The juniper titmouse (Baeolophus ridgwayi) is a passerine bird in the tit family Paridae. The American Ornithologists' Union split the plain titmouse into the oak titmouse and the juniper titmouse in 1996, due to distinct differences in song, preferred habitat, and genetic makeup.
The juniper titmouse is a small, gray bird with small tuft or crest. The face is plain, and the undersides are a lighter gray. Sexes are similar.
This titmouse lives year-round primarily in the Great Basin, but is resident from southeastern Oregon and central Colorado south to the eastern Mojave Desert in California and central Arizona, as far as west Texas and extreme northeastern Sonora, Mexico-(the Madrean sky islands). It prefers open woodlands of warm, dry pinyon-juniper, juniper and desert riparian woods.
Juniper titmice will sleep in cavities, dense foliage, or birdhouses. When roosting in foliage, the titmouse chooses a twig surrounded by dense foliage or an accumulation of dead pine needles, simulating a roost in a cavity. It forms pairs or small groups, but does not form large flocks. It may join mixed-species flocks after breeding season for foraging.
The juniper titmouse eats insects and spiders, sometimes seen catching insects in mid air. It also eats berries, acorns, and some seeds, sometimes hammering seeds against branches to open them. The bird forages on foliage, twigs, branches, trunks, and occasionally on the ground. Strong legs and feet allows it to hang upside down to forage. Juniper titmice visit feeders with suet, peanut butter, and seeds.
The song of the juniper titmouse is a rolling series of notes given on the same pitch.  Its call sounds like a raspy tschick-adee.
This species builds its nest in a woodpecker hole, natural cavity, or nest box, lining it with grass, moss, mud, hair, feathers, and fur. It breeds from March into July, with peak activity in April and May, laying 3–9 eggs, usually 4–7.  The female is the primary incubator, the process of which takes 14–16 days. Young are altricial, and are tended by both parents in nest for 16–21 days. Parents continue to tend to young for another three to four weeks after the young leave the nest.
The oak titmouse and juniper titmouse appear almost identical, but differ in voice as well as range. The oak titmouse has a browner back than the juniper titmouse. The oak titmouse gives a repeated series of three to seven syllables, each composed of one low and one high note, while the juniper titmouse song consists of a series of rapid syllables on the same note. Ranges overlap only in a small area in California.  The tufted titmouse, which does not overlap in range, has whiter belly, rusty flanks, and black on the forehead.


Bahiopsis laciniata is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae known by the common names San Diego County sunflower, San Diego viguiera and tornleaf goldeneye. It is native to the deserts and dry mountain slopes of northwestern Mexico (States of Sonora and Baja California), its distribution extending north as far as Ventura County, California.
The habitat of Bahiopsis laciniata includes chaparral and coastal sage scrub. It is a hairy, resinous shrub growing to a maximum height well over one meter. The leaves have lance-shaped blades up to 5 centimeters long which are glandular and shiny with resin. The blades have smooth or shallowly toothed edges which are sometimes rolled under or crinkled. The inflorescence is a solitary sunflower-like flower head or cyme of several heads. The flower head has several yellow ray florets measuring 6 millimeters to over a centimeter long. The fruit is an achene tipped with a pappus.


Baileya doubledayi, or Doubleday's baileya, is a nolid moth (family Nolidae). The species was first described by Achille Guenée in 1852. It is found in North America.
The MONA or Hodges number for Baileya doubledayi is 8969.


Baileya multiradiata is a North American species of sun-loving wildflowers native to the deserts of northern Mexico and the Southwestern United States. It has been found in the States of Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, Aguascalientes, California, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, and Texas.
B. multiradiata is a short-lived perennial to annual that forms a clumping patch of silvery-green foliage, growing to 50 centimetres (20 inches) tall. The leaves are 4–8 cm (1+1⁄2–3+1⁄4 in) long. The many tall, naked stems are each topped with a bright yellow daisy-like flower head about 4–5 cm (1+1⁄2–2 in) wide, with 25–50 ray florets. It blooms from April to October. The seed-like fruit is whitish, with no scales or bristles at the tip.
Although called a desert marigold, it is only a remote relative of the true marigolds of the genus Tagetes.


Ballota nigra, black horehound, is a perennial herb of the family Lamiaceae. It is native to the Mediterranean region and to central Asia and it can be found throughout Europe. It is also naturalized in Argentina, New Zealand, and the Eastern United States. It blooms in the Northern Hemisphere from May to August.


Ballota nigra has a very strong characteristic smell reminiscent of mold or humidity, and can be recognized by its clusters of hairy, reddish-purple flowers. It can grow up to 3 feet in height.


It has herbaceous ascending stems, wooden and branched at bottom, covered by down folded hairs. The plant has a taproot system.


Leaves are opposite and decussate, and range from oval-lanceolate to heart-shaped, with crenate or dentate border. Leaves, dark green and usually pubescent, measure 3–8 cm per 2–6 cm, and have 1–3 cm petiole. Upper face is wrinkled, with a net-like vein pattern.


Flowers are organized in verticillasters, subspherical to about one-sided, with 15 to 30 flowers. Each verticillaster consist of two condensed dichasial cymes at axils of normal leaves.
Flower has an actinomorphic calyx (length 9–10 mm, width 7 mm), made up by five sepals fused together in a tube with five teeths; and a labiate corolla of 12–13 mm, ranging from pink to pale purple to withish. The corolla consist of a tube of about 6 mm and two lips; the upper one slightly concave (like a hood) and externally hairy; the lower one glabrous, with two minor lateral lobes and a major central bifid lobe. There are four didynamous stamens, running parallel under the upper lip, with glabrous filaments and yellow anthers. Ovary is superior, with a single white style and a 2-parted stigma.
Below the calyx there are five filiform bracts, 8 mm long.


Each fertilized flower produces a tetrad of black nutlets, cylindrical to ovoid, 2 mm long, partially or fully covered by the calyx. The basal end is flat and attached to the receptacle, while the top end is rounded or pointed.


Ballota nigra contains diterpenoids like marrubiin, ballonigrin, ballotinone, ballotenol and 7-acetoxymarrubiin. Also, it contains phenylpropanoids.


The plant was described by Linnaeus in Species Plantarum (May 1753). The name Ballota comes from the Greek ballo (to reject), because of the strong offensive odor of the plant; cattle will not eat it.  The specific name nigra could refer to the black colour of dried leaves.
The common name comes from the Old English words har, meaning "downy or hoary", and hune, meaning the plant itself. This name refers to the hairs that give the herb its distinctive appearance. In modern times, alternative medicine practitioners have referred to the plant as "seed of Horus" and suggested that horehound takes its name from Horus, the Egyptian sun god.


Ballota nigra is a nitrophilous plant; it grows in ruins, fallows, and hedges at elevations up to 1300 m. It prefers loose, calcareous (alkaline) soils. It tolerates temperatures as low as -5°/-10 °C.


Usually the plant is used dry and harvested when blooming. Syrups can be made from fresh plants.


Recognized subspecies:
Ballota nigra subsp. anatolica P.H.Davis - Iran, Turkey
Ballota nigra subsp. anomala Greuter - Greece
Ballota nigra subsp. foetida (Vis.) Hayek - central + southern Europe; naturalized in Sweden, Ukraine, Cyprus, Turkey, Argentina
Ballota nigra subsp. kurdica P.H.Davis - Iran, Iraq, Turkey
Ballota nigra subsp. nigra - southern Europe, Great Britain, Sweden, Caucasus, Iran, Turkey; naturalized in Belgium, New Zealand, Argentina
Ballota nigra subsp. ruderalis (Sw.) Briq. - Mediterranean region; Canary Islands, Madeira, Azores
Ballota nigra subsp. sericea (Vandas) Patzak - Albania, Macedonia, Greece
Ballota nigra subsp. velutina (Posp.) Patzak - Slovenia, Croatia; naturalized in Argentina


The three-lined balsa moth (Balsa tristrigella) is a species of moth of the family Noctuidae. It is found in eastern North America.
The wingspan is 25–30 mm. Adults have light gray forewings, shading to brownish in the distal third. There are several thin black lines running longitudinally along the wing, becoming thicker in the distal half. The hindwings are pale yellowish-gray with a thin dark terminal line. They are on wing from May to August.
The larvae feed on Crataegus species.


Balsamorhiza sagittata is a North American species of flowering plant in the tribe Heliantheae of the family Asteraceae known by the common name Arrowleaf Balsamroot. It is widespread across western Canada and much of the western United States.


This is a taprooted perennial herb growing a hairy, glandular stem 20 to 60 centimetres (7+3⁄4 to 23+1⁄2 inches) tall, with the plant's total height up to 80 cm (31 in). The branching, barky root may extend over 2 metres (6+1⁄2 feet) deep into the soil. The silvery-gray basal leaves are generally triangular in shape and large, approaching 50 cm (20 in) in maximum length. Leaves farther up the stem are linear to narrowly oval in shape and smaller. The leaves have untoothed edges and are coated in fine to rough hairs, especially on the undersides.
The inflorescence bears one or more flower head, sometimes more than one on the same stem, blooming from May to July. Each head has a center of long yellowish tubular disc florets and a fringe of 8–25 bright yellow ray florets, each up to 4 cm (1+1⁄2 in) long. The fruit is a hairless achene about 8 millimetres (3⁄8 in) long.
B. deltoidea is similar but is greener, less hairy, and does not retain its ray flowers for long.


