Nyssa sylvatica grows to 20–25 metres (66–82 ft) tall, rarely to 35 metres (115 ft), with a trunk diameter of 50–100 centimetres (20–39 in), rarely up to 170 centimetres (67 in). These trees typically have a straight trunk with the branches extending outward at right angles. The bark is dark gray and flaky when young, but it becomes furrowed with age, resembling alligator hide on very old stems. The twigs of this tree are reddish-brown, usually hidden by a greyish skin. The pith is chambered with greenish partitions.
The leaves of this species are variable in size and shape. They can be oval, elliptical, or obovate, and 5–12 cm (2–4.5 in) long. They have lustrous upper surfaces, with entire, often wavy margins. The foliage turns purple in autumn, eventually becoming an intense bright scarlet. Deer are extremely fond of the leaves on seedlings and saplings, to the point where large populations of them can make establishment of the tree almost impossible. For comparison, mature trees are largely left alone.
The flowers are very small, in greenish-white in clusters at the top of a long stalk and a rich source of nectar for bees. They are often dioecious so a male and female tree in proximity is required to set seed, however, many trees are also polygamo-dioecious, which means they have both male and female flowers on the same tree. The fruit is a black-blue, ovoid stone fruit, about 10 mm long with a thin, oily, bitter-to-sour tasting flesh and very popular with small bird species. There are from one to three fruits together on a long slender stalk. They are a valuable energy food for birds, especially the American robin.
Nyssa sylvatica forms a large deep taproot when young that makes transplanting difficult. Because of this, it is fairly uncommon in cultivation and the nursery trade.
Additional characteristics include:
Bark: Light reddish brown, deeply furrowed and scaly. Branchlets at first pale green to orange, sometimes smooth, often downy, later dark brown.
Wood: Pale yellow, sapwood white; heavy, strong, very tough, hard to split, not durable in contact with the soil. Used for turnery. Sp. gr., 0.6353; weight of cu. ft., 39.59.
Winter buds: Dark red, obtuse, one-fourth of an inch long. Inner scales enlarge with the growing shoot, becoming red before they fall.
Leaves: Alternate, often crowded at the end of the lateral branches, simple, linear, oblong to oval, two to five inches (127 mm) long, one-half to three inches (76 mm) broad, wedge-shaped or rounded at base, entire, with margin slightly thickened, acute or acuminate. They come out of the bud conduplicate, coated beneath with rusty tomentum, when full grown are thick, dark green, very shining above, pale and often hairy beneath. Feather-veined, midrib and primary veins prominent beneath. In autumn they turn bright scarlet, or yellow and scarlet. Petioles one-quarter to one-half an inch long, slender or stout, terete or margined, often red.
Flowers: May, June, when leaves are half grown. Polygamodiœcious, yellowish green, borne on slender downy peduncles. Staminate in many-flowered heads; pistillate in two to several flowered clusters.
Calyx: Cup-shaped, five-toothed.
Corolla: Petals five, imbricate in bud, yellow green, ovate, thick, slightly spreading, inserted on the margin of the conspicuous disk.
Stamens: Five to twelve. In staminate flowers exserted, in pistillate short, often wanting.
Pistil: Ovary inferior, one to two-celled; style stout, exserted, reflexed above the middle. Entirely wanting in sterile flower. Ovules, one in each cell.
Fruit: Fleshy drupe, one to three from each flower cluster. Ovoid, two-thirds of an inch long, dark blue, acid. Stone more or less ridged. October.


Diaethria anna, also known as Anna's eighty-eight, is a butterfly in wet tropical forests in Middle America. On rare occasions, it can be found as a stray in south Texas. Its upperside is dark brown with a metallic bluish-green band on the forewings. The underside of the forewings are red, which is followed by a wide, black band and then white tips; the underside of the hindwings is white, with lines that approximate a black-outlined "88", giving the species its common name. Its markings occasionally appear more like of "98" or "89".
The caterpillars feed on tropical plants in the families Ulmaceae and Sapindaceae. Adults feed on rotting fruit and dung.
Subspecies are:
Diaethria anna anna
Diaethria anna salvadorensis


The species is found in the eastern Nearctic region of the northern United States and southern Canada in wooded areas.


The eastern tent caterpillar (Malacosoma americanum) is a species of moth in the family Lasiocampidae, the tent caterpillars or lappet moths. It is univoltine, producing one generation per year. It is a tent caterpillar, a social species that forms communal nests in the branches of trees. It is sometimes confused with the spongy moth and the fall webworm, and may be erroneously referred to as a bagworm, which is the common name applied to unrelated caterpillars in the family Psychidae. The moths oviposit almost exclusively on trees in the plant family Rosaceae, particularly cherry (Prunus) and apple (Malus).  The caterpillars are hairy with areas of blue, white, black and orange. The blue and white colors are structural colors created by the selective filtering of light by microtubules that arise on the cuticle.


The plant has trifoliate compound leaves, the leaflets heart-shaped and folded through the middle, that occur in groups of three on petioles up to 10 centimetres (3.9 in) long. It flowers from spring to midsummer with small white chasmogamous flowers with pink streaks. Red or violet flowers also occur rarely. During the night or when it rains the flowers close and the leaves fold.
As with other species of wood sorrel, the leaves are sometimes eaten. An oxalate called "sal acetosella" was formerly extracted from the plant, through boiling.
Anemonoides nemorosa (wood anemone) is similar. Both have white flowers, are small, and are found in woody shady places. Anemonoides nemorosa however has palmately lobed leaves and does not have true petals but large sepals which are petal-like.


Oxalis acetosella, the wood sorrel or common wood sorrel, is a rhizomatous flowering plant in the family Oxalidaceae, common in most of Europe and parts of Asia. The specific epithet acetosella refers to its sour taste. The common name wood sorrel is often used for other plants in the genus Oxalis.  In much of its range it is the only member of its genus and hence simply known as "the" wood sorrel.  While common wood sorrel may be used to differentiate it from most other species of Oxalis, in North America, Oxalis montana is also called common wood sorrel. It is also known as Alleluia because it blossoms between Easter and Pentecost, when the Psalms which end with Hallelujah are sung.


The lifespan averages three to four weeks for females, but less for males. These moths are weak fliers, seldom rising more than 2 m above the ground and not flying long distances. They are, however, passive migrants, being easily transferred by wind over long distances. Diamondback moths overwinter as adults among field debris of cruciferous crops, and active adults may be seen during warm periods at any time during the winter in temperate areas. They do not survive cold winters and reinvade colder areas each spring, being carried there by the wind. Moths are active usually at twilight and at night, feeding on flowers of cruciferous plants, but they also fly in the afternoon during mass outbreaks.


This small moth is colored gray and brown. It can potentially identified by a cream-colored band that may be present in the shape of a diamond on its back. The diamondback moth has a wingspan of about 15 mm and a body length of 6 mm. The forewings are narrow, brownish gray and lighter along the anterior margin, with fine, dark speckles. A creamy-colored stripe with a wavy edge on the posterior margin is sometimes constricted to form one or more light-colored diamond shapes, which is the basis for the common name of this moth. The hindwings are narrow, pointed toward the apex, and light gray, with a wide fringe. The tips of the wings can be seen to turn upward slightly when viewed from the side. The antennae are pronounced.
The adults of this species are visually identical to the adults of the New Zealand endemic moth Plutella antiphona.


