Acronicta rumicis, the knot grass moth, is a species of moth which is part of the genus Acronicta and family Noctuidae. It was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae. It is found in the Palearctic region. A. rumicis lives and feeds on plants located in wide-open areas. At its larval stage, as a caterpillar, it causes such a large impact as a crop pest that it has received much attention and research. A. rumicis feeds on maize, strawberries and other herbaceous plants.
The moth's evolution has been affected by the industrial melanism that occurred in Europe during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, causing a dramatic increase in two aberrations (salicin and lugubris), which have darker grey wings. Today, A. rumicis is important to conservation efforts in the United Kingdom, because, like many other species, it is in decline. However, as it is part of a UK Priority Biodiversity Action Plan and receiving greater awareness and conservation, the species may become more abundant.


A. rumicis has a wingspan of 34–44 mm. The forewings are blotched with a mixture of dark and light-grey shades, while the hindwings are dark brown. A white spot is seen midway down the trailing edge of the forewing providing a distinct marker for A. rumicis not seen in other Acronicta moths. Chinese and Japanese moths tend to be larger than their European counterparts. The Asian moths also have lower forewings that have darker shades of grey.


C. rumicis L. (3i). Forewing dark grey, varied in places with whitish; lines and shades black; outer line marked by a white spot on the submedian fold ; hindwings brownish fuscous Larva marbled dark and light grey: a dorsal row of red spots on black blotches, and a row of white spots on each side; a pale line below spiracles, containing orange-red tubercles; segments 5 and 12 of dorsum humped; tubercles with fascicles of fuscous and fulvous hairs— turanica Stgr., a form from Central Asia, is much paler, with the hindwings whitish. — Chinese and Japanese examples (3k) are larger than European and in all cases darker; in particular the lower half of forewing is blacker and the white spot of outer line then often obscured ; possibly the scotch form figured by Curtis as salicis, a melanic form, may represent this aberration, though the larva figured as belonging thereto is unquestionably that of menyanthidis. — ab. alnoides Geest (3k) has the costal half of forewing grey, the inner half blackish, somewhat interrupted with a strong black dagger-shaped mark at base and above anal angle ; superficially resembles a dark grey alni ; recorded from Freiburg in Baden. — ab. euphorbiae Steph. nec. Hbn. is grey brown, with the stigmata and space between them pale; and ab. euphrasiae Steph. nec Dup. is pale yellowish grey with numerous black lines and the orbicular stigma faint or obsolete, occurring in Cornwall.


A. rumicis is a moth of the genus Acronicta and family Noctuidae. Noctuidae has upwards of 21,000 species. Noctuids are commonly known as "owlet moths" because of their large eyes that shine in the dark and the colour of their wings which make them difficult to see. In their usual resting position, noctuids fold their wings back over their bodies; the forewings overlap one another. The closed wings form a tent-like shape. Almost all Acronicta larvae are brightly coloured with spiky brown hairs all along the dorsal side of the body. According to Thomas Algernon Chapman, the genus Acronicta can be split into three major groups: The first, characterized by a hoop-like structure of the pupa and clumped oviposition, includes: A. auricoma, A. myricae, A. menthanthidis, A. venosa, and A. rumicis. The second, characterized by terminal spines of pupa and dome-shaped ova laid apart from others, includes: A. psi, A. tridens, A. strigosa, A. alni, A. megacephala, A. leporina, A. aceris. The third group has only one species, A. ligustri.


A. rumicis is distributed throughout the Palearctic. It is common in northwestern China, the Korean Peninsula, and Japan, although it has also been found in other parts of Eurasia, including Russia. A. rumicis is found in almost all parts of Europe, though it is absent in some areas of north-western Scandinavia. There has been much research about the species in England and Scotland.
These moths tend to spend their lives in plants located in wide-open areas like meadows, woodland clearings, gardens, and hedgerows, generally in non-humid areas.


At the caterpillar stage, A. rumicis tends to feed on low-growing, herbaceous plants, including sorrel, dock, bramble, thistles, hop, and occasionally on the leaves of shrubs. In addition, A. rumicis larvae favour fruit trees like Prunus species and plants of the family Polygonaceae.
In research, one of the most commonly used host plants is Rumex obtusifolius, a herbaceous plant commonly found within A. rumicis's range.


Females tend to lay eggs on leaves of host plants in large clusters. These clusters are arranged in long longitudinal ridges, which originate and spread out on the leaf from the micropylar (ovular) area of the plant. The longest ridges tend to be in a zigzag formation. The eggs have a flattened shape, making clustering and clumping easier.


A. rumicis species generally have two broods: the first generation flies in May and June, while the second flies in August and September. However, the number of generations can differ based on location; in southern Europe, it tends to have three broods, while in the north, it has only one, most likely due to diapause. The number of broods may be determined by the duration of light and temperature ranges. The larvae tend to feed from the summer onwards until winter, during which A. rumicis spend its time in the pupae stage in cocoons.


Eggs are laid in clusters, in almost regular, overlapping rows on host plants. The egg stage lasts about 5 to 10 days. The eggs have a round flattened shape like a sand dollar and has a micropylar area that has 20 long ridges that radiate from the center, almost like a child's drawing of a sun and its rays. The flattened structure allows for stability while resting on the host plant.


When larvae hatch, they tend to nibble out the round opening of the egg. Usually, A. rumicis larvae are ready to pupate after 30 days. They tend to be about 40 mm long, having dark brown bodies, with white spots along both sides of the body and red spots along the centre of the back. Body hairs grow in tufts, arranged in rows: two rows along each side of the body and one row along the centre of the back.


Once the winter months near, fully grown caterpillars pupate in cocoons on leaves or leaf litter. The cocoon has tough white silk with one simple layer of grass, twigs, or leaves for better concealment from predators.


Adult moths tend to emerge in June but can also appear in earlier months if the weather is consistently warm.


Although the general cause of trouble in the life of A. rumicis is parasitism via parasitoids, another group of predators includes small birds. These birds, like the great spotted woodpecker, tend to breed and nest in agricultural regions. In one study from Slovenia, the birds were nested in a hop field. Hop is a popular food resource for A. rumicis, while caterpillars are the primary food source for these birds.


Parasitism in A. rumicis generally occurs in the months of May and October. Rates are lower in the months of June and July for reasons yet unknown. Most parasitoids affecting A. rumicis are parasitic wasps in the Braconidae and Ichneumonidae families, as well as parasitic flies.
One of the most common parasitoids of A. rumicis is Glyptapanteles liparidis, a larval parasitoid that is highly distributed throughout Eurasia. G. liparidis oviposits on the surface of the moth larvae; once hatched, the wasp larvae feed on the A. rumicis larvae and eventually cause death.
Based on one study in South Korea, G. liparidis affects A. rumicis in its first, second, third, and fourth instar. The same study also discovered that the second-instar larvae were apparently the best food source for this parasitoid, as the second-instar larvae had the highest mortality rate in comparison to the other three larval stages. As the G. liparidis continuously grows and utilizes the resources produced internally by A. rumicis larvae, the feeding habits of these larvae change as well. On average, parasitized larvae consume more plant material than those not parasitized; the second instar larvae tend to consume the most food in comparison to the first, third, and fourth instars, supporting the idea that most G. liparidis feed most efficiently on the second instar larvae of A. rumicis.


Industrial melanism exists within the species, meaning the moths evolved during the industrial period in England when dark soot was deposited into the environment. The aberration salicis Curtis, which is commonly found throughout the moth's distribution range, has darker grey-blotched sections on wings and retains the A. rumicis identifying marker, the white spot on its forewings. Aberration salicis is commonly found distributed in England, Wales, and Ireland.
The aberration lugubris Schultz is almost completely black, lacking the mixed-grey mottling on the wings, but still retains the prominent white spot marker on its forewings. Aberration lugubris can be found mainly in England. According to B.K. West, since the late 1990s, melanism in A. rumicis has become less and less prevalent; in 1995, about 20% of A. rumicis were observed to be melanic, but over the course of five years the percentage decreased to 6.1%. By 2004, only 2.8% of population were melanic. With the industrial period in the past and resting surfaces less darkened by soot, it is reasonable to see that evolutionarily, the melanic variations are no longer as favourable.


In A. rumicis, duration of light and temperature are two major factors causing diapause, the slowing or stopping of development in an insect when environmental conditions are not optimal. In one study, the onset of diapause was observed after varying photoperiods, while constantly rearing A. rumicis larvae at 27-28 °C. When A. rumicis were exposed to light on a short day, or 6–15 hours in the experiment, during the larval feeding period, almost all individuals underwent diapause after reaching pupal stage. As the daily photoperiods extended past 17 hours, the incidence of diapause began to drop, not causing any change to the development of the pupae in the cocoon.
The ability of A. rumicis to undergo diapause allows for the completion of two generations while its host plants are available. The first generation develops under longer photoperiods, therefore the pupae are physiologically active, while the second generation grow under shorter photoperiods, meaning it is more beneficial for pupae to form diapause as they overwinter through the cold.


A. rumicis is a minor pest of various of fruit plants, mostly strawberries. However, they can also cause damage to blackberry, raspberry, loganberry, apple, pear, and cherry. Usually the larvae cause defoliation as they feed on the newly grown leaves. A. rumicis also attacks beans, ground nuts, wheat, maize, brassicas, and others.
According to a study in Poland, A. rumicis has also taken over maize populations, feeding until the leaves of the corn plants are no longer fresh and new because of the shift into harvesting season. During the spring and summer, the larvae of these moths damages both the leaves and silks of the cobs, occasionally eating soft kernels as well. When the second brood came in the fall, they only ate the leaves. This study in Poland further supports that A. rumicis larva prefer to eat fresh and newly grown leaves.


Overall, the population of A. rumicis is in a sharp decline. Focusing on the moths in the United Kingdom, current research suggests that moths are in danger due to habitat loss, poor habitat management, global warming, and environmental deterioration from pesticides and pollution. Since 1969, the population of A. rumicis has declined by nearly 75%. Recently, A. rumicis was assigned as a Priority Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) species, meaning the moth was identified as most threatened and will immediately be part of conservation efforts.
Researchers are realizing that the conservation of woodland areas is a high priority, in order to sustain as many populations of BAP species as possible; they also found a positive correlation between the species richness of herbaceous plants and the population density of moths.


