As early as 1667, Massachusetts Bay settlers had enacted laws to try to reduce blackbird populations and mitigate damage to corn. According to Henry David Thoreau, a law provided that each single man in a town must kill six of those birds and, as a punishment for not doing so, he could not marry until he had complied with the aforementioned design. Obviously, since blackbirds reproduce at a much higher speed than humans marry, this control strategy was a failure. Pioneers traveling west to the Great Lakes region faced similar problems. By 1749, blackbirds were so abundant around western Lake Erie that people took turns watching over the maturing grain crops.
At the beginning of the 20th century, in some places, when the reeds dried up, these circumstances were used to kill these birds in the following way. A crew approached a roost in silence, hidden in the darkness of the night, and simultaneously lit the reeds at various points, which were quickly enveloped by a single great flame. This caused a huge tumult among the red-winged blackbird, which, lit by fire, were shot down in large numbers as they hovered in midair and screamed all over the place. Sometimes straw was used for the same purpose, which was previously scattered near reeds and alder bushes (Alnus spp.) in which they gathered to rest, the burning of which caused great consternation among the birds. The gang returned the next day to collect the hunted prey.
Arthur Cleveland Bent says that, before it was banned the sale of prey hunting in the market, red-winged blackbirds were massacred in large numbers in autumn and sold in markets. When they had put on weight on a diet of grains or rice, their small bodies were served as delicious snacks on the gourmet tables . Few could distinguish them from charlatans (Dolichonyx oryzivorus).
In 1926, when the US Biological Survey – predecessor of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service carried out its first compilation of roosts of undesirable ichterids, it was recorded in Ohio, with its large populations of these birds and the fifth largest area allocated to the cultivation of corn among the American states, a number of complaints higher than in any other state. During the 1950s, bird control committees were organized in some counties to deal with the damage to maize caused by blackbirds and the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station now the Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center and the Department of Zoology and Entomology of the state university began investigating the problem.


Crop predation has led to the use of traps, poison and surfactants by farmers in an attempt to control populations of red-winged blackbirds; these last properties suppress waterproof feathers, making them extremely vulnerable to the cold, but their effectiveness depends on certain atmospheric conditions, namely low temperatures and rainfall. Programs in which baits were used poisoned to reduce icteride concentrations in late summer have been unsuccessful. While thousands of birds have occasionally died, the effect on large roosting-associated flocks that sometimes contain more than a million individuals is small; In addition, specimens of other species frequently die. The use of large lure traps, which often catch hundreds of birds per day, is also ineffective against these large flocks.


4-Aminopyridine is applied to one in one hundred particles of ground corn used as bait. Generally, corn is thrown into the fields from planes that release a load of about 3.4 kg (7.5 lb) of bait per hectare on one third of the land. Because that amount of ground corn contains around 205,000 particles, approximately 2050 toxic particles are distributed per hectare treated. The ingestion of one or more of these particles by a blackbird causes erratic flight, calls for suffering and finally death; that behavior often leads the remaining birds in the flock to leave the field. The chemical DRC-1327, which has proven useful in mitigating damage to maturing corn, operates in the same way: when a bird ingests kernels from a partially hand-peeled cob to which the chemical has been applied with a sprayer manual, his erratic flight and his pre-death calls for suffering, which span a space of between five and fifteen minutes, chase away flocks from the fields.
The initial application of 4-aminopyridine should be carried out as soon as possible after the start of the milky stage of the grain ripening process. Two other booster applications five to seven days apart are generally recommended; Often just one is sufficient, but under conditions of prolonged bird activity more than three applications may be required at shorter intervals. In Brown County (Northeast South Dakota), in 1965, hand-spread 4-aminopyridine baits at intervals of about one week reduced projected red-winged blackbird loss by maturing corn crops by 85%. The distressing behavior exhibited by the individuals affected by the chemical produced a marked fear response in other members of the flocks and the fields were free of red-winged blackbirds even when the estimated directly affected proportion was less than 1%. It has even been suggested that the continued use of 4-aminopyridine over the years could cause a change in the pattern of migration to the south, as if birds were learning to avoid areas persistently treated with the chemical.
In another experiment in the same county, the number of blackbirds making use of the treated area fell dramatically over a period of five days after treatment had begun and remained low for the remainder of the season of damage to cornfields. The results of this method were largely limited to icterides. Although common pheasant were abundant, there was no evidence that any were affected, and mortality among other bird species was negligible.
The abundance of weeds should be considered as restricting the chances that birds will find bait particles scattered on the ground, so the use of this chemical must be accompanied by a weed control program. A less obvious problem is that of the insects that remove the bait. If Gryllus are detected in a field, ground corn is expected to disappear quickly. Crickets generally select untreated particles and leave the toxic ones behind; however, the rapid decrease in the total volume of ground corn on the ground decreases the attractiveness of ground-level feeding for blackbirds. Because cricket populations are difficult to control, more frequent applications or other bird control techniques may be desirable under these circumstances. A third problem is that of heavy rains, which cover the bait with soil or drag it into cracks in the ground. Likewise, a low population density of ichterides can reduce the effectiveness of its control with 4-aminopyridine.


A variety of devices to repel them, including electronic noise-making systems, helium balloons tied in the fields, radio-controlled aircraft, and various types of scarecrows are occasionally used in cornfields. Methods such as scarecrows, pyrotechnics, and propane cannons, may help mitigate mild predation, but only work effectively if the duration of the damage period is less than that of the birds becoming accustomed to these methods. Red-winged blackbirds quickly become accustomed to them, particularly if the crop is a prime food source in an area with few alternative sources of livelihood. Although harvesting as early as possible after the corn has dried sufficiently can limit damage by northern grazing flocks, adjusting the harvest date does not help farmers reduce losses by red-winged blackbirds during the milky stage.
One approach that has been successful in controlling roosts in the highlands is dispersal of populations through habitat alteration or bird harassment. These procedures, carried out by biologists in cooperation with local citizens, have been successful in dispersing or displacing populations of up to one million individuals. Although this dispersion can sometimes move the problem from one place to another – especially when the area has been intensively cultivated with corn and alternative food sources are not abundant, it has often been effective in solving local problem situations. Because oats and wheat grains in already harvested fields constitute an important food for blackbirds in late summer, the postponement of plowing the land with small grain stubble can lessen the pressure exerted by the predation of these birds on the maturing corn. The natural existence or planting of plants such as millet, sorghum (Sorghum spp.), Polygons (Polygonum spp.) And various grasses for example, mohas (Setaria spp.) that could be beneficial. As a general ecological principle, diversity in the types of habitats that can be maintained in regions of intense agricultural activity is related to a greater probability that the damages caused by pests are restricted to economically tolerable levels.
Studies in sweet corn fields indicate that blackbirds could often be initially attracted to maturing crops by insects. Flocks can wander the land cultivated for about a week consuming insects and weed seeds before attacking the corn. Diabrotica beetles may be especially attractive during this period. Thus the birds become habituated to feeding in the fields and quickly move from insects to corn when it enters the vulnerable milky stage. Experiments in which insect populations in sweet corn crops were treated with insecticides during the week before the grain entered the milky phase, they showed that fewer birds visited these fields and less damage was recorded to the corn in the subsequent vulnerability period than in nearby untreated land. It is probable that the abundance of weeds in cornfields also increases their attractiveness to ichterids and their control would lead to a decrease in the losses produced by these birds.


An alternative way to reduce populations of red-winged blackbird, and therefore the damage they cause to crops, involves implementing a program that is intended to interfere with their ability to reproduce, for example, through the use of sterilizing chemicals. Due to the polygynous nature of the species, it has been suggested that such a program could become more effective if directed at males. However, the incidence of promiscuity would imply that chemical sterilization of a certain fraction of males from a local population would not result in a proportional decrease in fertile clutches.
The effects of this method would probably vary according to the type of habitat in which the treated males have established their territories. In general, there should be a higher proportion of fertile clutches in those densely populated habitats and with a greater number of renidifications (nest reconstructions). Renidifications are more common in swamps than in the highlands. In turn, individuals that reproduce in the highlands probably feed more often within their own territories than those that reproduce in swamps, which probably makes promiscuity difficult in the first type of habitat. Thus, chemical sterilization could be more effective among upland populations than among swamp populations.
Sterilizing chemicals may reduce the number of chicks produced by a successful nest. Since renidification clutches are significantly fewer in number than the original, even if a female that first mated with a sterile male then renidified and mated with a fertile male, perhaps she would produce fewer chicks than she would have had if her first clutch would have been fertile.
The number of fertile clutches in a male's territory may be limited through the sterilization of that male, but the degree to which that number decreases will depend on the disposition of the neighboring fertile territorial males and perhaps also on the number of fertile non-territorial males. in the population. Studies with artificial eggs suggest that incubation of sterile eggs would be prolonged, 98 since females normally incubate artificial eggs for around 20 days. An extended incubation of unviable eggs would result in fewer renidification attempts and, therefore, it decreased the opportunities to find a fertile mate for a female who originally mated with a sterile male.


Farmers have been known to use pesticides—such as parathion—in illegal attempts to control their populations. In the United States, such efforts are illegal because no pesticide can be used on non-target organisms, or for any use not explicitly listed on the pesticide's label. However, the USDA has deliberately poisoned this species in the past: in 2009, the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service reported poisoning over 950,000 red-winged blackbirds in Texas and Louisiana. This poisoning has been implicated as a potential cause of the decline of the rusty blackbird, a once abundant species that has declined 99% since the 1960s and has been recently listed as Threatened on the IUCN Red List.
In the Anishinaabe languages, an indigenous language group spoken throughout much of the bird's northeastern range, this bird's names are diverse. In the Oji-Cree language, the northernmost of the Anishinaabe languages, it is called jachakanoob, while the Ojibwa language spoken in Northwestern Ontario and into Manitoba ranging immediately south of the Oji-Cree's range, the bird is called jachakanoo (with the cognates cahcahkaniw (Swampy Cree), cahcahkaluw (coastal Southern East Cree), cahcahkayuw (inland Southern East Cree), cahcahkayow (Plains Cree); the northern Algonquian languages classify the red-winged blackbird as a type of a junco or grackle, deriving the bird's name from their word for "spotted" or "marked". In the vast majority of the other Ojibwa language dialects, the bird is called memiskondinimaanganeshiinh, literally meaning "a bird with a very red damn-little shoulder-blade". However, in the Odawa language, an Anishinaabe language in southwestern Ontario and in Michigan, the bird is instead called either memeskoniinisi ("bird with a red [patch on its wing]") or memiskonigwiigaans ("[bird with a] wing of small and very red [patch]"). In N'syilxcn (Colville-Okanagan, Interior Salish language) the bird is known as ƛ̓kƛ̓aʕkək. In the Hoocąk language they are known as cooxją́ aporošucra, which describes the round red spot on its wing as well as identifying it as a blackbird.
In the Great Plains, the Lakota language, another Indigenous language spoken throughout much of the bird's range, the bird is called wabloša ("wings of red"). Its songs are described in Lakota as tōke, mat'ā nī ("oh! that I might die"), as nakun miyē ("...and me"), as miš eyā ("me too!"), and as cap'cehlī ("a beaver's running sore").