The plant's native range extends from British Columbia and Alberta in the north, southward as far as northern Arizona and the Mojave Desert of California, and as far east as the Black Hills of South Dakota. It grows in many types of habitat from mountain forests to grassland to desert scrub. It is drought tolerant.


The species hybridizes with Balsamorhiza hookeri.
Grazing animals find the plant palatable, especially the flowers and developing seed heads. Elk and deer browse the leaves.


Coming into season in late spring, all of the plant can be eaten—particularly the leaves (raw or cooked), roots (cooked), and the seeds, raw or pounded into flour. It can be bitter and pine-like in taste. The leaves are best collected when young and can carry a citrus flavor.
Many Native American groups, including the Nez Perce, Kootenai, Cheyenne, and Salish, utilized the plant as a food and medicine. The seeds were particularly valuable as food or used for oil. In 1806, William Clark collected a specimen near the White Salmon River, and both he and Frederick Pursh noted that the stem was eaten raw by the American natives.


A specimen was collected by explorer and botanist Meriwether Lewis near Lewis and Clark Pass in 1806.
Under the name Okanagan Sunflower, it is the official flower emblem of the city of Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada.


B. integrifolia is a highly variable species. It is most often encountered as a tree up to 25 metres (82 ft) in height, but in sheltered locations it can reach 35 metres (115 ft). In more exposed areas it may grow as a small, gnarled tree, reaching to no more than about 5 metres (16 ft), and in highly exposed positions, such as on exposed coastal headlands, it may even be reduced to a small shrub.
The tree usually has a single stout trunk, which is often twisted and gnarled, with the rough grey bark characteristic of Banksia. The leaves are dark green with a white underside, and occur in whorls of three to five. Adult leaves have entire margins; George specifies their dimensions as 4–20 centimetres (1.6–7.9 in) long and 6–35 millimetres (0.24–1.38 in) wide, but The Banksia Atlas warns that "Atlas contributors found great variability in these measurements with specimens often falling outside the varietal limits specified by George (1981) or being intermediate between two varieties." Juvenile leaves have dentate margins with a few short teeth, and are generally larger than adult leaves.
Flowers occur in Banksia's characteristic "flower spike", an inflorescence made up of several hundred flowers densely packed in a spiral around a woody axis. This is roughly cylindrical, 10–12 centimetres (3.9–4.7 in) high and 5 centimetres (2.0 in) wide. Flowers are usually pale yellow to yellow, but may be greenish or pinkish in bud. Each individual flower consists of a tubular perianth made up of four united tepals, and one long wiry style. Characteristic of the taxonomic section in which it is placed, the styles are straight rather than hooked. The style ends are initially trapped inside the upper perianth parts, but break free at anthesis. This process starts with the flowers at the bottom of the inflorescence, sweeping up the spike at an unusually high rate of between 96 and 390 flowers per 24 hours.
The flower spikes are not as prominent as in some other Banksia species, as they arise from two- to three-year-old nodes nested within the foliage. After flowering, old flower parts wither and fall away over a period of several months, revealing the "cone", a woody axis embedded with many small follicles. The follicles are initially greenish and downy, but gradually fade to dark grey. Each follicle contains one or sometimes two seeds, separated by a thin wooden separator. The seed itself is black, 6–10 millimetres (0.24–0.39 in) long with a feathery black 'wing' 10–20 millimetres (0.39–0.79 in) long.


B. integrifolia was first collected at Botany Bay on 29 April 1770, by Sir Joseph Banks and Dr Daniel Solander, naturalists on the Endeavour during Lieutenant (later Captain) James Cook's first voyage to the Pacific Ocean. However, the species was not published until April 1782, when Carolus Linnaeus the Younger described the first four Banksia species in his Supplementum Plantarum. Linnaeus distinguished the species by their leaf shapes, and named them accordingly. Thus the species with entire leaf margins was given the specific name integrifolia, from the Latin integer, meaning "entire", and folium, meaning "leaf". The full name for the species is therefore Banksia integrifolia L.f.
Then followed around 200 years of confusion over the taxonomic limits of the species, caused by the species' great variability, similarities with closely related species, and early attempts to classify the species based on dried specimen material alone. A stable Banksia taxonomy did not begin to emerge until 1981 with the publication of Alex George's landmark monograph The genus Banksia L.f. (Proteaceae). Over the next 18 years, George's arrangement was gradually refined in the light of new research and the discovery of new material, and there were several changes to B. integrifolia's infraspecific taxa. These changes culminated in George's 1999 arrangement, which had broad acceptance until 2005, when Austin Mast, Eric Jones and Shawn Havery published a phylogeny that did not accord with George's arrangement. A new taxonomic arrangement was not published at the time, but early in 2007 Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement by transferring Dryandra to Banksia, and publishing B. subg. Spathulatae for the species having spoon-shaped cotyledons. They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete; in the meantime, if Mast and Thiele's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement, then B. integrifolia is placed in B. subg. Spathulatae; it is the type species for the subgenus.


The current taxonomic arrangement of the genus Banksia is based on George's 1999 monograph for the Flora of Australia book series. In this arrangement, B. integrifolia is placed in Banksia subg. Banksia, because its inflorescences take the form of Banksia's characteristic flower spikes; Banksia sect. Banksia because of its straight styles; and Banksia ser. Salicinae because its inflorescences are cylindrical. Kevin Thiele additionally placed it in a subseries Integrifoliae, but this was not supported by George.
B. integrifolia's placement within Banksia may be summarised as follows:
Genus Banksia
Subgenus Isostylis
Subgenus Banksia
Section Oncostylis
Section Coccinea
Section Banksia
Series Grandes
Series Banksia
Series Crocinae
Series Prostratae
Series Cyrtostylis
Series Tetragonae
Series Bauerinae
Series Quercinae
Series Salicinae
B. dentata – B. aquilonia – B. integrifolia – B. plagiocarpa – B. oblongifolia – B. robur – B. conferta – B. paludosa –  B. marginata – B. canei – B. saxicola


The names of three subspecies are accepted at the Australian Plant Census as at May 2020:
B. integrifolia subsp. compar (R.Br.) K.R.Thiele;
B. integrifolia  R.Br.subsp. integrifolia;
B. integrifolia subsp. monticola K.R.Thiele.
Although some of the great variability of B. integrifolia can be attributed to environmental factors, much is genetic: George writes that it "gives the impression that it is actively speciating to fill the many ecological niches through its range". Genetic variation across its range has been mapped in some detail with microsatellite markers, facilitating further analysis of intraspecific relationshops. Fractal analysis of the shape and spectrum (colour) of the leaves has been used to determine to which subspecies plants of unknown provenance belong.
Banksia integrifolia subsp. integrifolia
The nominate subspecies occurs near the coast over most of the species' range except the far north. It varies little except in northern New South Wales and southern Queensland, where some populations appear to be intermediate with B. integrifolia subsp. compar.
Banksia integrifolia subsp. compar
This subspecies grows in coastal Queensland as far north as Proserpine. For most of its range it is the only subspecies, but near its southern limit it co-occurs with B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia. The two subspecies are distinguishable by their leaves, which are larger and glossy with wavy margins on B. integrifolia subsp. compar.
Banksia integrifolia subsp. monticola
Commonly known as white mountain banksia, it is the only subspecies with a montane distribution; it occurs in the Blue Mountains of northern New South Wales. It is similar in form to B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia, but differs in having longer, narrower leaves, and follicles that are more deeply embedded in the old flower spike.


Presumed natural hybrids have been reported between B. integrifolia and other members of Banksia ser. Salicinae, although no hybrid names have been formally published to date. Presumed hybrids are identified by their intermediate features; for example those with B. paludosa (swamp banksia), known from Jervis Bay and Green Cape on the coast of southern New South Wales, have a smaller habit, longer, thinner flower spikes, and persistent old flowers on old "cones", which are otherwise bare on pure B. integrifolia.
Presumed hybrids with B. marginata (silver banksia) occur on Wilsons Promontory in Victoria; these are found in localities where both species co-occur, and have features intermediate between the two. Another purported hybrid with B. marginata, thought to be from Cape Paterson on Victoria's south coast, was first described by Alf Salkin and is commercially available in small quantities. It forms an attractive hardy low-growing plant to 1 metre (3.3 ft).