According to Emma Coulthard, hedgerows in close proximity to crop plants and farmlands are highly important to the survival of moths like A. rumicis. Habitats like hedgerows tend to provide food resources, shelter, and a place for females to lay eggs. In addition, recent studies have shown that hedgerows may act as guides for moths when flying from one location to another. As moths are nocturnal, it is highly unlikely that they use visual aids as guides, but rather are following olfactory markers.
However, recently, hedgerows have been removed to increase agricultural efficiency. Removing key habitats like hedgerows not only limits the basic necessities of survival (i.e. food, shelter), but also prevents the moth from navigating properly; eventually, the moth would lose its trail and then potentially die. Even the smallest gaps between two bunches of hedgerows can cause a moth to go astray; one metre of no hedgerow can make an impact. Therefore, it is crucial for agriculturalists to figure out a way to pursue their plans while conserving the homes of moths like A. rumicis.


Acronicta superans, the splendid dagger moth, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. The species was first described by Achille Guenée in 1852.
The wingspan is 40–45 mm. Adults are on wing from May to August depending on the location.


Acronicta vinnula, the delightful dagger moth, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. It is found from Nova Scotia to Florida, west to Texas, north to Wisconsin and Ontario.
The wingspan is 28–32 mm. Adults are on wing from April to August depending on the location. There are at least two generations per year.
The larvae feed on the leaves of elm.


These subspecies belong to the species Acronicta vinnula:
Acronicta vinnula vinnula
Acronicta vinnula paupercula Grote, 1874
Acronicta vinnula floridensis


Actaea pachypoda, the white baneberry or doll's-eyes, is a species of flowering plant in the genus Actaea, of the family Ranunculaceae.
The plant is native to eastern North America, in eastern Canada, and the Midwestern and Eastern United States. It prefers clay to coarse loamy upland soils, and is found in hardwood and mixed forest stands.


This herbaceous perennial plant grows to 50 cm (1.6 ft) or more tall. It has toothed, bipinnate compound leaves up to 40 cm (16 in) long and 30 cm (12 in) broad.
The white flowers are produced in spring in a dense raceme about 108 cm (43 in)  long. Its most striking feature is its fruit, a 1 cm (1⁄2 in) diameter white berry, whose size, shape, and black stigma scar give the species its other common name, "doll's eyes". The pedicels on which the berries grow are thicker than those of the related species, red baneberry (Actaea rubra). This is the reason for the specific name pachypoda, which means "thick foot", from Ancient Greek παχύς pakhús "thick" and πούς poús "foot". The pedicels thicken and become bright red as the berries develop.
The berries ripen over the summer, turning into fruits that persists on the plant until frost.
There are pink- and red-berried plants that have been called A. pachypoda forma rubrocarpa, but some of them produce infertile seed, and may actually be hybrids with Actaea rubra.


Both the berries and the entire plant are considered poisonous to humans. The berries contain cardiogenic toxins which can have an immediate sedative effect on human cardiac muscle tissue, and are the most poisonous part of the plant. Ingestion of the berries can lead to cardiac arrest and death.
The berries are harmless to birds, the plant's primary seed dispersers.


Actaea pachypoda is cultivated as an ornamental plant, in traditional and wildlife gardens.
It requires part or full shade, rich loamy soil, and regular water with good drainage to reproduce its native habitat.


Actaea racemosa, the black cohosh, black bugbane, black snakeroot, or fairy candle (syn. Cimicifuga racemosa), is a species of flowering plant of the family Ranunculaceae. It is native to eastern North America from the extreme south of Ontario to central Georgia, and west to Missouri and Arkansas. It grows in a variety of woodland habitats, and is often found in small woodland openings. The roots and rhizomes were used in traditional medicine by Native Americans. Its extracts are manufactured as herbal medicines or dietary supplements. Thereof, most of the dietary supplements containing black cohosh are not well-studied or recommended for safe and effective use in treating menopause symptoms or any disease. In contrast, some herbal medicinal products containing black cohosh extract hold a marketing authorization in several states of the European Union are well-studied and recommended for safe and effective use for the relief of menopausal symptoms (i.e. in the years around menopause) such as hot flushes and profuse sweating attacks. Such differentiation between the product types seems to be important.


The plant species has a history of taxonomic uncertainty dating back to Carl Linnaeus, who—on the basis of morphological characteristics of the inflorescence and seeds—had placed the species into the genus Actaea. This designation was later revised by Thomas Nuttall reclassifying the species to the genus Cimicifuga. Nuttall's classification was based solely on the dry follicles produced by black cohosh, which are typical of species in Cimicifuga. However, recent data from morphological and gene phylogeny analyses demonstrate that black cohosh is more closely related to species of the genus Actaea than to other Cimicifuga species. This has prompted the revision to Actaea racemosa as originally proposed by Linnaeus. Blue cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides), despite its similar common name belongs to another family, the Berberidaceae, is not closely related to black cohosh, and may be unsafe if used together.


Black cohosh is a smooth (glabrous) herbaceous perennial plant that produces large, compound leaves from an underground rhizome, reaching a height of 25–60 cm (9.8–23.6 in). The basal leaves are up to 1 m (3 ft 3 in) long and broad, forming repeated sets of three leaflets (tripinnately compound) having a coarsely toothed (serrated) margin.
The flowers are produced in late spring and early summer on a tall stem, 75–250 cm (30–98 in) tall, forming racemes up to 50 cm (20 in) long. The flowers have no petals or sepals, and consist of tight clusters of 55–110 white, 5–10 mm (0.20–0.39 in) long stamens surrounding a white stigma. The flowers have a distinctly sweet, fetid smell that attracts flies, gnats, and beetles.
The fruit is a dry follicle 5–10 mm (0.20–0.39 in) long, with one carpel, containing several seeds.


A. racemosa grows in dependably moist, fairly heavy soil. It bears tall tapering racemes of white midsummer flowers on wiry black-purple stems, whose mildly unpleasant, medicinal smell at close range gives it the common name "Bugbane". The drying seed heads stay handsome in the garden for many weeks. Its deeply cut leaves, burgundy colored in the variety "atropurpurea", add interest to gardens, wherever summer heat and drought do not make it die back, which make it a popular garden perennial. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


Native Americans used black cohosh to treat gynecological and other disorders. Following the arrival of European settlers in the U.S. who continued the use of black cohosh, the plant appeared in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia under the name "black snakeroot". In the 19th century, the root was used to treat snakebite, inflamed lungs, and pain from childbirth.


Extracts from the underground parts of the plant—the rhizome (Cimicifugae racemosae rhizoma) and the root (Cimicifugae racemosae radix)—are used medicinally. The rhizomes and roots contain various saponins (triterpene saponins/triterpene glycosides such as actein) as well as cimifugic acids and other phenol carboxylic acids. The active substance comprises the total extract.
In most European countries, China, Malaysia, Thailand, Argentina and some other countries, black cohosh products are available as herbal medicinal products which have been approved by regulatory authorities ensuring reliable pharmaceutical quality, safety and efficacy for the relief of menopausal complaints such as hot flushes and profuse sweating. In the U.S., India, and some other countries, black cohosh is used as a dietary supplement marketed mainly to women for treating menopausal symptoms and other gynecological problems. Meta-analyses of contemporary evidence support these claims on menopausal complaints only for products holding a marketing authorization for this indication, whereas there is no high-quality scientific evidence to support such uses for other products.
For authorized herbal medicinal products made from C. racemosa, some clinical study evidence shows supplemental beneficial effects on sleep disorders associated with hot flushes and profuse sweating attacks.
A review published by Cochrane in 2012 was rather cautious with previous results and the efficacy of Cimicifuga preparations for menopausal symptoms. The Cochrane review included and compared preparations of greatly varying qualities (namely tested medicinal products, products without marketing approval as well as dietary supplements); the indications for use also varied. Additionally, studies were included that were conducted with products from unidentified black cohosh varieties. At the same time, several published studies were not even considered or were excluded without justification.
Exhaustive meta-analyses have proven the efficacy of Cimicifuga medicinal products for menopausal symptoms, in particular those with an isopropanolic extract. A review from 2013 was the first to include all full publications from 2000 to 2012 and differentiate between the Cimicifuga preparations by type of extract, status, and indication. According to this review, only standardized, tested, and approved medicinal products could provide evidence (rational phytotherapy) and a positive risk-benefit profile. More recent studies with an ethanolic extract also demonstrated a positive impact on medium- and long-term menopausal effects such as weight gain and metabolic disorders.
Medicinal products that contain an isopropanolic Cimicifuga extract are also suitable for patients who suffer from menopausal symptoms after breast cancer therapy, the women only need to talk to their attending physician first. Relapse-free survival is not impaired; if anything, Cimicifuga may promote relapse-free survival.


The Herbal Medicinal Product Committee (HMPC) at the European Medicines Agency (EMA) has summarized the adverse drug reactions of herbal medicines made from cimicifuga with mentioning allergic skin reactions (urticaria, itching, exanthema), facial oedema and peripheral oedema, and gastrointestinal symptoms (i.e. dyspeptic disorders, diarrhoea).
Studies on the long-term safety of using herbal medicines made from black cohosh are available. They do not show harmful effects on breast tissue, endometrium or breast cancer survivors. In contrast, such studies have not been published for dietary supplements made from black cohosh. Most black cohosh materials are harvested from the wild. Lack of proper authentication and adulteration of commercial preparations by other plant species are risk factors in dietary supplements and a critical matter of quality control in herbal medicinal products holding a marketing authorization. Very high doses of black cohosh may cause nausea, dizziness, visual effects, a lower heart rate, and increased perspiration.
Worldwide, some 83 cases of liver damage, including hepatitis, liver failure, and elevated liver enzymes, have been associated with using black cohosh, although a cause-and-effect relationship remains undefined. Millions of women have taken black cohosh without reporting adverse health effects, and a meta-analysis of clinical trials found no evidence that black cohosh preparations had adverse effects on liver function. Package leaflets of phytomedicines made from black cohosh caution that people with liver problems should not take it, although a 2011 meta-analysis of research evidence suggested this concern may be unfounded. In 2007, the Australian Government warned that black cohosh may cause liver damage, although rarely, and should not be used without medical supervision. Other studies concluded that liver damage from use of black cohosh is unlikely. The clinical picture is similar to an autoimmune hepatitis with centrilobular liver cell necrosis, which can be treated with corticosteroids.