It is a species of least-concern. Being one of the largest and most widely distributed birds in North America, little has been done to protect it from the effects of habitat destruction and urbanization. It can survive in a wide range of environments, many populations manage to overcome the loss of natural habitats. However, red-winged blackbirds thrive in wetland areas and with the destruction of natural wetlands their population is likely to shrink. The species is protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act 1918, a formal treaty between the United States and Canada that was later expanded to include Mexico. This law gives them legal protection in the United States, but they can be killed "when they are found preying or about to prey on ornamental trees or trees planted for shade, crops, livestock or wildlife."
A study in Illinois indicated that red-winged blackbird populations doubled between 1908 and 1958. It had traditionally reproduced in wetlands, with Ohio primarily inhabiting swamps associated with lakes and rivers. During the 20th century, however, it adapted to man-made habitat changes and now often nests in hayfields, along roads and ditches, and elsewhere in the highlands.
Despite its successful adaptation to changes in practices related to land use, populations of red-winged blackbird have reduced the width of its range during the second half of the twentieth century, and Changes in the abundance and adequacy of grasslands have been implicated in this. In Ohio, the red-winged blackbird was negatively affected between 1966 and 1996 by the decrease in hay production, the earlier harvest of hay and the increase in crops planted in furrows, a situation homologous to that suffered by other species of birds from less numerous grasslands. Although the negative effect of the increased efficiency and the diminishing diversity of modern agricultural practices on the populations of red-winged blackbird in this state may be perceived as a positive event by the producers of corn and sunflower, the agricultural practices that have precipitated the numerical decline of this species may have caused more severe repercussions for birds from less common grasslands, such as the upland sandpiper and the Grasshopper sparrow.
In the late 1970s, Ohio hosted the highest density of blackbirds during the breeding season among all US states and Canadian provinces, However, between 1966 and 1996, the reproductive populations in this state showed a marked decrease. Decreasing the area under hay other than alfalfa between those same years was likely to reduce the availability of quality nesting habitats. Likewise, corn even though it attracts insects that red-winged blackbirds consume and despite the fact that their grains represent in themselves an energy source and soybeans which do not constitute a food source for the species, which together made up 1966 to 1996, an average of 70% of the cultivated area in Ohio, do not provide adequate nesting habitat. In turn, the large annual fluctuations in the area cultivated with hay, both from one year to the next and within the same year of a certain reproductive season, Similarly, in Ontario between 1974 and 1995, the average size of harems in a given year was positively related to hay production from the previous year, although the percentage variation in the size of harems from one season to the next the following was not linearly related to the annual percentage change in hay production; Hay production declined during this period and the size of the harems decreased from approximately three females per male to 1.6 females.
In addition in Ontario, a negative relationship was found between the North Atlantic Oscillation Index (NAO) in the six months prior to a certain reproductive season and the size of the harems. If winter mortality contributes to the decrease in the size of the harems, the annual variations in their size should be related to the annual changes in the rates of return of marked territorial males. Variations in the size of harems and male return rates per year were indeed found to be positively correlated. Although not as pronounced, the relationship between male return rates and winter NAO values was similar to that between changes in harem size and NAO.
On the other hand, in southwestern Quebec, red-winged blackbird populations doubled between 1966 and 1981, apparently in response to the development of maize production. The increased availability of residual grains in spring and summer. the reproductive season will probably play a fundamental role in the growth of this bird's population. Likewise, in the mid-1990s, the reproductive population of North Dakota which at least between 1994 and 2002 was at the forefront among all the American states and Canadian provinces in terms of population density of this species began to increase rapidly.


Agelastica alni, the alder leaf beetle, is a species of leaf beetle (Chrysomelidae) in the genus Agelastica. Agelastica alni is distributed in Europe, the Caucasus, Siberia, north-eastern Kazakhstan, and in the 19th century was introduced to the United States.
The beetle and the beetle's larval host is the grey or speckled alder (Alnus incana) and to a lesser extent black alder (Alnus glutinosa), but it will also be found on hazel, birch or hornbeam if there is a shortage of food. It causes large holes and gaps in leaves from the end of April onwards, which are produced by the larvae in the first two stages, but the main damage is produced by larvae in the third stage.
Previously rare, and considered extinct in the UK, since being found in Manchester in 2004 it appears to be on the increase in the North West of England. Its range has been extending and it was found in Nottinghamshire and Hampshire in 2014 and in North Wales in 2018.


The alder leaf beetle is a relatively small beetle, around 6–7 mm, black or metallic blue in colour. The winged adults overwinter and emerge in the spring. There is one generation each year. The larvae are normally black.  Although the damage to alder trees can be unsightly, the trees will usually tolerate the damage.


There are two subspecies of Agelastica alni:
A. a. alni (Linnaeus, 1758)
A. a. glabra (Fischer von Waldheim, 1842) (formerly known as A. a. orientalis Baly, 1878 until 2015)


Ageratina adenophora (synonym Eupatorium adenophorum), commonly known as Crofton weed, is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae native to Mexico and Central America. Originally grown as an ornamental plant, it has become invasive into farmland and bushland worldwide. It is toxic to horses, who develop a respiratory disease known as Numinbah Horse Sickness after eating it.


Ageratina adenophora is known by many common names, including eupatory, sticky eupatorium, sticky snakeroot, thoroughwort, and Mexican devil.


Ageratina adenophora is a perennial herbaceous shrub that may grow to 1 or 2 metres (3.3 or 6.6 ft) high. It has opposite trowel-shaped serrated leaves that are 6–10 cm (2.4–3.9 in) long by 3–6 cm (1.2–2.4 in) in width. The small compound flowers occur in late spring and summer, and are found in clusters at the end of branches. Each flowerhead is up to 0.5 cm in the diameter and creamy white. Each small flower is followed by a small brown seed with a white feathery "parachute" that can be dispersed by the wind similar to a dandelion.


It is native to Mexico, but it is known in many other parts of the world as an introduced species and often a noxious weed. It has caused great economic loss in agriculture in southwestern China, and is threatening the native biodiversity there. It was first inadvertently introduced to Yunnan around 1940, and its rapid spread is due in part to its allelopathic competition with other plant species. It also a weed in Australia, where it was introduced to Sydney in 1904. It has spread along the coastline of New South Wales and southern Queensland. It is rated a Class 4 Noxious Weed under the NSW Noxious Weeds Act of 1993.
Ageratina adenophora has also spread in Hawaii and the mainland United States, where it is recognised as a weed in ten states of the South and Southwest.
Elsewhere it is an invasive species in many tropical and subtropical countries, including northeastern India, China, Sri Lanka, Nigeria, Southeast Asia, Australia, New Zealand, the Pacific Islands, the Canary Islands, and South Africa.
The plant can spread vegetatively (i.e., the stems can sprout roots and grow upon contact with earth). The seed is also carried by the wind or water and readily colonises disturbed areas, such as fields and areas near human habitation. Seed may also be transported on animals and in soil.


Crofton weed is toxic to livestock. Ongoing consumption of crofton weed by horses leads to chronic lung disease, known as Numinbah Horse Sickness or Tallebudgera Horse Disease in northern New South Wales and Queensland. Outbreaks occurred in Hawaii in the 1920s, and subsequently in eastern Australia and Northland in New Zealand. There are reports of farms losing all their horses to the condition. It is typified by impaired ability to work or exercise and emphysema. Pathological findings include pulmonary interstitial fibrosis and alveolar epithelisation.


Ageratina is derived from Greek meaning 'un-aging', in reference to the flowers keeping their color for a long time. This name was used by Dioscorides for a number of different plants.


Ageratina altissima, also known as white snakeroot, richweed, or white sanicle, is a poisonous perennial herb in the family Asteraceae, native to eastern and central North America. An older binomial name for this species is Eupatorium rugosum, but the genus Eupatorium has undergone taxonomic revision by botanists, and some species once included in it have been moved to other genera.


Plants are upright or sometimes ascending, growing to 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) tall, producing single or multi-stemmed clumps in mid to late summer and fall. The flowers are a clean white color and after blooming, small seeds with fluffy white tails are released to blow in the wind.  They are found in woods and brush thickets where they bloom mid to late summer or fall. The species is adaptive to different growing conditions; it is found in woods and brush thickets and also in shady areas with open bare ground, and can be weedy in shady landscapes and hedgerows.  There are two different varieties: Ageratina altissima var. altissima  and Ageratina altissima var. roanensis (Appalachian white snakeroot); they differ in the length of the flower phyllaries and shape of the apices.