Host plant selection is crucial because diamondbacks spend the majority of their life near their host plant. The diamondback moth lays its eggs only on plants in the family Brassicaceae. Nearly all cruciferous vegetable crops are attacked, but some are favored over others.
These include

Broccoli
Brussels sprouts
Cabbage
Chinese cabbage
Cauliflower
Collard greens
Kale
Kohlrabi
Mustard
Radish
Watercress

Several wild species in the family also act as hosts, especially early in the season when cultivated crops are unavailable. The egg-laying females have been reported to recognize chemicals in the host plants, glucosinolates and isothiocyanates, that are characteristic of the family Brassicaceae (but also occur in some related families). These chemicals were found to stimulate oviposition, even when applied to a piece of paper. One plant species that contains the egg-laying cues is wintercress, Barbarea vulgaris. Indeed, diamondback moth females lay eggs on this plant species, but the newly hatched larvae die due to the effects of additional natural plant chemicals called saponins.


The agriculture industry has been trying to find biological and natural ways to eliminate the diamondback moth especially since the moths have become resistant to pesticides. Common enemies of the moth include the parasitoids Trichogramma chilonis and Cotesia plutella and the predator Chrysoperla carnea, a lacewing.  Lacewings feed on eggs and young larvae, while the parasitoids attack the eggs. These organisms can recognize diamondback sex pheromones, larval frass odors, and green leaf volatiles emitted from cabbage. Cabbage odors in combination with the sex pheromone are particularly capable of attracting the predators and parasitoids, which will then consume the diamondback larvae and eggs.


The diamondback moth has a global distribution and is found in Europe, Asia, Africa, the Americas, Australia, New Zealand, and the Hawaiian Islands. It is said by some experts to be the most widely distributed of all Lepidoptera, but despite tremendous interest in limiting the damage it causes, the actual available data is inadequate. It probably originated in Europe, South Africa, or the Mediterranean region, but the exact migration path is not known. However, in North America it was observed in Illinois in 1854, and then found in Florida and the Rocky Mountains by 1883. Although diamondback moths cannot overwinter effectively in cold climates, it was found in British Columbia by 1905 and is now present in several Canadian regions.


From the 10th century on, angelica was cultivated as a vegetable and medicinal plant, and achieved popularity in Scandinavia in the 12th century and is used especially in Sámi culture. It was once used as an herb in Sámi cooking, and known as kvanne.
It is used to flavor liqueurs or aquavits, (e.g., Chartreuse, Bénédictine, Vermouth, and Dubonnet), omelettes and trout, and as jam. The long bright-green stems are also candied and used as food decoration. Angelica is unique among the Umbelliferae for its pervading aromatic odor, a pleasant perfume entirely different from fennel, parsley, anise, caraway, or chervil. It has been compared to musk and to juniper. Angelica archangelica roots are among the most common botanicals used in gin distillation, often used in concert with juniper berries and coriander as a chief aromatic characteristic for gin. They are also used in absinthes, aquavits, and bitters, in addition to culinary uses such as jams and omelettes. The hollow stems of Angelica archangelica may be eaten. The stems are picked clean of their leaves, crystallized in sugar syrup and colored green as cake decoration or as candy.


During its first year, it grows only leaves, but during its second year, its fluted stem can reach a height of 2.5 meters (just over 8 feet), and the root is used in flavoring preparations. Its leaves consist of numerous small leaflets divided into three principal groups, each of which is again subdivided into three lesser groups. The edges of the leaflets are finely toothed or serrated. The flowers, which blossom in July, are small and numerous, yellowish or greenish, are grouped into large, globular umbels that bear pale yellow, oblong fruits. Angelica grows only in damp soil, preferably near rivers or deposits of water.
Angelica archangelica grows wild in Russia, Finland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and Iceland, mostly in the northern parts of the countries. It is cultivated in France, mainly in the Marais Poitevin, a marsh region close to Niort in the department Deux-Sèvres. Commercially available angelica is often sourced from Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Germany and Poland.


The adult is mostly white in the North America regions, but in the south it may be marked with black or brown spots on the forewings. It is quite 'hairy' and the front legs have bright yellow or orange patches. The underwings will have less marking than the forewings, and the abdomen often has a sprinkling of brown hairs. It has a wingspan with a range of 35–42 mm.


The fall webworm feeds on just about any type of deciduous tree, where leaves are chewed; branches or the entire tree may become defoliated. Worldwide, it has been recorded from 636 species, and it is considered to be among the most polyphagous of insects. In the eastern U.S., pecan trees (Carya illinoinensis), black walnut, American elm (Ulmus americana L.), hickory, fruit trees, and some maples are preferred hosts; in some areas persimmon and sweetgum are also readily eaten. In the west, alder, willow (Salix spp.), cottonwood and fruit trees are commonly used. Additional host plant examples include madrone (Arbutus menziesii Pursh), mulberry, ailanthus, American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis L.), and Asian white birch (Betula platyphylla).
Host plant selection is dependent on factors like the plant's degree of sun exposure, age, environmental stress undergone, toughness, and nutritional quality. For example, for an insect that needs energy for processes like dispersal or diapause, consuming plants that provide a lot of carbohydrates could be beneficial; for a female insect that is producing eggs, consuming plants that provide a lot of protein could be beneficial.


There are many predators of the fall webworm, such as Monomorium minimum, Vespula spp., Coleomegilla maculata, and Rogas hyphantriae.


The moth is native to North America, ranging from Canada to Mexico and has been introduced into other continents. Introduced to what was formerly Yugoslavia in the 1940s (firstly recorded in 1949), it now has occupied probably its entire range in Europe from France to the Caspian Sea in the east as well as penetrated into Central Asia: Turkmenistan (from 1990 to 1993), Uzbekistan (Fergana valley from 1996 to 1997), Kyrgyzstan, and southeastern Kazakhstan. It was also introduced into Japan in 1945 and has adjusted its number of generations per year since its arrival. It spread into China, southern Mongolia, Korea and southern Primorsky Krai of Russia so that now it is considered holarctic in distribution.
The fall webworm originated in North America but spread very quickly across the world due to factors such as trade and rapid transit.


The fall webworm (Hyphantria cunea) is a moth in the family Erebidae known principally for its larval stage, which creates the characteristic webbed nests on the tree limbs of a wide variety of hardwoods in the late summer and fall. It is considered a pest but although unsightly, does not harm otherwise healthy trees. It is well known to commercial tree services and arboriculturists.


Red-purple in color, the pomegranate fruit husk has two parts: an outer, hard pericarp, and an inner, spongy mesocarp (white "albedo"), which comprises the fruit inner wall where seeds attach. Membranes of the mesocarp are organized as nonsymmetric chambers that contain seeds inside sarcotestas, which are embedded without attachment to the mesocarp. Containing juice, the sarcotesta is formed as a thin membrane derived from the epidermal cells of the seeds. The number of seeds in a pomegranate can vary from 200 to about 1,400.
Botanically, the edible fruit is a berry with seeds and pulp produced from the ovary of a single flower. The fruit is intermediate in size between a lemon and a grapefruit, 5–12 cm (2–4+1⁄2 in) in diameter with a rounded shape and thick, reddish husk.
In mature fruits, the juice obtained by compressing the seeds yields a sour flavor due to low pH (4.4) and high contents of polyphenols, which may cause a red indelible stain on fabrics. Primarily, the pigmentation of pomegranate juice results from the presence of anthocyanins and ellagitannins.


The pomegranate (Punica granatum) is a fruit-bearing deciduous shrub in the family Lythraceae, subfamily Punicoideae, that grows between 5 and 10 m (16 and 33 ft) tall.
The pomegranate was originally described throughout the Mediterranean region. It was introduced into Spanish America in the late 16th century and into California by Spanish settlers in 1769.
The fruit is typically in season in the Northern Hemisphere from October to February, and in the Southern Hemisphere from March to May. As intact sarcotestas or juice, pomegranates are used in baking, cooking, juice blends, meal garnishes, smoothies, and alcoholic beverages, such as cocktails and wine.
Pomegranates are widely cultivated throughout the Middle East and Caucasus region, north and tropical Africa, Iran, Armenia, the Indian subcontinent, Central Asia, the drier parts of Southeast Asia, and the Mediterranean Basin.


