Male upperside: pale bluish grey with, in some specimens, a pinkish undertone. Forewing: as in the wet-season brood, but the black terminal edging much reduced in width in some specimens to a transverse, somewhat diffuse, very narrow band that borders the anteciliary black line on the inner side, in others to a much broader similar band that coalesces with the anteciliary black line and occupies about the outer sixth of the wing. This edging along the termen is sometimes even, sometimes it widens from a slender anteciliary at and above the tornus to a broad black patch at the apex of the wing.
Hindwing: the terminal black edging much narrower proportionately than in wet-season specimens, most often reduced to a slender black anteciliary line with a series of black spots on the inner side, bordering and sometimes coalescing with the line. Underside: as in the wet-season brood but the ground colour paler, in some specimens much paler, the markings on both forewings and hindwings similar, with frequently the terminal markings obsolescent, sometimes entirely absent or only indicated anteriorly on each wing. Cilia whitish. Antennae, head, thorax, and abdomen as in the wet-season specimens.
Female similar to the female of the wet-season brood, but more like the male, with the light silvery-blue suffusion very irregular, but generally extended much further outwards from the base. Underside: as in the male, the ground colour slightly darker. Other variations exist:
In a female from Poona, now before me, the fore wing on the upper-side has the basal half silvery blue, the outer half black; on the hind wing, however, the blue colour extends almost to the termen which is only narrowly edged with diffuse dusky black.
— Charles Thomas Bingham
Antenna, head, thorax and abdomen similar to those of the male.


The eggs are laid on the host plants and the larvae hatch to feed on them. The plants include members of the Oxalidaceae including Oxalis corniculata, some Leguminosae and Acanthaceae.


A study in Japan used this species to detect the side-effects of transgenic Bt corn, particularly by way of pollen falling onto leaves of the Oxalis host plants. No significant effect was found in that study.
Other Japanese studies showed increased abnormalities in individuals of this species subjected to radiation following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. Additionally, there are different studies on the recent migrations of the species to northern climates, where cold habitat leads to the increase of modifications of wing color pattern, found in northern margin populations of Japan.


Singer Enya included a song titled Pale Grass Blue on her album Dark Sky Island.


The Taiwan barbet (Psilopogon nuchalis) is a species of bird endemic to the country of Taiwan.


It was formerly considered a subspecies of the black-browed barbet (Psilopogon oorti) and placed in the genus Megalaima.


It is commonly found in forests at elevations of up to 2,800 m (9,200 ft). It feeds on fruits and insects. The breeding season is from March to August. It nests in tree cavities. It may use an existing cavity or excavate one.


The brown jay (Psilorhinus morio) is a large American jay which has the habitus of a magpie, but is slightly smaller and with a shorter tail, though the bill is larger.
It occurs from Mexico south into Central America on the Gulf slope. The northernmost extent of the bird is in the Rio Grande Valley of Texas.


Brown jays vary in plumage geographically: there are two main groups. Northern birds are almost completely dark brown, with lighter brown on the underparts. Southern birds are white-bellied and have bright white tips to the outer tail feathers. The intergrade zone is in Veracruz, Mexico.
Adults in both populations have black bills, legs, and feet. Immatures have yellow bare parts, including yellow eye-rings.
The voice is a loud but low-pitched pee-ah call and is often modified to suit its situation or mood.


Food is sought largely in trees but brown jays also take some food from the ground.  They are rather indiscriminate feeders. Insects and a wide range of other invertebrates are taken, also lizards, nectar, and fruit (e.g. that of Trophis racemosa (Moraceae)). Though they will take eggs and nestlings, they appear not to if there is plenty of other food available.
The nest is built in a tree or large shrub with both sexes helping in construction. There are normally three eggs laid but six is not unusual. Incubation is between 18 and 20 days. Only the female broods but the male feeds her while doing so.
Sometimes the offspring from a previous season will help in raising the chicks. If a helper bird returns with food, it will give it to one of the resident parents to feed the chicks.


In Central America, the brown jay is not found in El Salvador; the range is on the Pacific side of Central America in Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and western Panama. It does not extend into South America.


The green parakeet (Psittacara holochlorus) is a medium-sized parrot occurring in North and Central America, from the southernmost tip of Texas south to northern Nicaragua.


The green parakeet is 32 cm in length, and is mostly green in color. It also has a yellow beak.


Wild birds primarily use scrub and swamp forests, woodlands, and forest clearings. The US population takes advantage of palm groves in cities.


This species was formerly placed in the genus Aratinga as A. holochlora, and divided into various subspecies (A. h. holochlora, A. h. brevipes, A. h. brewsteri, A. h. strenua, and A. h. rubritorquis). Later, it was split into three species as the green conure (A. holochlora), Pacific conure (A. strenua), and Socorro conure (A. brevipes). Today it is recognised as single species with a highly threatened subspecies (Psittacara holochlorus brevipes) endemic to Socorro in the Revillagigedo Islands, Mexico.


Green parakeet pairs usually find holes in trees in which to nest, where the female lays three or four eggs. It also nests colonially in crevices on cliff faces. After the breeding season is completed, the birds form large communal roosts.


The species occurs from southern Texas and northern Mexico (including P. h. brevipes on Socorro Island) south through the Middle American isthmus to southwestern Nicaragua. It inhabits a variety of woody habitats. Since the Carolina parakeet's (Conuropsis carolinensis) extinction and the thick-billed parrot's (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha) extirpation from the United States in the 1930s, the green parakeet remains the only confirmed native extant parrot species in the U.S. Another parrot species, the red-crowned amazon (Amazona viridigenalis) is considered by some authorities to be native to the Rio Grande Valley, but its ecological status is still debated. In western Nicaragua, their nesting sites lie within the El Chocoyero - El Brujo Protected Area, but the birds still face threats from the outside world when they leave the reserve to feed.
The A. brevipes subspecies is highly threatened by habitat loss due to feral sheep and predation by feral cats. Surveys from 2006 and 2007 estimated a population around 300 individuals, suggesting a population decline from previous population estimates.
The native status of populations in southern Texas is unclear, with some claiming them to be feral escapees. However, the groups in the Rio Grande Valley are now generally regarded as naturally occurring and native, because of the proximity of confirmed native populations, the deforestation of Tamaulipas which forced them to disperse, and earlier evidence from 1911 of these parakeets consuming a strawberry harvest at Combs.


The mitred parakeet (Psittacara mitratus), also known as the mitred conure in aviculture, is a species of green and red parrot in the family Psittacidae. It is native to the forests and woodlands in the Andes from north-central Peru, south through Bolivia, to north-western Argentina, with introduced populations in California, Florida and Hawaii. It may constitute a cryptic species complex.


A relatively long-tailed species with a total length of 34–38 cm (13–15 in). Adults are mainly green with varying amounts of red to the face and thighs, a relatively conspicuous bare white eye-ring, and a heavy, pale bone-coloured bill. Juveniles show little or no red to the plumage.
Unlike most of its relatives (scarlet-fronted, red-masked, white-eyed, Cuban, and Hispaniolan parakeet), adults at most show one or two red feathers at the bend of the wing.


Its natural habitats are forest (both deciduous and humid), woodland, and nearby habitats at altitudes of 1,000–3,400 m (3,300–11,200 ft), with a single possible record from 4,000 m (13,000 ft). The introduced population in California primarily occurs in urban parks and residential areas. There are some seasonal movements in response to the availability of food. It is generally common to locally abundant, and when occasionally foraging in cultivated areas, it may cause considerable damage to crops. It is therefore considered to be of least concern by IUCN. The introduced Californian population had increased to c. 1000 birds by 2002, while the introduced population on Maui, despite attempts of eradication, had increased to c. 200 birds by 2003. Lethal control measures have been implemented by the Maui Invasive Species Committee and as of March 31, 2012 another five mitred parakeets were lethally removed from the wild and only 30 birds remain alive out of the initial 200. The high success rate of lethal removal suggests that mitred parakeets will be completely eliminated from Maui in the near future.


It is social and typically seen in small flocks, but may gather in groups of up to 100 outside the breeding period. Exceptionally, flocks of up to 2000 may gather at roosting places. Breeds colonially on cliffs, and, in Argentina at least, sometimes in hollows in dead trees. It lays 2-3 eggs. In captivity, 3-4 eggs reported, and an incubation time of 23 days. It primarily feeds on seeds, nuts and fruits. The flight-call is a high ringing kerEET.


The taxonomy has recently undergone significant changes with the description of two new subspecies, and the proposed elevation of the taxon alticola, traditionally considered a subspecies of the mitred parakeet, to species status as the Chapman's parakeet (P. alticola). Additionally, a new cryptic species from this complex has been described, the Hocking's parakeet (P. hockingi). These proposals have yet to receive widespread recognition, at least in part due to the problems involved in field identification of the new taxa and uncertainties regarding possible age-related variations. Recent work has been unable to confirm the differences upon which P. m. tucumana was described in 2006, leading to recommendations of treating it as a junior synonym of P. m. mitrata.
Traditional taxonomy:
Psittacara mitrata:
P. m. mitrata (nominate): Found in most of its range. Forecrown, lores and extensive mottling to face red.
P. m. alticola: Found in the Cusco Region of Peru at higher altitudes than the nominate. Red virtually restricted to forecrown and lores, with little or no red mottling to face.
Taxonomy as proposed in 2006:
Psittacara mitrata:
P. m. mitrata (nominate): From the Peruvian region of Ayacucho, south through Bolivia, to the Salta Province in Argentina. Forecrown, lores and extensive mottling to face (mainly around eyes, though not forming complete eye-ring) red. Thighs red.
P. m. chlorogenys: Found in the Peruvian regions of Amazonas, Cajamarca, Huánuco and Junín. Red of head virtually restricted to forecrown and lores, with little or no red mottling to face. Thighs red.
P. m. tucumana: Found in the Argentinian provinces of Tucumán and Córdoba, and probably also in Catamarca and La Rioja. The introduced Californian population likely belongs to this subspecies. Forecrown and extensive mottling throughout face red. Mottling forms a complete eye-ring, and often also with a few random red specks to neck and chest. Thighs red.
Psittacara alticola (proposed as monotypic species; Chapman's parakeet): Confirmed for the Peruvian regions of Huancavelica and Cusco, and the Bolivian department of Cochabamba. Red only to forecrown and lores, with few red feathers in the face. Thighs green.
Psittacara hockingi (described as new monotypic species; Hocking's parakeet): Endemic to Peru in the regions of Amazonas, Ayacucho and Cuzco, and in central Peru in the Carpish mountains and adjacent ridge south of the upper Huallaga River. Relatively large red forecrown patch, but no red to face or lores. Thighs green.