B. integrifolia is widely distributed, in both geographical and ecological terms. According to Alex George, "it spans a wider geographical and climatic range than any other species." Thiele and Ladiges make a similar claim: that its distribution "is a broader latitudinal, altitudinal and ecological amplitude than any other species, with the possible exception of B. spinulosa." No other species of tree occurs closer to the coast at Cape Byron, making B. integrifolia the most easterly tree on the Australian mainland.
It occurs along almost the entire eastern coast of Australia, from Geelong, Victoria to Proserpine, Queensland. There was an isolated population on Long Island, Tasmania in 1999, and an 1876 record allegedly from King Island, although there has been speculation that that specimen was actually collected in the Furneaux Group. The species no longer occurs at any of these Tasmania locations, and has been declared extinct in Tasmania under that state's Threatened Species Protection Act 1995. The range of latitude is thus about 20° to 38°S.
For most of its distribution, B. integrifolia occurs only within about 50 kilometres (31 mi) of the coast, where it typically occurs on poor quality sandy soils derived from sandstone. It grows near coastal cliffs and headlands, alongside river estuaries, and even on stabilised sand dunes. The temperature range for this area is around 0–30 °C (32–86 °F), with almost no frosts. The species can occur in pure stands, but is usually associated with other species such as Melaleuca quinquenervia (broad-leaved paperbark), Angophora costata (smooth-barked apple), Corymbia gummifera (red bloodwood), Eucalyptus botryoides (bangalay), Monotoca elliptica (wedding bush) and Leptospermum laevigatum (coast tea tree).
Between Sydney and Brisbane, B. integrifolia is found up to 200 kilometres (120 mi) inland, with B. integrifolia subsp. monticola occurring in the Blue Mountains at altitudes up to 1,500 metres (4,900 ft). There it grows on better quality volcanic or rocky soils derived from granites and basalts, and would experience up to 100 frosts per year. In this montane habitat, it occurs in association with Eucalyptus species such as E. viminalis (manna gum) and E. pauciflora (snow gum), and also rainforest species such as Nothofagus moorei (Antarctic beech) and Orites excelsa (prickly ash).


Like most other Proteaceae, B. integrifolia has proteoid roots, roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter. These enhance solubilisation of nutrients, thus allowing nutrient uptake in low-nutrient soils such as the phosphorus-deficient native soils of Australia. Studies on B. integrifolia suggest that its proteoid root mat achieves this by chemically modifying its soil environment.
B. integrifolia flowers have an unusually short life span for Banksia species, producing nectar for only about four to twelve days after anthesis. Most nectar is produced during the night and early in the morning, with only small amounts produced during the day. Flowers are produced all through the year, but there is a strong peak in autumn. Little else flowers within its range at this time, so it is a seasonally important source of food for nectariferous animals. Surveys have observed a range of animals feeding on the species, including a wide range of insects; many species of bird including Phylidonyris novaehollandiae (New Holland honeyeater), Anthochaera carunculata (red wattlebird), Anthochaera chrysoptera (little wattlebird), Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris (eastern spinebill) and Trichoglossus haematodus (rainbow lorikeet); and mammals such as Petaurus norfolcensis (squirrel glider), Petaurus breviceps (sugar glider), Acrobates pygmaeus (feathertail glider), Pteropus poliocephalus (grey-headed flying fox), and Syconycteris australis common blossom bat. In some areas such as at Bungawalbin National Park in northern New South Wales, B. integrifolia is the only source of nectar and pollen in the autumn (March–April) and late winter (July). The importance of non-flying mammals to pollination of B. integrifolia was demonstrated in 1989, with a study in Wilsons Promontory National Park showing a reduction of fruit set when measures were taken to exclude them. Banksia integrifolia is the host plant of the lichen species Arthonia banksiae.
Microscopic Eriophyid mites (Eriophyidae) cause galls on young infructescences of B. integrifolia
Unlike most Banksia species, B. integrifolia does not require bushfire to trigger the release of its seed. Rather, seed is released spontaneously on reaching maturity in late summer. The species' non-reliance on fire for seed dispersal suggests that the exclusion of fire would not affect plant populations, but a number of studies have found the opposite to be true: in areas where fire has been excluded for many years, populations have declined substantially. An investigation into the defoliation and premature death of trees on the Yanakie Isthmus in south Victoria reached the tentative conclusion that the absence of fire had created unhealthy surface soil conditions. On the Mornington Peninsula, surveys of an area that had not been burnt since the 1890s found that B. integrifolia densities fell by 77% between 1977 and 2000. A subsequent study found the decline to have been caused by extremely high seedling mortality rates, due to grazing by herbivores and intense competition for soil moisture during summer. Despite acknowledging that "the role of fire in these systems remains unclear", it concluded that "developing fire and/or grazing management regimes will be necessary to conserve the structural integrity of these coastal ecosystems."
These concerns aside, B. integrifolia does not appear to be under threat. It is highly resistant to Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback, which poses a major threat to many other Banksia species; and its wide distribution protects against the threat of habitat loss due to land clearing. As a result, it does not appear on the list of threatened flora of Australia under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.


Hardy and versatile, B. integrifolia will grow in clay, sand, acid and even alkaline soils, and it shows good resistance to wind and salt, making it suitable for seaside planting. It is therefore highly regarded as a low-maintenance garden tree, although its large size makes it unsuitable for smaller gardens. Its hardiness may however forewarn weed potential, as some evidence of weediness has been seen in South Africa, Western Australia and New Zealand. When growing near bushland within its native habitat, it is recommended to obtain local provenance seed or plants if available.
The most common form available in commercial nurseries is unimproved Banksia integrifolia subsp. integrifolia. It prefers a sunny aspect without exposure to frosts, and tolerates fairly heavy pruning. Seeds do not require any treatment, and take 5 to 6 weeks to germinate. Flowering begins at around four to six years from seed. The other subspecies are less well known in cultivation, but are obtainable. Cultivation is presumably similar to B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia, except that B. integrifolia subsp. monticola may be assumed frost-tolerant. Dwarf forms of B. integrifolia are sometimes sold, and a registered prostrate cultivar, Banksia 'Roller Coaster', is available. The latter is a vigorous ground-hugging plant that can spread to 4 or 5 metres (13 or 16 ft) across yet remains only 50 centimetres (20 in) high.
Because of its high resistance to P. cinnamomi dieback, the feasibility of using B. integrifolia as a rootstock for susceptible Banksia species in the cut flower trade is under investigation. Presently, the success rate for grafting is only 30–40%, and even with successful grafts there is a tendency for the union to fail under stress. More research is needed before the technique will be ready for commercial use.


The wood of B. integrifolia is pink to red, with inconspicuous rings and conspicuous rays. It is spongy and porous, with a density of around 530 kilograms per cubic metre (33 lb/cu ft). It is considered highly decorative, but it warps badly on drying, has poor load-bearing qualities, and is susceptible to termite attack; it is therefore unsuitable for most construction purposes. It is sometimes used for cabinet panelling and in ornamental turnery, and natural bends were once sought after for making boat knees. It is a useful firewood.
B. integrifolia produces a dark amber-coloured honey of middling quality and therefore low commercial value. Despite this, the species is highly valued by beekeepers because it produces large amounts of pollen and nectar during autumn and winter, thus helping support hives at a time when little else is flowering.
Historically, indigenous Australians obtained nectar from B. integrifolia by stroking the flower spikes then licking their hands, or by steeping flower spikes in a coolamon overnight. They also used the flower spikes as hairbrushes. Early settlers used the nectar as a syrup for sore throats and colds; and bushmen would impregnate barren "cones" with fat to make a slow-burning candle.
More recently, B. integrifolia has been used in the art of bonsai. Its rangy habit and long internodes are challenging to overcome, but the leaves do reduce with pruning, and unlike the gnarlier B. serrata (saw banksia) its trunk can become textured with age.
It is used as a floral emblem by two local government areas of Queensland: the City of Redcliffe and the City of Logan. In 2000 it was featured on an Australian postage stamp.


Banksia marginata, commonly known as the silver banksia, is a species of tree or woody shrub in the plant genus Banksia found throughout much of southeastern Australia. It ranges from the Eyre Peninsula in South Australia to north of Armidale, New South Wales, and across Tasmania and the islands of Bass Strait. It grows in various habitats, including Eucalyptus forest, scrub, heathland and moorland. Banksia marginata varies widely in habit, ranging from a 20-centimetre (7.9 in) shrub to a 12-metre (40 ft) tree. The narrow leaves are linear and the yellow inflorescences (flower spikes) occur from late summer to early winter. The flower spikes fade to brown and then grey and develop woody follicles bearing the winged seeds. Originally described by Antonio José Cavanilles in 1800, further collections of B. marginata were designated as several separate species by Robert Brown in 1810. However, all were reclassified as a single species by George Bentham in 1870. No distinct subspecies have been recognised by Banksia expert Alex George, who nonetheless concedes that further work is needed.
Many species of bird, in particular honeyeaters, forage at the flower spikes, as do native and European honeybees. The response to bushfire varies. Some populations are serotinous: they are killed by fire and regenerate from large stores of seed which have been held in cones in the plant canopy and are released after a fire. Others regenerate from underground lignotubers or suckers from lateral roots. Although it has been used for timber, Banksia marginata is most commonly seen as a garden plant, with dwarf forms being commercially propagated and sold.