P. granatum is grown for its fruit crop, and as ornamental trees and shrubs in parks and gardens. Mature specimens can develop sculptural twisted-bark multiple trunks and a distinctive overall form. Pomegranates are drought-tolerant, and can be grown in dry areas with either a Mediterranean winter rainfall climate or in summer rainfall climates. In wetter areas, they can be prone to root decay from fungal diseases. They can tolerate moderate frost, down to about −12 °C (10 °F).
Insect pests of the pomegranate can include the butterflies Virachola isocrates, Iraota timoleon, Deudorix epijarbas, and the leaf-footed bug Leptoglossus zonatus, and fruit flies and ants are attracted to unharvested ripe fruit. Pomegranate grows easily from seed, but is commonly propagated from 25 to 50 cm (10 to 20 in) hardwood cuttings to avoid the genetic variation of seedlings. Air layering is also an option for propagation, but grafting fails.


A shrub or small tree growing 5 to 10 m (16 to 33 ft) high, the pomegranate has multiple spiny branches and is long-lived, with some specimens in France surviving for 200 years. P. granatum leaves are opposite or subopposite, glossy, narrow oblong, entire, 3–7 cm (1+1⁄4–2+3⁄4 in) long and 2 cm (3⁄4 in) broad. The flowers are bright red and 3 cm (1+1⁄4 in) in diameter, with three to seven petals. Some fruitless varieties are grown for the flowers alone.


Malva neglecta is an annual growing to 0.6 m (2 ft). It is known as common mallow in the United States and also as buttonweed, cheeseplant, cheeseweed, dwarf mallow, and roundleaf mallow.
This plant is often consumed as a food, with its leaves, stalks and seed all being considered edible.  This is especially true of the seeds, which contain 21% protein and 15.2% fat.


Diphthera festiva, the hieroglyphic moth, is a species of moth in the family Nolidae and is the only moth in its subfamily Diphtherinae. It is found in the tropical and subtropical areas of South America (as far south as Bolivia and Brazil), Central America, North America, and the Caribbean. In North America, the species has a southeastern distribution from South Carolina west to Texas along the Gulf Coast. Strays have been recorded as far north as Michigan and Missouri. The wingspan is 37–48 mm (1.5–1.9 in). This species is occasionally considered a pest on soybeans. It was described by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1775.


The hieroglyphic moth has light yellow-orange forewings with distinctive blue-black metallic lines and three rows of metallic dots parallel to the exterior margin. The hindwing is black with white fringe and the pronotum is yellow orange with three black stripes. The abdomen, legs, and filiform (threadlike) antennae are black. Males and females are alike, except for one noticeable sexual dimorphism: females have four tibial spurs on their hind legs, while males have only two.
The pupae are dark brown to black and around 1.7 cm long. They can be attached to trees or stems in rounded cocoons made of silk and small pieces of plant matter. The cocoons have a vertical exit slit characteristic of the family Nolidae.
The caterpillar has a red-orange head and anal plate and a white body with black rings. There are three or four incomplete black rings per segment that end before the cream-colored underside. The spiracles look like black dots and are located in between the black rings. On some caterpillars, there are also black stripes down the length of the body. The true legs and prolegs are black, and there is an orange spot above the prolegs on each side. The larvae feed in groups and their striking patterns may be aposematic, as reported by Becker and Miller (2002): "One male was tossed towards a gray kingbird, Tyrannus dominicensis (Gmelin), who caught it in the air, returned to its perch, tried to swallow the moth, then spit it out and cleaned its beak against the branch."
Teran (1980) documented one parasitoid wasp of the family Chalcidae on a wild D. festiva caterpillar in Venezuela.
The caterpillars feed mainly on Sterculiaceae, Fabaceae and Malvaceae species and can reach up to 4.5 cm in length.


Doxocopa laure has a wingspan reaching about 82 millimetres (3.2 in). The upperside of the wing is dark brown with a slight bluey iridescence, with a white central band on the hindwing, and an orange forewing on males. For females, the upperside is dark brown with no iridescence, with a white median band on both wings, ending with a yellow spot at the hindwing leading edge. On both sexes, the underside of the hindwing is greyish with a silver iridescence.


This species occurs year-round in Brazil and Mexico, and during July–December in southern North America areas, such as Texas.


Plants have stems to 1 metre long and sometimes climb. The leaves are pinnatisect. Inflorescences comprise up to 20 purple-tipped white to cream flowers that appear in spring and summer. These gradually become pink after pollination.
Unlike other Fumaria species which are known as weeds of crops and agricultural areas, Fumaria capreolata can become naturalised in areas of natural vegetation and smother low-growing plants, becoming an environmental weed.


Fumaria capreolata, the white ramping fumitory, is an herbaceous annual plant in the poppy family Papaveraceae. It is native to Europe, western Asia and northern Africa  and naturalised in southern Australia, New Zealand, and southern South America. Common names include climbing fumitory, ramping fumitory, white fumitory, white ramping fumitory and white-flower fumitory.


Scandix pecten-veneris has a range extending from Western, Central and Southern Europe Eastwards to Western and Central Asia and is found also in the Maghreb.
Within the U.K. the plant used to be widely distributed as a weed of arable land in the Southeast of England, being found as far west as Wiltshire, but became rather rare in its former haunts, a state of affairs attributed to stubble-burning and the use of modern herbicides This gloomy tale of decline was, however, qualified in 1996 by wild food enthusiast Richard Mabey, who noted that, although the plant had suffered a dramatic decline in England, beginning in the 1950s, it began to recover with the banning of stubble-burning in the early 1990s. Furthermore — and contrary to earlier theories — the plant has proven to be resistant to modern herbicides after all and Mabey notes that the 'needles' of the plant are not readily separated from wheat by modern harvesting machinery — another factor contributing to its return to the English countryside.


Scandix pecten-veneris (shepherd's-needle, Venus' comb, Stork's needle) is a species of edible plant belonging to the family Apiaceae. It is native to Eurasia, but is known to occur elsewhere. It is named for its long fruit, which has a thickened body up to 1.5 centimeters long and a beak which can measure up to 7 centimeters long and is lined with comblike bristles.


Despite its established toxicity, P. aquilinum’s global distribution — it is the fifth most widely distributed common weed species in the world — means that it has a long history of being consumed in many parts of the world. The toxicity and wide distribution has led to variation in cultural attitudes towards the consumption of the plant. In the United Kingdom where P. aquilinum is extremely successful, the rhizome was once consumed during and after World War I. However the Royal Horticultural Society now explicitly advises against its consumption due to toxicity.
Bracken is a widely eaten vegetable in Korea, Japan, Russian Far East, and parts of China where they have historically been some of the most important wild vegetables consumed. Populations of these countries where bracken is traditionally consumed have been able to access bracken in new locations after immigrating due to P. aquilinum’s global ubiquity.
In Korea, bracken is known as gosari. It is soaked, parboiled, and stir-fried, and often eaten as a side dish (namul). It is also a classic ingredient of bibimbap.
In Japan, bracken is known as warabi (蕨, ワラビ), and a jelly-like starch made from it is a key ingredient for the chilled dessert warabimochi.  As a type of sansai (mountain vegetables), young bracken shoots are steamed, boiled, or cooked in soups. The shoots are also preserved in salt, sake, or miso.
Bracken shoots have been used to produce beer in Siberia, and among indigenous peoples of North America.
The rhizome can be ground into flour to make bread. In the Canary Islands, the rhizome was historically used to make a porridge called gofio.
Bracken leaves are used in the Mediterranean region to filter sheep's milk, and to store freshly made ricotta cheese.