The subspecies seen in American aviculture is Psittacara m. mitrata (though this is labelled with some uncertainty considering the recent developments in the taxonomy). Popular as pets, the mitred parakeets are considered outgoing and playful. They are even used as "watch birds", given their loud, piercing alarm call. Like most parrots, they tend to be devoted to their human owners. Though they have been known to grow attached to groups rather than individuals. They make great pets for people who will devote their time and money and will understand the birds natural behaviors; screaming, biting, splashing, etc.


The rose-ringed parakeet (Psittacula krameri), also known as the ring-necked parakeet (more commonly known as the Indian ringneck parrot), is a medium-sized parrot in the genus Psittacula, of the family Psittacidae. It has disjunct native ranges in Africa and the Indian Subcontinent, and is now introduced into many other parts of the world where feral populations have established themselves and are bred for the exotic pet trade.
One of the few parrot species that have successfully adapted to living in disturbed habitats, it has withstood the onslaught of urbanisation and deforestation. As a popular pet species, escaped birds have colonised a number of cities around the world, including Northern and Western Europe. These parakeets have also proven themselves capable of living in a variety of climates outside their native range, and are able to survive low winter temperatures in Northern Europe. The species is listed as least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) because its population appears to be increasing, but its popularity as a pet and unpopularity with farmers has reduced its numbers in some parts of its native range.


Four subspecies are recognised, though they differ little:
African subspecies:
African rose-ringed parakeet (P. k. krameri): western Africa in Guinea, Senegal, and southern Mauritania, east to western Uganda and southern Sudan, north to Egypt. Resident along the Nile valley and certainly Giza, it is sometimes seen on the north coast and in Sinai. The African parakeet also started to breed in Israel and Jordan in the 1980s and is considered an invasive species.
Abyssinian rose-ringed parakeet (P. k. parvirostris): northwest Somalia, west across northern Ethiopia to Sennar state, Sudan
Asian subspecies:
Indian rose-ringed parakeet (P. k. manillensis) originates from the southern Indian subcontinent and has feral and naturalised populations worldwide. In Australia, Great Britain (mainly around London), the United States, and other western countries, it is often referred to as the Indian ringneck parrot.
Boreal rose-ringed parakeet (P. k. borealis) is distributed in Bangladesh, Pakistan, northern India and Nepal to central Burma; introduced populations are found worldwide.
The Indian subspecies are both larger than the African subspecies.
The genus name Psittacula is a diminutive of Latin psittacus, "parrot", and the specific krameri commemorates the Austrian naturalist Wilhelm Heinrich Kramer.
In 2019, a genetic study revived the genus Alexandrinus, formerly viewed as a synonym of the current genus Psittacula. Some organisations, including the IUCN, have accepted the new taxonomy.


The rose-ringed parakeet is sexually dimorphic. The adult male sports a red and black neck ring, and the hen and immature birds of both sexes either show no neck rings, or display shadow-like pale to dark grey neck rings. Both sexes have a distinctive green colour in the wild, and captive bred ringnecks have multiple colour mutations which include turquoise, cinnamon, olive, white, blue, violet, grey and yellow. Rose-ringed parakeets measure on average 40 cm (16 in) in length, including the tail feathers, a large portion of their total length. Their average single-wing length is about 15 to 17.5 cm (5.9 to 6.9 in). In the wild, this is a noisy species with an unmistakable squawking call. Captive individuals can be taught to speak. They are a herbivorous and non-migratory species.


Since the 19th century, the rose-ringed parakeet has successfully colonised many other countries. It breeds further north than any other parrot species. It has established itself on a large scale in Germany, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, and especially the UK. See Feral Birds section below.


In the wild, rose-ringed parakeets usually feed on buds, fruits, vegetables, nuts, berries, and seeds. Wild flocks also fly several miles to forage in farmlands and orchards, causing extensive damage. Feral parakeets will regularly visit gardens and other locations near human habitation, taking food from bird feeders.
In India, they feed on cereal grains, and during winter also on pigeon peas. In Egypt during the spring, they feed on mulberry and in summer they feed on dates and nest inside palm trees and eat from sunflower and corn fields.
In captivity, rose-ringed parakeets will take a large variety of food and can be fed on a number of fruits, vegetables, pellets, seeds, and even small amounts of cooked meat for protein. Oils, salts, chocolate, alcohol, and other preservatives should be avoided.


In north-west India, Indian rose-ringed parakeets form pairs from September to December. They do not have life mates and often breed with another partner during the following breeding season. During this cold season, they select and defend nest sites, thus avoiding competition for sites with other birds. Feeding on winter pea crops provides the female with nutrients necessary for egg production. From April to June, they care for their young. Fledglings are ready to leave the nest before monsoon.


Rose-ringed parakeets are popular as pets and they have a long history in aviculture. The ancient Greeks kept the Indian subspecies P. krameri manillensis, and the ancient Romans kept the African subspecies P. krameri krameri. Colour mutations of the Indian rose-ringed parakeet subspecies have become widely available in recent years. A blue colour morph mutation of the rose-ringed parakeet is also commonly kept in aviculture. Birds that display this mutation have solid light blue feathers instead of green, and lack the rings of their normal counterparts.


Both males and females have the ability to mimic human speech. First, the bird listens to its surroundings, and then it copies the voice of the human speaker. Some people hand-raise rose-ringed parakeet chicks for this purpose. Such parrots then become quite tame and receptive to learning. They have an extremely clear speech and are one of the best talking parrots.


A popular pet, the rose-ringed parakeet has been released in a wide range of cities around the world, giving it an environment with few predators where their preferred diet of seeds, nuts, fruits, and berries is available from suburban gardens and bird feeders. Its adaptations to cold winters in the Himalayan foothills allow it to easily withstand European winter conditions. It has established feral populations in a number of European cities, South Africa and Japan. There are also apparently stable populations in the US (Florida, California and Hawaii) and small self-sustaining populations in Ankara, İzmir, İstanbul (concentrated in parks), Tunis, Tripoli and Tehran (concentrated in the north side of the city). It is also found throughout Lebanon, Israel, Iran, Jordan, the UAE, Bahrain, Qatar, and Oman. A small number of escaped birds are present in Australia.
The European populations became established during the mid-to-late 20th century. There is a burgeoning population of feral parakeets in Great Britain which is centred around suburban London and the Home Counties of South-East England. Parakeet numbers have been highest in the south-west of London, although the population has since spread rapidly, and large flocks of birds can be observed in places such as Crystal Palace Park, Battersea Park, Buckhurst Hill, Richmond Park, Wimbledon Common, Greenwich Park, and Hampstead Heath, as well as Surrey and Berkshire. Feral parakeets have also been observed in Abbey Wood, Bostall Heath, Bostall Woods and Plumstead Common. The winter of 2006 had three separate roosts of about 6000 birds around London. A smaller population occurs around Margate, Broadstairs and Ramsgate, Kent. There is also an established population to the North East of London in Essex at Loughton and Theydon Bois by Epping Forest. Elsewhere in Britain, smaller feral populations have become established from time to time throughout the Midlands, Northern England and even as far north as Edinburgh. It has been suggested that feral parrots could endanger populations of native British birds, and that the rose-ringed parakeet should be culled as a result, although this is not currently recommended by conservation organisations. A major agricultural pest in locations such as India, as of 2011 the rose-ringed parakeet population was growing rapidly, but is generally limited to urban areas in southern England.
A Europe-wide count was held in 2015 and found 85,220 rose-ringed parakeets in 10 European countries.
In the Netherlands, the feral population in the four largest urban areas (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Utrecht and The Hague) was estimated at 20,000 birds in 2021, double the number of birds estimated in 2010. There also exists a feral population in Belgium, with as many as 5,000 pairs estimated in Brussels. These originate from an original population that was set free in 1974 by the owner of the Meli Zoo and Attraction Park near the Atomium who wanted to make Brussels more colourful. In Germany, these birds are found along the Rhine in all major urban areas such as Cologne, Düsseldorf (about 800 birds), Bonn, Ludwigshafen, Heidelberg and Speyer, Wiesbaden and Mainz, and Worms. Other populations are found around Paris, Rome—notably in the gardens of the Palatine Hill, the trees of the Trastevere and Janiculum and at Villa Borghese, in the Orto Botanico di Palermo in Palermo, in Genoa, in Barcelona and in Lisbon.
The specimens in these naturalised populations often represent intra-specific hybrids, originally between varying numbers (according to locality) of the subspecies manillensis, borealis, and/or (to a lesser extent) krameri along with some inter-specific hybrids with naturalised Psittacula eupatria (Alexandrine parakeet).
Where introduced, rose-ringed parakeets may affect native biodiversity and human economy and wellness.
Rose-ringed parakeets are a direct threat to populations of Europe's largest bat, the greater noctule, as parakeets compete with the bats for nesting sites, and will attack and kill adults before colonising their habitat.
In the United Kingdom and especially within London, parakeets face predation by native birds of prey and owls, including the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), Eurasian hobby (F. subbuteo) and tawny owl (Strix aluco).
There is a breeding population on Madeira Island, Portugal.
There is a feral population of the birds in Japan. In the 1960s many Japanese people became pet owners for the first time and the parakeet was widely imported as a pet. Some escaped or were released and formed populations around the country. By the 1980s groups could be found in Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Niigata and Kyushu. Some groups since died out, but as of 2009 there was a large population residing at the Tokyo Institute of Technology's main campus at Ookayama, along with small groups in Maebashi and Chiba city.
Feral ring-necked parakeets have sporadically been observed around New Zealand, and are treated as a major potential threat to the country's native bird populations due to their potential to outcompete native parakeet species, and introduce diseases.


Psorophora ciliata is a species of large mosquito indigenous to the United States east of the continental divide. It is one of thirteen species of the genus that reside in the continental United States. The mosquito has been referred to as the “gallinipper” or “shaggy-legged gallinipper” due to its tendency for aggressive behavior.


P. ciliata occurs east of the Continental Divide of the Americas. In North America, its range is from South Dakota south into Texas and east to Quebec and Florida. In South America, P. ciliata can be found in tropic or temperate environments.
 Individuals may live for up to two years.


Psorophora ciliata are relatively large mosquitoes compared to other species within the genus, with a wingspan of 7-9 mm. Males and females are large and yellow-colored. The proboscis is yellow with a black tip. The abdomen is pale with a paler tip. The thorax is dark brown with a thin, bright yellow stripe which goes down the middle with two dark stripes on each side. The most common way to tell the P. ciliata apart from other species is their banded “shaggy” legs. Like all mosquitoes, the males have bushy antennae and the females do not.