White snakeroot contains the toxin tremetol; when the plants are consumed by cattle, the meat and milk become contaminated with the toxin. When milk or meat containing the toxin is consumed, the poison is passed on to humans.  If consumed in large enough quantities, it can cause tremetol poisoning in humans. The poisoning is also called milk sickness, as humans often ingested the toxin by drinking the milk of cows that had eaten snakeroot. Although 80% of the plant's toxin, tremetone, decreases after being dried and stored away for 5 years, its toxic properties remain the same.
During the early 19th century, when large numbers of European Americans from the East, who were unfamiliar with snakeroot, began settling in the plant's habitat of the Midwest and Upper South, many thousands were killed by milk sickness. Notably, milk sickness was possibly the cause of death in 1818 of Nancy Hanks Lincoln, mother of Abraham Lincoln.
It was some decades before European Americans traced the cause to snakeroot, although today Dr. Anna Pierce Hobbs Bixby is credited with identifying the plant in the 1830s. Legend has it that she was taught about the plant's properties by a Shawnee woman. The Shawnee woman's name is lost to history, but she and her people doubtless had deep knowledge of the plants in the area.
In addition to cattle, the plants are also poisonous to horses, goats, and sheep. Signs of poisoning in these animals include depression and lethargy, placement of hind feet close together (horses, goats, cattle) or held far apart (sheep), nasal discharge, excessive salivation, arched body posture, and rapid or difficult breathing.
This plant may serve medicinal purposes. Root tea has been used to treat diarrhea, kidney stones, and fever. A root poultice can be used on snakebites.


A cultivar, sold under the name Eupatorium rugosum 'Chocolate', is grown in gardens for its dark-tinted foliage. The darkest color, which is a chocolate black, occurs in plants grown in a sunny location. The plants are shade-tolerant and do best in moist soils. More recently, the plant can be found under the correct species name.


Ageratina is derived from Greek meaning 'un-aging', in reference to the flowers keeping their color for a long time. This name was used by Dioscorides for a number of different plants.
Altissima means "the tallest", and probably indicates that this is the tallest species in its genus.


Ageratina havanensis, the Havana snakeroot or white mistflower, is a species of flowering shrub in the family Asteraceae, native to the south-western United States (Texas), Cuba, and north-eastern and east-central Mexico (Veracruz, Tamaulipas, Coahuila, Nuevo León, Hidalgo, San Luis Potosí, Puebla, Guanajuato, Querétaro). Unlike many other species of Ageratina, it is evergreen.


Ageratum houstonianum, commonly known as flossflower, bluemink, blueweed, pussy foot or Mexican paintbrush, is a cool-season annual plant often grown as bedding in gardens.


This herbaceous annual or dwarf shrub grows to 0.3–1 m (1 ft 0 in – 3 ft 3 in) high, with ovate to triangular leaves 2–7 cm (0.79–2.76 in) long, and blue flowerheads (sometimes white, pink, or purple). The flower heads are borne in dense corymbs. The ray flowers are threadlike and fluff-haired, leading to the common name. The narrow lanceolate bracts are pointed, denticulate only at the top and glandular hairy. The flowering period is from May to November in the northern hemisphere. The plant attracts butterflies.


The plant is native to Central America in Guatemala and Belize, and adjacent parts of Mexico, but has become an invasive weed in other areas. It was also naturalized in large parts of the tropics and in the southern United States. Their habitat is pastures, moist forest clearings and bushes up to altitudes of 1,000 metres (3,300 ft).
Today, it is widely used as an ornamental plant for summer borders and balcony boxes, high varieties also as cut flowers. The species is cultivated once a year, having numerous varieties whose crowns may be dark blue, purple, pink and white. Preferring cool soils and exposure in full sun, high varieties reach stature heights up to 60 centimetres (24 in).


Ageratum has evolved a unique method of protecting itself from insects: it produces a methoprene-like compound which interferes with the normal function of the corpus allatum, the organ responsible for secreting juvenile hormone during insect growth and development. This chemical triggers the next molting cycle to prematurely develop adult structures, and can render most insects sterile if ingested in large enough quantities.


Ageratum houstonianum is toxic to grazing animals, causing liver lesions. It contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids.


Ageratum houstonianum is prone to becoming a rampant environmental weed when grown outside of its natural range. It has become an invasive weed in the United States, Australia, Europe, Africa, China, Japan, New Zealand, and the Philippines.


The small tortoiseshell (Aglais urticae) is a colourful Eurasian butterfly in the family Nymphalidae. Adults feed on nectar and may hibernate over winter; in warmer climates they may have two broods in a season. While the dorsal surface of the wings is vividly marked, the ventral surface is drab, providing camouflage. Eggs are laid on the common nettle, on which the larvae feed.


The hemlock moth (Agonopterix alstroemeriana), also known as the defoliating hemlock moth or poison hemlock moth, is a nocturnal moth species of the family Depressariidae. Of Palaearctic origin, it was first found in North America in 1973 when it was accidentally introduced. The moth is now widespread throughout the northern half of the United States, southern Canada, northern Europe, and, more recently, New Zealand and Australia. The larval form grows to around 10 mm, while the adults wingspan is between 17 mm and 19 mm.
It is best known for its use in biological control of the lethally toxic poison hemlock (Conium maculatum), which is eaten by its caterpillars (larvae). The toxicity of its host plant may actually benefit the caterpillar because it helps females recognize locations for oviposition. This species also uses the leaves of its host plant (C. maculatum) to form protective tubes around the caterpillar.


Adult moths are pale brown, almost tan, with a lighter colored area near the bottom of their wings and a few darker spots found near the edges of the wings. They have a distinguishing brown or reddish spot near the center of each wing. The hemlock moth can be confused with another moth of the family Depressariidae, Exaeretia canella, which is similar in coloration. However, E. canella does not have a reddish spot, and has a dark head.
As eggs, they have a pale, off-white color. As caterpillars, they are yellow with a black head. After growing in size (to around 10 mm), the caterpillars are thin and have a light green color, with three prominent stripes on the sides of their bodies, which are a darker green.


A. alstroemeriana is a wide-ranging species native to Europe, that has more recently spread to North America, Australian and New Zealand. In North America, it is most common to the northeastern and northwestern United States, as well as the southern regions of Canada. It has spread inland in both nations, and can now commonly be found in the Midwestern states of the U.S. as well.
The first North American sighting of the hemlock moth was of a caterpillar seen in Tompkins County, New York in 1973. After that, Agonopterix alstroemeriana spread quickly throughout the United States. It was found in the Pacific Northwest in 1983–1985, possibly spread by the accidental shipping of dormant moths. The moth was seen in the Midwest starting in 1990, when it was discovered near Columbus, Ohio. It was established in Illinois in 1993, after being identified by the rolled leaves of Conium maculatum, a characteristic indication of the presence of A. alstroemeriana.
The species has been breeding in New Zealand since 1986 and it is likely that the moth then spread from New Zealand to southern Tasmania, where its presence was discovered in 2019.


The poison hemlock moth can be found wherever its host plant (Conium maculatum) occurs. Thus, the moth is most commonly seen in open fields and roadsides in suburban and rural locations. In the U.S., A. alstroemeriana often winters under the bark of firewood; then flies away after being warmed up when the wood is brought into the house. Moths also may come inside buildings and housing during the night, as they are attracted to light.


Around 200 small eggs are laid by the female, and they are placed on the underside of the leaves of their host plant, Conium maculatum. As eggs, they have a pale color.


The eggs hatch into caterpillars about 6 days after being laid. Earlier instars are yellow with a black head capsule. After feeding on their hostplant and growing in size, the caterpillars have a light green color. After almost a month of growth, the caterpillars are around 10 mm long (.4 in). The last instar larva is green with three dark green stripes. Larvae often emerge in April and May. Hemlock moth larvae have been known to shelter together in high numbers, since the larvae seem to repel predators with toxic alkaloids obtained from its host plant. They also have the advantage of local predators being less familiar with the species because they are non-native.
The caterpillar may also benefit from the toxic alkaloids present in the poison hemlock host plant because they may increase the ability of A. alstroemeriana to recognize Conium maculatum as the correct location for oviposition.


They pupate for 2 weeks in the soil, usually from late May to early June. The color of pupa is red-brown, with fine hairs densely located. The length of pupae is approximately 6–7 mm.


After pupating, the moths emerge from the soil as adults. This adult emergence usually occurs in mid- to late- June. The adults must therefore stay alive through the winter in order to breed during the spring. Adults generally live from June to March, making A. alstroemeriana a relatively long-lived moth species.


Recently, A. alstroemeriana has been predated upon by a wasp species, Euodynerus foraminatus native to the United States, which is part of the family Eumenidae of Hymenoptera. This wasp is known for paralyzing the larvae of Lepidoptera, now including the hemlock moth, in order to feed it to its young. This newfound predator may limit the effects that A. alstroemeriana have in defoliating C. maculatum.


A. alstroemeriana can now be found throughout the United States. In locations where it has intentionally been released as a biological control agent, the species has rapidly established itself. In already established areas for the moth, like the Pacific Northwest, A. alstroemeriana can cause serious damage to the poison hemlock plant; wherein hundreds of larvae exist on individual host plants. Large areas of Conium maculatum can be killed when caterpillars of A. alstroemeriana exist at these densities.


The use of A. alstroemeriana as a biological control method has been limited by the scarcity of information on its life history and feeding habits and the ability to harvest the larvae only in early to mid-spring.
Due to C. maculatum’s ability to serve as a stock for a variety of plant diseases, and to overrun fields growing cattle feed, it has been implicated in killing multiple species of plants. Poison hemlock commonly overruns fields growing feed for livestock, which creates the possibility of killing the animals (through hay contamination). Therefore, agriculturalists have made it a priority to address the widespread nature of poison hemlock.
The number of eggs that A. alstroemeriana lays is known to be associated with the dry weight of the leaf. However, oviposition was not correlated positively with the concentration of alkaloids in the poison hemlock, which varies widely among individual plants. Therefore, it is difficult to predict whether increased alkaloids in the plant would increase or decrease the use of the hemlock moth as a biological control.


The effects that the alkaloids in Conium maculatum cause on the moth, both physiologically and behaviorally, are relatively unknown. Persons interested in the biological control capabilities of A. alstroemeriana see behavioral dependency on the host plant as an asset when using this moth as a biological control agent, because this reduces the possibility of the moth affecting other species besides the host plant.
Preliminary research has not found any negative physiological effects caused by the high alkaloid toxicity of poison hemlock. The moth may actually benefit from the alkaloids present in its feeding behavior.


Agoseris aurantiaca is a species of plant in the family Asteraceae, commonly called orange agoseris or mountain dandelion. It is widespread in western North America.


