-characterized mating behavior where parental care is done by the male. He makes and defends the nest.  Males fan the eggs to remove silt and other debris until the larvae hatch. Some longear females produce 4,000 eggs. They spawn in groups but do not form large colonies.
Longear sunfish are better at getting food in moving waters than still waters. This may explain why they are more abundant in streams than lakes. For the most part, longear sunfish are active during the day and inactive at night. There are very few conservation acts currently being performed in order to maintain the distribution and abundance of this species.


The Mexican cottontail (Sylvilagus cunicularius) is a species of cottontail rabbit in the family Leporidae. It is endemic to Mexico where its natural habitats are temperate forests, subtropical or tropical dry forests and pastureland.


The Mexican cottontail is found only in Mexico where its range extends from the state of Sinaloa to the states of Oaxaca and Veracruz, including the mountainous regions of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. It ranges from sea level up to about 4,300 meters (14,000 feet). It occupies a wide range of habitats including tropical, temperate and dry deciduous forest, dense shrubland, grassland and cultivated or otherwise disturbed land. In central Mexico it is quite common in pine and pine/oak forests with a ground cover of tussocky grasses such as Agrostis, Festuca and Muhlenbergia. Predators of the Mexican cottontail include red foxes, coyotes, the long-tailed weasel, feral dogs, the great horned owl, and the red-tailed hawk.


Foureye butterflyfish are deep-bodied and laterally compressed, with a single dorsal fin and a small mouth with tiny, bristle like teeth. The body is light grey, sometimes with a yellowish hue, and dark forward-pointing chevrons. The ventral fins are yellow. The species gets its common name from a large dark spot on the rear portion of each side of the body. This spot is surrounded by a brilliant white ring, resembling an eye. A black vertical bar on the head runs through the true eye, making it hard to see.
This pattern may result in a predator confusing the back end of the fish for the front end. The foureye butterflyfish's first instinct when threatened is to flee, putting the false eye spot closer to the predator than the head.  Most predators aim for the eyes, and this false eye spot may in automimicry trick the predator into believing that the fish will flee tail first. Other potential functions of the eye spot exist. The eye spots are larger and more variable than the real eye and eye spot shape varies from vertically oval in young to more circular in adults. These features suggest other possible functions of the eye spot including: intimidating prey, altering predation reaction distances, disorientating predators, serving as a general warning, or for social communication. When escape is not possible, a foureye butterflyfish will sometimes turn to face its aggressor, head lowered and spines fully erect, like a bull about to charge.  This may serve to intimidate the other animal or may remind the predator that the butterflyfish is much too spiny to make a comfortable meal.
Foureye butterflyfish usually frequent shallow inshore waters, where they feed on a variety of invertebrates, mainly zoantharians, polychaete worms, gorgonians and tunicates. This fish is known for its uncanny ability to swim in and around coral heads and reefs. They are able to find their way through the most intricate passages by swimming on its side or even upside down. Like its relatives they mate for life and therefore they will often be seen in pairs. They are one of a few fish that mate for life.


The foureye butterflyfish (Chaetodon capistratus) is a butterflyfish (family Chaetodontidae). It is alternatively called the four-eyed butterflyfish. This species is found in the Western Atlantic from Massachusetts, USA and Bermuda to the West Indies and northern South America.
Chaetodon capistratus is the type species of Chaetodon. If this genus is split up as some have proposed, it will retain its present name like its closest relatives, which include the banded butterflyfish (C. striatus) and the spot-finned butterflyfish (C. ocellatus).


This dorid nudibranch was described from Cayucos, San Luis Obispo County, California. It lives on the Pacific coast of North America from Cape Arago, Oregon to northern Baja California, Mexico. Specimens from Duxbury Reef, Marin County, California and Puget Sound, Kitsap County, Washington have been sequenced for the 16S ribosomal RNA, Histone H3 and CO1 genes.


This nudibranch grows to about 30 mm in length. It has a bright orange papillated dorsum covered with yellow specks. As is the case with many nudibranchs, this bright coloration is thought to be a reminder to would-be predators of its distasteful nature, an example of aposematic coloration. When handled, these slugs often smell of sandalwood.