Not only are these mosquitoes aggressive towards humans and other animals as adults, but P. ciliata larvae are known for preying on other mosquito species' larvae and even tadpoles. Campos, Fernandez, and Sy found in their 2004 study that P. ciliata were frequent predators to the mosquito species Ochlerotatus albifasciatus in Buenos Aires, Argentina and impact the populations of O. albifasciatus.
Females are aggressive, preferring to feed on large mammals, and are most active during spring and summer in woodlands or fields during the day or night. They lay eggs either as single eggs on moist soil, or as an egg raft on top of ephemeral pools of water. Typically, females in the genus are capable of laying their eggs on dry or damp land to hatch months or years later, depending on the species.


Psorothamnus spinosus, or Delea spinosa, is a perennial legume tree of the deserts in North America. Common names include smokethorn, smoketree, smoke tree, smokethorn dalea, and corona de Cristo.


P. Spinosus is native to the desert washes in the Colorado Desert in Southern California, the Sonoran Desert in western Arizona, and most of eastern Baja California state including several northern Gulf of California (Sea of Cortez) islands, The tree is common in Joshua Tree National Park, where it is called the smoketree.
The range of P. spinosus is centered north-south along the Lower Colorado River Valley ranging northwest into the eastern Mojave Desert, west into mostly all of the Colorado Desert-(subsection of Sonoran Desert), and east of the Colorado River in southwestern Arizona's Sonoran Desert.
To the west in Baja California it borders the western Gulf of California; it occurs on the islands there including Isla Ángel de la Guarda, but not Tiburon Island. To the east in Sonora, the species ranges into the northwest of the great Gran Desierto de Altar, on the northern shore of the Gulf of California.
In Arizona, the RangeMap also shows that the ranges center on the river courses of southwest Arizona, specifically, the Bill Williams River in the north, then the Gila River in the south. The range also extends into extreme southern Nevada, mostly adjacent the Colorado River.


Psychotria nervosa, also known as Seminole balsamo or wild coffee, is a shade tolerant medium-sized shrub native to Florida as well as the West Indies and Central and South America. It produces a "small, red, ellipsoid fruit" that resembles "the true coffee bean" in shape and attract birds. Its maximum height ranges from approximately 4–10 feet.
Despite its common name of wild coffee, this species is not known to contain any caffeine. In recounting anecdotes from others, the Florida ethnobotanist, Dan Austin, reported that the use of the seeds as a coffee substitute resulted in "only bad taste and terrible headaches." A similar account reported no known usage as a coffee substitute in Jamaica and noted the morphological similarity of its seed to coffee, the more likely reason for its common name being wild coffee. Reports of DMT in this species are also unsubstantiated.


P. vigintimaculata is about 1.75 - 3.0 mm in length and has 4-5 distinctive dark spots on the pronotum in an "M" shape. The elytron have dark, orange or bicolored spots on a white background.  Although sometimes confused with the Fourteen-Spotted Lady Beetle (Propylea quatuordecimpunctata) and the Asian Lady Beetle (Harmonia axyridis), its unique pattern helps to distinguish it from other Lady Beetle species found in North America.


In a laboratory setting, it was found that  P. vigintimaculata taedata, a subspecies of P. vigintimaculata, undergoes four larval instars, ecdysis and then pupation. The timing of life cycle was also found to vary according to rearing conditions.


It was noted in the study that the first instar larvae had a white oval colored body with small hairs projecting from the thorax. the larvae of the second instar had a stripe and a much darker color that gradually turned lighter with each subsequent instar. Additionally, the larvae gradually grew larger each instar. During the end of the fourth instar, the larvae attached itself to a leaf or a petiole in order to molt. Pupa emerged with wing pads as well as black spots.


When eggs were deposited in 20°C it took about 32 days for adults to emerge. Under conditions of 25°C egg deposition to adult emergence took about 20 days.


The fungal parasite Hesperomyces virescens Thaxter has been known to infect P. vigintimaculata. The level of harm that the parasite causes to its host is still unclear because research on the topic has unveiled conflicting results.


Ptelea trifoliata, commonly known as common hoptree, wafer ash, stinking ash, and skunk bush, is a species of flowering plant in the citrus family (Rutaceae). It is native to North America, where it is found in Canada, Mexico, and the United States. It is a deciduous shrub or tree, with alternate, trifoliate leaves.


Ptelea trifoliata is a small tree, or often a shrub of a few spreading stems, growing to around 6–8 m (20–26 ft) tall with a broad crown. The bark is reddish brown to gray brown, with short horizontal lenticels (warty corky ridges), becoming slightly scaly, The plant has an unpleasant odor and bitter taste. Branchlets are dark reddish brown, shining, covered with small excrescences. The twigs are slender to moderately stout, brown with deep U-shaped leaf scars, and with short, light brown, fuzzy buds. It has thick fleshy roots.


Its leaves are alternate and compound with three leaflets, dotted with oil glands. The leaflets are sessile, ovate or oblong, 3–5 in (7.6–12.7 cm) long by 2–3 in (5.1–7.6 cm) broad, pointed at the base, entire or serrate, and gradually pointed at the apex. They are feather-veined, with a prominent midrib and primary veins. They come out of the bud conduplicate and very downy. When fully grown the leaves are dark green and shiny above and paler green beneath. In autumn they turn a rusty yellow. The petioles are stout, 6.3–7.6 cm (2.5–3.0 in) long, with an enlarged base. Stipules are absent. The western and southwestern forms have smaller leaves, 5–11 cm (2.0–4.3 in), than the eastern forms 10–18 cm (3.9–7.1 in), an adaptation to the drier climates in the west.


The flowers are small, 1–2 cm (0.39–0.79 in) across, with 4–5 narrow, greenish white petals. The pedicels are downy. The 4- or 5-part calyx is downy and imbricate in bud. The corolla has four or five petals which are white, downy, spreading, hypogynous, and imbricate in bud. The five stamens alternate with the petals. The pistillate flowers bear rudimentary anthers. The filaments are awl-shaped and more-or-less hairy. The anthers are ovate or cordate, two-celled, with cells opening longitudinally. The ovaries are superior, hairy, abortive in the staminate flowers, two to three-celled. The style is short, the stigma 2- or 3-lobed, with two ovules per cell. Fertile and sterile flowers are produced together in terminal, spreading, compound cymes—the sterile being usually fewer and falling after the anther cells mature.
Flowers are produced in May and June. Some find the odor unpleasant but to others the plant has a delicious scent.


The fruit is a round wafer-like papery samara, 2–2.5 cm (0.79–0.98 in) across, light brown, and two-seeded. The fruit ripens in October, and is held on the tree until high winds shake them loose in the early winter.


Its wood is yellow brown; heavy, hard, close-grained, satiny. The specific gravity is 0.8319; weight per cubic foot is 51.84 lb (23.51 kg).


While Ptelea trifoliata is most often treated as a single species with subspecies and/or varieties in different distribution ranges, some botanists treat the various hoptrees as a group of four or more closely related species:
P. trifoliata subsp. trifoliata – common hoptree or eastern hoptree; eastern Canada & United States (U.S.), central U.S.
P. trifoliata subsp. trifoliata var. trifoliata – eastern Canada & (U.S.), central U.S.
P. trifoliata subsp trifoliata var. mollis Torr. & A. Gray – eastern and central U.S.
P. trifoliata subsp. angustifolia (Benth.) V.L.Bailey – south-central U.S.
P. trifoliata subsp. angustifolia var. angustifolia (Benth.) M.E.Jones (P. angustifolia, P. lutescens) – narrowleaf hoptree; south-central U.S.
P. trifoliata subsp. angustifolia var. persicifolia (Greene) V.L.Bailey – south-central U.S.
P. trifoliata subsp. pallida (Greene) V.L.Bailey – pallid hoptree, south-central and southwest U.S.
P. trifoliata subsp. pallida var. pallida (Greene) V.L.Bailey – southwest U.S.
P. trifoliata subsp. pallida var. cognata (Greene) Kearney & Peebles – southwest U.S.
P. trifoliata subsp. pallida var. confinis (Greene) V.L.Bailey – south-central and southwest U.S.
P. trifoliata subsp. pallida var. lutescens – southwest U.S.
P. trifoliata subsp. polyadenia (Greene) V.L.Bailey – pallid hoptree, south-central and southwest U.S.
P. trifoliata var. baldwinii (Torr. & A.Gray) D.B.Ward (P. baldwinii)
The specific epithet "trifoliata" refers to the three-parted compound leaf.
Other common names for this shrub include stinking prairie bush, Carolina shrub-trefoil, tree-trefoil, swamp dogwood, ague bark, paleleaf hoptree, prairie-grub, prickaway-anise, quinine tree, sang-tree, water-ash, western hoptree, wingseed, and woolly hoptree.


Ptelea trifoliata is native to North America, where its northern limits are in Ontario and Quebec, Canada. It is native through much of the eastern and southwestern United States, although it is absent from some areas of the Upper Midwest and is rare in much of New England. Its southern limits are in Mexico.
It has a wide-ranging natural habitat. In the Southeastern United States it is most often found in rocky forests, in both moist and dry soil, often associated with calcareous or mafic substrates. In the Midwest, habitats include forests, savannas, prairies, glades, and sand dunes. In Arizona it is common in canyons.


It has several Native American uses as a seasoning and as an herbal medicine for different ailments.
Numerous cultivars have been developed for ornamental use in parks and gardens. The cultivar 'Aurea' with golden leaves has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.
German immigrants to Texas in the 19th century used its seeds in place of hops in the beer-making process, lending the species its common name.


P. esculentum grows from creeping rhizomes, which are covered with reddish hair. From them arise single large roughly triangular fronds, which grow to 0.5–2 metres (1 ft 8 in–6 ft 7 in) tall. The fronds are stiff with a brown stripe.


It is found in all states of Australia apart from the Northern Territory, as well as New Zealand, Norfolk Island, Malaysia, Polynesia, and New Caledonia. Within Victoria it is widespread and common to altitudes of 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). In New South Wales, it occurs across central, eastern and southern parts of the state. It can also be weedy and invade disturbed areas. In Western Australia, it grows near the southern and western coastlines, as far north as Geraldton.


Like its northern hemisphere relatives, Pteridium esculentum is very quick to colonise disturbed areas and can outcompete other plants to form a dense understorey. It is often treated as a weed. It does create a more humid sheltered microclimate under its leaves and is food for a variety of native insects. Two species of fruit fly (Drosophila) were recorded in a field study near Sydney. Another study near Sydney yielded 17 herbivorous arthropods (15 insects and two mites), notable for the lack of Hymenoptera (ants, bees, wasps, and sawflies) and beetles.