Agoseris aurantiaca is a perennial herb or subshrub growing to 60 centimeters (24 inches) in height. It produces a basal rosette of leaves, which are 5–35 cm (2–14 in) long. There is no stem, but it does produce several stem-like peduncles. Between June and August, each peduncle bears a single flower head 2.5 cm (1 in) in width, surrounded by glabrous to hairy phyllaries. The head is ligulate, containing several ray florets but no disc florets. The florets are most commonly orange but are occasionally yellow, pink, red, or purple. "Aurantiaca" means "orange-red". The flower head matures into a ball-like head of beaked achenes, each with a terminal pappus of numerous, white bristles.
It is the only orange-flowered species in the genus, the others typically being yellow.
Varieties
Agoseris aurantiaca var. aurantiaca – most of species range
Agoseris aurantiaca var. purpurea (A.Gray) Cronquist – southern Rocky Mountains


The species is widespread and common in western North America from Alaska and the Northwest Territories in Canada southward to California, Arizona, and New Mexico, and eastward as far as the Rocky Mountains and the Black Hills. There are also isolated populations in the Chic-Choc Mountains on the Gaspe Peninsula and in the Otish Mountains of central Quebec.
It is primarily a species of mountainous regions and may be found in wet to dry habitats.


A cold infusion of this plant is used by the Ramah Navajo for protection against witches.


Agrimonia eupatoria is a species of agrimony that is often referred to as common agrimony, church steeples or sticklewort.
The whole plant is dark green with numerous soft hairs. The soft hairs aid in the plant's seed pods sticking to any animal or person coming in contact with the plant. The flower spikes have a spicy odor like apricots. In the language of flowers, agrimony means thankfulness or gratitude.
A. eupatoria is a foodplant for the caterpillars of the snout moth Endotricha flammealis.


The common agrimony grows as a deciduous, perennial herbaceous plant and reached heights of up to 100 cm (39 in). Its roots are deep  rhizomes, from which spring the stems. It is characterized by its typical serrated edged pinnate leaves.


The short-stemmed flowers appear from June to September, in long, spike-like, racemose inflorescences. The single flower has an urn-shaped curved flower cup, the upper edge has  several rows of soft, curved hook-shaped bristles, 1–4 mm (0.039–0.157 in) long. The hermaphrodite flower has fivefold  radial symmetry. There are five sepals present . There are  five yellow, rounded petals.  The petals and the five to 20 stamens rise above the tip of the flower cup . The two medium-sized carpels in the flower cups are sunk into, but not fused with it. The fruits are achenes approximately 0.6 cm (0.2 inch) in diameter and each have a number of hooks that enable it to cling to animal fur and clothing. Each achene may have one or two seeds.
Agrimonia eupatoria is native to Europe and Southwestern Asia, where it grows in damp meadows, pasture, along stream banks, and among shrubs -  it is also cultivated in other parts of the world for medical purposes.


Agrimony has been stated to have medical and magical properties since the time of Pliny the Elder. It is ruled astrologically by Cancer, according to Nicholas Culpeper. Common folklore held that it could cure musket wounds by being brewed into "arquebusade water," and ward off witchcraft.
Traditional British folklore states that if a sprig of the plant was placed under a person's head, they would sleep until it was removed.


The flowers with their abundant pollen supply attract hoverflies, flies and honey bees. They also are an important food source for butterflies like the grizzled skipper. The pollinated flowers develop fruits with burs. These attach to passing  grazing animals such as cattle, sheep and deer and are spread over a large area. Agrimony is found usually in young grasslands, less than 50 years old. It is a wild host for a few insect pest species (Stigmella fragariella and Coroebus elatus) that feed on loganberries, raspberries, and strawberries in Europe.


Contains volatile oils, flavonoids, apigenin, luteolin, quercetin, kaempferol, tiliroside, triterpene glycosides including euscapic acid and tormentic acid, phenolic acids, and 3%–21% tannins.


Agrimonia gryposepala (commonly known as tall hairy agrimony, common agrimony, hooked agrimony, or tall hairy grooveburr) is a small perennial flowering plant of the rose family (Rosaceae), which is native to North America. This plant was used by various indigenous peoples to treat medical problems such as diarrhea and fever.


The plant grows 1–5 ft (about 30–150 cm) high, producing a cluster of small, yellow, 5-parted flowers on a hairy stalk above pinnate leaves. The fruits are hooked dry seeds grouped in a cluster. A spicy scent is released when the stem is crushed. The plant's native range covers most of the United States and Canada (except the Rocky Mountains) and extending south to Chiapas, Mexico. It grows in woodlands and forests.
The specific epithet, gryposepala, is derived from the Greek grypos, meaning curved or hooked, and from sepala, meaning sepal. The name "grooveburr," which is sometimes applied to the plant, comes from the grooved shape of the seedpod or burr.


Across North America, various indigenous peoples used the plant for medicinal purposes. Among the Iroquois people, a drink made from the roots of the plant was used for diarrhea. Among the Cherokee, the plant was used for the same purpose, to reduce fever, and for a range of other problems. The Ojibwe used the plant for urinary problems, and the Meskwaki and Prairie Potawatomi used it as a styptic for nosebleeds.
These ethnobotanical uses of the plant have some similarities to the traditional medical uses of Agrimonia eupatoria, which is native to Europe, Asia, and Africa.


Agrimonia parviflora is a species of perennial herbaceous flowering plant.  Small-flowered agrimony, harvestlice agrimony, swamp agrimony, and harvestlice are its most common names in the United States.
This plant species is part of the Rosaceae (rose) family. Globally, the genus Agrimonia consist of about fifteen species of plants. Seven of these species are native to the United States. Most members of this genus have small yellow flowers with large leaves. Out of the fifteen species, harvestlice is considered the most noxious weed.


Agrimonia parviflora can grow up to 6.0 feet tall with long, fibrous roots growing up to 6 inches in length. It is an erect plant with multiple stems which grows rapidly. Harvestlice has multiple small yellow flowers in midsummer. Some plants may contain as many as 100 flowers. Yellow flowers contains 5 petals and has 5–10 stamens. The flowers are one fourth of an inch in diameter. The flowers occur in an elongate inflorescence and have a hypanthium structure. Plants will fruit and seed in the summer and will senesce in the fall. Fruit are 4–5 mm in length and are green in color. The calyx is a 10 ribbed tubernate. Stem is pubescent while the primary leaflets are glabrous on top and slightly pubescent on the underside. Compound leaves are odd pinnate and are alternating. Each leaf can contain up to 17 primary leaflets that are lanceolate in shape with toothed edges. In between the primary leaflets, secondary leaflets can be found which are much smaller than the primary leaflets and are also toothed.


The bur-like fruit is distributed by mammal fur and bird feathers. The fruit is indehiscent and usually contains only one seed. The seeds can survive the winter. Nectar is consumed by bees and certain flies, other animals, like mammals and reptiles, avoid consuming this plant due to its bitter taste. Certain birds use harvestlice to build nests. Because of the aroma and foul taste of the agrimony, predators and parasites such as lice and mites stay away from constantly restocked nest.


Agrimonia parviflora prefers moist and wet grounds and is found in swamps, woodlands, prairies and roadside ditches. Harvestlice prefers full sunlight and can grow in most soils, including sandy and silty. Often referred to as swamp agrimony. Plant is found throughout Ontario, Canada. Also found in 32 of the 50 United States. Harvestlice is distributed along the Atlantic coast from Georgia to New York but is infrequent in the coastal plain. Harvest list is distributed as far west as Texas and South Dakota. If cultivated, these plants need little attention and care. Harvestlice can survive in -33 F weather and temporary flooding periods.


In the state of Connecticut, harvestlice is listed as Special Concern and in the state of Massachusetts, Harvestlice is listed as Endangered. Agrimonia parviflora is generally common in the core of its range.


Agrimonia parviflora has been used by Native Americans including the Cherokee. The burs of the plant can be used as an antidiarrheal and to help reduce fevers. The root of the harvestlice can pulverized and implemented for several medical treatments. This includes: increasing red blood cell count, gastrointestinal aid, topical treatment for certain skin issues like pox, and as a dietary aid.


The heart and dart (Agrotis exclamationis) is a moth of the family Noctuidae. The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae. A familiar moth to many, it is considered one of the most common of the European region. It occurs throughout the Palearctic realm from Ireland to Japan.
This is a quite variable species with forewings ranging from pale to dark brown but always recognizable by the distinctively shaped dark stigmata which give it its common name. The wingspan is 35–44 mm. The hindwings are whitish (compared with other common Agrotis species, the hindwings of this species are usually paler than in heart and club but darker than in turnip moth). This species usually has a dark area at the front of the thorax, visible as a horizontal bar when viewing the moth head on. The differences are not consistent however; they are highly variable in both colour and markings, and identification of atypical or worn examples may prove impossible without examination of genitalia. See Townsend et al.
This moth flies at night from May to July and is attracted to light, sometimes in large numbers. It also frequently visits nectar-rich flowers such as Buddleia, ragwort and red valerian.
The larva The caterpillars are coloured grey-brown, paler ventrally and have a pale dorsal line and clearly recognizable black point warts.
The pupa is  bright red. On the cremaster sit two short curved thorns.Larvae feed on a variety of plants, both wild and cultivated (see list below). This is one of the notorious cutworms and often severs or fatally damages plants at the base. The species overwinters as a full-grown larva in a chamber in the soil before pupating in the spring.
The flight season refers to the British Isles. This may vary in other parts of the range.