Orcas are found in all oceans and most seas. Due to their enormous range, numbers, and density, relative distribution is difficult to estimate, but they clearly prefer higher latitudes and coastal areas over pelagic environments. Areas which serve as major study sites for the species include the coasts of Iceland, Norway, the Valdes Peninsula of Argentina, the Crozet Islands, New Zealand and parts of the west coast of North America, from California to Alaska. Systematic surveys indicate the highest densities of orcas (>0.40 individuals per 100 km²) in the northeast Atlantic around the Norwegian coast, in the north Pacific along the Aleutian Islands, the Gulf of Alaska and in the Southern Ocean off much of the coast of Antarctica. They are considered "common" (0.20–0.40 individuals per 100 km²) in the eastern Pacific along the coasts of British Columbia, Washington and Oregon, in the North Atlantic Ocean around Iceland and the Faroe Islands.
In the Antarctic, orcas range up to the edge of the pack ice and are believed to venture into the denser pack ice, finding open leads much like beluga whales in the Arctic. However, orcas are merely seasonal visitors to Arctic waters, and do not approach the pack ice in the summer. With the rapid Arctic sea ice decline in the Hudson Strait, their range now extends deep into the northwest Atlantic. Occasionally, orcas swim into freshwater rivers. They have been documented 100 mi (160 km) up the Columbia River in the United States. They have also been found in the Fraser River in Canada and the Horikawa River in Japan.
Migration patterns are poorly understood. Each summer, the same individuals appear off the coasts of British Columbia and Washington. Despite decades of research, where these animals go for the rest of the year remains unknown. Transient pods have been sighted from southern Alaska to central California.


Orcas are apex predators, meaning that they themselves have no natural predators. They are sometimes called "wolves of the sea", because they hunt in groups like wolf packs. Orcas hunt varied prey including fish, cephalopods, mammals, seabirds, and sea turtles. Different populations or ecotypes may specialize, and some can have a dramatic impact on prey species. However, whales in tropical areas appear to have more generalized diets due to lower food productivity. Orcas spend most of their time at shallow depths, but occasionally dive several hundred metres depending on their prey.


The orca or killer whale (Orcinus orca) is a toothed whale belonging to the oceanic dolphin family, of which it is the largest member. It is recognizable by its black-and-white patterned body. A cosmopolitan species, orcas can be found in all of the world's oceans in a variety of marine environments, from Arctic and Antarctic regions to tropical seas.
Orcas have a diverse diet, although individual populations often specialize in particular types of prey. Some feed exclusively on fish, while others hunt marine mammals such as seals and other species of dolphin. They have been known to attack baleen whale calves, and even adult whales. Orcas are apex predators, as they have no natural predators. They are highly social; some populations are composed of very stable matrilineal family groups (pods) which are the most stable of any animal species. Their sophisticated hunting techniques and vocal behaviours, which are often specific to a particular group and passed across generations, have been described as manifestations of animal culture.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature assesses the orca's conservation status as data deficient because of the likelihood that two or more orca types are separate species. Some local populations are considered threatened or endangered due to prey depletion, habitat loss, pollution (by PCBs), capture for marine mammal parks, and conflicts with human fisheries. In late 2005, the southern resident orcas, which swim in British Columbia and Washington waters, were placed on the U.S. Endangered Species list.
Wild orcas are not considered a threat to humans, and no fatal attack on humans has ever been documented. There have been cases of captive orcas killing or injuring their handlers at marine theme parks. Orcas feature strongly in the mythologies of indigenous cultures, and their reputation in different cultures ranges from being the souls of humans to merciless killers.