Pteridium aquilinum (bracken, brake or common bracken), also known as eagle fern, is a species of fern occurring in temperate and subtropical regions in both hemispheres. The extreme lightness of its spores has led to its global distribution.


Phegopteris connectilis, commonly known as long beech fern, northern beech fern, and narrow beech fern, is a species of fern native to forests of the Northern Hemisphere.
Unlike its close relative, Phegopteris hexagonoptera, which is terrestrial, this species is often epipetric as well as terrestrial.
This species is normally apogamous, with a chromosome count of n=90 (triploid; "3n"=90).


Empusa pennata, or the conehead mantis, is a species of praying mantis in genus Empusa native to the Mediterranean Region. It can be found in Portugal, Spain, southern France, Italy and on the mediterranean coasts of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Because of its fragmented, low density populations, it is very rarely found in nature.


Agrimonia pilosa (Hangul: 짚신나물), also known as hairy agrimony, is a flowering plant in the family Rosaceae. It is distributed primarily over the Korean Peninsula, Japan, China, Siberia, and Eastern Europe.


Agrimonia pilosa is a perennial herb with erect stem growing 30–120 cm (12–47 in) in height.  It grows along roadsides or in grassy areas at divers altitudes. It can grow in light sandy, loamy, or heavy soils.  Its suitable pH for growing properly is acid or basic alkaline soils.
It has many lateral roots and its rhizome is short and usually tuberous. Its stems are colored yellowish green or green and its upper part is sparsely pubescent and pilose, but the lower part had dense hairs. Its leaves are green, alternate and odd-pinnate with two to four pairs of leaflets. The number of leaflets reduces to three on upper leaves. The leaves are oval and edged with pointy teeth of similar size. The leaves are 3–6 cm (1.2–2.4 in) long and 1.5–3.5 cm (0.59–1.38 in) wide. And it is hairy on both sides.


Acanthocephala declivis, the giant leaf-footed bug, is a species of North American true bugs with a range from the southern United States to Guatemala and some Caribbean islands. It is the largest of this genus within this range, generally growing to be 28 to 34 mm (1.1 to 1.3 in) long. It can be distinguished from similar species by its much more broadly expanding pronotum, which extends much further than the abdomen, and the blunt tubercles on the midline of the anterior pronotal lobe, which is not present in other Acanthocephala species within its range.


Eulogia is a monotypic snout moth genus described by Carl Heinrich in 1956. Its only species is Eulogia ochrifrontella, the broad-banded eulogia moth, described by Philipp Christoph Zeller in 1875. It is found in most of North America, including British Columbia, Florida, Illinois, Maine, Manitoba, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Jersey, Oklahoma, Ontario, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia and Washington.
The wingspan is 11–15 mm. The inner half and subterminal area of the forewings is reddish brown or copper colored. The hindwings are smoky gray. Adults are on wing in June and July.
The larvae feed on Carya illinoinensis, Quercus and Malus species and possibly Amelanchier alnifolia.


F. nodosa is a long-living rhizomatous perennial with flowers growing in the summer and often remaining on the plant throughout the year, giving the appearance of year-round flowering. The sedge grows alongside several native plants in New Zealand dune ecosystems, such as sand coprosma (Coprosma acerosa), prostrate snowberry (Pernettya macrostigma), and tauhinu (Ozothamnus leptophyllus).
One study found that the growth of F. nodosa plants was inhibited by a process known as allelopathy, whereby the chemicals produced by one species limit the growth of surrounding species. On New South Wales coast in Australia, F. nodosa appeared to be inhibited by the presence of bitou bush extracts in the soil in which the plant was growing. Bitou bush is an invasive species which was planted in dune ecosystems in an attempt to stabilise the sand dunes between 1946 and 1964. Further tests showed that chemicals extracted from Acacia longifolia roots and soil also inhibited the growth of seedlings of F. nodosa. Despite F. nodosa being widespread and common across the Southern Hemisphere, in coastal regions of New South Wales F. nodosa competes with both the invasive bitou bush and native dominant species Acacia longifolia.


Ficinia nodosa, the knotted club-rush or knobby club-rush, is a rhizomatous perennial in the family Cyperaceae, native to South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. Widespread in the Southern Hemisphere, Ficinia nodosa grows to between 15 and 220 cm in height.
Although it grows best in sandy, salty soil, the plant grows in a wide variety of environments from coastal sand dunes to alpine regions. F. nodosa’s appearance is characterised by dense clusters of long green stems topped with small, rounded flowers often remaining throughout the year.


Ficinia nodosa is known to grow natively in South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand, including the Kermadec, Three Kings, Stewart, and Chatham Islands. It is commonly found on the island of Saint Helena, in temperate areas of South America, and in Namibia.
Across the range of F. nodosa, the plant grows in sparsely populated coastal regions such as sand dunes and sedgelands but is also found in alpine climates of New Zealand up to 700 metres above sea level. Other research has suggested the plant can be found at elevations of up to 1500 metres above sea level. The species is also very commonly found in salt marshes.
In South Africa, F. nodosa grows across the east coast,  and is common in numerous locations on the Cape Peninsula, and around the Orange River. No significant variation exists between specimens collected in or out of Africa, with size of the plant differing within the same region. Specimens collected from the Orange Free State were shorter and smaller than those collected in Namibia, while specimens collected from the Cape Peninsula were diverse in size.
In Australia, F. nodosa is found throughout the continent, with a distribution across coastal and saltwater habitats in all states except the Northern Territory, though some evidence suggests the distribution includes the Northern Territory. F. nodosa is also commonly found in wet and moist non-saline areas of Victoria.
F. nodosa is found in a wide variety of habitats due to its ability to grow in numerous conditions of soil, water level, water type, temperature, and sun exposure. The plant thrives in sandy and gravelly soils with varying pH levels, and does best in direct sunlight, with access to some water. In sand dune environments, nodosa often grows in dense clumps on backdunes. The plants establish themselves through windborne seeds carried to an area, before expanding utilising rhizomes and new seeds.
Reports of specimens of F. nodosa growing in Chile exist, though more research is needed to determine whether the plant is native to the region.


The butterfly closely resembles the monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) of the Americas. The wingspan is 70 to 95 millimetres (2.8 to 3.7 in). Both sexes of the butterfly have tawny wings with veins marked with broad black bands. The male has a pouch on the hindwing. The margins of the wings are black with two rows of white spots. The underside of the wings resembles the upperside but is paler in colouration. The male common tiger has a prominent black-and-white spot on the underside of the hindwing. In drier regions the tawny part of the hindwing pales and approaches white in colour making it very similar to the white tiger (D. melanippus).


D. genutia is distributed throughout India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar and extending to South-East Asia and Australia (except New Guinea). At least in the South Asian part of its range it is fairly common, locally very common.
This butterfly occurs in scrub jungles, fallowland adjacent to habitation, dry and moist deciduous forests, preferring areas of moderate to heavy rainfall. Also occurs in degraded hill slopes and ridges, both, bare or denuded, and, those covered with secondary growth.
While it is a strong flier, it never flies rapidly or high. It has stronger and faster strokes than the plain tiger. The butterfly ranges forth in search of its host and nectar plants. It visits gardens where it nectars on the flowers of Adelocaryum, Cosmos, Celosia, Lantana, Zinnia, and similar flowers.