The bogong moth (Agrotis infusa) is a temperate species of night-flying moth, notable for its biannual long-distance seasonal migrations towards and from the Australian Alps, similar to the diurnal monarch butterfly. During the autumn and winter it is found in southern Queensland, western New South Wales, western Victoria, and also in South and Western Australia. Adult bogong moths breed and larvae hatch during this period, consuming winter pasture plants during their growth. During the spring, the moths migrate south or east and reside in mountains such as Mount Bogong, where they gregariously aestivate over the summer until their return towards breeding grounds again in the autumn.
The moth's name, bogong, is derived from an Australian Aboriginal language; the Dhudhuroa word bugung describes the brown colouration of the moth. It is an icon of Australian wildlife due to its historical role as an important food source and because Aboriginal peoples would come to where the moths spend the summer to feast on them and hold intertribal gatherings. In recent years, it has invaded major cities like Canberra, Melbourne, and Sydney due to strong winds during its spring migration.
Starting around 1980 and accelerating rapidly after 2016, the Bogong Moth population has sharply declined as a result of increasingly severe droughts, along with increased temperatures in caves used by the moths for aestivation, both primarily resulting from anthropogenic climate change. In December 2021 the bogong moth was added to the IUCN Red List as an Endangered Species.


Bogong moths was first described by French lepidopterist Jean Baptiste Boisduval in 1832, who described the moth as Noctua infusa from a type specimen from Australia. He described the moth as having blackish-brown hind wings. However, in 1903 British entomologist George Hampson classified a specimen with white hind wings under this name, alongside another specimen of Agrotis spina with blackish-brown hind wings. Australian amateur entomologist Alfred Jefferis Turner identified A. spina as a synonym of A. infusa in 1920. I. F. B. Common, an Australian entomologist, found specimens with both hind wing colours in 1954. Specimens with the white hind wings were only found during specific months in mercury vapour light traps near Canberra, and he attributed the white hind wing specimens to a seasonal form.
The moth's name, bogong, is derived from the Dhudhuroa word bugung, meaning brown moth. Its presence has contributed to the naming of numerous locations and landmarks. For example, a town, Bogong, in the Australian state of Victoria has been named after the moth. Mount Bogong, located south of the Bogong High Plains, is also named after the moth, with its traditional name, Warkwoolowler, meaning the mountain where Aboriginal people collected the "boo.gong fly". The Taungurung name for the bogong moth is debera.
In the Australian state of New South Wales, a series of mountains in the Kosciuszko National Park are named the Bogong Peaks.


Adult bogong moths have an overall dark brown colouration, with a dark stripe interrupted by two light-coloured spots on the wings, distinguishing it from other moths. There are visual differences between the migratory and nonmigratory forms of the moth; migratory moths have brown hind wings while nonmigratory moths have paler hind wings. Bogong moths have a wingspan ranging between 40–50 mm (1.6-2.0 in), and a body length of around 25–35 mm (1-1.4 in). The average weight of an adult bogong moth is 0.326 grams.
Bogong moth eggs are dome–shaped in appearance and are vertically ridged. They are 0.7 mm (0.03 in) in diameter and 0.4 mm (0.02 in) in height.
Caterpillars initially start out with a pale colouration, but as they grow and consume food they become green with pale and dark stripes and spots. Larvae achieve a maximum length of 50 mm (2.0 in).


Bogong moth populations are primarily located across southern Australia, west of the Great Dividing Range. The regions contain populations of nonmigratory and migratory moths of this species, distinguished by their differing seasonal presences in each region. The adult bogong moth lays eggs across New South Wales, southern Queensland, and northern parts of Victoria, where larvae hatch and grow until adulthood. During the spring season and subsequent summer aestivation, bogong moths migrate south or east towards the Australian Alps, and can be found in the Australian Capital Territory and Bogong Mountains. However, bogong moths can also be found in locations as far as Tasmania and New Zealand due to strong winds that blow them off their path.


Bogong moth eggs and larvae are primarily found in self-mulching soils (soil that mixes itself) and crop pastures, where both wild and agricultural larval food sources are abundant during the autumn and winter seasons. The heavy presence of larvae in these pastures can lead to significant crop damage. During the spring and summer seasons, when grasses overtake these pastures, conditions are unfavourable for larval survival since larvae do not consume these plants. This leads to delayed breeding, as bogong moths are multivoltine and so can raise multiple generations. Instead, adult bogong moths migrate in a southerly direction during the summer and aestivate (remain dormant), until conditions are favourable again.


During the spring migration, adult bogong moths can be found in their ideal aestivation sites, which generally consist of cool, dark caves and crevices but can include spaces underneath tors and even fallen tree trunks. Stable temperatures and humidity make these locations ideal for bogong moth aestivation. Crevices regulate their environment through wind flow, and caves generally have more regular temperatures and greater humidity. This reduces water loss in bogong moths during their inactivity. While temporary sites can be used in lower elevations, these sites undergo massive population fluctuations and movements throughout their use. Permanent aestivation sites are generally found in higher altitudes of 1500 metres (4920 ft) or above, with the largest, most stable aggregations found on the summits of mountains such as Mt. Gingera.


Adult bogong moths lay up to 2000 eggs in the soil or on plants near the soil after returning from aestivation sites in the autumn migration. Incubation times vary depending on temperature, with eggs hatching after a period of 4–7 days in laboratory conditions. The larvae of bogong moths undergo six instars. Caterpillars grow slowly throughout the first three instars, taking until June to develop over the winter. However, the larvae go through fast growth during the spring, reaching the final instar in late August to September, soon before migration. They are active at night, when they feed on plants within breeding grounds. Larvae undergo pupation in soil chambers at a depth of 20–150 mm (0.8-7.9 in). Pupation can last between 3–11 weeks depending on the temperature and environment. Pupae are 20 mm (0.8 in) in length and have a shiny, brown appearance. Adults emerge from the soil chambers and shortly after begin migration. Adult bogong moths are active at night, and have different seasonal behaviors. During the spring, bogong moths feed and migrate south, where they aestivate during the summer. Adult bogong moths are not sexually mature yet, and do not actively seek food during this period of dormancy. In autumn, the moths migrate again and return to their breeding grounds, laying eggs and dying.


Bogong moth larvae subsist on winter pasture crops and wild crop weeds such as cape weeds within bogong moth breeding grounds, primarily depending on annual dicotyledons that grow during the winter. Attacks on a wide variety of cultivated crops have been seen, with plants such as Medicago species, wheat, cabbages, cauliflowers, silver beet, peas, and potatoes all recorded being consumed by bogong moth caterpillars. However, the larvae avoid grasses, which overtake pastures during the summer, making summer unfavourable due to lack of larval food sources. Adult bogong moths feed on the nectar of flowers such as Epacris, Grevillea and Eucalyptus while breeding or migrating, but will not actively feed during aestivation.


Bogong moths undergo whole scale long-distance migration biannually, in which they can travel up to 965 km (600 miles). The spring migration begins in early September and occurs from the lowlands of Southern Australia south towards the Australian Alps for purposes of reaching aestivation sites. During the summer, the moths remain in their aestivation sites until autumn, when they migrate back towards the breeding grounds of the lowlands as early as February, but primarily in April. The bogong moth utilizes particular aestivation sites repeatedly throughout migrations, as seen with the development of parasites that depend on the regular arrival and departure of the moths from caves. The population within each aestivation site fluctuates throughout the summer due to moth mortality and the departure and arrival of moths either migrating further south for aestivation or north to return to breeding grounds. However, this differs from changes during migration periods, when the populations rapidly increase with arrival or decrease with departure.
Bogong moths are nocturnal migrants, but the exact mechanism for long-distance navigation is not clear. It is possible that they are oriented by light, as seen in the influence of light intensity on activity during aestivation. Additionally, bogong moths may use an internal magnetic compass to aid in navigation, as seen in the similar monarch butterfly. A study published in 2018 concluded that the Bogong moth uses a combination of the Earth's magnetic field and recognizable landmarks to calibrate their route.
However, there are also nonmigratory populations; this generally occurs in areas with favourable conditions, where migration to avoid harsh conditions such as seasonal changes in larval food crop abundance is not necessary. Some populations of bogong moths in areas such as Tasmania and in coastal populations of New South Wales do not migrate, and reach sexual maturity at a faster rate than migratory populations.


During the spring migration, bogong moths gregariously aggregate with densities reaching 17,000 moths per square metre (10.8 square feet) within caves, crevices, and other areas hidden from the sunlight. The lack of light and relatively constant temperature and humidity makes these spots favourable during aestivation. The first moths that arrive occupy the deepest and darkest locations, using their fore tarsi to grip onto the rock faces, and aggregations form around these initial areas, with moths arriving later settling for less ideal areas with more sunlight, higher temperatures, and decreased humidity. To diminish the amount of light that reaches their light-sensitive eyes, later moths push themselves underneath the wings and abdomens of moths that arrived earlier and place their hind legs on top of the moths beneath them. This physical contact and aggregation allow the moths to retain body moisture. When the aestivating moths are disturbed, the moths within the area of disturbance briefly spread out and leave the aggregation, dropping excrement when unsettled before quickly returning to the aggregation and re-positioning themselves.
While the moths mostly remain dormant during aestivation, there are some periods of activity within the aggregation which are correlated to changes in light intensity.  During dawn and dusk, portions of the population become active, first crawling around and spreading out, and then flying out of their shelter into the open. While some water drinking has been observed, no evidence of copulation or active foraging has been found during these periods of activity.


Facultative diapause, an optional period of delayed development in response to environmental conditions, accompanies the biannual migration of the bogong moths. While one generation of moths goes through the two migrations each year, multiple generations are possible in favourable conditions and higher temperatures, as growth across all life stages can occur faster. For example, without the diapause, the bogong moth would normally complete sexual maturation within 50 days. However, this maturation is delayed due to the lack of larval food sources during the summer season. During the summer, hot temperatures occur and grasses, which are an unfavourable diet for bogong moth larvae, overtake pastures and make up the majority of the plants occupying the pastures. Bogong moths avoid this harsh environment by delaying development during the summer so that their eggs do not hatch in a poorly-suited environment; instead, they migrate to cooler, more suitable areas and delay their development during aestivation until the winter season, when they return to the breeding grounds and winter pasture crops begin to grow again. During aestivation, the bogong moths remain dormant for several months, possibly delaying development due to the lower temperatures. The food they consume during the migration is also dedicated to building fat reserves for aestivation rather than development, as bogong moths must consume more food during the autumn migration before maturation and mating. However, in areas with favourable conditions, bogong moths do not have to migrate during the summer.