Female orcas begin to mature at around the age of 10 and reach peak fertility around 20, experiencing periods of polyestrous cycling separated by non-cycling periods of three to 16 months. Females can often breed until age 40, followed by a rapid decrease in fertility. Orcas are among the few animals that undergo menopause and live for decades after they have finished breeding. The lifespans of wild females average 50 to 80 years. Some are claimed to have lived substantially longer: Granny (J2) was estimated by some researchers to have been as old as 105 years at the time of her death, though a biopsy sample indicated her age as 65 to 80 years. It is thought that orcas held in captivity tend to have shorter lives than those in the wild, although this is subject to scientific debate.
Males mate with females from other pods, which prevents inbreeding. Gestation varies from 15 to 18 months.  Mothers usually calve a single offspring about once every five years. In resident pods, births occur at any time of year, although winter is the most common. Mortality is extremely high during the first seven months of life, when 37–50% of all calves die. Weaning begins at about 12 months of age, and is complete by two years. According to observations in several regions, all male and female pod members participate in the care of the young.
Males sexually mature at the age of 15, but do not typically reproduce until age 21. Wild males live around 29 years on average, with a maximum of about 60 years. One male, known as Old Tom, was reportedly spotted every winter between the 1840s and 1930 off New South Wales, Australia, which would have made him up to 90 years old. Examination of his teeth indicated he died around age 35, but this method of age determination is now believed to be inaccurate for older animals. One male known to researchers in the Pacific Northwest (identified as J1) was estimated to have been 59 years old when he died in 2010. Orcas are unique among cetaceans, as their caudal sections elongate with age, making their heads relatively shorter.
Infanticide, once thought to occur only in captive orcas, was observed in wild populations by researchers off British Columbia on December 2, 2016. In this incident, an adult male killed the calf of a female within the same pod, with the adult male's mother also joining in the assault. It is theorized that the male killed the young calf in order to mate with its mother (something that occurs in other carnivore species), while the male's mother supported the breeding opportunity for her son.  The attack ended when the calf's mother struck and injured the attacking male. Such behaviour matches that of many smaller dolphin species, such as the bottlenose dolphin.


There are four subspecies:
the eastern wallaroo (O. r. robustus) – found in eastern Australia; males of this subspecies have dark grey fur, almost resembling the black wallaroo (Osphranter bernardus). Females are lighter, being almost sandy in colour.
the euro or western wallaroo (O. r. erubescens) – found covering most of the species' remaining range to the west; this subspecies is variable, but mostly brownish, in colour.
the Barrow Island wallaroo (O. r. isabellinus) – this subspecies is restricted to Barrow Island in Western Australia and is comparatively small. It is uniformly reddish-brown.
the Kimberley wallaroo (O. r. woodwardi) – this subspecies is found in the Kimberley region of Western Australia and in a band roaming through the Northern Territory. It is the palest of the four subspecies and is a dull brown-grey colour. Kunwinjku of western Arnhem Land call this subspecies ngabudj.  They also have separate names for male and female, galkibard and wallaar, respectively. A large male is called ganduki. This animal manages well in areas without permanent water and on a diet of nutrient-poor grasses, but it does need shelter.
The eastern wallaroo (O. r. robustus) — which is dark grey in colour — occupies the eastern slopes of the Great Dividing Range, and the euro (O. r. erubescens) — which is mostly brownish in colour — occupies the land westward.


Wallaroos are not a type of animal that has one or two mating seasons throughout the year, but rather females can give birth at any time during the year. Through a process called embryonic diapause they are able to get pregnant any time after giving birth, but the embryo does not start to develop until the previous joey is able to leave the pouch of the mother. Wallaroos are also polygynous, which means that the males can have multiple female partners.
During the mating process, fighting occurs between males to attract a female. The fights normally do not end in one of the two wallaroos dying, but rather the two males will fight until one surrenders.
The gestation period lasts around 30 to 38 days, after which the young joey travels into the mother's pouch where it suckles and develops. The young joeys start to leave the pouch at around six months and by nine months they no longer spend most of their time in the pouch.  Male wallaroos are fully developed at around 18 to 20 months; females are fully developed at around 14 to 24 months.
The relationship with the joey and their parents changes as the joey grows and gets older. During the time in which the joey is in the pouch, the father stays around to protect the joey and mother from predators, but once this protection is no longer needed the relationship weakens between the two. After the joey no longer needs its mother for food, it still maintains a close relationship with her.


H. jani grows from 10 to 16 inches (25 to 41 centimetres) in total length (including tail), record 20 inches (51 cm). It is typically a light gray or tan in color, with dark brown or dark gray blotching down the back, and has an unmarked underside. It has smooth dorsal scales. The eye has a vertically elliptical pupil. H. jani is rear-fanged, and is considered to be venomous, though it is not dangerous to humans.


The diet of H. jani consists of primarily lizards, but it will also eat smaller snakes and occasionally soft bodied insects.