The stems are hairless and usually unbranched. The leaves are serrated and arranged in whorls of 3-7 around the stem. The inflorescence is erect with slender and spike-like racemes to about 9 in (23 cm) long, giving the flower cluster a candelabra-like appearance. The stamens are crowded and protrude in a brush-like fashion perpendicular to the raceme. The corollas are white and are roughly 2mm in length. These plants flower for about a month from mid-June to late August, depending on the latitude.


Veronicastrum virginicum is found from southern Maine to northwest Florida to northern Louisiana up through Minnesota and somewhat north of the Canada–US border. Culver's root is frequently found in wet to wet-mesic prairies and sometimes moist upland sites. It is also found in a good number of prairie or native meadow restorations.


Veronicastrum virginicum, or Culver's root, is a species of flowering plant in the plantain family, native to the eastern United States and south-eastern Canada. Growing to 200 cm (79 in) tall by 45 cm (18 in) broad, it is an erect herbaceous perennial with slender racemes of white or occasionally pink or purple flowers in summer.


Zizeeria karsandra, the dark grass blue, is a small butterfly first described by Frederic Moore in 1865. It is found from the southern Mediterranean, in a broad band to India, Sri Lanka, the Andaman and Nicobar islands, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Yunnan, Indonesia, the Philippines, Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia and Oman, New Guinea and northern and eastern Australia. It belongs to the lycaenids or blues family, and the tribe Polyommatini.


Caripeta piniata, the northern pine looper, is a species of geometrid moth in the family Geometridae. It is found in North America.
The MONA or Hodges number for Caripeta piniata is 6864.


The Hessel's hairstreak (Callophrys hesseli) is the only similar species in the juniper hairstreak's range. The Hessel's hairstreak is similar to the gryneus and sweadneri races. It is often more of a blue-green color, the postmedian line is edged with brown on both sides, and it has a white spot near the fore wing costa.
Another related butterfly species found in North America is Callophrys xami, which is commonly referred to as the xami hairstreak or green hairstreak. Aesthetically, C. gryneus differs significantly from C. xami in regards to the postmedian white line running across the butterfly wings as the juniper species lacks the sharp W mark, a distinctive feature of C. xami butterfly wings, in the postmedian white band.


Males are highly territorial on cedar trees, where they perch in search of females. Often, males can be set in flight by gently shaking the trees. Females lay their eggs singly at the tip of host plant leaves. The eggs are pale green with white ridges. The larvae are vivid green with a faint middorsal stripe that begins at the thorax and runs down the abdomen. Whitish-yellow spots occur on either side of the middorsal stripe. A whitish-yellow subspiracular stripe (sometimes broken between segments) runs the length of the body. The chrysalis of the gryneus race is brown to pale brown and is mottled with black with the abdomen being a bit reddish. Chrysalids of western races are dark brown. The juniper hairstreak overwinters as a chrysalis. The gryneus race has two broods per year; sweadneri, two broods per year; siva, two or three broods per year; nelsoni, one brood; muiri, one brood; loki, one or two broods; and the thornei race has one brood per year.


Callophrys gryneus, the juniper hairstreak or olive hairstreak, is a butterfly native to North America. It belongs in the family Lycaenidae.


The US Food and Drug Administration has classified Arnica montana as an unsafe herb because of its toxicity.  It should not be taken orally or applied to broken skin where absorption can occur. Arnica irritates mucous membranes and may elicit stomach pain, diarrhea, and vomiting. It may produce contact dermatitis when applied to skin.
Arnica montana contains the toxin helenalin, which can be poisonous if large amounts of the plant are eaten or small amounts of concentrated Arnica are used. Consumption of A. montana can produce severe gastroenteritis, internal bleeding of the digestive tract, raised liver enzymes (which can indicate inflammation of the liver), nervousness, accelerated heart rate, muscular weakness, and death if enough is ingested. Contact with the plant can also cause skin irritation.  In the Ames test, an extract of A. montana was found to be mutagenic.


Arnica montana is a flowering plant about 18–60 cm (7.1–23.6 in) tall aromatic fragrant, herbaceous perennial. Its basal green ovate leaves with rounded tips are bright coloured and level to the ground. In addition, they are somewhat downy on their upper surface, veined and aggregated in rosettes. By contrast, the upper leaves are opposed, spear-shaped and smaller which is an exception within the Asteraceae. The chromosome number is 2n=38.
The flowering season is between May and August (Central Europe). The hairy flowers are composed of yellow disc florets in the center and orange-yellow ray florets at the external part. The achenes have a one-piece rough pappus which opens in dry conditions. Arnica montana is a hemicryptophyte, which helps the plant to survive the extreme overwintering condition of its habitat. In addition, Arnica forms rhizomes, which grow in a two-year cycle: the rosette part grows at its front while its tail is slowly dying.


Arnica montana, also known as wolf's bane, leopard's bane, mountain tobacco and mountain arnica, is a moderately toxic European flowering plant in the daisy family Asteraceae. It is noted for its large yellow flower head. The names "wolf's bane" and "leopard's bane" are also used for another plant, aconitum, which is extremely poisonous.
Arnica montana is used as an herbal medicine for analgesic and anti-inflammatory purposes, but there is insufficient high-quality clinical evidence for such effects, and it is toxic when taken internally or applied to injured skin.


Arnica montana is widespread across most of Europe. It is absent from the British Isles and the Italian and Balkan peninsulas. In addition, it is considered extinct in Hungary and Lithuania. Arnica montana grows in nutrient-poor siliceous meadows or clay soils. It mostly grows on alpine meadows and up to nearly 3,000 m (9,800 ft). In more upland regions, it may also be found on nutrient-poor moors and heaths. However Arnica does not grow on lime soil, thus it is an extremely reliable bioindicator for nutrient poor and acidic soils. It is rare overall, but may be locally abundant. It is becoming rarer, particularly in the north of its distribution, largely due to increasingly intensive agriculture and commercial wild-crafting. Nevertheless, it is cultivated on a large scale in Estonia.


It is native to Europe, and found through Europe and Western Asia.
An introduced species in the United States, Washington state has declared it a "noxious weed" and banned its sale.


Yellow archangel is a large-leaved perennial plant with underground runners growing to a height of about 40 to 80 cm (16 to 31 in). The paired opposite leaves are stalked, broadly ovate with a cordate base and toothed margin. The underside of the leaves is often purplish. The flowers grow in whorls in a terminal spike. The calyx is five-lobed. The corolla is yellow, 15 to 25 mm (0.6 to 1.0 in) long, the petals fused with a long tube and two lips. The upper lip is hooded and the lower lip has three similar-sized lobes with the central one being triangular and often streaked with orange. There are two short stamens and two long ones. The carpels are fused and the fruit is a four-chambered schizocarp.


Lupinus microcarpus, the wide-bannered lupine or chick lupine, is a species of lupine native to western North America from southwestern British Columbia south through Oregon and California, including the Mojave Desert, and into Baja California.  There is also a disjunct population in South America, with locations in central Chile and western Argentina.


Lupinus microcarpus is an annual plant growing to 80-centimetre (31 in) tall. The leaves are palmately compound with 5-11 leaflets 1-centimetre (0.39 in)–5-centimetre (2.0 in) long and up to 1-centimetre (0.39 in) broad.
The flowers are generally pink to purple in color, but can also be between white and yellow; they are produced in open whorls on an erect spike.
Lupinus microcarpus grows from sea level in the north of its range, up to 1,600-metre (5,200 ft) high in Southern California.