The rhizomes and roots of black cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa rhizoma) contain diverse phytochemicals, particularly various saponins (triterpene saponins/triterpene glycosides such as actein) as well as cimifugic acids and other phenol carboxylic acids. The pharmacologically active substance comprises the total extract. In the past, estrogen-like properties were attributed to preparations from this herbal drug. However, formonetin—a phytoestrogen compound (isoflavone)—could only be detected in methanolic extracts and was not found in ethanolic or isopropanolic cimicifuga extracts. Today, an estrogen-like mechanism of action can be ruled out. Regarding the alleviation of menopausal symptoms, central nervous activity was suspected as early as 2003, and it has since been confirmed with preclinical and clinical data.


Actaea spicata, the baneberry or herb Christopher, is a species of flowering plant in the genus Actaea, native from Europe to western Siberia and northern Iran. It is often found on limestone edges and in deciduous woodland; key factors are shade, low competition, and a cool, protected root run.


Actaea spicata is a herbaceous perennial plant growing up to 65 cm (2 ft 2 in) tall. The basal leaves are large, biternate or bipinnate. The leaflets are more-or-less toothed. The flowers are white, with 3–6 petaloid sepals, and are produced in an erect raceme. The fruit is a berry, black when ripe and 10–13 mm (0.4–0.5 in) across.


Actaea spicata was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753. Two varieties have been recognized:
Actaea spicata var. spicata. Europe, northwestern Asia.
Actaea spicata var. acuminata (syn. A. acuminata). Pakistan, India and the Himalayas, above 2000 m altitude.


Actaea spicata is cultivated as an ornamental plant. It is toxic by ingestion, and is also an irritant, so requires careful handling. It has been used as a homeopathic remedy for arthritis and joint pain.


The common sandpiper (Actitis hypoleucos) is a small Palearctic wader. This bird and its American sister species, the spotted sandpiper (A. macularia), make up the genus Actitis. They are parapatric and replace each other geographically; stray birds of either species may settle down with breeders of the other and hybridize. Hybridization has also been reported between the common sandpiper and the green sandpiper, a basal species of the closely related shank genus Tringa.


The common sandpiper was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Tringa hypoleucos. The species is now placed together with the spotted sandpiper in the genus Actitis that was introduced in 1811 by the German zoologist Johann Karl Wilhelm Illiger. The genus name Actitis is from Ancient Greek aktites meaning "coast-dweller" from akte meaning "coast". The specific epithet hypoleucos combines the Ancient Greek hupo meaning "beneath" with leukos meaning "white". The species is monotypic: no subspecies are recognised.


The adult is 18–20 cm (7.1–7.9 in) long with a 32–35 cm (13–14 in) wingspan. It has greyish-brown upperparts, white underparts, short dark-yellowish legs and feet, and a bill with a pale base and dark tip. In winter plumage, they are duller and have more conspicuous barring on the wings, though this is still only visible at close range. Juveniles are more heavily barred above and have buff edges to the wing feathers.
This species is very similar to the slightly larger spotted sandpiper (A. macularia) in non-breeding plumage. But its darker legs and feet and the crisper wing pattern (visible in flight) tend to give it away, and of course they are only rarely found in the same location.


The common sandpiper breeds across most of temperate and subtropical Europe and Asia, and migrates to Africa, southern Asia and Australia in winter. The eastern edge of its migration route passes by Palau in Micronesia, where hundreds of birds may gather for a stop-over. They depart the Palau region for their breeding quarters around the last week of April to the first week of May.


It is a gregarious bird and is seen in large flocks, and has the distinctive stiff-winged flight, low over the water, of Actitis waders.


The common sandpiper forages by sight on the ground or in shallow water, picking up small food items such as insects, crustaceans and other invertebrates; it may even catch insects in flight.


The spotted sandpiper (Actitis macularius) is a small shorebird. Together with its sister species the common sandpiper (A. hypoleucos), it makes up the genus Actitis. They replace each other geographically; stray birds may settle down with breeders of the other species and hybridize.


The spotted sandpiper was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1766 in the twelfth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Tringa macularia. The type locality is Pennsylvania. The species is now placed together with common sandpiper in the genus Actitis that was introduced in 1811 by the German zoologist Johann Illiger. The genus name Actitis is from Ancient Greek aktites meaning "coast-dweller" from akte meaning "coast". The specific epithet macularius is Latin meaning "spotted". The species is monotypic: no subspecies are recognised.


Adults have short yellowish legs and an orange bill with a dark tip. The body is brown on top and white underneath with black spots. These spots vary in degree over the course of spotted sandpipers' lives, becoming especially prevalent around the breeding season. The overall health of spotted sandpipers may be suggested by the "spottiness" of an individual. Generally, females with more "spottiness" were healthier than those who did not have as many spots. The condition of males based on the amount of spots they exhibit is yet to be determined. Additionally, spot size gets smaller and the spot shape becomes more irregularly shaped as age increases. Spotted sandpipers also feature a white supercilium.
Non-breeding birds, depicted below, do not have the spotted underparts, and are very similar to the common sandpiper of Eurasia; the main difference is the more washed-out wing pattern visible in flight and the normally light yellow legs and feet of the spotted sandpiper. The Actitis species have a distinctive stiff-winged flight low over the water. They also have a distinctive walk in which their tails bob up and down. Males and females exhibit similar physical measurements, but differ in weight; females tend to be about 20-25% heavier than males.
Measurements:
Length: 7.1-7.9 in (18–20 cm)
Weight: 1.2-1.8 oz (34-50 g)
Wingspan: 14.6-15.8 in (37–40 cm)


Spotted sandpipers are a philopatric species. Their breeding habitat is near fresh water across most of Canada and the United States. They migrate to the southern United States, the Caribbean, and South America, and are very rare vagrants to western Europe. These are not gregarious birds, and are seldom seen in flocks. Spotted sandpipers are the most widespread species of their kind in North America due to their high breeding rates and their ability to adapt to various environmental pressures.


Breeding grounds are chosen based on various environmental factors, but tend to be in the proximity of bodies of water that offer some coverage from vegetation. Successful breeding sites may be used repeatedly until either the site becomes physically unsuitable (from overgrown vegetation or flooding) or predation becomes too severe. The females usually arrive at breeding grounds before the males do and establish their territories. Males arrive to breeding sites later, but it is uncertain whether or not they will arrive to the same breeding sites that some females have chosen. The search for mates amongst female spotted sandpipers is much more competitive than finding potential mates is for males.
During each summer breeding season, females may mate with and lay clutches for more than one male, leaving incubation to them. This is called polyandry. Male spotted sandpipers take care of the offspring, both before and after the offspring hatch. They will incubate their eggs for about 20–23 days. Male parents of first clutches may father chicks in later male's clutches, probably due to sperm storage within female reproductive tracts, which is common in birds. Females that fail to find additional mates usually help incubate and rear chicks. "Prior to incubation, blood plasma concentrations of testosterone and dihydrotestosterone are substantially higher in males than in females" and these levels plummet 25-fold in males as incubation proceeds. Additionally, mated females have testosterone concentrations that are 7 times higher than those of unmated females. Due to their polyandrous behavior, spotted sandpipers tend to produce more offspring compared to other species of sandpipers.


These birds forage on ground or water, picking up food by sight. They may also catch insects in flight. They eat insects (such as flies, beetles, grasshoppers, mayflies, midges, crickets and caterpillars), crustaceans and other invertebrates (such as spiders, snails, other molluscs and worms), as well as small fish and carrion. As they forage, they can be recognized by their constant nodding and teetering.


The main predators of spotted sandpipers include raptors, mustelids, mice, and gulls. Most of these predators target the sandpipers' chicks and eggs.


Although there has been some decline in the population of spotted sandpipers, their conservation status is currently of least concern. However, the decrease of spotted sandpipers is not projected to slow or stop in the future. The destruction of their natural habitats due to increasing wildfires causes problems for breeding and raising offspring. Additionally, the gradual increase in temperatures poses a problem for newborn sandpipers.


Aculops rhois, the poison ivy gall mite, is a species of Eriophyid mite found in North America. They form galls in poison ivy as well as other members of North American Toxicodendron and some species of Rhus (including fragrant sumac).


Poison ivy gall mites form small red pouch galls on the upper surface of the leaves of their host. The mites themselves are extremely small and are usually found in the interior of the pouch (on the underside). The bright coloration they create in their host plant, however, makes this species fairly conspicuous and easy to detect compared to other members of Aculops (such as Aculops ailanthii in trees-of-heaven). Due to this, this species is one of the more widely reported species in its genus although like many of its relatives it is still poorly known.


Adalia bipunctata is a small Coccinellid that can feature any one of a large selection of red and black forms. Some forms are similar to Mulsantina picta, but the two white spots on the head of Adalia (in contrast with a large white region or more than two spots) readily separate it. Additionally Adalia is entirely black on the ventral surface with black legs, which helps rule out any other options.
The two-spotted ladybird is highly variable in many parts of its native range. The most familiar form, form typica with two black spots on a red base, is common throughout. A melanistic form that is black with four or six red spots is uncommon, but not rare, while the truly melanistic form purpurea is exceedingly rare. In North America the species shows the most variation, with several forms that do not occur elsewhere including a spotless form, a four-banded form, a nine to twelve spotted form, and a "cross-hatched" form. In addition, there are intermediate forms such as form annulata, but they occur rarely.


The two-spotted lady beetle's life cycle starts with eggs that are usually laid in clutches. The larva hatches from the egg by biting a hole in it. The larva looks very different from an adult; it has an elongated, grey, soft body with six legs but no wings. They are cannibalistic. A larva goes through four larval stages: by eating it grows and at some point it sheds its old skin and appears in a new one in which it can grow more. The last larval stage is approximately the size of an adult beetle. Once it has eaten enough, the larva attaches itself to a substrate and moults into a pupa. Inside the pupa, the adult develops. Finally the adult ecloses from the pupa.


Adansonia digitata, the African baobab, is the most widespread tree species of the genus Adansonia, the baobabs, and is native to the African continent and the southern Arabian Peninsula (Yemen, Oman). These are long-lived pachycauls; radiocarbon dating has shown some individuals to be over 2,000 years old. They are typically found in dry, hot savannas of sub-Saharan Africa, where they dominate the landscape and reveal the presence of a watercourse from afar. They have traditionally been valued as sources of food, water, health remedies or places of shelter and are a key food source for many animals. They are steeped in legend and superstition. In recent years, many of the largest, oldest trees have died, possibly due to climate change. Common names for the baobab include monkey-bread tree, upside-down tree, and cream of tartar tree.