The bogong moth suffers from predation during both its migration and aestivation. During the spring and autumn migrations, several species of birds, mammals, and even fish have been recorded preying on the moth. Little raven, currawong and Richard's pipit congregations form to feast on bogong moths as they travel from aestivation sites during migration. Aboriginal people also travelled to aestivation sites to feast on the dormant moths, and may have searched for these bird congregations to locate these sites. Bats also attack the moths during active flight periods during the dusk, and foxes, bush rats, and dusky antechinus have been recorded eating moths. Of the mammals that prey on the bogong moth, the endangered mountain pygmy-possum is the most reliant on bogong moths as a source of food.


Two species of mermithid nematodes parasitize the bogong moth during its aestivation: Amphimermis bogongae and Hexamermis cavicola. The parasites are transmitted to bogong moths through water; the early instar larval nematodes reside in the debris of the cave floors of common aestivation sites, and crawl up to reach the moths through trickles of water coming down the walls. Bogong moths are infected upon their arrival within the caves once they drink the water. After a few months, the larval nematodes emerge from the moths, which causes the moth to die, and burrow into the cave floor, where they mature and lay eggs over the winter and wait for the next spring migration of the moths. The nematodes are unusual in that they parasitize adult bogong moths instead of the more commonly utilized larval host stage. The nematodes' life cycles demonstrate an adaptation to the migration of the bogong moths, as they are dependent on bogong moths returning to the same aestivation sites.


In the spring and summer seasons of 2017-8 and 2018-9, dramatic drops in numbers of the moths in the Alpine caves have been observed. Millions of the moths have usually lined the walls of these caves over summer, but for the past two seasons there have been none in some caves, according to Professor Eric Warrant of Lund University in Sweden. He says that the drop in numbers was probably caused by a lack of rainfall due to winter drought in their breeding areas and climate change, the lack of rain producing insufficient vegetation to feed the caterpillars. Some caves still harboured thousands of moths, which suggested that the moths "came from different breeding grounds, where one location wasn't as badly affected by the drought as the other. I don't think they will disappear completely, but there's certainly a possibility that they could become locally extinct at their breeding grounds.", Warrant said.
Other biologists and ecologists have pointed to the dramatic effect on animals which feed on the moths, which are an important source of protein for wildlife, including the threatened mountain pygmy possum as well as other insectivorous mammals and birds. "The vulnerability of the Australian Alps to climate change is the worst in the world because we've got these short little mountains so when it gets warmer, there is nowhere for these cold-adapted species to go", according to Euan Ritchie, a wildlife ecologist at Deakin University.


Bogong moths were historically used as a food source by Aboriginal peoples located in South-eastern Australia. Groups would travel to the area towards the summits of mountains to harvest moths, where they also met with other Aboriginal peoples, fostering inter-tribal relations as people gathered and feasted during these harvests. They would go into the caves and scrape aestivating moths off the walls into nets and dishes using sticks. Once gathered, the moths would be roasted to remove the scales and wings and then either eaten immediately or ground into a paste and made into "moth meat" cakes that would last and could be taken home. The moth was said to have a nice nutty flavour that was most similar to walnuts or almonds. The bogong moth is an icon of Australian wildlife due to this historical role as an important food source and as an inter-tribal gathering point in Southeastern Australia.
An excavation of Cloggs Cave, near Buchan in Victoria, revealed microscopic remains of moth on a small grinding stone, estimated to be about 2,000 years old. This is the first confirmed evidence of insect food remains discovered on a stone artefact in the whole world. The Gunaikurnai people were one of the peoples who used to travel to the mountains to obtain the high-fat, energy-rich food, and stories of these travels had been passed down in their oral history. The excavation was done by researchers from Monash University in collaboration with the traditional owners, represented by the Gunaikurnai Land and Waters Corporation (GLaWAC).


Bogong moths have had a role in damaging crop plants since winter pastures serve as breeding grounds and larval food sources. Outbreaks of caterpillars have been recorded across New South Wales, with damage primarily done to heavy black soil flats. Medicago species, wheat, cabbages, cauliflowers, silver beet, peas, and potatoes have been recorded as being attacked by bogong moth larvae.


The bogong moth is a minor and irregular pest of crop plants in Australia. This makes it difficult to predict their pattern and control. Typically, control of this species is not cost-effective. However, if there are heavy damaging outbreaks of the bogong moth, insecticide is applied to the crops that are affected by it.


Millions of bogong moths have been blown off course from their spring migration into major cities like Canberra, Melbourne, and Sydney due to strong winds, with notable instances of Bogong Moth invasions including the 2000 Olympics in Sydney. The large amount of light and noise present can also attract moths towards cities. Parliament House in Canberra, present in the middle of the Bogong Moth flight path during migrations, was notably susceptible to moths. Light pollution from the building traps them during their flight and encourages the moth to find shelter within crevices, shadows, and sometimes even the insides of the buildings during the light and heat of the day. Efforts have been made to try and drive the moths out by turning off lights, covering attractive corners and pathways indoors, and using insecticides. However, insecticide use has ceased in urban areas due to concerns over environmental consequences.


In December 2021 the bogong moth was added to the IUCN Red List as an Endangered Species, based on a February 2021 assessment.


Agrotis munda, the brown cutworm or pink cutworm, is a noctuid moth. It is endemic to Australia. It is present in New Zealand.


Agrotis puta, the shuttle-shaped dart, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. The species was first described by Jacob Hübner in 1803. It is common in the western part of Europe, but is also found in southern and central Europe, as well as North Africa and the Middle East.
The wingspan is 30–32 mm. Adults are on wing from May to October.
The larvae feed on various low growing plants.


Agrotis segetum, sometimes known as the turnip moth, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. The species was first described by Michael Denis and Ignaz Schiffermüller in 1775. It is a common European species and it is found in Africa and across Eurasia except for the northernmost parts.
It is a cutworm in the genus Agrotis, which possibly is the genus that includes the largest number of species of cutworms.


This is a very variable species with the fore-wings ranging from pale buff through to almost black. The paler forms have three dark-bordered stigmata on each fore-wing. Antennae of male bipectinated (comb like on both sides) with moderate length branches. The main feature distinguishing it from other Agrotis species is the shade of the hind-wings, pure white in the males and pearly grey in the females. The wingspan is 32–42 mm.
Edward Meyrick, an English schoolteacher who is especially notable for his study of the microlepidoptera, had this to say about the species:
Wingspan 33–41 mm. Antennae in male bipectinated. Fore-wings brownish, sometimes reddish tinged, with darker fuscous strigulae mixed with black scales, sometimes wholly darker suffused; sub-basal, first, and second lines edged with dark fuscous, second sometimes with dots only; spots outlined with black, orbicular and reniform centred with fuscous; subterminal line faint or whitish sprinkled, followed by darker suffusion. Hind-wings white, termen brownish. Larva pale grey or greyish ochreous, sometimes pinkish tinged; dorsal, subdorsal, and spiracular lines usually indicated by dark edges, subdorsal sometimes grey head pale, with two brown marks; plate of 2 more or less brown.
Agrotis segetum  is difficult to certainly distinguish from its congeners. See Townsend et al.
Agrotis clavis (Hufnagel, 1766)
Agrotis exclamationis (Linnaeus, 1758


Agrotis segetum is one of the most important species of noctuid moths whose larvae are called cutworms. The larvae are generally grey, sometimes tinged with purple. They attack the roots and lower stems of a huge range of plants (see list below) and can be a particularly serious pest of root vegetables and cereals. Attacking the lower stems often results in cutting down seedlings, which is why this species is classed as a cutworm.


The following is a partial list of genera and other taxa on which the larvae of the turnip moth have been recorded, whether feeding in situ, incidentally, in a laboratory or home breeding situation, or simply having been recorded (perhaps erroneously) in a field of crops. It is striking that the list includes such a sheer variety of plants including resinous, aromatic, and toxic species such as conifers, Eucalyptus, and Nicotiana:
Acacia
Allium
Apium – celery
Arachis – peanut
Asparagus
Beta – beet
Brassica
Camellia
Casuarina
Cedrus – deodar cedar
Chrysanthemum
Cichorium – chicory
Coffea – coffee
Cucurbita
Eucalyptus
Fragaria – strawberry
Glycine – soybean
Gossypium – cotton plant
Hagenia
Helianthus – sunflower
Hibiscus – bissap
Indigofera
Lactuca
Lycopersicon – tomato
Malus – apple
Medicago – alfalfa
Nicotiana – tobacco
Picea – Sitka spruce
Pinus – pine
Pisum – pea
Pseudotsuga – Douglas-fir
Rheum – rhubarb
Rumex
Saccharum – sugar cane
Secale – rye
Sesamum – sesame
Solanum – potato
Sorghum
Spinacia – spinach
Tectona – teak
Trifolium – clover
Triticum – wheat
Vigna – urad bean
Vitis – grape
Zea – maize


As with any other noctuid, assorted diseases, predators, and parasitoids attack Agrotis segetum, mainly in the egg and larval stages.


The insect is not believed to be present in the United States, where the government has been making efforts to prevent its introduction on imported food crops.
Cultural methods such as fallowing land before sowing, to starve the larvae can be effective, and in suitable conditions, ploughing land during the dry season to kill larvae and pupae, and expose them to predators, has been effective in maize fields in South Africa.
Insecticides of various kinds have been used with success for many decades. Baits based on sweetened bran, finely spread, have met with some success.
A Betabaculovirus virus species, "Agrotis segetum granulovirus DA", was first isolated in the USSR in the late 1960s, but despite some research in the 1970s, as of 2017 it has not been found to be commercially viable as a biocontrol for crops.


Agrotis venerabilis, the dusky cutworm, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. The species was first described by Francis Walker in 1857. It is found from coast to coast from central Canada south to Mexico.
The wingspan is about 37 mm. Adults are on wing from August to September in temperate climes within their range. They have a much wider season in the Neotropics, starting at least as early as March.
The larvae feed on Medicago sativa, Trifolium, Nicotiana tabacum, Viola, Stellaria media, Avena sativa and Zea mays.