Because of the limited original range and lack of obvious effective means of propagation, the Osage orange is considered to be an evolutionary anachronism, whereby one or more now extinct Pleistocene megafauna evolutionary partners, such as the giant ground sloth, mammoth, mastodon or gomphothere, fed on the fruit and aided in seed dispersal. An analysis of phylogeny based on chloroplast and nuclear genes indicates that a clade containing Maclura pomifera probably diverged from other Maclura clades during the Oligocene, coincident with divergence of mammoth/mastodon and sloth clades, suggesting these mammals may have been seed dispersers of Maclura pomifera. The best fitting model for syncarp size evolution indicated an increase in both syncarp size and the rate of syncarp size evolution in the Osage orange lineage. An equine species that became extinct at the same time also has been suggested as the plant's original dispersal agent because modern horses and other livestock will sometimes eat the fruit. However, a 2015 study indicated that Osage orange seeds are not effectively spread by extant horse or elephant species.
The fruit is not poisonous to humans or livestock, but is not preferred by them, because it is mostly inedible due to a large size (about the diameter of a softball) and hard, dry texture. The edible seeds of the fruit are used by squirrels as food. Large animals such as livestock, which typically would consume fruits and disperse seeds, mainly ignore the fruit.


The Comanche formerly used a decoction of the roots topically as a wash to treat sore eyes.


The fruits are consumed by black-tailed deer in Texas and fox squirrels in the Midwest, who drop them to crack open. Crossbills are said to peck the seeds out.


Maclura pomifera, commonly known as the Osage orange (/ˈoʊseɪdʒ/ OH-sayj), bois d'arc, horse apple, hedge, or hedge apple tree, is a small deciduous tree or large shrub, typically growing about 8 to 15 metres (30–50 ft) tall. The distinctive fruit, a multiple fruit, is roughly spherical, bumpy, 8 to 15 centimetres (3–6 in) in diameter, and turns bright yellow-green in the fall. The fruits secrete a sticky white latex when cut or damaged. Despite the name "Osage orange", it is not related to the orange. It is a member of the mulberry family, Moraceae. Due to its latex secretions and woody pulp, the fruit is typically not eaten by humans and rarely by foraging animals, giving it distinction as an anachronistic "ghost of evolution".
Maclura pomifera has been known by a variety of English common names in addition to Osage orange, including mock orange, hedge apple, horse apple, monkey ball, monkey brains and yellow-wood; while the French common name bois d'arc ("bow-wood") has been corrupted into the English forms bodark and bodock.


Emerald ash borer threatens the entire North American genus Fraxinus. It has killed tens of millions of ash trees so far and threatens to kill most of the 8.7 billion ash trees throughout North America. Emerald ash borer kills young trees several years before reaching their seeding age of 10 years. In both North America and Europe, the loss of ash from an ecosystem can result in increased numbers of invasive plants, changes in soil nutrients, and effects on species that feed on ash.
Damage and efforts to control the spread of emerald ash borer have affected businesses that sell ash trees or wood products, property owners, and local or state governments. Quarantines can limit the transport of ash trees and products, but economic impacts are especially high for urban and residential areas because of treatment or removal costs and decreased land value from dying trees. Costs for managing these trees can fall upon homeowners or local municipalities. For municipalities, removing large numbers of dead or infested trees at once is costly, so slowing down the rate at which trees die through removing known infested trees and treating trees with insecticides can allow local governments more time to plan, remove, and replace trees that would eventually die. This strategy saves money as it would cost $10.7 billion in urban areas of 25 states over 10 years, while removing and replacing all ash trees in these same areas at once would cost $25 billion (with another estimate putting the removal alone at $20–60 billion). Some urban areas such as Minneapolis have large amounts of ash with slightly more than 20% of their urban forest as ash.


The emerald ash borer life cycle can occur over one or two years depending on the time of year of oviposition, the health of the tree, and temperature.
After 400–500 accumulated degree-days above 10 °C (50 °F), adults begin to emerge from trees in late spring, and peak emergence occurs around 1,000 degree-days. After emergence, adults feed for one week on ash leaves in the canopy before mating, but cause little defoliation in the process. Males hover around trees, locate females by visual cues, and drop directly onto the female to mate. Mating can last 50 minutes, and females may mate with multiple males over their lifespan. A typical female can live around six weeks and lay approximately 40–70 eggs, but females that live longer can lay up to 200 eggs.
Eggs are deposited between bark crevices, flakes, or cracks and hatch about two weeks later. Eggs are approximately 0.6 to 1.0 millimeter (0.02 to 0.04 in) in diameter, and are initially white, but later turn reddish-brown if fertile. After hatching, larvae chew through the bark to the inner phloem, cambium, and outer xylem where they feed and develop. Emerald ash borer has four larval instars. By feeding, larvae create long serpentine galleries. Fully mature fourth-instar larvae are 26 to 32 millimeters (1.0 to 1.3 in) long. In fall, mature fourth-instars excavate chambers about 1.25 centimeters (0.49 in) into the sapwood or outer bark where they fold into a J-shape. These J-shaped larvae shorten into prepupae and develop into pupae and adults the following spring. To exit the tree, adults chew holes from their chamber through the bark, which leaves a characteristic D-shaped exit hole. Immature larvae can overwinter in their larval gallery, but can require an additional summer of feeding before overwintering again and emerging as adults the following spring. This two-year life cycle is more common in cool climates, such as European Russia.


The emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis), also known by the acronym EAB, is a green buprestid or jewel beetle native to north-eastern Asia that feeds on ash species. Females lay eggs in bark crevices on ash trees, and larvae feed underneath the bark of ash trees to emerge as adults in one to two years. In its native range, it is typically found at low densities and does not cause significant damage to trees native to the area. Outside its native range, it is an invasive species and is highly destructive to ash trees native to Europe and North America. Before it was found in North America, very little was known about emerald ash borer in its native range; this has resulted in much of the research on its biology being focused in North America. Local governments in North America are attempting to control it by monitoring its spread, diversifying tree species, and through the use of insecticides and biological control.


The native range of the emerald ash borer is temperate north-eastern Asia, which includes Russia, Mongolia, northern China, Japan, and Korea.
The beetle is invasive in North America where it has a core population in Michigan and surrounding states and provinces. Populations are more scattered outside the core area, and the edges of its known distribution range north to Ontario, south to northern Louisiana, west to Colorado, and east to New Brunswick, and in the Pacific Northwest in Oregon. In eastern Europe, a population was found in Moscow in 2003. From 2003 to 2016, this population has spread west towards the European Union at up to 40 km (25 mi) per year and is expected to reach central Europe between 2031 and 2036. Although not recorded from the European Union as of 2019, it has already spread to far eastern Ukraine from neighboring Russia.


Dendrolycopodium hickeyi, synonym Lycopodium hickeyi, known as Hickey's tree club-moss or Pennsylvania clubmoss, is a North American species of clubmoss in the family Lycopodiaceae. It is native to eastern and Central Canada (from Newfoundland to Ontario with isolated populations in Saskatchewan) and the eastern and north-central United States (from Maine west to Minnesota and south as far as Tennessee and North Carolina). The genus Dendrolycopodium is accepted in the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I), but not in other classifications, which submerge the genus in Lycopodium.
Dendrolycopodium hickeyi is very similar to D. obscurum except for a few minor but consistent features: side shoots round rather than flat in cross section, leaves all the same size.
The oldest name for the taxon is Lycopodium obscurum var. isophyllum. In elevating the plants from varietal level to species level, Wagner et al. opted to forgo the common (but not mandatory) custom of using the old varietal epithet as the new species epithet. They chose instead the name Lycopodium hickeyi while acknowledging the old varietal name as synonym.


This plant is very poisonous and could cause paralysis. It has been declared noxious in Manitoba, Alberta, Quebec and some parts of Alaska.