Banksia marginata is a highly variable species, usually ranging from a small shrub around a metre (3 ft) tall to a 12-metre-high (39 ft) tree. Unusually large trees of 15 to possibly 30 m (50–100 ft) have been reported near Beeac in Victoria's Western District as well as several locations in Tasmania, while compact shrubs limited to 20 cm (7.9 in) high have been recorded on coastal heathland in Tasmania (such as at Rocky Cape National Park). Shrubs reach only 2 m (6.6 ft) high in Gibraltar Range National Park. The bark is pale grey and initially smooth before becoming finely tessellated with age. The new branchlets are hairy at first but lose their hairs as they mature, with new growth a pale or pinkish brown. The leaves are alternately arranged on the stems on 2–5 mm long petioles, and characteristically toothed in juvenile or younger leaves (3–7 cm [1.2–2.8 in] long). The narrow adult leaves are dull green in colour and generally linear, oblong or wedge-shaped (cuneate) and measure 1.5–6 cm (0.6–2.4 in) long and 0.3–1.3 cm (0.1–0.5 in) wide. The margins become entire with age, and the tip is most commonly truncate or emarginate, but can be acute or mucronate. The cellular makeup of the leaves shows evidence of lignification, and the leaves themselves are somewhat stiff. Leaves also have sunken stomates. The leaf undersurface is white with a prominent midrib covered in brownish hairs.
The complex flower spikes, known as inflorescences, appear generally from late summer to early winter (February to June) in New South Wales and Victoria, although flowering occurs in late autumn and winter in the Gibraltar Range. Cylindrical in shape, they are composed of a central woody spike or axis, perpendicularly from which a large number of compact floral units arise, which measure 5–10 cm (2–4 in) tall and 4–6 cm (1.6–2.4 in) wide. Pale yellow in colour, they are composed of up to 1,000 individual flowers (784 recorded in the Gibraltar Range) and arise from nodes on branchlets that are at least three years old. Sometimes two may grow from successive nodes in the same flowering season. They can have a grey or golden tinge in late bud. As with most banksias, anthesis is acropetal; the opening of the individual buds proceeds up the flower spike from the base to the top. Over time the flower spikes fade to brown and then grey, and the old flowers generally persist on the cone. The woody follicles grow in the six months after flowering, with up to 150 developing on a single flower spike. In many populations, only a few follicles develop. Small and elliptic, they measure 0.7–1.7 cm (0.3–0.7 in) long, 0.2–0.5 cm (0.1–0.2 in) high, and 0.2–0.4 cm (0.1–0.2 in) wide. In coastal and floodplain populations, these usually open spontaneously and release seed, while they generally remain sealed until burnt by fire in plants from heathland and montane habitats. Each follicle contains one or two fertile seeds, between which lies a woody dark brown separator of similar shape to the seeds. Measuring 0.9–1.5 cm (0.4–0.6 in) in length, the seed is egg- to wedge-shaped (obovate to cuneate) and composed of a dark brown 0.8–1.1 cm (0.3–0.4 in) wide membranous "wing" and wedge- or sickle-shaped (cuneate–falcate) seed proper which measures 0.5–0.8 cm (0.2–0.3 in) long by 0.3–0.4 cm (0.1–0.2 in) wide. The seed surface can be smooth or covered in tiny ridges, and often glistens. The resulting seedling first grows two obovate cotyledon leaves, which may remain for several months as several more leaves appear. The cotyledons of Banksia marginata, B. paludosa and B. integrifolia are very similar in appearance.


Banksia marginata is commonly called the silver banksia, because the white undersides of its leaves contrast with the otherwise green foliage and give the plant a "silvery" look. Alternate common names include honeysuckle and dwarf honeysuckle. The aboriginal name in the Jardwadjali language of western Victoria was  warock, while the Kaurna name from the Adelaide Plains was pitpauwe and the local name in the Macquarie Harbour region in Tasmania was tangan.
A widely distributed and diverse plant, B. marginata was described independently and given many different names by early explorers. On his third voyage, Captain James Cook reported a "most common tree [...] about ten feet high, branching pretty much, with narrow leaves, and a large, yellow, cylindrical flower, consisting only of a vast number of filaments; which, being shed, leave a fruit like a pine top." in January 1777. The genus Banksia was named in honor of Sir Joseph Banks, a botanist who was with Captain Cook during his first voyage (1768-1771) in which he circumnavigated the world, including stops in New Zealand and Australia (Botany Bay). The species marginata was first collected by Luis Née in 1793, from somewhere between Sydney and Parramatta. In 1800, the Spanish botanist Antonio José Cavanilles gave the species the binomial name it still bears today. The species name is the Latin adjective marginatus ("bordered") and refers to appearance of the lower surface of the recurved margins of the leaves when viewed from underneath. Cavanilles also described another specimen collected by Née in the same locality as a different species, Banksia microstachya Cav. A smaller shrub with dentate leaves, this turned out to be an immature plant of the same species with juvenile leaves. Robert Brown described 31 species of Banksia in his 1810 work Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen, including six taxa (B. marginata α and β plus four further species) now attributable to B. marginata. He split the genus into two subgenera, placing these species in subgenus Banksia verae, the "True Banksias". He described Banksia australis R.Br., giving the location of the collection as Port Phillip Bay in Victoria in 1802 (having crossed out Van Diemen's Land 1804). Brown's other collections which were reduced to synonymy with  B. marginata were Banksia depressa R.Br., a prostrate shrub from Margate Rivulet in southeastern Tasmania, Banksia insularis R.Br., from Flinders and King Island, and Banksia patula R.Br., a shrub from the vicinity of Port Lincoln, South Australia. The French naturalist Aimé Bonpland in 1816 called it Banksia marcescens Bonpl., deemed an illegitimate name, as by that time the name Banksia marginata already had been published. Still more synonyms are Banksia ferrea Vent. ex Spreng. and Banksia gunnii Meisn.
By the time Carl Meissner published his 1856 arrangement of the genus, there were 58 described Banksia species. Meissner divided Brown's Banksia verae, which had been renamed Eubanksia by Stephan Endlicher in 1847, into four series based on leaf properties. He listed six species and a further four varieties all now sunk into B. marginata in series Salicinae.
In 1870, George Bentham published a thorough revision of Banksia in his landmark publication Flora Australiensis. In Bentham's arrangement, the number of recognised Banksia species was reduced from 60 to 46. Bentham observed that the characteristics Brown used to define B. australis, B. depressa, B. patula, and B. insularis were unable to distinguish separate forms as more specimens came to light, and hence declared them synonyms of B. marginata. Meissner's four series were replaced by four sections based on leaf, style and pollen-presenter characters. B. marginata was placed in section Eubanksia along with B. integrifolia and B. dentata.


The current taxonomic arrangement of the genus Banksia is based on botanist Alex George's 1999 monograph for the Flora of Australia book series. In this arrangement, B. marginata is placed in Banksia subgenus Banksia, because its inflorescences take the form of Banksia's characteristic flower spikes, section Banksia because of its straight styles, and series Salicinae because its inflorescences are cylindrical. In a morphological cladistic analysis published in 1994, Kevin Thiele placed it as the most basal member of a newly described subseries Integrifoliae, within the series Salicinae. However, this subgrouping of the Salicinae was not supported by George. George did concede that major work is needed on Banksia marginata, which shows such a high degree of variability over its range.
B. marginata's placement within Banksia may be summarised as follows:
Genus Banksia
Subgenus Isostylis
Subgenus Banksia
Section Oncostylis
Section Coccinea
Section Banksia
Series Grandes
Series Banksia
Series Crocinae
Series Prostratae
Series Cyrtostylis
Series Tetragonae
Series Bauerinae
Series Quercinae
Series Salicinae
B. dentata – B. aquilonia – B. integrifolia – B. plagiocarpa – B. oblongifolia – B. robur – B. conferta – B. paludosa –  B. marginata – B. canei – B. saxicola
Since 1998, American botanist Austin Mast and co-authors have been publishing results of ongoing cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data for the subtribe Banksiinae, which then comprised genera Banksia and Dryandra. Their analyses suggest a phylogeny that differs greatly from George's taxonomic arrangement. Banksia marginata resolves as the closest relative, or "sister", to B. saxicola, the two taxa part of a larger group containing B. paludosa and the three subspecies of B. integrifolia. Early in 2007, Mast and Thiele rearranged the genus Banksia by merging Dryandra into it, and published B. subg. Spathulatae for the taxa having spoon-shaped cotyledons; thus B. subg. Banksia was redefined as encompassing taxa lacking spoon-shaped cotyledons. They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete; in the meantime, if Mast and Thiele's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement, then B. marginata is placed in B. subg. Spathulatae.


Hybridisation with Banksia conferta subsp. penicillata at the site of an old abandoned railway between Newnes and Clarence in the Blue Mountains has been recorded; a single B. marginata plant was surrounded by plants with intermediate features but more strongly resembling B. conferta subsp. penicillata. B. marginata can also interbreed with B. paludosa where they are found together. A hybrid with B. saxicola was recorded from Mount William during the Banksia Atlas project.
A purported hybrid with B. integrifolia, thought to be from Cape Paterson on Victoria's south coast, was first described by Alf Salkin and is commercially available in small quantities. It forms an attractive hardy low-growing plant to 1 m (3.3 ft). Salkin observed an intermediate form which occurred in coastal areas where Banksia marginata and B. integrifolia are found together. Calling it the Wilsons Promontory topodeme, he noted that it colonised sand dunes, had leaves similar to but narrower than integrifolia, and had persisting flowers on old spikes but not as persistent as marginata. He had collected this form from Revesby in New South Wales as well as Cape Paterson, and had received reports of similar plants at Marlo and Bemm Rivers. Stands of plants intermediate between B. integrifolia and B. marginata have been recorded near Mallacoota in East Gippsland.