African baobabs are trees that often grow as solitary individuals, and are large and distinctive elements of savanna or scrubland vegetation. They grow from 5–25 metres (16–82 feet) tall. The trunk is typically very broad and fluted or cylindrical, often with a buttressed, spreading base. Trunks may reach a diameter of 10–14 m (33–46 ft), and may be made up of multiple stems fused around a hollow core. The hollow core found in many tree species is the result of wood removal, such as decay of the oldest, internal part of the trunk. In baobabs, however, many of the largest and oldest of the trees have a hollow core that is the result of a fused circle of three to eight stems sprouting from roots. The bark is gray and usually smooth. The main branches can be massive. All baobabs are deciduous, losing their leaves in the dry season, and remaining leafless for about eight months of the year. Flowers are large, white and hanging. Fruits are rounded with a thick shell.
The leaves are palmately compound with 5 to 7 (sometimes up to 9) leaflets in mature trees, but seedlings and regenerating shoots may have simple leaves. The transition to compound leaves comes with age and may be gradual. African baobabs produce simple leaves much longer than most other Adansonia species. Leaflets are stalkless (sessile) to short-stalked and size is variable.
Flowering occurs in both the dry and the wet season. Buds are rounded with a cone-shaped tip. Flowers are showy and sometimes paired, but usually produced singly at the end of a hanging stalk about  15–90 centimetres (6–35+1⁄2 inches) in length. The calyx is typically made up of 5 (sometimes 3) green triangular bent-back lobes (sepals) with a cream-coloured, hairy interior. The petals are white, roughly the same width and length – up to 8 cm (3 in), and are crumpled in bud. Flowers open during the late afternoon, staying open and fertile for only one night. The fresh flowers have a sweet scent, but after about 24 hours, they start to turn brown and emit a carrion smell. The androecium is white and made up of a 3–6 cm (1+1⁄4–2+1⁄4 in) long tube of fused stamens (a staminal tube) surrounded by unfused (free) filaments 3–5 cm long. There are a large number of stamens, 720–1,600 per flower, with reports of up to 2,000. Styles are white, growing through the staminal tube and projecting beyond it. They are usually bent at right-angles and topped with an irregular stigma. Pollen grains are spherical with spikes over the surface, typical of the Malvaceae family. Pollen grain diameter is around 50 microns.
All Adansonia develop large rounded indehiscent fruits which can be up to 25 cm (10 in) long with a woody outer shell. African baobab fruits are quite variable in shape, from nearly round to cylindrical. The shell is 6–10 millimetres (1⁄4–3⁄8 in) thick. Inside is a fleshy, light beige coloured pulp. As it dries, the pulp hardens into a crumbly powder. The seeds are hard and kidney-shaped with a .06-mm-thick coat. They show long-term dormancy, only germinating after fire or passing thru an animal’s digestive tract. It is thought that this is because the seed coat needs to be cracked or thinned to allow to water to penetrate before the seed can germinate.


Baobab trees store water in their trunks and branches on a seasonal basis as they live in areas of sustained drought and water inaccessibility. The spongy material of the bark allows water to be absorbed deeper into the tissue, as there is rarely enough rain during the wet season to penetrate the litter layer of soil. The U-shaped branches allow for water to trickle down, allowing for maximum absorption over an extended period of time even after the rain stops. The water is absorbed into the vascular tissue of the tree, where it can be moved into the tree's parenchyma cells for long-term storage, or used.
During the dry season, the trees will flush out all of their leaves. During this period, the circumference of the trunk will shrink about 2–3 cm and the water content of the stem will drop by about 10%. Dropping leaves during the dry season is done to prevent water loss through transpiration out of the stomata, which would cause the water potentials in the vascular tissue to drop too low and pull water out of the vacuoles in the parenchyma cells. This would lead to the parenchyma cells, which make up the majority of the trunk and branches, to plasmolyze destroying the tree.
The water in storage cells is structurally important, which limits their ability to use mass quantities of stored water in times of drought. Baobab trees have much higher water and parenchyma content than most trees, this allows them to grow very large with less energy expenditure. Parenchyma are soft plant tissue cells that are commonly used for water storage in other drought tolerant species like cactus and succulents. The water fluxes from the vascular tissue into the parenchyma cells at the center of the tree with the help of actively transported ions. The ion flux into the cell will shift the concentration gradients, causing water to rush into the cells for long term storage.
Another reason why the water in the trunk can only be used as a buffer for long-term deficits is the distance between the vascular tissue and the parenchyma. The transportation of water from the vascular tissue into storage cells is a very slow process as it is a high-resistance path. The water in the cells at the core of the trunk and the branches would take too much energy from the tree to move back into the vascular tissue for daily use.


The growth rate of baobab trees is determined by ground water or rainfall. The trees produce faint growth rings, but counting growth rings is not a reliable way to age baobabs because some years a tree will form multiple rings and some year none.
Radiocarbon dating has provided data on a few individual A. digitata specimens. The Panke baobab in Zimbabwe was some 2,450 years old when it died in 2011, making it the oldest angiosperm ever documented, and two other trees—Dorslandboom in Namibia and Glencoe in South Africa—were estimated to be approximately 2,000 years old. Another specimen known as Grootboom was dated after it died and found to be at least 1,275 years old. Baobabs may be so long-lived in part due to their ability to periodically sprout new stems.


The scientific name Adansonia refers to the French explorer and botanist, Michel Adanson (1727–1806), who wrote the first botanical description for the full species. "Digitata" refers to the digits of the hand, as the baobab has compound leaves with normally five (but up to seven) leaflets, akin to a hand. A. digitata is the type species for the genus Adansonia and is the only species in the section Adansonia. All species of Adansonia except A. digitata are diploid; A. digitata is tetraploid. Some populations of African baobab have significant genetic differences and it has been suggested that the taxon contains more than one species. For example, the shape of the fruit varies considerably from region to region. In Angola, the fruits are elongated, rather than round.
A proposed new species (Adansonia kilima Pettigrew, et al.), was described in 2012, found in high-elevation sites in eastern and southern Africa. This is now however no longer recognized as a distinct species but considered a synonym of A. digitata. Some high-elevation trees in Tanzania show different genetics and morphology but further study is needed to determine if they should be considered a separate species.


The earliest written reports of African baobab are from a 14th-century travelogue by the Arab traveler Ibn Batuta. The first botanical description was by Alpino (1592) looking at fruits that he observed in Egypt from an unknown source. They were called Bahobab, possibly from the Arabic "bu hibab," meaning "many-seeded fruit". The French explorer and botanist, Michel Adanson observed a baobab tree in 1749 on the island of Sor, Senegal and wrote the first detailed botanical description of the full tree, accompanied with illustrations. Recognizing the connection to the fruit described by Alpino he called the genus Baobab. Linnaeus later renamed the genus Adansonia, to honour Adason, but use of baobab as one of the common names has persisted. Additional common names include monkey-bread tree (the soft, dry fruit is edible), upside-down tree (the sparse branches resemble roots), and cream of tartar tree (cream of tartar) because of the powdery fruit pulp.


The African Baobab is associated with tropical savannahs. It is found in drier climates, is sensitive to water logging and frost and is not found in areas where sand is deep. It is native to mainland Africa, between the latitudes 16° N and 26° S. Some references consider it as introduced to Yemen and Oman while others consider it native there. The tree has also been introduced to many other regions including Australia and Asia.
The northern limit of its distribution in Africa is associated with rainfall patterns; only on the Atlantic coast and in the Sudanian savanna does its occurrence venture naturally into the Sahel. On the Atlantic coast, this may be due to spreading after cultivation. Its occurrence is very limited in Central Africa, and it is found only in the very north of South Africa. In East Africa, the trees grow also in shrublands and on the coast. In Angola and Namibia, the baobabs grow in woodlands, and in coastal regions, in addition to savannas. The African Bayobab is native to Mauritania, Senegal, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Niger, Nigeria, northern Cameroon, Chad, Sudan, Congo Republic, DR Congo (formerly Zaire), Eritrea, Ethiopia, southern Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Mozambique, Angola, São Tomé, Príncipe, Annobon, South Africa (in Limpopo province, north of the Soutpansberg mountain range), Namibia, Botswana. It is an introduced species in Java, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Philippines, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Venezuela, Seychelles, Comoros, India, Guangdong, Fujian, Yunnan and has been planted in Penang, Malaysia, along certain streets. Arab traders introduced it to northwestern Madagascar where baobab trees were often planted at the center of villages.


All baobabs are deciduous, losing their leaves in the dry season, and remaining leafless for about eight months of the year. The African baobab is largely found in savannah habitats, which tend to be fire-prone. Adaptations to survive frequent fires include a thick and fire-resistant bark and thick-shelled fruit. Trees older than about 15 years have thick enough bark to withstand the heat of most savannah fires, while younger trees can resprout after fire. The thick outer shell of the fruit may serve to protect the seeds.
Pollination in the African baobab is achieved primarily by fruit bats, in West Africa mainly the straw-coloured fruit bat, Gambian epauletted fruit bat, and the Egyptian fruit bat. The flowers are also visited by bush babies, galagos, and several kinds of insect.
With their hard coat, baobab seeds can withstand drying and remain viable over long periods. The fruits are eaten by many species and the germination potential is improved when seeds have passed through the digestive tract of an animal or have been subjected to fire. Elephants and baboons are main dispersal agents and so the seeds can potentially be dispersed over long distances. The fruits float and the seeds are waterproof, so African bayobabs may also be spread by water. Some aspects of the baobab's reproductive biology are not yet understood but it is thought that pollen from another tree may be required to develop fertile seed. Isolated trees without a pollen source from another tree do form fruit, only to abort them at a later stage. The existence of some very isolated trees may then be due to their ability to disperse long distances but self-incompatibility.
The fruit, bark, roots and leaves are a key food source for many animals and the trees themselves are an important source of shade and shelter.


The baobab is a protected tree in South Africa, and yet is threatened by various mining and development activities. In the Sahel, the effects of drought, desertification and over-use of the fruit have been cited as causes for concern. As of March 2022 African baobab is not yet classified by the IUCN Red List, although there is evidence that populations may be declining. Many of the largest and oldest African baobabs have died in recent years. Greenhouse gases, climate change, and global warming appear to be factors reducing baobab longevity.