Galeopsis bifida is an annual plant native to Europe and Asia but now found in Canada and the northeastern, midwestern parts of the United States. It has many common names such as bifid hemp-nettle, split-lip hemp-nettle, common hemp-nettle, and large-flowered hemp-nettle. The genus name means weasel-like, referring to the corolla of the flower. It is often confused with other species of Lamiaceae such as Mentha arvensis, Dracocephalum parviflorum and Stachys pilosa.


Hempnettle could grow up to 1 meter high. Its leaves and flowers are hairy. Leaves are simple, 1 to 5 inches long, opposite, margins are serrate and ovate in shape, pubescent on both sides. The stem is swollen below the leaf nodes. Its flowers can be purple, white or pink and are terminal in axillary clusters.


Like other Lamiaceae, its corolla is bilabiate meaning that it has two lips, an upper lip and a lower lip. The upper lip has one lobe and the lower lip has three lobes covered with hair on the lower side of the lobe. The flowers are bell shaped and bilaterally symmetrical, ranging in size from about one half to three fourths of an inch. The pistil consists of two fused carpels; its stigma is two-lobed. There are four stamens, two long and two short. Its style is solitary. Its flowering time is late summer to autumn. Its fruit is a schizocarp, brown in color.
This plant is self-pollinated, each plant with a capacity of producing up to 2,800 seeds which can remain dormant under soil for several years. The seeds are large; dispersal is via mammal fur. Germination occurs when the seeds are brought near to the soil surface and it takes place within a month.


Quercus fusiformis (also often referred to as Q. virginiana var. fusiformis), commonly known as escarpment live oak, plateau live oak, plateau oak, or Texas live oak, is an evergreen or nearly evergreen tree. Its native range includes the Quartz Mountains and Wichita Mountains in southwestern Oklahoma, through Texas, to the Mexican states of Coahuila, Tamaulipas, and Nuevo León.
Quercus fusiformis is an evergreen tree in the white oak section of the genus Quercus. It is distinguished from Quercus virginiana (southern live oak) most easily by the acorns, which are slightly larger and with a more pointed apex. It is also a smaller tree, not exceeding 1 metre (40 inches) in trunk diameter – compared to 2.5 m (75 in) in diameter in southern live oak – with more erect branching and a less wide crown. Like Q. virginiana, its magnificent, stately form and unparalleled longevity has endeared it to generations of residents throughout its native range. Its low hanging branches are a favorite for local children to climb and play in.
Escarpment live oak is typically found on dry sites, unlike southern live oak, which prefers moister conditions. The tree, especially the Quartz Mountains variety, is generally accepted to be the hardiest evergreen oak, able to withstand very cold winters with minimal leaf burn in areas as cold as USDA zone 6a. For this reason the tree has become popular within the landscape industry for its beauty, ability to endure urban conditions, and general hardiness. It is prevalently used for these purposes in Texas and southern Oklahoma but use is becoming more widespread in the Western US.
The largest recorded individual tree of Q. fusiformis in the state of Texas is found in Bosque County (not to be confused with the "Election Oak" or Bosque County Oak). It has a circumference of 870 centimetres (342 in), which is actually larger than the largest recorded Q. virginiana in the state, listed at 860 cm (338 in).


Echinacea angustifolia, the narrow-leaved purple coneflower or blacksamson echinacea, is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae. It is native to North America, where it is widespread across much of the Great Plains of central Canada and the central United States, with additional populations in surrounding regions.
E. angustifolia is a perennial herb with spindle-shaped taproots that are often branched. The stems and leaves are moderately to densely hairy. The plant produces one flower heads one branch - each at the end of a long peduncle. Each flower head contains 8–21 pink or purple ray florets plus 80–250 orange disc florets.
Echinacea angustifolia blooms in late spring to mid-summer. It is found growing in dry prairies and barrens with rocky to sandy-clay soils. There are two subspecies:
Echinacea angustifolia subsp. angustifolia is native to central Canada and the central United States from Saskatchewan and Manitoba in the north to Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and Louisiana in the south.
Echinacea angustifolia subsp. strigosa has a more limited range in Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, and Louisiana.
Many Native American groups used this plant for traditional medicine, although there is mixed consensus that it is effective or safe for treating disease.


The word "Echinacea" is derived from the Greek word "echinos" which means sea urchin or hedgehog; a feature that can be observed in the flower head of the plant.
Echinacea angustifolia is about 10-50 cm in length.
The plant consists of white to pink or deep purple flower petals that characteristically wilt downwards, while the ray florets of the flower head range from green to red-brown in color. The leaves are dark green and can be oblong-lanceolate or elliptical in shape. The plant has pubescent stems with rhizomes present underground.


Oxalis debilis, the large-flowered pink-sorrel or pink woodsorrel, is a perennial plant and herb in the family Oxalidaceae. Its original distribution is South America but has become a very cosmopolitan species, occurring in all continents except Antarctica. It can be found in both temperate and tropical areas.
The flowers, leaves and roots are edible.  There is concern that the plant should only be consumed in small amounts because it contains oxalic acid that can cause calcium deficiency if eaten in larger amounts.  Studies show that this is an exaggerated fear.  The leaves have what is considered a zesty lemony flavor.


The plant is not considered palatable, but is easy to find. The very young shoots and leaves can be cooked and eaten. The young flowers are also edible, and the stems of older plants can be split to extract the edible raw pith. Additionally, the leaves can be used for tea.
Traditionally the young shoots are collected in the spring by Native American  and Siberian people and mixed with other greens. As the plant matures, the leaves become tough and somewhat bitter. Native Americans in the American southeast collect the stems in this stage. They are peeled and eaten raw. When properly prepared soon after picking they are a good source of vitamin C and provitamin A. The Denaʼina add fireweed to their dogs' food. Fireweed is also a medicine of the Upper Inlet Dena'ina, who treat pus-filled boils or cuts by placing a piece of the raw stem on the afflicted area. This is said to draw the pus out of the cut or boil and prevents a cut with pus in it from healing over too quickly.
The root can be roasted after scraping off the outside, but often tastes bitter. To mitigate this, the root is collected before the plant flowers and the brown thread in the middle removed. The stem centers can also be prepared by splitting the outer stalk, and eaten raw.
In Russia, fireweed (C. angustifolium) is made into a tea known as Ivan Chai or Koporsky tea (from the town of Koporye, where it has been produced since the 13th century). They use it as highly prized medicinal herb too. The popularity of fireweed tea perhaps stems from the similarity of its production to that of common black tea (Camellia sinensis), leading to a richly flavoured and deeply coloured herbal tea, with no caffeine, it is commercially sold in a blend with mint or thyme.
Fireweed tea is high in iron, copper, potassium and calcium.
In the Yukon, the flowers from fireweed are made into jelly.
The honey produced from fireweed is highly valued for its quality. Most fireweed honey is produced in locations in cool climates, such as the Pacific Northwest in the United States and Scandinavian countries in Europe.
Fireweed's natural variation in ploidy has prompted its use in scientific studies of polyploidy's possible effects on adaptive potential and species diversification.
Because fireweed can colonize disturbed sites, even following an old oil spill, it is often used to reestablish vegetation.
It is also grown as an ornamental plant. A white form, C. angustifolium 'Album', is listed by the Royal Horticultural Society.


Chamaenerion angustifolium is a perennial herbaceous flowering plant in the willowherb family Onagraceae. It is known in North America as fireweed, in some parts of Canada as great willowherb, in Britain and Ireland as rosebay willowherb. In the United Kingdom it is also known as bombweed, as a result of its rapid appearance on city bomb sites during the Blitz of World War II; the plant is also traditionally known as Saint Anthony's Laurel. It is also known by the synonyms Chamerion angustifolium and Epilobium angustifolium. It is native throughout the temperate Northern Hemisphere, including large parts of the boreal forests.