Subspecies include:
Aiolopus strepens alexandrei  Defaut, 2017
Aiolopus strepens chloroptera Ramme, 1913
Aiolopus strepens cyanoptera Ramme, 1913
Aiolopus strepens strepens (Latreille, 1804)


This species is present in central and southern Europe, in the Afrotropical realm, in the Near East and in North Africa.


This Mediterranean warmth-loving species usually inhabits dry environments, low vegetation with areas of free soil, bushes and stony soils.


The adult males grow up to 19–24 millimetres (0.75–0.94 in) long, while females reach 24–31 mm (0.94–1.22 in) long. The colouration of Aiolopus strepens is quite variable (green, yellow and brown). The basic color of their sturdy body is usually light brown, but sometimes is green or with some green areas or reddish stripes. There are also completely green colored insects, especially females.
The immature adults usually show the same brown colors, but when autumn arrives and the exoskeleton stiffens, the colors redefine and the green vanishes. In spring, with the breeding season, especially females regain green color and a more "complex" pattern.
Pronotum is almost flat and it is usually monochrome, rarely with a broad longitudinal stripe on the top, which continues on top of the head. Hind legs are relatively short. Antennas are shorter than the head and pronotum The tibiae of the hind legs are usually red and the femora are quite robust. The wings are transparent with a darkened brownish apex. The hind wings are often bluish at the base.  The front wings (tegmina) are dark with clear markings.
This species is rather similar to Aiolopus thalassinus from which it differs for the larger posterior femora, the transparent-blue wings and the coarse punctuation in the posterior part of the pronotum.


They can be encountered from July through October. After mating these grasshoppers overwinter as adults.


The wood duck or Carolina duck (Aix sponsa) is a species of perching duck found in North America. The drake wood duck is one of the most colorful North American waterfowl.


The wood duck is a medium-sized perching duck. A typical adult is from 47 to 54 cm (19 to 21 in) ( or 1.5 feet max.) In length with a wingspan of between 66 to 73 cm (26 to 29 in).  The wood duck's weight ranges from 454-862 g (16.0-30.4 oz). This is about three-quarters of the length of an adult mallard. It shares its genus with the Asian Mandarin duck (Aix galericulata).
The adult male has stunning multicolored iridescent plumage and red eyes, with a distinctive white flare down the neck. The female, less colorful, has a white eye-ring and a whitish throat. Both adults have crested heads.
The male's call is a rising whistle, jeeeeee; the females utter a drawn-out, rising squeal, do weep do weep, when flushed, and a sharp cr-r-ek, cr-e-ek for an alarm call.


Their breeding habitat is wooded swamps, shallow lakes, marshes, ponds and creeks in the eastern United States, the west coast of the United States, some adjacent parts of southern Canada, and the west coast of Mexico. They usually nest in cavities in trees close to water, although they will take advantage of nesting boxes in wetland locations. Other species may compete with them for nesting cavities, such as birds of prey, as well as mammals such as grey squirrels, and these animals may also occupy nest boxes meant for wood ducks. Wood ducks may end up nesting up to a mile away from their water source as a result.  Females line their nests with feathers and other soft materials, and the elevation provides some protection from predators. Unlike most other ducks, the wood duck has sharp claws for perching in trees and can, in southern regions, produce two broods in a single season—the only North American duck that can do so.
Females typically lay between 7 and 15 white-tan eggs that incubate for an average of 30 days. However, if nesting boxes are placed too close together, females may lay eggs in the nests of their neighbours, which may lead to nests which may contain as many as 30 eggs and unsuccessful incubation, a behaviour known as "nest dumping".
After hatching, the precocial ducklings climb to the opening of the nest cavity, jump down from the nest tree and make their way to water. The mother calls them to her, but does not help them in any way. They prefer nesting over water so the young have a soft landing, but will nest up to 140 m (460 ft) away from the shoreline. The day after they hatch, the young climb to the nest entrance and jump to the ground. The ducklings can swim and find their own food by this time.
Wood ducks feed by dabbling (feeding from the surface rather than diving underwater) or grazing on land. They mainly eat berries, acorns, and seeds, but also insects, making them omnivores.


The birds are year-round residents in parts of its southern range, but the northern populations migrate south for the winter. They overwinter in the southern United States near the Atlantic Coast. 75% of the wood ducks in the Pacific Flyway are non-migratory. Due to their attractive plumage, they are also popular in waterfowl collections and as such are frequently recorded in Great Britain as escapees—populations have become temporarily established in Surrey in the past, but are not considered to be self-sustaining in the fashion of the closely related mandarin duck. Along with the mandarin duck, the wood duck is considered an invasive species in England and Wales, and it is illegal to release them into the wild. Given its native distribution, the species is also a potential natural vagrant to Western Europe and there have been records in areas such as Cornwall, Scotland and the Isles of Scilly, which some observers consider may relate to wild birds; however, given the wood duck's popularity in captivity, it would be extremely difficult to prove their provenance. There is a small feral population in Dublin.


The population of the wood duck was in serious decline in the late 19th century as a result of severe habitat loss and market hunting both for meat and plumage for the ladies' hat market in Europe. By the beginning of the 20th century, wood ducks had virtually disappeared from much of their former range. In response to the Migratory Bird Treaty established in 1916 and enactment of the U.S. Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, wood duck populations began to recover slowly. By ending unregulated hunting and taking measures to protect remaining habitat, wood duck populations began to rebound in the 1920s. The development of the artificial nesting box in the 1930s gave an additional boost to wood duck production. More information on the efficacy of nest boxes can be found in the Conservation Evidence webpage.
Landowners as well as park and refuge managers can encourage wood ducks by building wood duck nest boxes near lakes, ponds, and streams. Fulda, Minnesota has adopted the wood duck as an unofficial mascot, and a large number of nest boxes can be found in the area.
Expanding North American beaver populations throughout the wood duck's range have also helped the population rebound as beavers create an ideal forested wetland habitat for wood ducks.
The population of the wood duck has increased a great deal in the last several years. The increase has been due to the work of many people constructing wood duck boxes and conserving vital habitat for the wood ducks to breed. During the open waterfowl season, U.S. hunters have only been allowed to take two wood ducks per day in the Atlantic and Mississippi Flyways. However, for the 2008–2009 season, the limit was raised to three. The wood duck limit remains at two in the Central Flyway and at seven in the Pacific Flyway. It is the second most commonly hunted duck in North America, after the mallard.


In 2013, the Royal Canadian Mint created two coins to commemorate the wood duck. The two coins are each part of a three coin set to help promote Ducks Unlimited Canada as well as celebrate its 75th anniversary.
It is featured in James Thurber's short story "The Wood Duck".


A. genevensis (also variously known as the upright bugle, blue bugle, Geneva bugleweed, blue bugleweed) is a herbaceous flowering plant native to Europe. It is less common than its relative, Ajuga reptans (common bugle).


A. genevensis is a perennial plant (flowering between April and July) growing to a height of between 10 and 30 cm. Evergreen, it has long-stalked, obovate, basal leaves which are shallowly lobed or toothed.
It has an upright stem with flowers arranged in dense, terminal, spike-like inflorescences. The flowers are usually violet-blue, though can be pink or white, and the uppermost flowers are often flushed with blue. When pink, it is sometimes known as "pink beauty", and when white, it is sometimes known as "alba". The flowers have short upper-lips with protruding stamens and pistil. The plant sometimes suffers from Erysiphe biocellata, a type of mildew.


A. genevensis is a less common relative of Ajuga reptans, the Common bugle, though it is common for the two plants to interbreed, as well as with Ajuga pyramidalis, the pyramidal bugle, producing hybrid offspring that are very similar.


There are also several variants of A. genevensis such as A. genevensis var. arida (a variety with short grey hairs found in mountain meadows) and A. genevensis var. elatior (a mountain plant with randomly hairy stems). Both varieties vary slightly in the shape and size of the leaves and bracts.


A. genevensis is found on the edges of dry woods, as well as in thickets and grasslands. It is found in Europe (from France to western Russia), Turkey and the Caucasus. It is also naturalized in North America, as a result of seeds that have escaped from gardens. It is used as an ornamental plant in gardens worldwide, where it used in edges due to its slower spread compared with A. reptans.


A. genevensis  has uses within traditional Austrian medicine. It is taken internally as a tonic, for treatment of disorders related with the respiratory tract.


Alcea rosea, the common hollyhock, is an ornamental dicot flowering plant in the family Malvaceae. It was imported into Europe from southwestern China during, or possibly before, the 15th century. William Turner, a herbalist of the time, gave it the name  "holyoke" from which the English name derives.


Alcea rosea is variously described as a biennial (having a two-year life cycle), as an annual, or as a short-lived perennial. It frequently self-sows, which may create a perception that the plants are perennial. The plant may flower during its first year when sown early.  It will grow in a wide range of soils, and can easily reach a height of 8 ft (2.4 m)
The flowers are in a range of colours from white to dark red, including pink, yellow and orange.  Different colours prefer different soils. The darker red variety seems to favour sandy soils, while the lighter colour seems to favour clay soils.  The plants are easily grown from seed, and readily self-seed.  However, tender plants, whether young from seed or from old stock, may be wiped out by slugs and snails. The foliage is subject to attack from rust (Puccinia malvacearum), which may be treated with fungicides. Commercial growers have reported that some closely related species (Alcea rugosa and Alcea ficifolia) are resistant to this fungus.


Growing up to 8 feet tall, this plant usually does not require staking, producing large flowers around 5 inches in diameter. Its leaves are large and heart-shaped. The flowers attract hummingbirds and butterflies.


The leaves are vulnerable to rust, leaf spot and anthracnose. Pest problems include Japanese beetle and spider mites. Though damage to the leaves can be extensive, the flowers are rarely affected.


In herbal medicine, hollyhock is believed to be an emollient and laxative. It is used to control inflammation, to stop bedwetting and as a mouthwash in cases of bleeding gums.


The mottled beauty (Alcis repandata) is a moth of the family Geometridae. The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae.


Alcis repandata is a common species of Europe and the Near East, extending throughout Europe to the Urals, in the south over the Mediterranean, Asia Minor, the Caucasus to Kazakhstan and in the north to the Arctic Circle.