People have traditionally valued the trees as sources of food, water, health remedies or places of shelter. The baobab is a traditional food plant in Africa, but is little-known elsewhere. Adanson concluded that the baobab, of all the trees he studied, "is probably the most useful tree in all." He consumed baobab juice twice a day while in Africa, and was convinced that it maintained his health. According to a modern field guide, the juice can help cure diarrhoea.
The roots and fruits are edible. The fruit has been suggested to have the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development and support sustainable land care. In Sudan – where the tree is called tebeldi تبلدي – people make tabaldi juice by soaking and dissolving the dry pulp of the fruit in water, locally known as gunguleiz. Water can also be extracted from some of the trunks.
Baobab leaves can be eaten as a relish. Young fresh leaves are cooked in a sauce and sometimes are dried and powdered. The powder is called lalo in Mali and sold in many village markets in Western Africa. The leaves are used in the preparation of a soup termed miyan kuka in Northern Nigeria and are rich in phytochemicals and minerals. The seeds can be pounded into a flour or to extract oil for cooking.
Baobab leaves are sometimes used as forage for ruminants in dry season. The oilmeal, which is a byproduct of oil extraction, can also be used as animal feed.
The fiber of the bark can be used to make cloth. In times of drought, elephants consume the juicy wood beneath the bark of the baobab.


In 2008, the European Union approved the use and consumption of baobab fruit. It is commonly used as an ingredient in smoothies and cereal bars. In 2009, the United States Food and Drug Administration granted generally recognized as safe status to baobab dried fruit pulp as a food ingredient.


Along the Zambezi, the tribes believed that baobabs were upright and too proud. The gods became angry and uprooted them and threw them back into the ground upside-down. Evil spirits now cause bad luck to anyone that picks up the sweet white flowers. More specifically, a lion will kill them. In Kafue National Park, one of the largest baobabs is known as "Kondanamwali" or the "tree that eats maidens". The tree fell in love with four beautiful maidens. When they reached puberty, they made the tree jealous by finding husbands. So, one night, during a thunderstorm, the tree opened its trunk and took the maidens inside. A rest house has been built in the branches of the tree. On stormy nights, the crying of the imprisoned maidens can still be heard. Some people believe that women living in kraals where baobabs are plenty will have more children. This is scientifically plausible as those women will have better access to the tree's vitamin-rich leaves and fruits to complement a vitamin-deficient diet.
The tree also plays a role in Antoine De Saint-Exupéry’s fictional children’s book, The Little Prince. In the story, baobabs are described as dangerous plants which must be weeded out from the good plants, lest they overcome a small planet and even break it to pieces.


A number of individual baobab trees attract sightseers due to their age, size, history, location or isolated occurrence.


Around Gweta, Botswana, some have been declared national monuments. Green's Baobab, 27 km south of Gweta was inscribed by the 19th-century hunters and traders Frederick Thomas Green and Hendrik Matthys van Zyl besides other ruthless characters. Fred and Charles Green passed the baobab during an expedition to Lake Ngami and left the inscription "Green’s Expedition 1858–1859". An earlier inscription by an unknown traveller reads "1771".
About 11 km south of Green's Baobab is the turn-off to Chapman's Baobab, also known as Seven Sisters or Xaugam, i.e. "lion's tail" in Tsoa. It was once an enormous multi-stemmed tree, used by passing explorers, traders and travellers as a navigation beacon. It guided them as they navigated the extensive salt pan northwards, while a hollow in the trunk served as a letterbox. The explorer and hunter James Chapman left an engraving on a large root when he passed the tree with artist Thomas Baines in 1861, but Livingstone, Oswell, Moffat, and Selous also camped here. Livingstone supposedly carved a cross and his initials, and conveyed his 1853 sojourn in Missionary Travels, noting: "about two miles beyond [the immense saltpan Ntwetwe] we unyoked under a fine specimen of baobab, ... It consisted of 6 branches united into one trunk." It had a circumference of 25 m before its constituent trunks collapsed outward on 7 January 2016. Not all its trunks are confirmed dead however, one showing signs of life in 2019.
Seven trees known as the Sleeping Sisters or Baines' Baobabs grow on a tiny islet in Kudiakam Pan, Botswana. They are named for Thomas Baines who painted them in May 1862, while en route to Victoria Falls. The fallen giant of Baines' day is still sprouting leaves (as of 2004), and a younger generation of trees are in evidence. The islet is accessible in winter when the pan is dry.
Some large specimens have been transplanted to new sites, as was the one at Cresta Mowana lodge in Kasane.


At Saakpuli (also Sakpele) in northern Ghana the site of a 19th-century slave transit camp is marked by a stand of large baobabs, to which slaves were chained. The chains were wrapped around their trunks or around the roots. Similarly, two trees at Salaga in central Ghana are reminders of the slave trade. One, located at the former slave market at the center of town, was replanted at the site of the original to which slaves were shackled. A second larger tree marks the slave cemetery, where bodies of dead slaves were dumped.


Inside the Golconda Fort in Hyderabad, India, is a baobab tree estimated to be 430 years old. It is the largest baobab outside of Africa.


The African baobab in Mahajanga, Madagascar, had a circumference of 21 metres by 2013. It became the symbol of the city and was formerly a place for executions and important meetings.


The Ombalantu baobab in Namibia has a hollow trunk that can accommodate some 35 people. At times it has served as a chapel, post office, house, and hiding site. The Holboom baobab (Holboom, Nyae Nyae Conservancy, Namibia) is one of the trees with a hollow core. It measures 35.10 m around and radiocarbon dating shows it to be about 1750 years old.


The Arbre de Brazza is a baobab in the Republic of the Congo under which de Brazza and his companions Dolisie, Chavannes and Ballay made a stop in 1877, as their engraving "EB 1887" still attests. Another engraving, "Mâ Prince", was left by president Nguesso in his youth.


The first botanical description of A. digitata was done by Adanson based on a tree on the island of Sor, Senegal. On the nearby Îles des Madeleines Adanson found a baobab that was 3.8 metres (12 ft) in diameter, which bore the carvings of passing mariners on its trunk, including those of Prince Henry the Navigator in 1444 and André Thevet in 1555. When Théodore Monod searched the island in the 20th century, this tree was not to be found. The Gouye Ndiouly or Guy Njulli  ("baobab of circumcision") may be the oldest baobab in Senegal and the northern hemisphere. The partially collapsed tree from which new stems have emerged is situated near the bank of the Saloum River at Kahone. It was formerly the venue for the gàmmu, an annual festival during which the kingdom's provincial rulers pledged their loyalty to the king. From 1593 to 1939, 49 kings of the Guélewars dynasty were inducted at this tree. It was beside the place where the Buur Saloum organized circumcision ceremonies, and in 1862, it became the scene of a battle.


The Grove Place Baobab, listed as a Champion Tree, is believed to be the oldest (250–300 years) of some 100 baobabs on Saint Croix in the US Virgin Islands. It is seen as a living testament to centuries of African presence, as the seeds were likely introduced by an African slave who arrived at the former estate during the 18th century. According to the bronze memorial plaque, twelve women were rounded up during the 1878 Fireburn labor riot, and burned alive beneath the tree. It has since been a rallying place for plantation laborers and unions.


The hemlock woolly adelgid (/əˈdɛl.dʒɪd/; Adelges tsugae), or HWA, is an insect of the order Hemiptera (true bugs) native to East Asia. It feeds by sucking sap from hemlock and spruce trees (Tsuga spp.; Picea spp.). In its native range, HWA is not a serious pest because populations are managed by natural predators and parasitoids and by host resistance. In eastern North America it is a destructive pest that threatens the eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) and the Carolina hemlock (Tsuga caroliniana). HWA is also found in western North America, where it has likely been present for thousands of years. In western North America, it primarily attacks western hemlock Tsuga heterophylla and has only caused minor damage due to natural predators and host resistance. Accidentally introduced to North America from Japan, HWA was first found in the eastern United States near Richmond, Virginia, in 1951. The pest is now found from northern Georgia to coastal Maine and southwestern Nova Scotia. As of 2015, 90% of the geographic range of eastern hemlock in North America has been affected by HWA.


An adult individual body length is typically 0.8 mm, and is oval in shape. The tiny brown-colored insect has four thread-like stylets that are bundled together and function as a mouthpart.  Three times the length of its body, the stylet bundle pierces the host plant's parenchymatic ray tissue to derive nutrition from stored reserves. It may also inject a toxin while feeding. The resulting desiccation causes the tree to lose needles and not produce new growth.  Hemlocks stricken by HWA frequently become grayish-green rather than a healthy dark green.  In the northern portion of the hemlock's range, death typically occurs 4 to 10 years after infestation. Trees that survive the direct effects of the infection are usually weakened and may die from secondary causes.
The presence of HWA can be identified by its egg sacs, which resemble small tufts of cotton clinging to the underside of hemlock branches.  In North America, the hemlock woolly adelgid asexually reproduces and can have two generations per year.  Both generations are parthenogenetic and exclusively female. In its native Asian habitat, a third winged generation called sexupera occurs; although this generation's sexual reproduction requires a species of spruce not found in the Eastern United States, and therefore dies, Between 100 and 300 eggs are laid by each individual in the woolly egg sacs beneath the branches. Larvae emerge in spring and can spread on their own or with the assistance of wind, birds, or mammals.  In the nymph stage, the adelgid is immobile and settles on a single tree.


The current leading biological control method of hemlock woolly adelgid is Sasajiscymnus tsugae, [originally called Pseudoscymnus tsugae].  S. tsugae is a black lady beetle that is relatively host-specific, feeding only on three known aldegid species, including HWA.  This beetle was discovered in 1992 while feeding on hemlock woolly adelgid in its natural range of Japan.  Since 1995, the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources's Bureau of Forestry has released hundreds of thousands of adult S. tsugae beetles into affected hemlock forests of the eastern United States to determine its effectiveness at controlling the spread of the adelgid. From 1995 to 1997, experiments in Connecticut and Virginia found that releasing adult Sasajiscymnus tsugae beetles into infested hemlock stands resulted in a 47 to 88% reduction in adelgid densities within 5 months of introduction. The beetle's lifecycle is in parallel to the lifecycle of the hemlock woolly adelgid. Both lay eggs in the spring and hatching occurs nearly simultaneously. When hatched, S. tsugae larvae are highly mobile and feed on hemlock woolly adelgid eggs and larvae. Each S. tsugae larva can effectively consume about 500 adelgid eggs or nearly 100 developing adelgid nymphs.
Laricobius nigrinus is another predatory beetle used as a biological control in response to hemlock woolly adelgid.  Native to the western United States and Canada, L. nigrinus is known to prey exclusively on various woolly adelgids.  L. nigrinus adults lay their eggs on top of wintering adelgid larvae in early spring, and upon hatching, the larval beetles feed on hemlock woolly adelgid.
Also under study is Laricobius osakensis from Japan, a relative of L. nigrinus. They have shown promise in field trials.