Banksia marginata is found from Baradine and Gibraltar Range National Park in northern New South Wales, southwards into Victoria and South Australia, as well as across Tasmania. It is found on the major islands of Bass Strait, including King, Flinders and Cape Barren Islands. There is one report of a collection from the Springbrook Mountains southwest of Southport in southeastern Queensland. It is extremely rare in southwestern New South Wales. In Victoria, it is predominantly coastal or near-coastal east of Traralgon, but in New South Wales it is absent from coastal areas in the Sydney region. Banksia marginata often grew as a large tree on the basalt plains west of Melbourne, but has almost disappeared. In the vicinity of Adelaide, it was common in the western suburbs on old sand dunes behind the beach foredunes. It remains common in the Adelaide foothills. The annual rainfall over its distribution ranges from 400 to 1,000 mm (16 to 39 in).
In the Gibraltar Range National Park, it is a dominant shrub of open heathland and a non-dominant shrub of closed heath, mostly found in swampy heath associated with sedges. Plants here have some degree of self-compatibility. In the Sydney region, it grows in association with heath banksia (Banksia ericifolia), old man banksia (B. serrata), mountain devil (Lambertia formosa), lance-leaved geebung (Persoonia lanceolata) and dwarf apple (Angophora hispida) in heathland, and with silvertop ash (Eucalyptus sieberi), Blue Mountains ash (E. oreades), Sydney peppermint (E. piperita), scribbly gum (E. haemastoma), Blue Mountains mallee ash (E. stricta), brittle gum (E. mannifera), snow gum (E. pauciflora) and red bloodwood (Corymbia gummifera) in forested areas.
It is widespread as an understory species in medium rainfall eucalypt forests across Victoria, occurring in association with manna gum (Eucalyptus viminalis), narrow-leaf peppermint (E. radiata), messmate (E. obliqua), swamp gum (E. ovata) and brown stringybark (E. baxteri). It is a common shrub, sometimes small tree, in heathy and shrubby forests as well as coastal scrub and heath in part of its range. In South Gippsland, it is generally a shrub which regenerates from a lignotuber or suckers after bushfire and sets few seed. It has been recorded as a low spreading shrub in Croajingolong National Park in East Gippsland. In the Wombat State Forest west of Melbourne, it grows as a 1 to 2 m (3.3 to 6.6 ft) high shrub on less fertile soils, and as a large tree to 8 m (26 ft) on more fertile soils. Few trees remain, having been cleared for agriculture or for fuel. Similarly, further west in the Corangamite region, it is either a tree or suckering shrub.
In Tasmania, Banksia marginata occupies a wide range of habitats, in mixed forest (where it grows as a small tree), button grass moorlands, flood plains of the Loddon, Franklin and Huon Rivers, as well as coastal regions. In parts of the west and southwest of Tasmania, the species is dominant within the threatened native vegetation community known as Banksia marginata wet scrub. There is no macrofossil record for the species, so it is unclear whether it is a recent introduction from the mainland or has only recently evolved, although its presence on both the mainland and Tasmania suggests it has been present since the Pleistocene. It grows in coastal habitats that would be occupied by Banksia integrifolia on the mainland.
Banksia marginata grows on a variety of soil types, from clay loams, shale and peaty loams to sandy or rocky soils composed of quartzite, sandstone, limestone or granite, although sandier soils predominate. It is restricted to sandy soils in the Adelaide region. The soil types are of a wide range of pH, from highly acidic soils in the Grampians to alkaline soils in South Australia. Plants have been recorded at altitudes ranging from sea level to as high as 1,200 m (3,900 ft) AHD at Mount Field National Park.


Numerous species of birds have been observed foraging and feeding at the flowers; these include rainbow lorikeet (Trichoglossus haematodus), musk lorikeet (Glossopsitta concinna), purple-crowned lorikeet (G. porphyrocephala), double-eyed fig-parrot (Cyclopsitta diophthalma), red wattlebird (Anthochaera carunculata), little wattlebird (A. chrysoptera), yellow wattlebird (A. paradoxa), spiny-cheeked honeyeater (Acanthagenys rufogularis), yellow-faced honeyeater (Lichenostomus chrysops), singing honeyeater (Lichenostomus virescens), white-plumed honeyeater (L. penicillatus), black-chinned honeyeater (Melithreptus gularis), brown-headed honeyeater (M. brevirostris), white-naped honeyeater (M. lunatus), crescent honeyeater (Phylidonyris pyrrhoptera), New Holland honeyeater (P. novaehollandiae), tawny-crowned honeyeater (Gliciphila melanops), eastern spinebill (Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris), noisy miner (Manorina melanocephala), silvereye (Zosterops lateralis) and thornbills (Acanthiza species). In addition, the yellow-tailed black cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus funereus) feeds on the seed.
The agile antechinus (Antechinus agilis), bush rat (Rattus fuscipes), feathertail glider (Acrobates pygmaeus), and sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps) have been recorded visiting flower spikes. Both pollen and nectar are consumed by the southwestern pygmy possum (Cercarteus concinnus). Ants, bees (both native and European honeybees), blowflies and brown butterflies have been recorded as visitors to flower spikes. The wasp Mesostoa kerri of the subfamily Mesostoinae within the family Braconidae causes stem galls on B. marginata in southeastern South Australia. The galls are either round to a diameter of 3.3 cm (1.3 in), or cigar-shaped to 15 cm (5.9 in). Their effect on the plant is unclear. B. marginata is a host plant for the larval and adult stages of the buprestid beetle Cyrioides imperialis. Much more pathological is the banksia longicorn beetle (Paroplites australis) which bores holes in the base of banksia plants which then weaken and fall or blow over with wind and die. Several species of fungus have been recorded growing on the foliage, including Acrospermum gaubae, Argopericonia elegans, Asterina systema-solare, Botryosphaeria banksiae, a species of Cladosporium, Cooksonomyces banksiae, Dimerium banksiae, Episphaerella banksiae, a Periconiella species, Satchmopsis australiensis, Tryssglobulus aspergilloides, and a species of Veronaea.
All banksias have developed proteoid or cluster roots in response to the nutrient-poor conditions of Australian soils (particularly lacking in phosphorus). The root system of the suckering forms of Banksia marginata in Victoria and South Australia have a characteristic pattern with a deep tap root, and an extensive system of thick lateral roots 7.5–15 cm (3.0–5.9 in) below the surface. During the winter months, segments around 30 cm (0.98 ft) in length develop vegetative buds capable of forming suckers. Clusters of fine proteoid roots up to 15 cm (5.9 in) long arise from these lateral roots.
The response of Banksia marginata to fire is variable. In the Gibraltar Range and Sydney regions, plants are killed by fire and regenerate from seed. They are serotinous, storing their seed in old cones, forming a seedbank in their canopy which is released after bushfire. A field study found that seeds were dispersed short distances (generally 8 m [26 ft] or less), with those closest to the parent plant faring the best. In Little Desert National Park in northwestern Victoria and also eastern South Australia, it grows as a low shrub which suckers (grows shoots from lateral roots) after fire. Plants do not appear to live longer than 25 years; after this time the ageing plants begin to die and are succeeded by younger plants arising from suckers around the parent. A field study in Gippsland found counting the nodes of Banksia marginata plants to be accurate in indicating age within a year up to 21 years since the last fire. There is anecdotal evidence of plants reaching 150 years old in this region. Plant species from communities dependent on fire are thought to self-select to be more flammable; Banksia marginata tested from a dry sclerophyll community in southeastern Tasmania was shown to burn readily, and fire would spread easily through it.
Tasmanian forms are frost tolerant at any time of year, which might explain some of their success in spreading and growing in different habitats around the island. This attribute might have allowed them to survive cold periods in Tasmania during the Pleistocene.
A trial in Western Australia showed Banksia marginata to be mildly sensitive to Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback. At Brisbane Ranges National Park west of Melbourne, which was invaded by Phytophthora cinnamomi in the 1970s, Banksia marginata (along with such species as Grevillea steiglitziana) was part of a secondary regrowth of understory species after more resistant shrubs such as grasses and sedges had grown back.


The plant was often used by many indigenous clans and tribes throughout the east coast of Australia.
The sweet nectar from the flowers was sucked or drained by soaking in water and in some cases mixed with some wattle gum to make a sweet lolly.
The wood was also used to make needles.
The Gunditjmarato peoples of the western district of Victoria used the spent flower cones to strain water by placing the cones in their mouths and using them like a straw.


The red-hued heartwood is coarse-grained and soft. It is sometimes used for turning, but requires careful drying before use to avoid warping. A sample was prepared in Victoria in 1885 as part of a collection of local timber species under the direction of Government botanist Ferdinand von Mueller. The collection was displayed in various exhibitions, including the Exposition Universelle in Paris in 1889, and is housed at the Melbourne Museum.


Banksia marginata was first cultivated in England in 1802 (and was also listed as B. australis, B. insularis and B. marcescens). It was grown at Kew, Cambridge Botanic Gardens, Woburn Abbey and private gardens in Chelsea, Hackney and Harringay House. One specimen grown in a glasshouse at Kew was described as a tree 24 feet (7.3 m) high with a trunk girth of two feet (60 cm) at 40 years of age.
B. marginata is generally fairly easy to grow in a well-drained sunny or partly-shaded position in the garden. It can be leggy in shadier positions, or a more compact bushy shrub in full sun . Some varieties from drier areas seem to do poorly in areas of summer humidity. The flowers are not prominent unless they are numerous. Established plants can withstand drought, coastal exposure and temperatures as low as −10 °C (14 °F). Propagation of plants can be by seed or cuttings; the latter is essential if trying to replicate plants of particular habit (such as dwarf specimens). Some Banksia marginata seed of subalpine provenance require stratification, namely keeping at 5 °C (41 °F) for 60 days before germination takes place over 6 to 25 days. Salkin proposed this was necessary so that seed released in a summer or autumn bushfire would lie dormant over the winter months before germinating in the spring. Banksia saxicola and  Banksia canei seed also share this trait.
Some dwarf forms have been commercially available in Australian nurseries, although some selections do not maintain their dwarf status in cultivation. Banksia 'Mini Marg' is a small form selected from the northeastern coast of Tasmania which reaches 30 cm (12 in) high and 1 m (3.3 ft) wide. 'Mallacoota Dwarf' was selected from a natural population at Mallacoota, Victoria. Alf Salkin reported a form from Kanangra Walls with a peach-tinged limb as having horticultural potential, as well as a prostrate form from Cape Liptrap in Victoria. Banksia marginata, and the dwarf cultivar 'Mini Marg', have also been used in bonsai.