The Māori of New Zealand used the rhizomes of Pteridium esculentum (aruhe) as a staple food, especially for exploring or hunting groups away from permanent settlements; much of the widespread distribution of this species in present-day New Zealand is in fact a consequence of prehistoric deforestation and subsequent tending of aruhe stands on rich soils (which produced the best rhizomes). The rhizomes were air-dried so that they could be stored and became lighter; for consumption, they were briefly heated and then softened with a patu aruhe (rhizome pounder); the starch could then be sucked from the fibers by each diner, or collected if it were to be prepared for a larger feast. Patu aruhe were significant items and several distinct styles were developed.
Aborigines in Australia ate the roots after they were pounded into a paste and roasted.
Pteridium esculentum contains the known bracken carcinogen ptaquiloside. Concentrations of ptaquiloside in bracken in New Zealand vary greatly, and in a high proportion of stands ptaquiloside is not found. A higher incidence of ptaquiloside, and some very high concentrations, are found in areas where bovine enzootic haematuria and/or acute haemorrhagic syndrome was known to occur.


Pteris cretica, the Cretan brake, ribbon fern, or Cretan brake fern, is a species of evergreen fern in the family Pteridaceae, native to Europe, Asia and Africa.


The fern grows to 75 cm (30 in) tall by 60 cm (24 in) broad. It has arching pinnate fronds each bearing up to five pinnae.


Pteris cretica is cultivated widely by plant nurseries. It is used in gardens in the ground and as a potted plant, and as a houseplant. The variety with variegated foliage, Pteris cretica var. albolineata, is also widely used, brightening shade gardens.
Both types thrive year round outdoors in subtropical climates, such as California. With a minimum temperature of 2 °C (36 °F), both require protection from frost, though the species is hardier and can be grown outdoors during the summer months in cold climates.
The species, and the variety P. cretica var. albolineata (syn. P. nipponica), have both gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.
A relictual presence is certificated in the Italian peninsula Lazio (Ponte Terra gorge, San Vittorino, Rome).


The botanist Robert Brown published this plant in the year 1810, in his Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae, and still bears its original name. The specific epithet tremula is the Latin "tremulous" or "shaking". It is a member of the large genus Pteris, containing around 300 species, 7 of which can be found in Australia. Tender brake is a common name for the fern. Species in Pteris are currently placed in subfamily Pteridoideae of family Pteridaceae/


Pteris tremula is a terrestrial fern, with its fronds arising from the ground up to 1.3 m (4.3 ft), rarely up to 2 m (6.6 ft) tall. The stipe is brown. The light green lacy compound fronds may reach 2 m (6.6 ft) in length and are 3-pinnate or more. The brownish sori line the undersides of the frond margins. Unlike Pteris vittata and other Pteris species, it is not able to hyperaccumulate arsenic and is damaged by levels as low as 25 mg/kg in the soil. The plant contains two cytotoxic indanonic sesquiterpenes.


The range within Australia is Central Australia (Northern Territory), eastern South Australia, Queensland, eastern New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania. It is also found on Lord Howe and Norfolk Island, New Zealand, and the Kermadec Islands and Fiji. It is found in sheltered habitats in wet sclerophyll and rainforest. It has become naturalized in Argentina near the Río de la Plata.


Pteris tremula is a fairly easy plant to grow in the home garden, where it prefers a shady spot. It prefers fair drainage with some moisture retention in the soil and filtered morning light. It is nevertheless fast growing and has been known to naturalise. In the 1950s it was reported to be the most commonly cultivated Pteris species in the United States of America.


Pteris vittata is native and widespread in the paleotropics: found from the east, to the south tropical, and southern Africa (in Angola; Kenya; Lesotho; Malawi; Mozambique; Namibia; Tanzania (including the Zanzibar Archipelago); Cape Province, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, and Transvaal in South Africa; Eswatini; Uganda; Zambia; and Zimbabwe); temperate and tropical Asia (in the provinces of Anhui, Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hubei, Jiangxi, Sichuan, Xizang, and Yunnan in China; the prefectures of Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku, and the Ryukyu Islands of Japan; and Thailand); and Australia, in the states of New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria, and Western Australia.
Pteris vittata is often associated with limestone habitats. It may be seen growing on concrete structures and cracks, in buildings in the central business district and suburbs of Sydney, Australia. It is an introduced species in California, Texas, and the Southeastern United States.
A remnant population exists in the Italian peninsula, in Sicily, Calabria and Campania.


Although it grows readily in the wild, Pteris vittata is sometimes cultivated. It is grown in gardens for its attractive appearance, or used in pollution control schemes: it is known to be a hyperaccumulator plant of arsenic used in phytoremediation.


Cong Tu and  Lena Q. Ma; Effects of Arsenic Concentrations and Forms on Arsenic Uptake by the Hyperaccumulator Ladder Brake, Journal of Environmental Quality doi:10.2134/jeq2002.6410 Vol. 31 No. 2, p. 641-647 (résumé)


The Cape spurfowl or Cape francolin (Pternistis capensis) is a gamebird in the pheasant family Phasianidae. It is endemic to southern Africa, where it is the largest francolin. It occurs in the Western Cape province of South Africa, and locally northwards to southern Namibia. It has adapted to alien vegetation and a variety of human-altered habitats, but scrubby roosting and nesting space is a prerequisite. The species is not threatened.


The English ornithologist John Latham described the Cape spurfowl in his A General Synopsis of Birds in 1783. He used the English name "Cape partridge", but did not introduce a Latin name. Six years later in 1789, when the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin updated Carl Linnaeus's Systema Naturae, he included a terse description of the Cape spurfowl, coined the binomial name Tetrao capensis and cited Latham's work. The specific epithet capensis is the Latin for the Cape of Good Hope. The species is now placed in the genus Pternistis that was introduced by the German naturalist Johann Georg Wagler in 1832. The Cape spurfowl is considered as monotypic: no subspecies are recognised. Its closest relative is the Natal spurfowl, which has a similarly vermiculated plumage.


It is a common resident of the Western Cape's strandveld, renosterveld and fynbos regions, especially at lower altitudes, being replaced at high altitudes by the grey-winged francolin. It is present in the succulent (i.e. westerly) karoo at lower densities, and in the Nama karoo, where it frequents the immediate vicinity of rivers. Its presence in scrub along the banks of the lower Orange and Fish Rivers appears to be a natural phenomenon. It was introduced to Robben Island where it benefits from a parasite-free environment. It forages in altered habitats like parks, croplands, orchards, vineyards, and stands of invasive rooikrans.


The Cape spurfowl is 40–42 cm (16–17 in) in length.  The male, at 600–915 g (1.323–2.017 lb), averages larger than the female, at 435–659 g (0.959–1.453 lb). This large spurfowl appears all dark from a distance, apart from the red legs, but when seen closer the plumage is finely vermiculated in grey and white, with a plainer crown and nape.
The sexes are similar in plumage, but the male has two leg spurs, whereas the female has at best one short spur. The juvenile is similar to the adults, but has duller legs and clearer vermiculations. The large, dark francolin is unlikely to be confused with any other species in its range.


Pterocelastrus tricuspidatus, commonly called candlewood, cherrywood or kershout, is a medium-sized evergreen tree, indigenous to South Africa.


The candlewood is indigenous to the southern part of South Africa. Here it naturally occurs from Cape Town in the west, all the way along the south coast of South Africa as far as KwaZulu-Natal. In this range it can be found in most soil types, from coastal sand to rocky mountain slopes and clay.


In the wild it often grows as a stunted bush (especially in exposed positions). However if permitted to by favourable conditions, it can grow into a tree of up to 10 meters in height.
The masses of sweetly scented flowers are followed by large numbers of very distinctive and attractive bright-orange, lantern-shaped berries.
The young leaves are red, but mature to a glossy green colour.


In cultivation the candlewood can be pruned to form a proper shade tree. However, it can also be allowed to grow as a bushy screen, if its lower branches are not removed.
This plant grows particularly well in coastal conditions (although it can also be found inland).
Its primary reason for cultivation are as a coastal hedge, and for its ornamental bright orange, lantern-shaped berries, which attract birds.
The candlewood tree tolerates drought and severe frost once it is established.


The chestnut-eared aracari, or chestnut-eared araçari (Pteroglossus castanotis), is a bird native to central and south-eastern South America. It belongs to the toucan and aracari family (Ramphastidae). The chestnut-eared aracari is a larger, more colorful bird than the black-necked aracari, which it otherwise resembles.


The range of the chestnut-eared aracari is the southern Amazon Basin, especially the southwestern of this region. It is also found in the eastern Andean foothills; a narrowing range extension enters central-southern Colombia by 900 kilometres (560 mi).
The southern Amazon Basin range narrows in the southeast to only the upstream half-headwaters of the north-flowing Amazon River tributaries. This range continues southeastwards into the central and southern cerrado and ends in the Paraná River region in eastern Paraguay, Bolivia, southeastern Brazil and the extreme northeast of Argentina.
It is very present in Bolivia, notably in the Aquicuana Reserve, located in the Beni Department, near the city of Riberalta, the Capital of the Bolivian Amazon.


Like others in the genus Pteroglossus, its diet mainly consists of fruit taken from trees in the area, sometimes retrieved by hanging upside-down. The chestnut-eared aracari also may include flower nectar, insects, and nuts in its diet as well. Engaging in behavior similar to the saffron toucanet, they also appear to prey on the nests of other bird species, eating the eggs and baby birds.


Ischnoceran lice found on the chestnut-eared aracari were first described as Austrophilopterus cancellosus castanotus, but these parasites are actually indistinguishable from those on most other Pteroglossus, and today are united with them in Austrophilopterus flavirostris.


Pterostegia is a monotypic plant genus containing only the single species Pterostegia drymarioides, which is known as the woodland threadstem, woodland pterostegia, fairy mist, or fairy bowties.


Pterostegia drymarioides is a very small annual spreading or climbing plant with very thin, hairy stems. The tiny leaves are lobed or heart-shaped and may be green or pink. The plant may sprawl across the ground in a thin layer or may form small patches here and there.
The plant bears tiny bright pink flowers.


Pterostylis nana, commonly known as the dwarf snail orchid, is a species of orchid endemic to Australia. It has a rosette of leaves at it base and a single narrow, bright green and white flower with a small labellum. There is uncertainty about its classification - some sources include South Australia and Western Australia in its range.