The environmentally safest chemical control methods for treating individual trees are nontoxic insecticidal soap and horticultural oil. These are sprayed on the foliage and smother the insects as they dry. Most trees need to be treated on a yearly basis.
Toxic systemic insecticides may be applied to the foliage and bark of a tree and can persist in killing the adelgid for up to four years after application.  Caution must be used, and restraint exercised around bodies of water.
Soil drenches/soil injections/bark sprays are used in larger trees that cannot be completely sprayed with insecticidal soaps or foliage insecticides. The most common insecticide is imidacloprid, which can be effective for several years if absorbed through the soil. Tree roots absorb and transport the product into the foliage and kill hemlock woolly adelgid. Soil drenches must be applied when soil moisture is adequate for the tree roots to absorb the product. These products should not be used in close proximity to bodies of water.
Trunk injections are used for large trees that are near water or where soils are too rocky for soil injections or drenches. The chemical is injected directly into the tree and transported to the twigs and needles where the hemlock woolly adelgids are feeding. Adequate soil moisture is also necessary for the tree to take up these products.


Hemlock is a vital component of the New England forest system, and is the third-most prevalent tree in Vermont. It provides protection from erosion along stream banks, food for deer and wildlife, and shelter for deer in winter.  The tree is also valued both as an ornamental and as an important source of lumber. Unlike the balsam woolly adelgid that attacked only mature balsam fir, HWA infests hemlocks of all ages. Where hemlocks occur in pure stands in that region, the most commonly observed tree species to succeed it is black (sweet) birch. In the southern extreme of its range, hemlock typically occurs not in pure stands, but in linear riparian areas and other moist sites. Succession in these areas is affected by the presence of Rhododendron maximum, which often coexists with hemlock, and because of a combination of influences restricts regeneration to shade and otherwise understory-tolerant plant species. Major changes in ecosystem structure and function, including hydrologic processes, are expected with the loss of hemlock.
Loss of the eastern and Carolina hemlock from hemlock woolly adelgid infestation will likely result in many ecological shifts in eastern North America.  The understory of hemlock forests is characterized as dark, damp, and cool and is an ideal habitat for various other organisms. The moist environment is preferred by many native amphibian species, particularly newts and salamanders. Some species of birds have close association with the hemlock, especially during mating and nesting periods. Aquatic systems adjunct to hemlock stands are also affected by the trees' decline.  Brook trout is a native fish species to the eastern United States and is known to prefer the cool, shaded streams of hemlock forests during spawning events. Vulnerable animal populations are expected to diminish as a result of loss of hemlock habitat to the invasive hemlock woolly adelgid.
One factor giving hope is that the adelgid does not seem able to survive prolonged or bitter cold. Following the winter of 1999-2000, a considerable dieback of adelgids and subsequent regrowth of infested trees was observed across Connecticut. The same phenomenon was repeated after the prolonged winter of 2013-2014, in time to save numerous nearly succumbed forests.
A 2009 study conducted by scientists with the U.S. Forest Service Southern Research Station suggests the hemlock woolly adelgid is killing hemlock trees faster than expected in the southern Appalachians, and rapidly altering the carbon cycle of these forests. According to Science Daily, the pest could kill most of the region's hemlock trees within the next decade. According to the study, researchers found "hemlock woolly adelgid infestation is rapidly impacting the carbon cycle in [hemlock] tree stands", and "adelgid-infested hemlock trees in the South are declining much faster than the reported 9-year decline of some infested hemlock trees in the Northeast." In fact, as of 2007, the rate of HWA expansion was recorded as 15.6 km/year south of Pennsylvania and 8.13 km/year (or less) in the northern section of the HWA's range.


Adelinia grandis, previously known as Cynoglossum grande, is a species of flowering plant in the borage family known as Pacific hound's tongue. It is the only species in the genus Adelinia.
The genus name of Adelinia is in honour of Adeline Etta Cohen (b. 2014), daughter of the American botanist and author of the plant, James I.Cohen.
Pacific hound's tongue is native to western North America from British Columbia to California, where it grows in shady areas in woodland and chaparral. On the forest floor of California oak woodlands typical plant associates are Calochortus luteus, Delphinium variegatum and Calochortus amabilis. It is a perennial herb producing an erect stem 30 to 90 centimeters tall from a taproot. The leaves are mostly located around the base of the plant, each with an oval blade up to 15 centimeters long held on a petiole. The inflorescence is a panicle of flowers on individual pedicels. Each five-lobed flower is bright to deep blue with white appendages at the center. It is 1 to 1.5 centimeters wide. The fruit is an array of four slightly bristly nutlets.


The upper surfaces of the wings of A. californica are a dark brown to black. It has two large orange patches near the tip of the forewings and wide postdiscal creamy-white bands on both wings. The ventral surfaces of the wings are generally similar but with blue bands along the edges of both wings, as well as blue and orange patterns on the corners near the body. Like other members of the genus, the butterfly is named "sister" for its black and white markings on the forewing that resemble a nun's habit.
A. californica closely resembles A. bredowii and A. eulalia. However it generally does not share the same distribution range as the other two. A. bredowii is only found in southern and western Mexico. A. eulalia is found in Arizona and the surrounding areas, though it may sometimes be found in southeastern California. They also differ morphologically from A. eulalia in usually being smaller and in the presence of a second orange bar in the upper proximal corner of the hindwings. A. californica also closely resembles the females of some species in the genus Doxocopa. Though their distribution range also do not overlap, as Doxocopa are primarily found in Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean, and South America.
Other species which resemble A. californica (though not as closely) includes other members of the genus Adelpha, and the Lorquin's admiral (Limenitis lorquini).


Adelphocoris binotata Goeze
Adelphocoris chenopodii Fallen, 1807
Adelphocoris italica Tamanini, 1961
Adelphocoris lineolatus baltrumensis Schumacher, 1911
Adelphocoris lineolatus binotatus Wagner, 1960
Adelphocoris lineolatus bisbipunctata Tamanini, 1982
Calocoris chenopodii
Calocoris chenopodii implagiata
Calocoris chenopodii lineolatus
Calocoris lineolatus bisbipunctatus Reuter, 1891


Alfalfa plant bugs require a certain set of optimal conditions in order to thrive and become a pest in any country. A. lineolatus are primarily located in humid environments with cold temperatures. Commonly one can find these plant bugs in either fields or grasslands, in both dry and damp areas. However, alfalfa plant bugs are not successful in salty lakes, deserts, sand dunes, windy weather, or very warm climates. Adelphocoris lineolatus will easily adapt to cooler environmental conditions, which has allowed them to invade a large amount of territory in Canada.


Adelphocoris lineolatus have an elongated body shape and are large in body size. Alfalfa plant bug males body size ranges from, 8.3-9.5 millimetres. Whereas, the females are a little bit smaller than the males having a body size between, 7.6 and 8.3 millimetres. Their antennae are usually the same length as their body size, sometimes a bit shorter. A longitudinal brown triangle is located on the middle of their corium. The scutellum of A. lineolatus have two longitudinal brown lines on the surface. The pronotum of the alfalfa plant bug will have two black spots on it. It commonly observed that their femora are spotted with brown specks. Also, the ocular index between male and female Adelphocoris lineolatus differs. Males have an ocular index of 0.83 millimetres. Whereas, females have an ocular index of 1.5 millimetres. Certain regions of their bodies are covered with black hairs, and others with pale coloured hairs. The body colour can range from a light green to a pale brown. Nymphs are green and have red eyes. In A. lineolatus nymphs there is an absence of wings, but in adult species wings are seen.


Alfalfa plant bugs exhibit migratory behaviour, which allows Adelphocoris lineolatus to rapidly increase their population sizes. Adult females can lay 80 to 300 eggs, into branches and young stems of host plants, females will begin to lay eggs in the end of July. The eggs will develop in 8–12 days, but some of the eggs will overwinter. Eggs that have overwintered in stems, hatch in late May or early June. Less than five percent of alfalfa plant bug eggs will hatch in the same year they are laid. A majority of the eggs will enter a period of diapause. This causes a decline in the reproductive activity of second-generation adults. The developmental process of A. lineolatus involves five nymphal instars, and between late June and October adults are seen.


Adelphocoris lineolatus nymphs and adults are generalists feeding on a variety of crops including alfalfa, bean, cotton, peach, and strawberry crops. Adults and nymphs will consume the reproductive and vegetative organs of their host plants, which are primarily alfalfa and cotton crops. By feeding on the reproductive and vegetative organs of their host plants, they cause stunted growth and deformation of flowers, fruits, and leaves. The eggs that have overwintered will hatch in spring and the A. lineolatus nymphs will begin to feed on various crops. Lucerne bugs will migrate onto summer host plants, such as, alfalfa and cotton because they will allow the successful colonization of A. lineolatus. Alfalfa and cotton crops can be either, flowering or non-flowering. Adelphocoris lineolatus have a stronger preference towards flowering crops, in comparison to non-flowering crops. Flowering alfalfa and cotton crops promote higher survival rates and nymphal development amongst this particular species. Non-flowering crops increase adult mortality rates and decrease fecundity in Adelphocoris lineolatus. On flowering alfalfa plants survival rates were five times higher than on non-flowering alfalfa crops for A. lineolatus adults. Flowering cotton crops had survival rates that were almost four times greater than that on the non-flowering cotton crops. Taking a closer look at Adelphocoris lineolatus nymphs, it was noted that nymphs took a greater amount of time to develop on non-flowering plants, which directly impacted the degree of damage they could cause to their host plants. A substantial degree of damage is done to flowering and non-flowering crops because Adelphocoris lineolatus nymphs and adults have similar feeding habits, allowing them to inhabit one particular plant for their whole life cycle.
Nymphs and adults belonging to Adelphocoris lineolatus are capable of reducing crop yields by 50% within two years of their infestation on crops. The livelihood of many individuals within developing countries has been negatively affected due to the rapid spread of alfalfa plant bugs, due to their migratory behaviour. They have destroyed numerous alfalfa crops around the globe. In Canada alone they have caused a deficit of $50 million to the alfalfa plant industry.