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Barbarea orthoceras is a species of flowering plant in the family Brassicaceae known by the common name American yellowrocket. It is native to North America, including much of Canada and the western United States, as well as parts of Asia. It grows in moist areas such as meadows and riverbanks. This is a perennial herb producing a stiff, branching stem to heights between 10 and 60 centimeters. The leaves are a few centimeters long and generally oval in shape with several rounded lobes toward the end. The inflorescence is a spike or cluster of bright yellow flowers at the tip of each stem branch. The fruit is a straight, narrow silique up to 5 centimeters long.
The leaves can be eaten raw or cooked, and the roots can have a horseradish-like flavor.


Barkleyanthus is a monotypic genus of flowering plants in the aster family, Asteraceae, containing the single species Barkleyanthus salicifolius, a plant formerly classified in the genus Senecio. It is native to North and Central America, where its distribution extends from the southwestern United States to El Salvador. Its common names include willow ragwort, willow groundsel, Barkley's-ragwort, and jarilla.
This plant is a shrub producing a branching stem usually about one to two meters tall, but known to exceed 4 meters at times. The leaves are roughly lance-shaped and are alternately arranged, sometimes more densely toward the ends of branches. They are up to 10 or 15 centimeters long. The inflorescence is often a wide array of several flower heads, but they may also be clustered in the leaf axils or branch tips. The head contains a few yellow ray florets, which are pistillate, and up to 25 or more yellow disc florets, which are bisexual. The fruit is a rough-textured, pyramidal or prism-shaped cypsela up to a centimeter long including its pappus of many barbed white bristles.
This plant is abundant in parts of its range, particularly in Mexico, sometimes becoming weedy. It flowers year-round, especially in spring, and it may be in full flower at the end of the dry season. It is admired for its yellow flower heads and is cultivated as an ornamental plant.
The plant is used in Mexican traditional medicine to treat fever and rheumatism. In Chiapas it is used as an insecticide in corn supplies. Secondary metabolites isolated from the species include pyrrolizidine alkaloids, lactones, furoeremophilanes, and sesquiterpenes.


Bartsia alpina is a species of perennial flowering plant, known by the common name alpine bartsia or velvetbells. It is found in the mountainous regions of Europe and also occurs in Iceland, Greenland and north‐eastern Canada.


Bartsia alpina is a hemiparasitic perennial plant with a woody rhizome, growing to a height of between 8 and 30 cm (3 and 12 in). The stem is erect and sometimes branched, hairy and purple in colour. The leaves are in opposite pairs, with oval leaf blades up to 25 mm (1.0 in) long and toothed margins. At the base of the plant, the leaves are green, but higher up they are tinged with purple. The corolla is dark purple and is about 20 mm (0.8 in) long. It is narrow at the base and has two lips, an obtuse upper lip and a smaller lower one, with three blunt, equal-sized lobes. It has four stamens fused to the corolla and two ovaries fused to the style. The fruit is an oval brown capsule.


Bartsia alpina has a European Arctic-montane distribution, and is also known from North America. It occurs in the mountainous regions of northern Russia, Finland, Norway and Sweden, and in the Alps and other mountains in Central Europe, as far south as the Pyrenees and south‐west Bulgaria; it also occurs in Iceland, Greenland and north‐eastern Canada.
It has a very restricted distribution in the British Isles, occurring only in a few locations in upland areas in northern England, and in the central Scottish Highlands. It used to occur in damp pasture, in basic flushes and runnels and wet, steep, species-rich banks, but it has largely been eliminated from these habitats by over-grazing and trampling by livestock. It has persisted better away from grazing animals in ledge communities on mica-schist crags.


Basiaeschna janata, the springtime darner, is a species of dragonfly in the monotypic genus Basiaeshna in the family Aeshnidae. It is a small, bluish darner that flies early in the year.


The golden-crowned warbler (Basileuterus culicivorus) is a small New World warbler.


The golden-crowned warbler is 12.7 cm (5.0 in) long and weighs 10 g (0.35 oz). It has grey-green upperparts and bright yellow underparts. The head is grey with a black-bordered yellow crown stripe, a yellow or white supercilium and a black eyestripe. Sexes are similar, but the immature golden-crowned warbler is duller, browner and lacks the head pattern other than the eyestripe.


Golden-crowned warbler has 13 geographical races, which fall into three groups. The Central American culicivorus group (known as the stripe-crowned warbler) is essentially as described above, the southwestern cabanisi group (known as Cabanis's warbler) has grey upperparts and a white supercilium, and the aureocapillus group (known as the golden-crowned warbler) of the southeast, which has a white supercilium and orange-rufous crown stripe. The three groups are sometimes considered to be different species.


These birds feed on insects and spiders. The song is a high thin pit-seet-seet-seet-seet, and the call is a sharp tsip. It lays two to four rufous-spotted white eggs in a domed nest in a bank, often by a forest path, or under leaves on the forest floor. Parent birds will feign injury to distract potential nest predators.


Bassia scoparia is a large annual herb in the family Amaranthaceae (sensu lato) native to Eurasia. It has been introduced to many parts of North America, where it is found in grassland, prairie, and desert shrub ecosystems.  Its common names include ragweed, summer cypress, mock-cypress, kochia, belvedere, burningbush, Mexican firebrush, and Mexican fireweed, the provenance of the latter three names being the herb's red autumn foliage.


The fruit of Bassia scoparia with the calyx attached is dull brown, but when hulled reveals dull black seeds, or dark to blackish-brown seeds in some escaped regions such as Europe.
The seeds are dispersed by wind and water, and are transported when the whole plant detaches and rolls on the wind as a tumbleweed. The seed does not persist in the soil seed bank, dying within about a year if it fails to germinate.
The species is a C₄ plant, specifically of the NADP-ME type.
It develops herbicide resistance unusually quickly and quadruple-resistant populations have developed in North America.


The species was first published in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus, who named it Chenopodium scoparium. In 1809, it was placed in the  genus Kochia by Heinrich Schrader. It was transferred to Bassia in 1978 by Andrew J. Scott. Kochia was included in Bassia in 2011 following phylogenetic studies.


This plant is grown as an ornamental plant as evergreen foliage for landscapes, as well as for its red fall foliage. It has also been useful in erosion control on denuded soils. It has been suggested as an agent of phytoremediation, because it is a hyperaccumulator of chromium, lead, mercury, selenium, silver, zinc, and uranium.


In Japan the dull black seeds are used as a food garnish called tonburi (とんぶり) (Japanese). Because its texture is similar to caviar, it has been called "land caviar", "field caviar", and "mountain caviar". It is a chinmi, or delicacy, in Akita prefecture. The seed dish is prepared by boiling the seeds for about 30 minutes, soaking them in running water, and rubbing them in the hands to hull them.


The seeds are used in traditional Chinese medicine to help regulate disorders such as hyperlipidemia, hypertension, obesity, and atherosclerosis. In a study of mice fed a high-fat diet, an extract of the seeds limited obesity. They contain momordin Ic, a triterpene saponin.


The plant is a moderately useful forage for livestock, especially on dry lands. The plant contains higher levels of protein and oxalate than most grasses and fodder plants. However, its use is limited by its toxicity in large quantities. Livestock ingesting large amounts can experience weight loss, hyperbilirubinemia, photosensitization, and polyuria.


The plant's common name in Japan is hahaki-gi or hōki-gusa which signify 'broom-tree' or 'broom-weed', and it has traditionally been used to make brooms.
In Serbia, brooms are produced by simply tying several dried plants of this species together, using the branches as the broom head and the stems as the handle; this is convenient since the broom does not require a separate handle.


Medieval Japanese legend has it that this broom tree would disappear from sight whenever approached, and Sakanoue no Korenori wrote a waka poem alluding to this myth.


Battus polydamas, also known as the gold rim swallowtail, the Polydamas swallowtail or the tailless swallowtail, is a species of butterfly in the family Papilionidae. The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 10th edition of Systema Naturae, published in 1758.


The wingspan is 90 to 120 mm (3.5 to 4.7 in) without the tail. The top of the wings are black with a broad submarginal band formed by large yellow spots. The undersides of the forewings have the same pattern, while the hindwings have a submarginal row of red lunules. This butterfly flies from April to November in three generations in the north of its range, throughout the year in several generations in the tropics. The larvae feed on Aristolochia plant species.


It is found in the Neotropical realm of South America, the southeastern U.S., and Mexico.


Battus polydamas is mainly present in open woods and abandoned fields.