Pterostylis nana is a terrestrial, perennial, deciduous, herb with an underground tuber and a rosette of egg-shaped to heart-shaped leaves, each leaf 5–20 mm long and 3–10 mm wide. A single bright green and white flower, 10–15 mm long and 4–5 mm wide is borne on a stalk 50–150 mm high. The dorsal sepal is erect, more or less flat on top and fused to the petals forming a hood or "galea" over the column.  The lateral sepals are erect, in close contact with the galea and taper to a thread-like tip about 20 mm long.  The sinus between the lateral sepals is more or less flat and has a dark green central area. The labellum is 3–5 mm long, about 2 mm wide, straight, blunt and hidden inside the flower. Flowering occurs from July to October.
The State Herbarium of South Australia lists this species as being present in that state and in Western Australia. The Royal Botanic Garden Melbourne reports that the taxonomy of the species is "under investigation".


Pterostylis nana was first formally described in 1985 by Robert Brown and the description was published in Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen.


The dwarf snail orchid grows in a range of habitats from coastal heath to forest, mostly in sheltered sites. It occurs in New South Wales south from Taree and is widespread in Victoria and Tasmania


Pterostylis nutans, commonly known as the nodding greenhood or the parrot's beak orchid, is a species of orchid endemic to eastern Australia. Nodding greenhoods have flowers which "nod" or lean forwards strongly, have a deeply notched sinus and a curved, hairy labellum.


Pterostylis nutans has a rosette of between three and six egg-shaped to elliptic leaves, each leaf 15–30 mm (0.6–1 in) long and 10–20 mm (0.4–0.8 in) wide. The leaves are dark green,  have a wavy edge and a distinct petiole. A single translucent white flower with green stripes and brown colouration is borne on a flowering spike 80–300 mm (3–10 in) high, the flower strongly "nodding" or leaning forwards. The flowers are 18–25 mm (0.7–1 in) long, 10–14 mm (0.4–0.6 in) wide. There is a wide gap at each side of the flower between the petals and the lateral sepals. The lateral sepals curve forwards, have a tapering tip, 10–18 mm (0.4–0.7 in) long and there is a deeply notched sinus between them. The labellum protrudes from the flower and is 14–18 mm (0.6–0.7 in) long, 4 mm (0.2 in) wide, curved, blunt, green and brown and covered with short, bristly hairs. Flowering occurs from March to December.


Pterostylis nutans was first described in 1810 by Robert Brown and the description was published in Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen. The specific epithet (nutans) is a Latin word meaning "nodding" or "drooping".


Nodding greenhoods often occur in large colonies in moist, protected forest environments and is native to the Australian states of South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland as well as the Australian Capital Territory. In Queensland it grows as far north as the Atherton Tableland, in the eastern half of New South Wales, the southern half of Victoria, the south-eastern corner of South Australia and in Tasmania, including King and Flinders Islands. It has also been found in New Zealand but is regarded as a vagrant there because the insect pollinator is not present in that country. There is a single population remaining near the Waihaha River, although there have been records from Kaitaia and Castor Bay.


This greenhood is pollinated by a particular species of fungus gnat, attracted by a kairomone produced by the flower's labellum. The labellum tips the insect into the flower, and in attempting to escape, it comes into contact with the sexual organs of the flower and pollination occurs.


Pterostylis nutans is easily grown in pots containing a free-draining, sandy mix. The plants require regular watering during their growing period, to be kept dry during dormancy and to be repotted annually.


Pterostylis pedunculata, commonly known as the upright maroonhood, is a species of orchid endemic to south-eastern Australia. Flowering plants have a rosette of two to six stalked leaves and a single green flower which is white near its base and tinged with reddish brown to black and with a gap between the petals and lateral sepals. It is common and widespread in a range of habitats.


Pterostylis pedunculata is a terrestrial, perennial, deciduous, herb with an underground tuber. Flowering plants have a rosette of between two and six stalked leaves, each leaf 10–65 mm long and 5–20 mm wide. A single flower 15–20 mm long and 5–7 mm wide is borne on a spike 60–250 mm high. The flowers are green, white near the base with reddish-brown to black tinges near the tip. The dorsal sepal and petals are fused, forming a hood or "galea" over the column but the dorsal sepal is slightly longer than the petals and has a sharp point on its end. There is a gap between the petals and the lateral sepals, which have thread-like tips 16–30 mm long. The sinus between the lateral sepals has a deep, V-shaped notch in the centre. The labellum is 5–7 mm long, about 3 mm wide, reddish-brown, egg-shaped, straight and just visible above the sinus. Flowering occurs from July to November.


Pterostylis pedunculata was first formally described in 1810 by Robert Brown and the description was published in the Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen. The specific epithet (pedunculata) is a Latin word meaning "small, slender stalk".


The maroonhood is widespread and common in moist, sheltered places in forest but also grows in coastal scrub. It is found from south-eastern Queensland to south-eastern South Australia and to Tasmania. In New South Wales it mostly occurs in coastal and near-coastal districts but extends as far inland as the Australian Capital Territory.


Ptilium crista-castrensis, the knights plume moss or ostrich-plume feathermoss, is a moss species within the family Pylaisiaceae, in the class Bryopsida, subclass Bryidae and order Hypnales.


This species occurs on the floor of Canadian boreal forests as well as many forests of northern Europe; an example of this occurrence is within the black spruce/feathermoss climax forest, often having moderately dense canopy and featuring a forest floor of feathermosses including Hylocomium splendens, Pleurozium schreberi and Ptilium crista-castrensis.


"Ptilium crista-castrensis". Natural Resources Conservation Service PLANTS Database. USDA. Retrieved 15 October 2015.
Edwards, Sean R. (2012). English Names for British Bryophytes. British Bryological Society Special Volume. 5 (4 ed.). Wootton, Northampton: British Bryological Society. ISBN 978-0-9561310-2-7. ISSN 0268-8034.
Stech, Michael; Frey, Wolfgang (2008). "A morpho-molecular classification of the mosses (Bryophyta)". Nova Hedwigia. 86 (1): 1–21. doi:10.1127/0029-5035/2008/0086-0001. ISSN 0029-5035.
Goffinet, B.; Buck, W.R. (4 March 2014). "Classification of extant moss genera". Classification of the Bryophyta. Retrieved 1 May 2020.
C. Michael Hogan. 2008


The Eurasian crag martin or just crag martin (Ptyonoprogne rupestris) is a small passerine bird in the swallow family. It is about 14 cm (5.5 in) long with ash-brown upperparts and paler underparts, and a short, square tail that has distinctive white patches on most of its feathers. It breeds in the mountains of southern Europe, northwestern Africa and across the Palearctic. It can be confused with the three other species in its genus, but is larger with brighter tail spots and different plumage tone. Many European birds are resident, but some northern populations and most Asian breeders are migratory, wintering in northern Africa, the Middle East or India.
The Eurasian crag martin builds a nest adherent to the rock under a cliff overhang or increasingly onto a man-made structure. It makes a neat half-cup mud nest with an inner soft lining of feathers and dry grass. Nests are often solitary, although a few pairs may breed relatively close together at good locations. Two to five brown-blotched white eggs are incubated mainly by the female, and both parents feed the chicks. This species does not form large breeding colonies, but is gregarious outside the breeding season. It feeds on a wide variety of insects that it catches with its beak while flying near to cliff faces or over streams and alpine meadows. Adults and young may be hunted and eaten by birds of prey or corvids, and this species is a host of blood-sucking mites. With its large, expanding range and large population, there are no significant conservation concerns involving the species.
This bird is closely related to the other three crag martins which share its genus, and has sometimes been considered to be the same species as one or more of them, although it appears that there are areas where two species' ranges overlap without hybridisation occurring. All four Ptyonoprogne crag martins are quite similar in behaviour to other Old World swallows that build mud nests, and are sometimes subsumed into the larger genus Hirundo, but this approach leads to inconsistencies in classifying several other genera, particularly the house martins.


The Eurasian crag martin was formally described as Hirundo rupestris by Italian naturalist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli in 1769 and was moved to the new genus Ptyonoprogne by German ornithologist Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach in 1850. Its nearest relatives are the three other members of the genus, the pale crag martin, P. obsoleta, the rock martin, P. fuligula, and the dusky crag martin, P. concolor. The genus name is derived from the Greek ptuon (πτύον), "a fan", referring to the shape of the opened tail, and Procne (Πρόκνη), a mythological girl who was turned into a swallow. The specific rupestris means "of rocks", from the Latin rupes "rock". There are no generally recognised subspecies. Two races, Central Asian P. r. centralasica and P. r. theresae in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco, have been proposed, but the slight differences in size and colour show no consistent geographical pattern. Fossils of this species have been found in Late Pleistocene deposits in Bulgaria, and in central France in layers dated at 242,000 to 301,000 years ago.
The four Ptyonoprogne species are members of the swallow family, and are placed in the subfamily Hirundininae, which comprises all swallows and martins except the very distinctive river martins. DNA studies suggest that there are three major groupings within the Hirundininae, broadly correlating with the type of nest built. The groups are the "core martins" including burrowing species like the sand martin, the "nest-adopters", which are birds like the tree swallow that use natural cavities, and the "mud nest builders". The Ptyonoprogne species construct an open mud nest and therefore belong to the last group; Hirundo species also build open nests, Delichon house martins have a closed nest, and the Cecropis and Petrochelidon swallows have retort-like closed nests with an entrance tunnel.
Ptyonoprogne is closely related to the larger swallow genus Hirundo into which it is often subsumed, but a DNA analysis showed that an enlarged genus Hirundo should logically contain all the mud-builder genera, including the Delichon house martins, a practice which few authorities follow. Although the nests of the Ptyonoprogne crag martins resemble those of typical Hirundo species like the barn swallow, the research showed that if Delichon, Cecropis and Petrochelidon are split from Hirundo, Ptyonoprogne should also be treated as a separate genus.


The Eurasian crag martin is 13–15 cm (5.1–5.9 in) long with a 32–34.5 cm (12.6–13.6 in) wingspan, and weighs an average 23 g (0.81 oz). It has ash-brown upperparts and paler underparts, and has a broader body, wings and tail than any other European swallow. The tail is short and square, with white patches near the tips of all but the central and outermost pairs of feathers. The underwing and undertail coverts are blackish, the eyes are brown, the small bill is mainly black, and the legs are brownish-pink. The sexes are alike, but juveniles have buff-brown tips to the plumage of the head, upperparts and wing coverts. This species can be distinguished from the sand martin by its larger size, the white patches on the tail, and its lack of a brown breast band. Where the range overlaps with that of another Ptyonoprogne species, the Eurasian crag martin is darker, browner and 15% larger than the rock martin, and larger and paler, particularly on its underparts than the dusky crag martin. The white tail spots of the Eurasian crag martin are significantly larger than those of both its relatives.
The crag martin's flight appears relatively slow for a swallow. Rapid wing beats are interspersed with flat-winged glides, and its long flexible primaries give it the agility to manoeuvre near cliff faces. The average migration flight speed has been measured at 9.9 m/s (32.5 ft/s), less than the roughly 11 m/s (36 ft/s) typical for hirundines, but the data is limited. The bird often flies high, and shows the white spots as it spreads its tail. The vocalisations include short high pli, and piieh and tshir calls resembling those of the linnet and the house martin, respectively.