Alfalfa plant bugs have a greater degree of attraction towards flowering plants in comparison to non-flowering plants. The three main crops that Adelphocoris lineolatus show the most attraction for are flowering alfalfa, cotton, and mung bean crops. Biologists have observed a relationship between three chemosensory proteins found in the antennae of A. lineolatus and the semiochemicals released by flowering alfalfa, cotton, and mung bean crops resulting in a greater attraction towards these crops. AlinCSP1, AlinCSP2, and AlinCSP-3 are the three chemosensory proteins found in the antennae of Adelphocoris lineolatus. Insects are heavily dependent upon their olfactory sensila in order to detect chemical stimuli from the environment they are found in. Within the Adelphocoris lineolatus species, it has been found that they detect the semiochemicals released by their host plants in order to invade them. The chemosensory proteins, AlinCSP1, AlinCSP2, and AlinCSP-3 contain a high binding affinity to the semiochemicals released by flowering alfalfa, cotton, and mung bean plants. The greatest amount of ecological and economical damage is experienced by these flowering plants because of the semiochemicals they release into the environment, attracting Adelphocoris lineolatus.


Adelphocoris lineolatus are commonly known as the alfalfa plant bug, due to the excessive amount of damage they cause to alfalfa crops around the world. In order to decrease and prevent the rapid dispersal of A. lineolatus certain control methods need to be implemented, to decrease the amount of ecological and economic damage these pests cause. Insecticides are not commonly used to decrease or stop Adelphocoris lineolatus from infesting crops because these insects have become resistant to certain chemicals present in insecticides. A. lineolatus nymphs have become resistant to the following chemical ingredients commonly used in insecticides, mono-methanimidamide, fufenozide, buprofezin, azad irachtin, and triazophos. An alternative from these chemicals would be to use insecticides made of pyrethroid, neonicotinoid, carbamate, avermectin, or organophosphate since alfalfa plant bugs are not resistant to these chemicals. Insecticides can be an effective and efficient method of controlling pests, but they do cause a great deal of damage to our environment and we should refrain from using them if possible.
Insect pheromones have successfully been implemented to reduce the amount of damage Adelphocoris lineolatus cause to numerous agricultural crops. Sexually mature A. lineolatus produce a mixture of two pheromones known as, (E)-2-hexenyl butyrate (E2HB) and (E)-4-oxo-2-hexenal (4-OHE). These pheromones are responsible for high reproductive rates amongst the alfalfa plant bug. To reduce reproductivity between female and male Adelphocoris lineolatus, an excessive amount of hexyl butyrate (HB) needs to be added to the mixture of E2HB and 4-OHE. The addition of HB reduces the attraction between female and male A. lineolatus. Hexyl butyrate is responsible for stopping the release of sex pheromones from female alfalfa plant bugs, which disrupts communication between the two sexes, and reduces reproductive success in this particular species.


Adenostoma sparsifolium, commonly known as redshanks or less commonly, ribbonwood or ribbon bush, is a multi-trunked tree or shrub native to dry slopes or chaparral of Southern California and northern Baja California.


Shaggy falling shanks or ribbons of bark are one of the strongest characteristics of the Adenostoma sparsifolium tree, hence the common names. As the species name "sparsifolium" suggests, it has tiny, filamentous leaves. Redshanks are closely related to the more abundant Chamise (Adenostoma fasciculatum).


Redshanks inhabits higher elevations of chaparral just above and below the snowline in the Peninsular Ranges and does best on north-facing "ubac" slopes at around 4,000 feet of elevation. Associates at its lower range include California Scrub Oak and Hoary Ceanothus, and mingles with manzanitas at its upper range.
Like its relative, chamise, it is capable of resprouting after a fire.


Adiantum cunninghamii is a maidenhair fern found in New Zealand. The sori are found under the curved leaf margins.


Adiantum hispidulum was first described by Swedish botanist Olof Swartz in 1802. Its species name is derived from the Latin hispis "hair" and means "minutely hairy". Five-fingered jack is an alternative vernacular name.


Adiantum hispidulum grows in tufts or clumps among rocks or from the ground, its fronds arising from the short dark clumped rhizomes. The dark stipe measures up to 45 cm (18 in) in length. The fronds are divided into long and short narrow triangular or elliptic pinnae, each of which is divided again into smaller roughly rectangular, diamond-, or fan-shaped pinnules. Each pinnule may have 1 to 20 sori along its margins underneath. Young growth may have a pinkish tinge before it matures into the dark green foliage.


The species ranges from tropical Eastern Africa, including South Africa, Mozambique, Malawi, Kenya and Tanzania, as well as Madagascar and the Comoros, Mauritius, to Asia through Malesia to all states of Australia (with the exception of Tasmania), as well as New Zealand and Pacific islands. A common plant, Adiantum hispidulum is often seen growing in moist areas. In Australia it is found near rocks, in rainforest or open forest.
Apart from its native range, it has naturalized in Macaronesia (the Azores, Madeira and Canary Islands), the Southeastern United States and Hawaii.


Adiantum hispidulum is grown as an ornamental plant that adapts readily to cultivation, although may be slow growing. It is more tolerant of sun and drying out than other fern species. According to the Royal Horticultural Society Adiantum hispidulum is hardy down to -5C to -10C.


Adiantum jordanii is a perennial species of maidenhair fern, in the Vittarioideae subfamily of the Pteridaceae. The species is known by the common name California maidenhair.
It is native to California and Baja California. A. jordanii is found in the southernmost part of its range in Baja California with such flora associates as Mimulus aridus and Daucus pusillus.
Each trailing leaf may reach over half a meter in length and is made up of many rounded green segments. Each segment has two to four lobes and it may split between the lobes, the underside of each segment bearing one to four sori.
Adiantum jordanii is a carrier of the fungus-like oomycete, Phytophthora ramorum, which causes Sudden Oak Death. The USDA enforces an import control, focusing intensely on areas (CA, OR, NY in U.S.) that are infected with Sudden Oak death.  When sold, they must be identified by place of origin and must also be accompanied by a phytosanitary certificate. The USDA warns to not take cuttings from wild specimens.
Adiantum jordanii, from native plant nurseries, is used in native plant and wildlife gardens.


Adiantum pedatum, the northern maidenhair fern or five-fingered fern, is a species of fern in the family Pteridaceae, native to moist forests in eastern North America. Like other ferns in the genus, the name maidenhair refers to the slender, shining black stipes.


A. pedatum grows 30–75 cm (12–30 in) tall, and is deciduous.


Adiantum pedatum was described by Linnaeus in Species Plantarum in 1753 (the official starting point of modern botanical nomenclature). He referred to earlier descriptions, all based on material from eastern North America. Linnaeus' own herbarium contains one specimen, collected by Pehr Kalm.
Specimens collected in Unalaska and Kodiak Island by Chamisso and Langsdorf were referred to as Adiantum boreale by Presl in 1836, although he did not provide a species description to accompany the name. Ruprecht, in 1845, called the Alaskan material A. pedatum var. aleuticum, and created var. kamtschaticum for material collected in Kamchatka by Carl Merck and Pallas. In 1857, E. J. Lowe noted that Wallich and Cantor had collected the species in northern India, and that material from the western United States ranged as far south as California.  It was one of the many species cited by Asa Gray as disjunct between Japan and both the eastern and western United States. By 1874, Hooker & Baker reported it as present in both Japan and Manchuria.
Several species have been segregated from the former A. pedatum, sensu lato. These include A. aleuticum, A. viridimontanum, A. myriosorum, and A. subpedatum. These all have fronds distinctively bifurcated and with pinnae on only one side.


It grows in a variety of habitats, but generally favors soils that are both humus-rich, moist, and well-drained. It grows both in soils and on rock faces and ledges when adequate moisture is present.


Adoxa moschatellina, the moschatel, five-faced bishop, hollowroot, muskroot, townhall clock, tuberous crowfoot or Good Friday plant, is a species of flowering plant in the family Adoxaceae. This herbaceous perennial has a holarctic distribution occurring at low altitudes in high latitudes, and at high altitudes in the south of its range. It prefers damp shady situations.


Adoxa moschatellina is a rhizomatous plant growing in mats with a delicate appearance. It has thin, erect unbranched stems which end in clusters of five green flowers which are 6 to 8 millimetres (0.24 to 0.31 in) across. These flowers give the species one of its common names, "Town Hall clock", as they face outwards in four directions at 90 degrees to each other, resembling the four faces of a town clock. The flowers have five petals and five stamens, but the stamens are divided into two parts creating the impression that there  are ten stamens. When it is not in flower it can be hard to tell A. moschatellina from other plants with similar foliage. The plant and its flowers have a musk-like scent, which it emits towards evening when the dew falls. If the plant is bruised this scent disappears.


Adoxa moschatellina has a boreal, circumpolar distribution in Europe, Asia and North America. It is widespread and common in most parts of the British Isles but becomes scarce in the north and west of Scotland and parts of eastern England. It is absent from Ireland. Its distribution in parts of Wales is localised, occurring only at sites where are base rich soil, such as Coed Dolgarrog National Nature Reserve in Conwy.


Adoxa moschatellina grows in humid brown soils under shade on the banks of rivers and streams, in deciduous woodlands and under hedgerows. It does infrequently grow in shaded base-rich localities in uplands. This spring-flowering species dies back after flowering in May or June in low-lying areas. The flowers are self-fertile and this species may reproduce by producing seeds or by vegetative spread. In Britain its altitude ranges from 0 to 1,065 metres (0 to 3,494 ft) on Ben Lawers. The rather plain flowers of A. moschatellina are pollinated by flies and nocturnal moths which do not rely on colour to pollinate plants. It is parasitized by the rare smut Melanotaenium adoxae.


Aedes aegypti, the yellow fever mosquito, is a mosquito that can spread dengue fever, chikungunya, Zika fever, Mayaro and yellow fever viruses, and other disease agents. The mosquito can be recognized by black and white markings on its legs and a marking in the form of a lyre on the upper surface of its thorax. This mosquito originated in Africa, but is now found in tropical, subtropical and temperate regions throughout the world.