Hypsiglena jani, commonly known as the Texas night snake or the Chihuahuan night snake, is a small species of mildly venomous snake in the family  Colubridae.  The species is native to the southwestern United States and adjacent northeastern Mexico.


H. jani prefers semi-arid habitats with rocky soils.


H. jani is an oviparous species that breeds in the spring rainy season, laying 4-6 eggs that take approximately 8 weeks to incubate before hatching. The eggs average 27 mm (1.1 in) long by 10 mm (³⁄₈ in) wide. The hatchlings are about 15 cm (5.9 in) in total length.


T. ordinoides preys on slugs, salamanders, and frogs.


The northwestern garter snake is small, with adults averaging around 13–38 in (33–97 cm) in total length (including tail). It is one of the most variable species of snakes in the world.


The distribution of the common stingaree is limited to the coastal waters off eastern Australia, extending from Caloundra in southern Queensland to Cape Howe in Victoria; the majority of its population is found north of Jervis Bay. It is the most abundant inshore ray within its range. The common stingaree is a bottom-dweller that favors sandy flats and rocky reefs, and also ventures well upstream into brackish estuaries. Most often it is found between the surf zone to a depth of 60 m (200 ft), though there are records from offshore, soft-bottomed areas as far down as 135 m (443 ft).


The common stingaree occupies a similar ecological niche as the related eastern shovelnose stingaree, which has a more southerly distribution. Polychaete worms comprise over three-quarters of this ray's diet by volume; it favors errant polychaetes, which are relatively mobile and generally found buried shallowly in the sediment. A major secondary food source is crustaceans, particularly shrimp but also amphipods, penaeid prawns, crabs, isopods, and stomatopods. Small bony fishes, lancelets, and molluscs are infrequently consumed. Very young rays 10–15 cm (3.9–5.9 in) feed almost exclusively on shrimp; with age polychaetes become progressively more important until they come to dominate the diet.
Like other stingrays, the common stingaree is aplacental viviparous, with females sustaining their embryos via nutrient-rich histotroph ("uterine milk"). Typically two pups are born at a time, probably in early spring after a gestation period of approximately a year as in related species. Newborns measure around 12 cm (4.7 in) long; males and females attain sexual maturity at 35 cm (14 in) and 40 cm (16 in) long respectively. Known parasites of the common stingaree include a species of tapeworm in the genus Acanthobothrium, a species of fluke in the genus Monocotyloides, the monogenean Heterocotyle robusta, and the nematodes Paraleptus australis and Proleptus urolophi.


The common stingaree has a rounded pectoral fin disc slightly wider than long, with nearly straight anterior margins that converge at a broad angle on the fleshy snout. The tip of the snout may protrude slightly past the disc. The eyes are of medium size and immediately followed by comma-shaped spiracles with angular posterior margins. The outer rim of each nostril is enlarged into a broad, flattened lobe. A skirt-shaped curtain of skin is found between the nostrils, with a strongly fringed posterior margin that overhangs the small mouth. There is a patch of papillae (nipple-shaped structures) on the lower jaw, and 3–5 papillae across the floor of the mouth. The teeth are small with roughly oval bases. The five pairs of gill slits are short.
The pelvic fins are small with rounded margins. The tail measures 86–90% as long as the disc and has a flattened oval cross-section without lateral folds. One or two serrated, stinging spines are placed atop the tail about halfway along its length; just before the sting is a small dorsal fin, which may be reduced to a low ridge in a few individuals. The end of the tail bears an elongated, leaf-shaped caudal fin. The skin is entirely smooth. The common stingaree is an unmarked brownish or grayish above, lightening towards the edges of the fins, and darkening on the dorsal fin and the caudal fin trailing margin (the entire fin is black in juveniles). The underside is white, occasionally with wide dusky bands bordering the lateral margins of the disc. This species can grow to 52 cm (20 in), and possibly 61 cm (24 in) long; records of larger specimens likely represent misidentifications of the eastern shovelnose stingaree (T. imitata).