The Eurasian crag martin breeds in mountains from Iberia and northwesternmost Africa through southern Europe, the Persian Gulf and the Himalayas to southwestern and northeastern China. Northern populations are migratory, with European birds wintering in north Africa, Senegal, Ethiopia and the Nile Valley, and Asian breeders going to southern China, the Indian subcontinent and the Middle East. Some European birds stay north of the Mediterranean, and, like martins in warmer areas such as India, Turkey and Cyprus, just move to lower ground after breeding. The breeding range is bounded by the 20 °C (68 °F) July isotherm, and wintering areas need a temperature of about 15 °C (59 °F) for enough insect food to be available. This is a rare species any distance north of its breeding areas. For example, there are only 12 records from the UK, none from Ireland, and the first record for Sweden was reported as recently as 1996. South of its normal wintering range, it has occurred as a vagrant in The Gambia. In 2022, the first nesting of the species was recorded on the territory of the Slovak Republic in the Malá Fatra National Park.
Crag martins breed on dry, warm and sheltered cliffs in mountainous areas with crags and gorges. The typical altitude is 2,000–2,700 m (6,600–8,900 ft) but breeding occurs up to 5,000 m (16,000 ft) in Central Asia. The Eurasian crag martin's choice of nest sites is very similar to that of Savi's pipistrelle, Hypsugo savii; the bird and the bat often breed in the same locations and have almost identical ranges in Europe. In South Asia, migrant Eurasian birds sometimes join with flocks of the dusky crag martin and roost communally on ledges of cliffs or buildings.
The largest known wintering roost of Eurasian crag martins has been recorded at the Gorham's Cave Complex in Gibraltar. The caves were home to a maximum of 12,000 birds during the 2020-2021 winter season; 1-2% of the entire European population of Eurasian crag martins.


The Eurasian crag martin feeds mainly on insects caught in its beak in flight, although it will occasionally take prey items off rocks, the ground, or a water surface. When breeding, birds often fly back and forth near to a rock face hunting for insects, feeding both inside and outside the nesting territory. At other times, they may hunt while flying above streams or alpine meadows. The insects taken depend on what is locally available and may include flies, ants, aerial spiders, and beetles. Aquatic species such as stoneflies, caddisflies and pond skaters appear to be important in at least Spain and Italy. Unlike other hirundines, these birds feed close to their breeding sites, and may be locally vulnerable to fluctuations in insect availability. This martin is gregarious outside the breeding season, and may form sizeable flocks where food is abundant. Cliff faces generate standing waves in the airflow which concentrate insects near vertical areas. The crag martin exploits the area close to the cliff when it hunts, relying on its high manoeuvrability and ability to perform tight turns.


Eurasian crag martins are known to form large roosts in winter, with the largest known roost being the Gorham's Cave Complex in Gibraltar. A study carried out at these caves and published in Scientific Reports in 2021, revealed that birds showed very high fidelity towards individual caves within and between years. Mark-recapture showed there was over a 90% chance of recapturing birds at the caves where they were first caught. The condition of birds from different caves suggests differences in roost quality which correlates to the fitness of Eurasian crag martins and, ultimately, survivorship.


This species is occasionally hunted by the peregrine falcon, which shares its mountain habitat, and during its migration over the Himalayas, it is reported to be subject to predation by crows. Common kestrels, Eurasian sparrowhawks, Eurasian jays and common ravens are also treated as predators and attacked by repeated dives if they approach nesting cliffs. Despite the general aggressiveness of the crag martin, it tolerates sympatric common house martins, perhaps because the large numbers of that highly colonial species provide an early warning of predators.
The crag martin is a host of blood-sucking mites of the genus Dermanyssus, including D. chelidonis, and of the nasal mite Ptilonyssus ptyonoprognes. Two new species of parasites were first discovered on this martin, the fly Ornithomya rupes in Gibraltar and the flea Ceratophyllus nanshanensis from China.


The European population of the Eurasian crag martin is estimated to be 360,000–1,110,000 individuals, including 120,000–370,000 breeding pairs. A rough estimate of the worldwide population is 500,000–5,000,000 individuals, with Europe hosting between one-quarter and one-half of the total. The population is estimated to be increasing following a northward expansion, which may be partly due to increased use of man-made structures as nest sites. Expansions of the range have been reported in Austria (where motorway bridges are used as nest sites), Switzerland, the former Yugoslavia, Romania, and Bulgaria. With its very large range and high numbers, the Eurasian crag martin is not considered to be threatened, and it is classed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List.


Pulicaria dysenterica, the common fleabane, or, in North America, meadow false fleabane, is a species of fleabane in the family Asteraceae.  It is native to Europe and western Asia where it grows in a variety of habitats ranging from semi-arid Mediterranean woodlands to wetter situations. Pulicaria dysenterica is perennial and can form dense clusters of plants, spreading by its roots. It flowers at its maximum height of about 60 centimetres (2.0 ft). Leaves are alternately arranged and clasp the stem, which itself contains a salty-astringent liquid. The yellow inflorescences are typically composed of a prominent centre of 40–100 disc florets surrounded by 20–30 narrow, pistillate ray florets. When setting seed the flower heads reflex.
Common fleabane is the main food plant for the Fleabane Tortoise Beetle (Cassida murraea), and for four micromoths, Apodia bifractella, Ptocheuusa paupella, Dusky Plume (Oidaematophorus lithodactyla) and Digitivalva pulicariae.
Fleabane's common name comes from its former use as an incense to drive away insects. Other past uses include treatments for dysentery and unspecified ocular maladies.


Pulmonaria officinalis, common names lungwort, common lungwort, Mary's tears or Our Lady's milk drops, is a herbaceous rhizomatous evergreen perennial  plant of the genus Pulmonaria, belonging to the family Boraginaceae.


The genus name comes from the Latin pulmo meaning lung and was first used by Leonhart Fuchs (1501–1566), a German physician and one of the three founding fathers of botany. The species was named officinalis by Carl Linnaeus for the medical properties of these plants, used since the Middle Ages to treat coughs and diseases of the chest, because of the doctrine of signatures whereby Christian doctors believed that plants that resemble any body part could be used to treat illnesses in this part since God put his signature in the plant to guide mankind.


The basal leaves are green, cordate, more or less elongated and pointed and always with rounded and often sharply defined white or pale green patches. The upper surface of the leaves has tiny bumps and it is quite hairy. The leaves of this host plant are eaten by the caterpillars of the moth Ethmia pusiella. In spring, the plant produces small bunches of flowers. The 5-petal flowers are red or pink at first, later turn to blue-purple during the anthesis, by changing the pH value inside of the petals. As a matter of fact the flowers contain a dye that belongs to the anthocyanins and change the color from red (acidic) to blue (alkaline). Pulmonaria officinalis is diploid and has the chromosome number 2n = 14. Flowering period extends from March through May and the seeds ripen from May to June. Pollination is granted by insects (entomophily) - mainly bees, bumblebees and butterflies - the spread of seeds over ants.


This native species is perhaps the most widespread plant in Europe. It is distributed west in the Ardennes up to the Netherlands, Denmark and southern Sweden. It is missing in Norway and it is only naturalized in the British Isles. It reaches central Russia and the Caucasus and it occurs in the Balkans and in northern to central Italy.


Pulmonaria officinalis is an understorey species. It grows in deciduous and beech mixed forests from the lowlands to the mountains. It prefers fresh and shady areas, nutrient-rich and mostly calcareous, stony or pure clay loam soils, at an altitude of 0–1,500 meters (0–4,921 ft) above sea level. As a spring geophyte it starts its vegetative period before full foliation of the tree storey. During this time, it is exposed to high solar radiation, which presents a potential danger for the plant. After leaf out, the amount of solar radiation decreases. The plant is adapted to changing conditions with efficient protective and repair mechanisms (morphological characteristics of leaves, epidermal structure, UV-B absorbing substances). After foliation, the amount of photosynthetic pigments in plant leaves slightly increases due to less daylight available. On the contrary, the UV-B absorbing substances (flavonoids and anthocyanins) are significantly reduced after foliation.


Pulsatilla alpina, the alpine pasqueflower or alpine anemone, is a species of flowering plant in the family Ranunculaceae, native to the mountain ranges of central and southern Europe, from central Spain to Croatia. It is an herbaceous perennial growing to 15–30 cm (6–12 in) tall by 20 cm (8 in) wide, and can be found at altitudes of 1,200–2,700 m (3,900–8,900 ft).


Pulsatilla alpina has deeply divided, hairy leaves. It has more upright flowers than other species of Pulsatilla, which generally have drooping flowers. They are white or, in the case of subsp. apiifolia, yellow. The flowers are produced very early, often opening while still under snow cover. They have prominent yellow stamens. As with all pasqueflowers, the flowers have a silky, hairy texture, and are followed by prominent seedheads which persist on the plant for many weeks.


A number of subspecies are recognised, based largely on the form and hairiness of the leaves. P. alpina subsp. schneebergensis is endemic to the easternmost Alps of Austria, and is named after the Schneeberg mountain. It is replaced further west by the widespread taxon P. alpina subsp. alpina. P. alpina subsp. austroalpina is found in the Southern Alps from Switzerland eastwards, most commonly over dolomite. P. alpina subsp. apiifolia and P. alpina subsp. alba grow over siliceous rock, but are easily distinguished by the flower colour. Further subspecies have been named for local variants in the Cantabrian Mountains (subsp. cantabrica) and Corsica (subsp. cyrnea).


Pulsatilla alpina is suitable for cultivation in an alpine garden, or in any sharply drained soil in full sun. It is extremely hardy but dislikes winter wet. The subspecies P. alpina subsp. apiifolia has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


Pulsatilla patens is a species of flowering plant in the family Ranunculaceae, native to Europe, Russia, Mongolia, and China. Common names include Eastern pasqueflower and cutleaf anemone.


It was first formally named in 1753 as Anemone patens and is sometimes still considered part of that genus. The species Pulsatilla nuttalliana, the pasqueflower native to much of North America, it is sometimes considered a subspecies or variety of Pulsatilla patens.
Two subspecies are accepted:
Pulsatilla patens subsp. patens
Pulsatilla patens subsp. multifida (Pritz.) Zämelis


Pulsatilla patens is the regional flower of the region of Tavastia Proper in Finland.