Aedes aegypti is a 4–7 millimetres (5⁄32–35⁄128 in) long, dark mosquito which can be recognized by white markings on its legs and a marking in the form of a lyre on the upper surface of its thorax. Females are larger than males. Microscopically females possess small palps tipped with silver or white scales, and their antennae have sparse short hairs, whereas those of males are feathery. Aedes aegypti can be mixed up with Aedes albopictus without a magnifying glass: The latter have a white stripe on the top of the mid thorax.
Males live off fruit and only the female bites for blood, which she needs to mature her eggs. To find a host, she is attracted to chemical compounds emitted by mammals, including ammonia carbon dioxide lactic acid, and octenol. Scientists at The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Agricultural Research Service studied the specific chemical structure of octenol to better understand why this chemical attracts the mosquito to its host and found the mosquito has a preference for "right-handed" (dextrorotatory) octenol molecules. The preference for biting humans is dependent on expression of the odorant receptor AaegOr4.
The white eggs are laid separately into water and not together, unlike most other mosquitoes, and soon turn black. The larvae feed on bacteria, grow over a period of weeks until they reach the pupa stage.
The lifespan of an adult Ae. aegypti is two to four weeks depending on conditions, but the eggs can be viable for over a year in a dry state, which allows the mosquito to re-emerge after a cold winter or dry spell.


Mammalian hosts include domesticated horses, and feral and wild horses and equids more generally.
As of 2009 birds were found to be the best food supply for Ae. aegypti among all taxa.


Aedes aegypti originated in Africa and was spread to the New World through slave trade, but is now found in tropical, subtropical and temperate regions throughout the world.Ae. aegypti's distribution has increased in the past two to three decades worldwide, and it is considered to be among the most widespread mosquito species.
In 2016, Zika virus-capable mosquito populations have been found adapting for persistence in warm temperate climates. Such a population has been identified to exist in parts of Washington, DC, and genetic evidence suggests they survived at least the last four winters in the region. One of the study researchers noted, " ...some mosquito species are finding ways to survive in normally restrictive environments by taking advantage of underground refugia".
As the world's climate becomes warmer, the range of Aedes aegypti and a hardier species originating in Asia, the tiger mosquito Aedes albopictus, which can expand its range to relatively cooler climates, will inexorably spread north and south. Sadie Ryan of the University of Florida was the lead author in a 2019 study published in PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases that estimated the vulnerability of naïve populations in geographic regions that currently do not harbor vectors i.e., for Zika in the Old World. Ryan's co-author, Georgetown University's Colin Carlson remarked,"Plain and simple, climate change is going to kill a lot of people." As of 2020, the Northern Territory Government Australia and the Darwin City Council have recommended tropical cities initiate rectification programs to rid their cities of potential mosquito breeding stormwater sumps.  A 2019 study published in Nature Microbiology found that accelerating urbanization and human movement would also contribute to the spread of Aedes mosquitoes.


In 2007, the genome of Aedes aegypti was published, after it had been sequenced and analyzed by a consortium including scientists at The Institute for Genomic Research (now part of the J. Craig Venter Institute), the European Bioinformatics Institute, the Broad Institute, and the University of Notre Dame. The effort in sequencing its DNA was intended to provide new avenues for research into insecticides and possible genetic modification to prevent the spread of virus. This was the second mosquito species to have its genome sequenced in full (the first was Anopheles gambiae). The published data included the 1.38 billion base pairs containing the insect's estimated 15,419 protein-encoding genes. The sequence indicates the species diverged from Drosophila melanogaster (the common fruit fly) about 250 million years ago, and Anopheles gambiae and this species diverged about 150 million years ago. Matthews et al., 2018 finds A. aegypti to carry a large and diverse number of transposable elements. Their analysis suggests this is common to all mosquitoes.


Aedes aegypti is a vector for transmitting numerous pathogens. According to the Walter Reed Biosystematics Units as of 2022, it is associated with the following 54 viruses and 2 species of Plasmodium:
Aino virus (AINOV), African horse sickness virus (AHSV), Bozo virus (BOZOV), Bussuquara virus (BSQV), Bunyamwera virus (BUNV), Catu virus (CATUV), Chikungunya virus (CHIKV), Chandipura vesiculovirus (CHPV), Cypovirus (unnamed), Cache Valley virus (CVV), Dengue virus (DENV), Eastern Equine Encephalitis virus (EEEV), Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV), Guaroa virus (GROV), Hart Park virus (HPV), Ilheus virus (ILHV), Irituia virus (IRIV), Israel Turkey Meningoencephalitis virus (ITV), Japanaut virus (JAPV), Joinjakaka (JOIV), Japanese encephalitis virus (JBEV), Ketapang virus (KETV), Kunjin virus (KUNV), La Crosse virus (LACV), Mayaro virus (MAYV), Marburg virus (MBGV), Marco virus (MCOV), Melao virus (MELV) Marituba virus (MTBV), Mount Elgon bat virus (MEBV), Mucambo virus (MUCV), Murray Valley Encephalitis virus (MVEV), Navarro virus (NAVV), Nepuyo virus (NEPV), Nola virus (NOLV), Ntaya virus (NTAV), Oriboca virus (ORIV), Orungo virus (ORUV), Restan virus (RESV), Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV), Semliki Forest virus (SFV), Sindbis virus (SINV), Tahyna virus (TAHV), Tsuruse virus (TSUV), Tyuleniy virus (TYUV), Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV), Vesicular stomatitis virus (Indiana serotype), Warrego virus (WARV), West Nile virus (WNV), Wesselsbron virus (WSLV), Yaounde virus (YAOV)
Yellow fever virus (YFV), Zegla virus (ZEGV), Zika virus, as well as Plasmodium gallinaceum and Plasmodium lophurae.
This mosquito also mechanically transmits some veterinary diseases. In 1952 Fenner et al., found it transmitting the myxoma virus between rabbits and in 2001 Chihota et al., the lumpy skin disease virus between cattle.
The yellow fever mosquito can contribute to the spread of reticular cell sarcoma among Syrian hamsters.


The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention traveler's page on preventing dengue fever suggests using mosquito repellents that contain DEET (N, N-diethylmetatoluamide, 20% to 30%). It also suggests:
Although Aedes aegypti mosquitoes most commonly feed at dusk and dawn, indoors, in shady areas, or when the weather is cloudy, "they can bite and spread infection all year long and at any time of day."
Once a week, scrub off eggs sticking to wet containers, seal and/or discard them. The mosquitoes prefer to breed in areas of stagnant water, such as flower vases, uncovered barrels, buckets, and discarded tires, but the most dangerous areas are wet shower floors and toilet tanks, as they allow the mosquitos to breed in the residence. Research has shown that certain chemicals emanating from bacteria in water containers stimulate the female mosquitoes to lay their eggs. They are particularly motivated to lay eggs in water containers that have the correct amounts of specific fatty acids associated with bacteria involved in the degradation of leaves and other organic matter in water. The chemicals associated with the microbial stew are far more stimulating to discerning female mosquitoes than plain or filtered water in which the bacteria once lived.
Wear long-sleeved clothing and long pants when outdoors during the day and evening.
Use mosquito netting over the bed if the bedroom is not air conditioned or screened, and for additional protection, treat the mosquito netting with the insecticide permethrin.
Insect repellents containing DEET (particularly concentrated products) or p-menthane-3,8-diol (from lemon eucalyptus) were effective in repelling Ae. aegypti mosquitoes, while others were less effective or ineffective in a scientific study.  The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention article on "Protection against Mosquitoes, Ticks, & Other Arthropods" notes that "Studies suggest that concentrations of DEET above approximately 50% do not offer a marked increase in protection time against mosquitoes; DEET efficacy tends to plateau at a concentration of approximately 50%". Other insect repellents recommended by the CDC include Picaridin (KBR 3023/icaridin), IR3535, and 2-undecanone.


Pyrethroids are commonly used. This widespread use of pyrethroids and DDT has caused Knockdown resistance (kdr) mutations. Almost no research has been done on the fitness implications. studies by Kumar et al., 2009 on deltamethrin in India, Plernsub et al., 2013 on permethrin in Thailand, by Jaramillo-O et al., 2014 on λ-cyhalothrin in Colombia, by Alvarez-Gonzalez et al., 2017 on deltamethrin in Venezuela,   are all substantially confounded. As of 2019, understanding of selective pressure under withdrawal of insecticide is hence limited.


Ae. aegypti has been genetically modified to suppress its own species in an approach similar to the sterile insect technique, thereby reducing the risk of disease. The mosquitoes, known as OX513A, were developed by Oxitec, a spinout of Oxford University. Field trials in the Cayman Islands, in Juazeiro Brazil by Carvalho et al., 2015, and in Panama by Neira et al., 2014 have shown that the OX513A mosquitoes reduced the target mosquito populations by more than 90%. This mosquito suppression effect is achieved by a self-limiting gene that prevents the offspring from surviving. Male modified mosquitoes, which do not bite or spread disease, are released to mate with the pest females. Their offspring inherit the self-limiting gene and die before reaching adulthood—before they can reproduce or spread disease. The OX513A mosquitoes and their offspring also carry a fluorescent marker for simple monitoring. To produce more OX513A mosquitoes for control projects, the self-limiting gene is switched off (using the Tet-Off system) in the mosquito production facility using an antidote (the antibiotic tetracycline), allowing the mosquitoes to reproduce naturally. In the environment, the antidote is unavailable to rescue mosquito reproduction, so the pest population is suppressed.
The mosquito control effect is nontoxic and species-specific, as the OX513A mosquitoes are Ae. aegypti and only breed with Ae. aegypti. The result of the self-limiting approach is that the released insects and their offspring die and do not persist in the environment.
In Brazil, the modified mosquitoes were approved by the National Biosecurity Technical Commission  for releases throughout the country. Insects were released into the wild populations of Brazil, Malaysia, and the Cayman Islands in 2012. In July 2015, the city of Piracicaba, São Paulo, started releasing the OX513A mosquitoes. In 2015, the UK House of Lords called on the government to support more work on genetically modified insects in the interest of global health. In 2016, the United States Food and Drug Administration granted preliminary approval for the use of modified mosquitoes to prevent the spread of the Zika virus.
Another proposed method consists in using radiation to sterilize male larvae so that when they mate, they produce no progeny. Male mosquitoes do not bite or spread disease.
Using CRISPR/Cas9 based genome editing to engineer the genome of Aedes aegypti genes like ECFP (enhanced cyan fluorescent protein), Nix (male-determining factor gene), Aaeg-wtrw (Ae. aegypti water witch locus), Kmo (kynurenine 3-monoxygenase), loqs (loquacious), r2d2 (r2d2 protein), ku70 (ku heterodimer protein gene) and lig4 (ligase4) were targeted to modify the genome of Aedes aegypti. The new mutant will become incapable of pathogen transmission or result in population control.