The species is divided into the following subspecies:
†B. p. antiquus (Rothschild & Jordan, 1906) – Antigua
B. p. archidamas (Boisduval,1836) – Chile
B. p. atahualpa Racheli & Pischedda, 1987 – Peru
B. p. cebriones (Dalman, 1823)
B. p. christopheranus (Hall, 1936)
B. p. cubensis (Dufrane, 1946) – Cuba
B. p. dominicus (Rothschild & Jordan, 1906) – Dominica
B. p. grenadensis (Hall, 1930)
B. p. jamaicensis (Rothschild & Jordan, 1906) – Jamaica
B. p. lucayus (Rothschild & Jordan, 1906) – Bahamas
B. p. lucianus (Rothschild & Jordan, 1906) – St. Lucia
B. p. neodamas (Lucas, 1852) – Guadeloupe
B. p. peruanus (Fuchs, 1954) – Peru
B. p. polycrates (Hopffer, 1865) – Haïti, Dominican Republic
B. p. polydamas (Linnaeus, 1758) – tropical South America
B. p. psittacus (Molina, 1782) – Argentina
B. p. renani Lamas, 1998 – Peru
B. p. streckerianus (Honrath, 1884) – Peru
B. p. thyamus (Rothschild & Jordan, 1906) – Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands
B. p. vincentius (Rothschild & Jordan, 1906)
B. p. xenodamas (Hübner, 1825) – Martinique
B. p. weyrauchi Lamas, 1998 – Peru


Bauera rubioides, commonly known as river rose, dog rose or wiry bauera, is a species of flowering plant in the family Cunoniaceae and is endemic to south-eastern Australia. It is a scrambling, tangled shrub with wiry branches, trifoliate, usually toothed leaves, and pink or white flowers.


Bauera rubioides is a scrambling, tangled shrub that typically grows to a height of up to 2 m (6 ft 7 in) and has wiry, extensively-branched stems. The leaves are trifoliate, the leaflets narrowly elliptic, mostly 3–15 mm (0.12–0.59 in) long, 1.5–5.0 mm (0.059–0.197 in) wide and usually have four to ten teeth on each edge. The flowers are borne on pedicels more than 5 mm (0.20 in) long and have six to eight toothed sepals 3–4 mm (0.12–0.16 in) long, six to eight usually pink sometimes white, petals 6–8 mm (0.24–0.31 in) long, and usually fifty to sixty cream-coloured stamens. Flowering mostly occurs in spring and summer.


Bauera rubioides was first formally described in 1801 by Henry Cranke Andrews in The Botanist's Repository for New, and Rare Plants. Andrews noted "...the whole plant has, at first sight, much the appearance of a Rubus." John Sims recorded in Curtis's Botanical Magazine that "...the trivial name is derived from the resemblance which it bears, especially in its young state, to a Rubia, not a Rubus, as Mr. Andrews, with his usual accuracy, would have it."


River rose grows in wet, often shaded areas in south-eastern Queensland, the coast and ranges of New South Wales, in southern Victoria, south-eastern South Australia and it is common in Tasmania.


Bellardia trixago is a species of flowering plant in the family Orobanchaceae (it has been formerly classified in the family Scrophulariaceae). The only member of the monotypic genus Bellardia, it is known as trixago bartsia or Mediterranean lineseed. This plant is native to the Mediterranean Basin, but it is known in other places with similar climates, such as California and parts of Chile, where it is an introduced species and noxious weed.


The genus name Bellardia is a taxonomic patronym in honor of Carlo Antonio Lodovico Bellardi (1741-1826), an Italian botanist from Piedmont.
The species name trixago has two possible etymologies.
It derives from the ancient Greek word θρίξ (thríx), meaning "hair", and the Latin suffix ago used to indicate a property, and refers to the glandular-hairy characteristic of the plant.
It derives from the ancient Greek word τριξός, τρισσός, or τριττός (trixós, trissós, or trittós), meaning "triple", and refers to the trilobate lower lip of the flower. It is also the old Latin name of germanders (genus Teucrium).


This is an erect plant often reaching over half a meter in height. Its foliage is rich green and dotted with glands and hairs. The sawtoothed leaves extend about halfway up the plant, with the upper half of the stem being occupied with a stout inflorescence which narrows to a point. The inflorescence has rows of leaflike bracts, between which emerge showy purple and white lipped, hooded flowers, each over two centimeters wide. The fruit is a smooth, green capsule. Mediterranean lineseed, like other broomrapes, is parasitic; this species is hemiparasitic in that it is green and photosynthetic but also taps into the roots of other plants to extract nutrients.


Parentucellia viscosa is a species of flowering plant in the family Orobanchaceae known by the common names yellow bartsia and yellow glandweed. It is native to Europe, but it can be found on other continents, including Australia and North America, as an introduced species.


This is an erect annual herb producing a stiff, slender stem coated in hairs and sticky glands. It reaches a maximum height of 50 to 70 centimeters. The hairy leaves are lance-shaped to oval and are lined with several teeth. The inflorescence is a raceme of flowers at the end of the stem. The flower is tubular, the calyx of sepals extending along most of the length of the corolla, which may exceed 2 centimeters long. The lobed, lipped corolla is yellow in color and glandular and sticky in texture.
The species is a root hemiparasite. It is parasitic on plants in the Poaceae and Fabaceae, and inhibits the health of host species.


These seven subspecies belong to the species Bembix americana:
Bembix americana americana Fabricius, 1793
Bembix americana antilleana Evans & Matthews, 1968
Bembix americana comata J. Parker, 1917
Bembix americana dugi Menke, 1985
Bembix americana hamata C. Fox, 1923
Bembix americana nicolai Cockerell, 1938
Bembix americana spinolae Lepeletier, 1845


Berberis darwinii, Darwin’s barberry, is a species of flowering plant in the family  Berberidaceae, native to southern Chile and Argentina and naturalized elsewhere. Vernacular names include michay, calafate, and quelung. Growing to 3–4 m (9.8–13.1 ft) tall, it is an evergreen thorny shrub.


Berberis darwinii has dense branches from ground level. The leaves are small oval, 12–25 mm (0.47–0.98 in) long and 5–12 mm (0.20–0.47 in) broad, with a spiny margin; they are borne in clusters of 2–5 together, subtended by a three-branched spine 2–4 mm long. The flowers are orange, 4–5 mm long, produced in dense racemes 2–7 cm long in spring. The fruit is a small purple-black berry 4–7 mm diameter, ripening in summer.
Berberis darwinii was discovered in South America in 1835 by Charles Darwin during the voyage of the 'Beagle'. It was one of many named in honour of Darwin. The berries of this species are known to have been consumed by prehistoric native peoples in the Patagonian region over millennia.
It is a popular garden and hedging shrub in the British Isles. The Royal Horticultural Society has given the species its Award of Garden Merit. The edible fruit is very acidic.


Berberis darwinii is regarded as an invasive plant pest in New Zealand that escaped from gardens into indigenous plant communities via its bird-dispersed seeds. It is considered a serious threat to indigenous ecosystems throughout New Zealand and is listed on the National Pest Plant Accord. In Australia, the species is naturalised in the states of South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales and Tasmania. The species has also become sparingly naturalized in the US states of California and Oregon. It is often planted and sometimes naturalized in Ireland.


Mahonia trifoliolata is a species of flowering plant in the family Berberidaceae, in southwestern North America. Common names include agarita, agrito, algerita, currant-of-Texas, wild currant, and chaparral berry.  The name Agarita comes from the Spanish verb agarrar, which means "to grab". The ending "-ita" is often added to little things, so agarita means "grabs a little". This was probably said because the bush is a bit scratchy but does not have significant spines. Typical characteristics are grey-green to blue-grey leaves, yellow flowers in February to April and the red berries appearing in May. The most important harvest organ are the berries, though the roots and seeds can also be used.


The shrub is native to Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas in the Southwestern United States, and across northeastern Mexico as far south as Durango and San Luis Potosí. It mainly grows in areas that it is native in; there is no cultivation in other countries. states.  In Texas, it is found on rocky slopes and cliffs, and in thickets and open woods, from coastal South Texas northwest to the Trans-Pecos region. It is one of the most common bushes in Hill Country.
In Texas, it has reached areas of up to 300,000 hectares (730,000 acres), but it is commonly seen as a pest there due to its rapid spread. Especially large coverage can be found on the Edwards Plateau in Texas. Mechanical and chemical control have been attempted, but few economically viable results have been achieved due to agarita's quick recovery ability and its resistance to many herbicides.
There are also no ethnographic records describing the use of the species Mahonia trifoliolata, but a number of records indicate the use of Mahonia haematocarpa and Mahonia repens by the Native Americans of the Plains. Virtually every part of the plant has been used for food, medicine and dye throughout history.


Several authorities consider the entire genus Mahonia as part of Berberis, in which case the scientific name becomes Berberis trifoliolata. Among the species native to Texas (Mahonia trifoliolata), agarita has three less common strains: The Texas barberry (Mahonia swaseyi), the red barberry (Mahonia haematocarpa), and the creeping barberry (Mahonia repens). The Texas barberry is relatively rare and is found only in a handful of Texan counties. The red barberry is native to the Southwestern United States and grows in juniper woodlands and desert grasslands. The creeping barberry grows at high elevations amidst aspen conifers and is mostly found in the Rocky Mountains. All four strains have edible berries, but the fruit of the creeping barberry is dark blue, while the berries of the Texas and the red barberry are bright red.