Purshia stansburyana is a species of flowering plant in the rose family known by the common name Stansbury's cliffrose. It is native to the southwestern United States and northern Mexico, where it grows in woodlands, desert, and plateau habitat. It often grows anchored on cliffs and prefers rocky, granular soils, especially limestone.


The species name was originally spelled P. stansburiana, but due to a 2006 rule change under the ICBN, the last letter has been restored since the plant was named in honor of Howard Stansbury.


Purshia stansburyana is a shrub generally growing up to about one to three meters tall, known to approach 4 meters to up to 8 meters in exceptional circumstances, becoming somewhat treelike. It easily hybridizes with other Purshia species. It is covered in shreddy bark. The small, very thick, glandular leaves are divided into several lobes which may be divided into sub-lobes.  The leaves on the upper side are dotted, i.e. are punctate.   The shrub blooms abundantly in white or cream-colored flowers with clawed petals; flowers are strongly and sweetly fragrant. Blooming continues from spring until the first frost. The fruit is an achene, a long plumelike structure up to 6 centimeters long. The plume is dispersed on the wind and by animals such as rodents. The shrub is drought-tolerant and the seedlings may actually survive better in years of below average precipitation.


The Stansbury's cliffrose shrub provides valuable browse for many wild ungulates, including elk, mule deer, and desert bighorn sheep, as well as livestock. Many birds and rodents consume the seeds, with rodents caching them underground, where they may sprout later.
It is used for revegetation projects in degraded habitat in its native region, and as an ornamental. It was used by Native American groups for a variety of purposes, the bark being worked into fiber for clothing, bedding, and rope, and the branches being made into arrows.


Pycnanthemum virginianum, the Virginia or common mountain-mint, is a plant in the mint family, Lamiaceae. It is a herbaceous plant with narrow, opposite, simple leaves, on wiry, green stems. The flowers are white with purplish spotting, borne in summer. Like most plants in the genus, the foliage has a strong mint fragrance when crushed or disturbed. It is native to the eastern United States and eastern Canada.
The flowers are visited by many insects, including honeybees, cuckoo bees, sweat bees, thread-waisted wasps, potter wasps, tachinid flies, wedge-shaped beetles, and pearl crescent butterflies.


The common bulbul (Pycnonotus barbatus) is a member of the bulbul family of passerine birds. It is found in north-eastern, northern, western and central Africa.


The common bulbul was originally described in the genus Turdus. Some authorities treat the Somali, Dodson's and dark-capped bulbul as subspecies of the common bulbul. The common bulbul is considered to belong to a superspecies along with the Himalayan bulbul, white-eared bulbul, white-spectacled bulbul, African red-eyed bulbul, and the Cape bulbul. Alternate names for the common bulbul include the black-eyed bulbul, brown bulbul (also used for the Asian red-eyed bulbul), brown-capped geelgat, common garden bulbul, garden bulbul and white-vented bulbul as well as one name used for another species (yellow-vented bulbul).


Five subspecies are recognized:
P. b. barbatus – (Desfontaines, 1789): Alternate names for the nominate race include Barbary bulbul and North-west African garden bulbul. Found from Morocco to Tunisia
Upper Guinea bulbul (P. b. inornatus) – (Fraser, 1843): Originally described as a separate species in the genus Ixos. Found from southern Mauritania and Senegal to western Chad and northern Cameroon
Gabon bulbul (P. b. gabonensis) – Sharpe, 1871: Originally described as a separate species. Found from central Nigeria and central Cameroon to Gabon and southern Congo
Egyptian bulbul (P. b. arsinoe) – (Lichtenstein, MHK, 1823): Originally described as a separate species in the genus Turdus. Alternately named the Sahel garden bulbul. Found in eastern Chad, northern and central Sudan and eastern Egypt
Abyssinian bulbul (P. b. schoanus) – Neumann, 1905: Not to be confused with an alternate name for the Somali bulbul. Found in south-eastern Sudan, western, central and eastern Ethiopia, Eritrea


The bill is fairly short and thin, with a slightly downcurving upper mandible. The bill, legs, and feet are black and the eye is dark brown with a dark eye-ring, which is not readily visible. It is about 18 cm in length, with a long tail. It has a dark brown head and upperparts. Sexes are similar in plumage.


It is a common resident breeder in much of Africa, and it has recently been found breeding in southern Spain at Tarifa. It is found in woodland, coastal bush, forest edges, riverine bush, montane scrub, and in mixed farming habitats. It is also found in exotic thickets, gardens, and parks.


The common bulbul is usually seen in pairs or small groups. It is a conspicuous bird, which tends to sit at the top of a bush. As with other bulbuls they are active and noisy birds. The flight is bouncing and woodpecker-like. The call is a loud doctor-quick doctor-quick be-quick be-quick.


This species eats fruit, nectar, seeds and insects.


The red-whiskered bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus), or crested bulbul, is a passerine bird native to Asia. It is a member of the bulbul family. It is a resident frugivore found mainly in tropical Asia. It has been introduced in many tropical areas of the world where populations have established themselves. It has a loud three or four note call, feeds on fruits and small insects and perches conspicuously on trees. It is common in hill forests and urban gardens.


The red-whiskered bulbul was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Lanius jocosus. The specific epithet is from Latin ioculus meaning "merry" (from iocus meaning "joke"). Linnaeus based his description on the Sitta Chinensis that had been described in 1757 by the Swedish naturalist Pehr Osbeck. Linnaeus specified the location as "China" but this was restricted to Hong Kong and Kwangtung (now Guangdong) by Herbert Girton Deignan in 1948. The red-whiskered bulbul is now placed in the genus Pycnonotus that was introduced by the German zoologist Friedrich Boie in 1826.
Hybrids have been noted in captivity with the red-vented, white-eared, white-spectacled, black-capped and Himalayan bulbuls. Leucism has also been recorded.


The red-whiskered bulbul is about 20 centimetres (7.9 in) in length. It has brown upper-parts and whitish underparts with buff flanks and a dark spur running onto the breast at shoulder level. It has a tall pointed black crest, red face patch and thin black moustachial line. The tail is long and brown with white terminal feather tips, but the vent area is red. Juveniles lack the red patch behind the eye, and the vent area is rufous-orange.
The loud and evocative call is a sharp kink-a-joo (also transcribed as pettigrew or kick-pettigrew or pleased to meet you) and the song is a scolding chatter. They are more often heard than seen, but will often perch conspicuously especially in the mornings when they call from the tops of trees. The life span is about 11 years.


This is a bird of lightly wooded areas, more open country with bushes and shrubs, and farmland. Irruptions have been noted from early times with Thomas C. Jerdon noting that they were "periodically visiting Madras and other wooded towns in large flocks."
It has established itself in Australia and in Los Angeles, Hawaii, and Florida in the United States, as well as in Mauritius, on Assumption Island and Mascarene Islands. In Florida, it is only found in a small area, and its population could be extirpated easily.
It was eradicated from Assumption Island in 2013–2015 to prevent colonisation of nearby Aldabra, the largest introduced bird-free tropical island.
The red-whiskered bulbul was introduced by the Zoological and Acclimatization Society in 1880 to Sydney, became well established across the suburbs by 1920, and continued to spread slowly to around 100 km away. It is now also found in suburban Melbourne and Adelaide, although it is unclear how they got there.


On the island of Réunion, this species established itself and also aided the spread of alien plant species such as Rubus alceifolius. In Florida they feed on fruits and berries of as many as 24 exotic plants including loquat (Eriobotrya japonica), Lantana spp., Brazilian pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius) and figs (Ficus). In Mauritius they aid the dispersal of Ligustrum robustum and Clidemia hirta. Seeds that pass through their gut germinate better. Populations of the red-whiskered bulbul on the island of Reunion have diversified in the course of thirty years and show visible variations in bill morphology according to the food resources that they have adapted to utilize.


The red-whiskered bulbul feeds on fruits (including those of the yellow oleander that are toxic to mammals), nectar and insects.


Several avian malaria parasites have been described from the species. Plasmodium jiangi was first discovered by He and Huang (1993) in this host, in southeast China.


Fraser, F.C. (1930). Note on the nesting habits of the Southern Red-whiskered Bulbul (Otocompsa emeria fuscicaudata). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 34(1): 250–252.
Michael, Bindhu; Amrithraj, M.; Pillai, K. Madhavan (1997). "A note on Isospora infection in a Southern Redwhiskered Bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus fuscicaudatus)". Zoos' Print Journal. 12 (12): 5.
Kinloch, A. P. (1922). "Nidification of the Southern Redwhiskered Bulbul Otocompsa emeria fuscicaudata". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 28 (2): 545.


The Surinam cockroach or greenhouse cockroach (Pycnoscelus surinamensis) is a species of burrowing cockroach. It is a common plant pest endemic to the Indomalayan realm that has spread to tropical and into subtropical regions around the world, and  in isolated populations to temperate climates where protective habitat such as greenhouses provide shelter for individuals inadvertently shipped in the soil of plants. Its populations are almost exclusively female, and it reproduces through parthenogenesis, having evolved several clonal strains from its sexual progenitor P. indicus.


Adults are around 18–25 mm (0.71–0.98 in) in length, and have dark brown to black bodies with shiny paler brown wings. The front edge of the pronotum (head shield) has a pale white band. While males are rarely produced, male adults have longer wings than females, completely covering the abdomen, although both genders are poor flyers.
Nymphs are around 4.5 mm (0.18 in) long at birth, translucent white with orange-brown mandibles and spines, and darker eye spots than the rest of the head. The exoskeleton gradually hardens on exposure to air, becoming a glossy brown in 5 to 6 hours, while its underside and legs remain translucent. Older nymphs develop shiny black anterior abdominal segments, and roughened, dull black posterior segments.


P. surinamensis originated in the Indomalayan region and is now cosmopolitan, found around the world in tropical regions, extending into subtropical regions, and temporarily establishing populations in protective habitats in temperate climates, particularly in greenhouses (also called glasshouses) or other areas heated during colder periods. It can be spread to greenhouses with shipments of tropical plants. In the United States it is common in the southeastern region from North Carolina to Texas, in addition to temporary populations in more temperate climates.


P. surinamensis is a burrowing cockroach, commonly burrowing in loose soil, humus, mould, compost piles and lawn thatch, or hiding beneath rocks, rotten branches, trash and other debris. It is considered peridomestic, found living only near human constructions or crops in a 1996 study, and may be considered synanthropic. It has a relatively high rate of cutaneous water loss compared to non-burrowing species of cockroaches, and is nearly exclusively associated with moist soil across its range.