The earliest known record of the common stingaree is a drawing made by English naturalist Joseph Banks during the first voyage of James Cook from 1768 to 1771, of a specimen from New Holland (Australia) that was never preserved. Based on the drawing, German biologists Johannes Müller and Jakob Henle described the species in their 1839–41 Systematische Beschreibung der Plagiostomen, creating for it the new genus Trygonoptera and giving it the specific epithet testacea, derived from the Latin word for "brick-colored". In Australia, this species may be referred to simply as "stingray" or "stingaree".


Striped bass spawn in fresh water, and although they have been successfully adapted to freshwater habitat, they naturally spend their adult lives in saltwater (i.e., they are anadromous). Four important bodies of water with breeding stocks of striped bass are: Chesapeake Bay, Massachusetts Bay/Cape Cod, Hudson River, and Delaware River. Many of the rivers and tributaries that emptied into the Atlantic, had at one time, bred stock of striped bass. This occurred until the 1860s.  One of the largest breeding areas is the Chesapeake Bay, where populations from Chesapeake and Delaware bays have intermingled.  The very few successful spawning populations of freshwater striped bass include Lake Texoma, Lake Weiss (Coosa River), the Colorado River and its reservoirs downstream from and including Lake Powell, and the Arkansas River, as well as Lake Marion (South Carolina) that retained a landlocked breeding population when the dam was built; other freshwater fisheries must be restocked with hatchery-produced fish annually. Stocking of striped bass was discontinued at Lake Mead in 1973 once natural reproduction was verified.


Striped bass have been introduced to the Pacific Coast of North America and into many of the large reservoir impoundments across the United States by state game and fish commissions for the purposes of recreational fishing and as a predator to control populations of gizzard shad. These include: Elephant Butte Lake in New Mexico; Lake Ouachita, Lake Norman in North Carolina; Lake Norfork, Beaver Lake and Lake Hamilton in Arkansas; Lake Thunderbird in Illinois; Lake Pleasant, and Lake Havasu in Arizona; Lake Powell along the Arizona/Utah border; Castaic Lake, Pyramid Lake, Silverwood Lake, Diamond Valley Lake, and San Francisco Bay-Delta in California;  Lewis Smith Lake in Alabama; Lake Cumberland in Kentucky; Lake George in Florida; Lake Murray in South Carolina; Lake Lanier in Georgia; Watts Bar Lake, in Tennessee; Lake Mead, Nevada; Lake Texoma on the border of Texas and Oklahoma, Lake Tawakoni, Lake Whitney, Possum Kingdom Lake, and Lake Buchanan in Texas; Raystown Lake in Pennsylvania; Lake Wallenpaupack in Northeastern Pennsylvania; Umpqua River in Oregon and in Virginia's Smith Mountain Lake and Leesville Reservoir.
Striped bass have also been introduced into waters in Ecuador, Iran, Latvia, Mexico, Russia, South Africa, and Turkey, primarily for sport fishing and aquaculture.


Striped bass are of significant value for sport fishing, and have been introduced to many waterways outside their natural range. A variety of angling methods are used, including trolling and surf casting  with topwater lures a good pick for surf casting, as well as bait casting with live and dead bait. Striped bass take a number of live and fresh baits, including bunker, clams, eels, sandworms, herring, bloodworms, mackerel, shad, bluegill, and crayfish.
The largest striped bass ever taken by angling was an 81.88 lb (37.14 kg) specimen taken from a boat in Long Island Sound, near the Outer Southwest Reef, off the coast of Westbrook, Connecticut. The all-tackle world record fish was taken by Gregory Myerson on the night of August 4, 2011. The fish took a drifted live eel bait, and fought for 20 minutes before being boated by Myerson. A second hook and leader was discovered in the fish's mouth when it was boated, indicating it had been previously hooked by another angler. The fish measured 54 in long and had a girth of 36 in. The International Game Fish Association (IFGA) declared Myerson's catch the new all-tackle world record striped bass on October 19, 2011. In addition to now holding the all-tackle record, Meyerson's catch also landed him the new IGFA men's 37 kg (80 -lb) line class record for striped bass, which previously stood at 70 lb. The previous all-tackle world record fish was a 78.5 lb (35.6 kg) specimen taken in Atlantic City, New Jersey, on September 21, 1982, by Albert McReynolds, who fought the fish from the beach for 1:20 after it took his Rebel artificial lure.
Recreational bag limits vary by state and province.