The plant is well adapted to hot temperatures and dry conditions. In areas where it occurs naturally, it is also liked by many wild animals. Birds like to eat the fruits, small mammals use the plant for cover. The shrub is also considered to be a good nectar source for honey bees and other insects. As the trifoliate leaves are tough and spiny, they aren't eaten by cattle or deer.
The bright red edible fruits of the agarita can be harvested around late April to early May. The fruits contain a slightly sweet and sour juice; when expelled, the juice can be used to produce an agarita wine or consumed as a fruit juice drink. The berries can also be used for jelly, pie or cobblers; the tart flavor is reported to be pleasant to eat when mixed with sugar. The fruits contain seeds and can be used to germinate new agarita plants, or be roasted as a coffee alternative. However, a high quantity of seeds makes raw consumption difficult.
Native Americans of the Apache, Chiricahua, and Mescalero tribes used the fresh and preserved fruit for food, and the wood shavings as a traditional eye medicine and a yellow dye for hides. During early pioneering years, the alkaloid berberine in the agarita roots was used to make a yellow dye. Agarita also has uses in medicine; its medicinal value is created mainly by the alkaloids in the roots, and throughout history, it was used to treat ailments ranging from fevers to stomach troubles and open wounds. It was also used as a laxative by the Ramah Navajo and other groups native to the Pacific Northwest. The roots are known to possess antiseptic qualities and are therefore used to treat wounds, skin or gum problems.


Mahonia trifoliolata is cultivated as an ornamental plant for use in desert-region gardens. Mahonia trifoliolata is exceptionally drought and heat tolerant. Thus, they also grow in dry periods without being watered. It usually grows best in full sun, but it can also be cultivated in light shade. Additionally, the plant is not very cold tolerant and is therefore especially grown in places where winters are short and mild.
The plant can be reproduced generatively with the seeds. The seeds need a cold stratification of two to three months. Therefore, it can be sown through summer or autumn and the seeds then germinate in spring. As it is a Perennial plant, it doesn't need to be sown yearly and has a very long lifespan.
Mahonia trifoliolata tolerates a variety of soil textures like Loam, Clay, clay-loam and Gravel. It usually grows very well in dry, well-drained soils. Usually, the plant occurs on soils derived from Limestone parent material and therefore tolerates Alkali soil.
There are not many known insect or disease problems in agarita. Sometimes leaf spots and rusts - especially black stem rust - may occur. Stem rust, caused by the fungus Puccinia graminis, is an agriculturally important disease in wheat, barley, oats, rye and triticale. Since Mahonia trifoliolata acts as an intermediate host, farmers usually remove the bushes to reduce the prevalence of disease. In the regions where Mahonia trifoliolata is grown nowadays,  the climate is too arid to allow for the cultivation of cereals; hence, there is no need to remove the agarita bushes.
As the roots contain large amount of the alkaloid berberine, they inhibit some root fungi and are therefore relatively resistant to pathogens.


Reproduction occurs through seeds and sprouts. The seed is produced and dispersed during summer, it usually germinates in the following spring. Dispersal happens through a variety of birds and mammals. The sprouts represent the vegetative reproduction; they usually  grow from the roots or the root crown. This growth is especially vigorous when the above ground vegetation is removed or damaged (through fires, cutting, etc.).
The  flowers usually bloom from February until March. The berries ripen from April to July, but peak ripeness is usually already reached in May.


Berberis vulgaris, also known as common barberry, European barberry or simply barberry, is a shrub in the genus Berberis native to the Old World. It produces edible but sharply acidic berries, which people in many countries eat as a tart and refreshing fruit.


It is a deciduous shrub growing up to 4 metres (13 feet) high. The leaves are small oval, 2–5 centimetres (3⁄4–2 inches) long and 1–2 centimetres (1⁄2–3⁄4 in) broad, with a serrated margin; they are borne in clusters of 2–5 together, subtended by a three-branched spine 3–8 millimetres (1⁄8–5⁄16 in) long. The flowers are yellow, 4–6 mm (1⁄8–1⁄4 in) across, produced on 3–6 cm (1+1⁄8–2+3⁄8 in) long panicles in late spring. The fruit is an oblong red berry 7–10 mm (1⁄4–3⁄8 in) long and 3–5 mm (1⁄8–3⁄16 in) broad, ripening in late summer or autumn.


The shrub is native to central and southern Europe, northwest Africa and western Asia; it is also naturalised in northern Europe, including the British Isles and Scandinavia, and North America. In the United States and Canada, it has become established in the wild over an area from Nova Scotia to Nebraska, with additional populations in Colorado, Idaho, Washington state, Montana, and British Columbia. It is also cultivated in many countries.


The edible berries, though rich in vitamin C, have a very sharp or sour flavor and are not widely consumed because the thorny shrubs make them difficult to harvest.
In Europe, the berries have been traditionally used as an ingredient in making jam. The berries are high in pectin which makes the jam congeal as it cools after having been boiled. In southwestern Asia, especially Iran, the berries are used for cooking, as well as for jam-making. In Iran, barberries are commonly used as a currant in rice pilaf.
زرشک zerešk is the Persian name for the dried fruit of Berberis spp., particularly also that of Berberis integerrima called زرشک بی‌دانه zerešk bi-dâne, literally 'seedless barberry', which is widely cultivated in Iran. Iran is the largest producer of zerešk.
The South Khorasan province in Iran is the main area of zerešk and saffron production in the world, especially around Birjand and Qaen. About 85% of production is in Qaen and about 15% in Birjand. There is evidence of cultivation of seedless barberry in South Khorasan two hundred years ago. A garden of zerešk is called زرشکستان zerešk-estân. Zerešk is widely used in cooking, imparting a tart flavor to chicken dishes. It is usually cooked with rice, called زرشک پلو zerešk polo, and provides a meal with chicken.


Besma quercivoraria, the oak besma, is a moth of the family Geometridae. The species was first described by Achille Guenée in 1857. It is found across southern Canada (from Newfoundland to British Columbia) and all of the United States except California.
Adults are sexually dimorphic.
The wingspan is 27–41 mm. Adults are on wing from April to September in the south, from May to August in Ontario and from late May to July in Alberta. There are two generations per year.
The larvae feed on the leaves of oak, elm, poplar, willow, Picea glauca, and mostly Betula papyrifera in southern Canada.


Betula alleghaniensis, the yellow birch, golden birch, or swamp birch, is a large and important lumber species of birch native to northeastern North America. Its vernacular names refer to the golden color of the tree's bark. The name Betula lutea was used expansively for this tree but has now been replaced.
Betula alleghaniensis is the provincial tree of Quebec, where it is commonly called merisier, a name which in France is used for the wild cherry.


It is a medium-sized, typically single stemmed, deciduous tree reaching 60–80 feet (18–24 m) tall (exceptionally to 100 ft (30 m)) with a trunk typically 2–3 ft (0.61–0.91 m) in diameter, making it the largest North American species of birch. Yellow birch is long-lived, typically 150 years and some old growth forest specimens may last for 300 years.
It mostly reproduces by seed. Mature trees typically start producing seeds at about 40 years but may start as young as 20. The optimum age for seed production is about 70 years. Good seed crops are not produced every year, and tend to be produced in intervals of 1–4 years with the years between good years having little seed production. The seeds germinate best on mossy logs, decaying wood or cracks in boulders since they cannot penetrate the leaf litter layer. This can lead to odd situations such as yellow birches with their roots growing around a tree stump, which when it eventually rots away leaves the birch standing atop stilt-like roots. Yellow birch saplings will not establish in full shade (under a closed canopy) so they typically need disturbances in a forest in order to establish and grow. The tree is fairly deep-rooted and sends out several long lateral roots.
The bark on mature trees is a shiny yellow-bronze which flakes and peels in fine horizontal strips. The bark often has small black marks and dark horizontal lenticels. After the tree reaches a diameter greater than 1 ft the bark typically stops shredding and reveal a platy outer bark although the thinner branches will still have the shreddy bark. There is an uncommon, alternate form of the tree (f. fallax) which grows in the southern part of the range. F. fallax has darker gray-brown bark which shreds less than the typical form.
The twigs, when scraped, have a slight scent of wintergreen oil, though not as strongly so as the related sweet birch (B. lenta), which is the only other birch in North America to also smell of wintergreen. However, the potency of the odor is not considered a reliable identification method unless it is combined with other characteristics.
The leaves are alternately placed on the stem, oval in shape with a pointed tip and often a slightly heart shaped (cordate) base. They are 2–5 in (5.1–12.7 cm) long and typically half as wide with a finely serrated (doubly serrate) margin. They are dark green in color on the upper side and lighter on the bottom, the veins on the bottom are also pubescent. The leaves arise in pairs or singularly from small spur shoots. In the fall the leaves turn a bright yellow color.
The leaf has a very short petiole 1⁄4–1⁄2 in (1–1 cm) long.
The flowers are wind-pollinated catkins which open in later spring. Both male and female flowers will occur on the same tree making the plant monoecious. The male catkins are 2–4 in (5–10 cm) long, yellow purple, pendulous (hang downwards), and occur in groups of 3-6 on the previous year's growth. The female catkins are erect (point upward) and 1.5–3 cm (5⁄8–1+1⁄8 in) long and oval in shape, they arise from short spur branches with the leaves. The fruit, mature in fall, is composed of numerous tiny winged seeds packed between the catkin bracts.
The seed is a winged samara with two wings which are shorter than the width of the seed which matures and gets released in autumn.