While the species is occasionally found inside homes, it is not a common household pest. It is a plantation and garden pest in tropical regions, and can be especially problematic in heated greenhouses, where large numbers can hide by day and emerge at night, gnawing the softer parts of plants. It is thought to be transferred into homes and businesses in potted plants or mulch used for potted plants.
Indoor infestations can often be controlled using sprays or granules on potted plants. Outdoor treatment should focus on infested locations such as wood piles, mulch, and foundation plantings, and a residual barrier spray may be useful around houses.


An unusual aspect of P. surinamensis is that the species reproduces parthenogenetically, a form of asexual reproduction in which embryos develop from unfertilized eggs. P. surinamensis reproduce by thelytokous parthenogenesis, a type of parthenogenesis in which offspring are almost exclusively female clones. Thelytokous parthenesis is known in about 1% of known animal species.
Optional thelkytokous parthenogenesis occurs in several cockroach species when females are isolated from males, including in the common domestic pests Blatta orientalis, Blattella germanica, and Periplaneta americana, but in P. surinamensis it is obligatory parthenogenesis, its sole means of reproduction. Earlier taxonomy treated P. surinamensis as a species with both sexual and asexual forms, reproducing asexually in some populations, but sexually in other populations. Roth in 1967 applied the name P. indicus (Fabricius, 1775) to the sexually-reproducing taxon from which the parthenogenetic form P. surinamensis is descended. While P. surinamensis is cosmopolitan, P. indicus is endemic to the Indomalayasian region and adjacent parts of Southeast Asia, and spread just to Hawaiian and Mauritian islands.
In P. surinamensis, males are rarely born and are nonfunctional with frequency varying by population. An Australian colony being studied produced several, while none were seen in a Florida colony in over 15 years of study. In a parthenogenetic moth the rate varied by how long a population was stabilized, which suggests the possibility that Australian colony may have developed parthenogenesis more recently than the Florida colony.
P. surinamensis has at least 21 diploid clones, born independently from sexual females, meaning the thelytokous parthenogenesis has evolved repeatedly. There are also 11 known triploid clones, produced by backcrosses between clones and P. indicus. Different clones have established populations throughout the species' range, with at least ten different clone populations present in the United States alone.
Obligatory parthenogenesis was known only in P. surinamensis until 2003, when it was reported in a form of the species Phyllodromica subaptera. Asexual forms of P. subaptera, spread through most Mediterranean countries, are morphologically indistinguishable from the sexual form, found only on the Iberian peninsula, suggesting the trait was relatively recently acquired.


Reproduction is usually ovoviviparous, the ootheca carried internally during gestation until nymphs hatch within the body and are delivered, usually at night or in darkness. Occasionally stress or other factors may result in premature release of the ootheca, which can result in non-viability of the eggs. The ootheca itself measures 9x3.5x2.5 mm, housing 30-36 eggs in two rows of alternately spaced segments. Remains of the egg case are expelled around the time the nymphs are being born, sometimes pulled out with the hind limbs, and the ootheca fragments are usually quickly devoured by the newborn nymphs.


P. surinamensis acts as the intermediate host for the parasitic roundworms Oxyspirura mansoni and Oxyspirura parvorum, which infect the eyes of poultry.
O. mansoni, known as the chicken eyeworm among other names, can cause eye problems ranging from mild conjunctivitis to severe ophthalmia and serious vision impairment in its final hosts, which include chickens, turkeys, guineafowl and peafowl. Its life cycle involves eggs passing through a bird's lachrymal duct, being swallowed and passed in the bird's feces, a P. surinamensis cockroach eating the feces, larvae emerging in the cockroach, the bird eating the cockroach, and finally the eye worm larvae migrating up the oesophagus and pharynx to the bird's eye. While O. mansoni is not present in Europe, it is present in many areas of the world, particularly the tropical and subtropical environments where P. surinamensis is permanently established.


The blue-and-white swallow (Pygochelidon cyanoleuca) is a passerine bird that breeds from Nicaragua south throughout South America, except in the deserts and the Amazon Basin. The southern race is migratory, wintering as far north as Trinidad, where it is a regular visitor. The nominate northern race may have bred on that island.


The blue-and-white swallow was first formally described as Hirundo cyanoleuca by the French ornithologist Louis Vieillot in 1817, based on a specimen he believed to be from Paraguay. The scientific name has the same meaning as the English common name.
This species was formerly placed in the genus Notiochelidon. It was moved to the resurrected genus Pygochelidon based on a phylogenetic study published in 2005.
Three subspecies are recognised:
P. c. cyanoleuca (Vieillot, 1817) – Costa Rica through northern, central South America
P. c. peruviana Chapman, 1922 – western Peru
P. c. patagonica (d'Orbigny & Lafresnaye, 1837) – southern South America


The adult blue-and-white swallow averages 11–12 cm (4.3–4.7 in) long and weighs about 10 g (0.35 oz). It has dark blue upperparts and white underparts, and its underwings and the undersurface of its short forked tail are blackish. The juvenile is brown above, buff-tinted below, and has a less forked tail. The call is a buzzing dzzzhreeee.
There are three subspecies. The nominate N. c. cyanoleuca occurs from Nicaragua and Trinidad south to northwestern Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay. The migratory southern race N. c. patagonica is larger, 13.5 cm (5.3 in), has paler underwings, and white basal undertail coverts. N. c. peruviana is restricted to coastal Peru up to 2,500 m (8,200 ft) altitude. It is smaller than patagonica, has less white in the undertail, darker underwings and duskier flanks.


This is a swallow of open areas including villages and towns, farms, and forest clearings. In Central America, it is a highland bird, but elsewhere in its range it can occur from the lowlands to an altitude of 4,000 m (13,000 ft).


This species is often found in small flocks when not breeding. The blue-and-white swallow subsists primarily on a diet of insects, caught in the air; they have been seen to gather where termites swarm. The flight is typically fluttery, and this swallow frequently perches on wires or branches.


The blue-and-white swallow's shallow straw nest is built by both adults in a wide range of natural or man-made cavities include tree holes, rock crevices and bridges. The clutch is up to six white eggs in the south of the range, two or three in the north, which are incubated by both parents for 15 days to hatching. The nestlings are fed by both parents for 26 days to fledging, but return to the nest to sleep with the parents for up to two months. There may be two broods.


Pyracantha coccinea, the scarlet firethorn is the European species of firethorn or red firethorn that has been cultivated in gardens since the late 16th century. The tree has small white flowers. It produces small, bright red berries. Its leaves are slightly toothed and grow opposite to one another. The fruit is bitter and astringent, making it inedible when raw. The fruit can be cooked to make jellies, jams, sauces and marmalade. It ranges from southern Europe to western Asia. It has been introduced to North America and cultivated there as an ornamental plant since the 18th century.
In England, since the late 18th century, it has been used to cover unsightly walls.


Pyracantha coccinea 'Kasan'.
Pyracantha coccinea 'Lalandei'. About 1874, M. Lalande, a nurseryman in Angers, France, selected from seedlings of P. coccinea an improved form, more freely berrying than the type. A sport has produced a yellow-berried form. These, and further selections, have largely ousted the ordinary form from nursery stock.
Pyracantha coccinea 'Sparkler'.


Pyrausta bicoloralis, the bicolored pyrausta moth, is a moth in the family Crambidae. It was described by Achille Guenée in 1854. It is found in North America, where it has been recorded from Nova Scotia south to Florida, west to Michigan and Texas. In the south, the range extends to South America.
The wingspan is 14–19 mm. Adults have a yellow and purple pattern. They are on wing from June to September.


Pyrausta inornatalis, the inornate pyrausta moth, is a moth in the family Crambidae. It was described by Charles H. Fernald in 1885. It is found in United States, where it has been recorded from Arizona, California, Florida, Arkansas, Kansas, Louisiana, Missouri, Oklahoma, Tennessee and Texas. It is also found in Mexico.
The wingspan is about 13 mm. The forewings are uniform light vinous (wine colored) red or reddish pink. The hindwings are pale fuscous, but paler at the base and with vinous red along the outer margin. Adults have been recorded on wing from March to November.
The larval feed on Salvia species, including Salvia farinacea.


Pyrausta laticlavia, the southern purple mint moth,  is a species of moth of the family Crambidae. It is found from New Jersey south to Florida, west to Texas, Oklahoma and California. In California, the species has expanded its range northward into the San Francisco Bay area (1990) and Sacramento Valley (1993) recently.
The wingspan is about 17 mm. The moth flies from June to August depending on the location.
Larvae have been reared on Rosmarinus officinalis.


Pyrausta tyralis, the coffee-loving pyrausta moth, is a moth in the family Crambidae. It was described by Achille Guenée in 1854. It is found in the United States, where it has been recorded from New York to Illinois and from Florida to Arizona. It is also found from Mexico to Venezuela, as well as on the West Indies.
The wingspan is about 17 mm (0.67 in). Adults have been recorded on wing year round.
The larvae feed on Psychotria nervosa, Psychotria undata, Bidens connata and Dahlia species.


Pyrgus malvae, the grizzled skipper, is a butterfly species from the family Hesperiidae. It is a small skipper (butterfly) with a chequered pattern on its wings that appears to be black and white. This butterfly can be found throughout Europe and is common in central and southern regions of England. The butterfly prefers three major types of habitat: woodland, grassland, and industrial. Referenced as a superspecies, Pyrgus malvae includes three semispecies: malvae, malvoides, and melotis. Eggs are laid on plants that will provide warmth and proper nutrition for development. As larvae, their movement is usually restricted to a single plant, on which they will build tents, unless they move onto a second host plant. Larvae then spin cocoons, usually on the last host plant they have occupied, where they remain until spring. Upon emerging as adult butterflies, grizzled skippers are quite active during the day and tend to favour blue or violet-coloured plants for food. They also possess multiple methods of communication; for example, vibrations are used to communicate with ants, and chemical secretions play a role in mating. Exhibiting territorial behaviour, males apply perching and patrolling strategies to mate with a desired female.


In terms of a species complex, Pyrgus malvae is considered a superspecies that consists of three semispecies, which exhibit geographic variations in the genitalia of both male and female butterflies. These three semispecies are considered to be the Pyrgus malvae, Pyrgus malvoides, and Pyrgus melotis types. This classification can also be described as a monophyletic clade. Significant isolation mechanisms exist to accentuate the division between the malvae type and melotis type, more than the difference between the malvae and malvoides types. In fact, interbreeding has been observed between the malvae and malvoides types, indicating their close relation - namely that they are both part of the same species.


With its characteristic chequered black-and-white pattern, the grizzled skipper is quite distinctive. It is small, with an average forewing diameter of 12 millimeters, and closely resembles moths in appearance. Males and females can be differentiated by the shape of their wings: males have slightly more angular wings, while females have a more rounded wing shape. Larvae are coloured green and light brown with darker brown stripes.