Alcis repandata has a wingspan reaching 30–45 mm. This is an extremely variable species, typically being buff or grey with black bars along the costa, but often with a broad blackish band across the forewings.
Meyrick describes it - The head is grey mixed with whitish and fuscous. The forewings are light ochreous-brown, sprinkled with black and sometimes with whitish. The first line is curved, the median line is twice sinuate and dark fuscous, sometimes partly confluent. The second line is dark fuscous, roundly projecting above and below the middle. The subterminal is waved and pale or whitish, partially dark-margined. There is a blackish discal spot before the median. The hindwings are as the forewings, but the lines are less marked and regular. There is a discal dot beyond median. Melanic forms are also common, especially in industrial areas. In all but the darkest variations the most characteristic feature is a pale zigzag line across the hindwing. The larva is pale greenish-ochreous, brown-marked, sometimes suffused with dark grey, dusted with yellow. The dorsal line is brown or dark grey, distinct on segments 2–4, often obsolete elsewhere. Segments 5-12 sometimes have pale dorsal diamonds. See also Prout (1912–16)
This species is rather similar to Willow Beauty (Peribatodes rhomboidaria) and its congeners. See Townsend et al.


This moth flies at night in June and July in the British Isles. It is attracted to light.
The larva feeds on the leaves and soft bark of a wide range of trees and other plants (see list below).
The species overwinters as a small larva.


The chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar), or simply chukar/Chakor, is a Palearctic upland gamebird in the pheasant family Phasianidae. It has been considered to form a superspecies complex along with the rock partridge, Philby's partridge and Przevalski's partridge and treated in the past as conspecific particularly with the first. This partridge has well marked black and white bars on the flanks and a black band running from the forehead across the eye and running down the head to form a necklace that encloses a white throat. Native to Asia, the species has been introduced into many other places and feral populations have established themselves in parts of North America and New Zealand. This bird can be found in parts of the Middle East and temperate Asia.


The chukar is a rotund 32–35 cm (13–14 in) long partridge, with a light brown back, grey breast, and buff belly. The shades vary across the various populations. The face is white with a black gorget. It has rufous-streaked flanks, red legs and coral red bill. Sexes are similar, the female slightly smaller in size and lacking the spur. The tail has 14 feathers, the third primary is the longest while the first is level with the fifth and sixth primaries.
It is very similar to the rock partridge (Alectoris graeca) with which it has been lumped in the past but is browner on the back and has a yellowish tinge to the foreneck. The sharply defined gorget distinguishes this species from the red-legged partridge which has the black collar breaking into dark streaks near the breast. Their song is a noisy chuck-chuck-chukar-chukar from which the name is derived. The Barbary partridge (Alectoris barbara) has a reddish-brown rather than black collar with a grey throat and face with a chestnut crown.
Other common names of this bird include chukker (chuker or chukor), Indian chukar and keklik.


This partridge has its native range in Asia, including Jordan, Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Pakistan and India, along the inner ranges of the western Himalayas to Nepal. Further west in southeastern Europe it is replaced by the red-legged partridge, Alectoris rufa. It barely ranges into Africa on the Sinai Peninsula. The habitat in the native range is rocky open hillsides with grass or scattered scrub or cultivation. In Israel and Jordan it is found at low altitudes, starting at 400 m (1,300 ft) below sea level in the Dead Sea area, whereas in the more eastern areas it is mainly found at an altitude of 2,000 to 4,000 m (6,600 to 13,100 ft) except in Pakistan, where it occurs at 600 m (2,000 ft). They are not found in areas of high humidity or rainfall.
It has been introduced widely as a game bird, and feral populations have become established in the United States (Rocky Mountains, Great Basin, high desert areas of California), Canada, Chile, Argentina, New Zealand and Hawaii. Initial introductions into the US were from the nominate populations collected from Afghanistan and Nepal. It has also been introduced to New South Wales in Australia but breeding populations have not persisted and are probably extinct. A small population exists on Robben Island in South Africa since it was introduced there in 1964.
The chukar readily interbreeds with the red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa), and the practice of breeding and releasing captive-bred hybrids has been banned in various countries including the United Kingdom, as it is a threat to wild populations.


The chukar partridge is part of a confusing group of "red-legged partridges". Several plumage variations within the widespread distribution of the chukar partridge have been described and designated as subspecies. In the past the chukar group was included with the rock partridge (also known as the Greek partridge). The species from Turkey and farther east was subsequently separated from A. graeca of Greece and Bulgaria and western Europe.


This species is relatively unaffected by hunting or loss of habitat. Its numbers are largely affected by weather patterns during the breeding season. The release of captive stock in some parts of southern Europe can threaten native populations of rock partridge and red-legged partridge with which they may hybridize.
British sportsmen in India considered the chukar as good sport although they were not considered to be particularly good in flavour. Their fast flight and ability to fly some distance after being shot made recovery of the birds difficult without retriever dogs. During cold winters, when the higher areas are covered in snow, people in Kashmir have been known to use a technique to tire the birds out to catch them.


In the non-breeding season, chukar partridge are found in small coveys of 10 or more (up to 50) birds. In summer, chukars form pairs to breed. During this time, the cocks are very pugnacious in their calling and fighting. During winter they descend into the valleys and feed in fields. They call frequently during the day and especially in the mornings and evenings. The call is loud and includes loud repeated chuck notes and sometimes duetting chuker notes. Several calls varying with context have been noted. The most common call is a "rallying call" which when played back elicits a response from birds and has been used in surveys, although the method is not very reliable. When disturbed, it prefers to run rather than fly, but if necessary it flies a short distance often down a slope on rounded wings, calling immediately after alighting. In Utah, birds were found to forage in an area of about 2.6 km² (1.0 sq mi) and travel up to 4.8 km (3.0 mi) to obtain water during the dry season. The home range was found to be even smaller in Idaho.
The breeding season is summer. Males perform tidbitting displays, a form of courtship feeding where the male pecks at food and a female may visit to peck in response. The males may chase females with head lowered, wing lowered and neck fluffed. The male may also perform a high step stiff walk while making a special call. The female may then crouch in acceptance and the male mounts to copulate, while grasping the nape of the female. Males are monogamous. The nest is a scantily lined ground scrape, though occasionally a compact pad is created with a depression in the centre. Generally, the nests are sheltered by ferns and small bushes, or placed in a dip or rocky hillside under an overhanging rock. About 7 to 14 eggs are laid. The eggs hatch in about 23–25 days. In captivity they can lay an egg each day during the breeding season if eggs are collected daily. Chicks join their parents in foraging and will soon join the chicks of other members of the covey.
As young chukars grow, and before flying for the first time, they utilize wing-assisted incline running as a transition to adult flight. This behaviour is found in several bird species, but has been extensively studied in chukar chicks, as a model to explain the evolution of avian flight.
Chukar will take a wide variety of seeds and some insects as food. It also ingests grit. In Kashmir, the seeds of a species of Eragrostis was particularly dominant in their diet while those in the US favoured Bromus tectorum. Birds feeding on succulent vegetation make up for their water needs but visit open water in summer.
Chukar roost on rocky slopes or under shrubs. In the winter, birds in the US selected protected niches or caves. A group may roost in a tight circle with their heads pointed outwards to conserve heat and keep a look out for predators.
Chukar are sometimes preyed on by golden eagles.
Birds in captivity can die from Mycoplasma infection and outbreaks of other diseases such as erysipelas.


The name is onomatopoeic and mentions of chakor in Sanskrit, from northern Indian date back to the Markandeya Purana (c. 250-500 AD). In North Indian and Pakistani culture, as well as in Hindu mythology, the chukar sometimes symbolizes intense, and often unrequited, love. It is said to be in love with the moon and to gaze at it constantly. Because of their pugnacious behaviour during the breeding season they are kept in some areas as fighting birds.


Alectryon excelsus is a sub-canopy tree growing to 9 m (30 ft) in height. It has a twisting trunk with smooth dark bark, spreading branches and pinnate leaves.  Adult leaflets do not have marginal teeth or usually have very few, blunt and shallow marginal teeth and usually leaflet margins are downturned, whereas, in juvenile leaflets have leaflets with strong teeth and flat along the edges. The length of this tree leaf are around 10–30 cm. This tree has pale grey to almost black skin with a smooth skin texture and has a stem diameter that reaches 50 cm or more.
Alectryon excelsus produces small purple flowers in spring and the seeds take up to a year to mature.  The female flower has a small anther (‘without pollen’) and a short stemmed sari, whereas, the male flower has a long dangling stamen around the vestigial ovary. The colourful seed is initially contained in a hairy woody capsule which splits revealing bright red and black unpalatable fruit (the black portion being the seed).


Alectryon excelsus is native to New Zealand but can be found in other places around the world. The tree has been located along street verges in San Francisco.
A. excelsus can be found from the North Island to the Westland area of the South Island. The farthest west would be to about Bruce Bay. It is commonly seen in lowland forests from sea level to 600 metres as well as in coastal forests of the North Island. This tree has been seen all over the South Island.
A. excelsus is likely to grow anywhere from lowland forest areas and exposed coastal area sites along with sandy plains. In sandy plains, Alectryon excelsus is often paired with Beilschmiedia tawa (tawa).


The ovary develops into a hairy and dense capsule with rusty, brown hair. In about one year, the capsule will mature and divide the red flesh tissue that surrounds one large seed.  From this cleavage, it will show one large seed which is hidden for one year in the capsule and then, the seeds will fall to the ground and will grow into trees if they fall in the right place to support the growth of the tree or the seeds will be spread by New Zealand birds such as the tūī, kererū, kōkako and black birds. This tree will flower from spring to early summer. Some flowers of this tree are bisexual because female flowers and male flowers are not borne on the same tree.


Alisma triviale, the northern water plantain, is a perennial semi-aquatic or aquatic plant in the water-plantain family (Alismataceae).


It is a perennial herb that ranges in height from 1-3 ft. Each plant has long-petioled, lanceolate and linear leaves that grow in a clump. A flowering stem rises between them. The flowers have 3 green sepals and 3 white or pink-tinged petals.


The plant is native to Canada (including the Northwest Territories), the United States (including Alaska), and Northern Mexico.
It grows in shallow water or mud.