The flowers are visited by a wide variety of insects (the generalised pollination syndrome). Some species in the insect order Lepidoptera frequently use the willowherb as their primary larval host-plant, examples including the elephant hawk moth (Deilephila elpenor), bedstraw hawk moth (Hyles gallii), and the white-lined sphinx moth (Hyles lineata).


The reddish stems of this herbaceous perennial are usually simple, erect, smooth, 0.5–2.5 metres (1+1⁄2–8 feet) high with scattered alternate leaves. The leaves are spirally arranged, entire, narrowly lanceolate, and pinnately veined, the secondary leaf veins anastomosing, joining together to form a continuous marginal vein just inside the leaf margins.
The inflorescence is a symmetrical terminal raceme that blooms progressively from bottom to top, producing a gracefully tapered shape. The flowers are 2 to 3 centimetres (3⁄4 to 1+1⁄4 inches) in diameter, slightly asymmetrical, with four magenta to pink petals and four narrower pink sepals behind. The protruding style has four stigmas. The floral formula is ✶/↓ K4 C4 A4+4 or 4+0 Ğ(4).
The upright, reddish-brown linear seed capsule splits from the apex and curls open. It bears many minute brown seeds, about 300 to 400 per capsule and 80,000 per plant. The seeds have silky hairs to aid wind dispersal and are very easily spread by the wind, often becoming a weed and a dominant species on disturbed ground. Once established, the plants also spread extensively by underground roots, an individual plant eventually forming a large patch.
This species has been placed in the genus Chamaenerion (sometimes given as Chamerion) rather than Epilobium based on several morphological distinctions: spiral (rather than opposite or whorled) leaf arrangement; absence (rather than presence) of a hypanthium; subequal stamens (rather than stamens in two unequal whorls); zygomorphic (rather than actinomorphic)  stamens and stigma. Under this taxonomic arrangement, Chamaenerion and Epilobium are monophyletic sister genera.


The roseate skimmer (Orthemis ferruginea) is a species dragonfly in the family Libellulidae. It is native to the Americas, where its distribution extends from the United States to Brazil. It is common and widespread. It is an introduced species in Hawaii.
The male of the species has a rose pink and red abdomen. The female has an orange-brown abdomen with clear orange veins and a brownish thorax with a light stripe down the back. The wings are normally clear except for brown pterostigmata at the leading edges.
Its 46–55 mm in length with a wingspan of 35–44 mm long. Males are highly territorial, defending their territory aggressively against other male roseate skimmers that fly near.
It tolerates a wide range of habitat types, but usually requires open water. This can include disturbed and artificial water bodies, such as tanks and ditches. It can live in open or vegetated land. It breeds in the mud.


Native Americans used the bark and roots in a remedy for malaria; a red dye was also extracted from the roots.
The species has been used in the production of inks, scarlet dyes, and as a quinine substitute. The hard, dense wood has been used for products such as golf club heads, mallets, wooden rake teeth, tool handles, jeweler's boxes and butcher's blocks. Cornus florida is the state tree and flower of Virginia, the state tree of Missouri, and state flower of North Carolina. It was used to treat dogs with mange, which may be how it got its name. The red berries are not edible, despite some rumors otherwise.
In 1915, 40 dogwood saplings were donated by the U.S. to Japan in the 1912-15 exchange of flowers between Tokyo and Washington, D.C. While the cherry blossom trees survived the ensuing sour relations of these two countries and are the main feature of the National Cherry Blossom Festival, all dogwood trees in Tokyo died except the one that had been planted in an agriculture high school. In 2012, the United States sent 3,000 dogwood saplings to Japan to commemorate the 100-year anniversary of the Washington, D.C., cherry trees given as a gift to the U.S. by Japan in 1912.


Cornus florida, the flowering dogwood, is a species of flowering tree in the family Cornaceae native to eastern North America and northern Mexico. An endemic population once spanned from southernmost coastal Maine south to northern Florida and west to the Mississippi River.  The tree is commonly planted as an ornamental in residential and public areas because of its showy bracts and interesting bark structure.


Flowering dogwood is a small deciduous tree growing to 10 m (33 ft) high, often wider than it is tall when mature, with a trunk diameter of up to 30 cm (1 ft). A 10-year-old tree will stand about 5 m (16 ft) tall. The leaves are opposite, simple, ovate, 6–13 cm (2.4–5.1 in) long and 4–6 cm (1.6–2.4 in) broad, with an apparently entire margin (actually very finely toothed, under a lens); they turn a rich red-brown in fall.
Flowering dogwood attains its greatest size and growth potential in the Upper South, sometimes up to 40 feet in height. At the northern end of its range, heights of 30–33 feet are more typical. Hot, humid summer weather is necessary for new growth to harden off in the fall.
The maximum lifespan of C. florida is about 80 years.
The flowers are individually small, inconspicuous, and a hermaphrodite, with four, greenish-yellow petals (not bracts) 4 mm (0.16 in) long. Around 20 flowers are produced in a dense, rounded, umbel-shaped inflorescence, or flower-head, 1–2 cm (0.39–0.79 in) in diameter. The flower-head is surrounded by four conspicuous large white, pink or red bracts (not petals), each bract 3 cm (1.2 in) long and 2.5 cm (0.98 in) broad, rounded, and often with a distinct notch at the apex.
When in the wild they can typically be found at the forest edge and frequently on dry ridges. While most of the wild trees have white bracts, some selected cultivars of this tree also have pink bracts, some even almost a true red. They typically flower in early April in the southern part of their range, to late April or early May in northern and high altitude areas. The similar Kousa dogwood (Cornus kousa), native to Asia, flowers about a month later.
The fruit is a cluster of two to ten separate drupes, (fused in Cornus kousa), each 10–15 mm (0.39–0.59 in) long and about 8 mm (0.31 in) wide, which ripen in the late summer and the early fall to a bright red, or occasionally yellow with a rosy blush. They are an important food source for dozens of species of birds, which then distribute the seeds. They are also a larval host plant for several moth varieties, including Eudeilinia herminiata, the dogwood thyatirid moth,  Antispila cornifoliella, the stinging rose moth, the grand arches moth, the pecan bark borer,  the dogwood borer, the rosaceaous leaf roller, the diamondback epinotia moth, spring azures, cecropia moths, and the Io moth.  While not poisonous to humans, the fruit is extremely sour and unpleasant-tasting. Flowering dogwood is monoecious, meaning the tree has both male and female flowers, and all trees will produce fruit.


Dianthus armeria, the Deptford pink or grass pink, is a species of Dianthus ("pink") native to most of Europe, from Portugal north to southern Scotland and southern Finland, and east to Ukraine and the Caucasus. It is naturalised in North America.


Dianthus armeria is an annual or biennial plant which grows to about 60 centimetres (2.0 ft) tall and has a very slender appearance. It has widely spaced, paired leaves, and above these it branches rather sparingly. At the ends of the stems there are short-stalked or stalkless clusters of deep-pink flowers that are surrounded by erect, hairy, leaf-like bracts. These can also be located laterally. Each flower is 8 to 13 millimetres (0.31 to 0.51 in) in diameter and has 5 lanceolate petals, each with irregular serrated edges and small white spotting on the upper surface. The leaves are hairy, dark green in colour and slim in shape.


It is a substantial deciduous tree growing to 40 metres (130 ft) tall by 10 m (33 ft) broad, with a trunk attaining over 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) in diameter. The bark is pale greenish-grey and smooth on young trees with dark grey diamond-shaped lenticels, becoming dark grey and fissured on older trees.
The adult leaves, produced on branches of mature trees, are nearly round, slightly wider than long, 2–8 cm (1–3 in) diameter, with a coarsely toothed margin and a laterally flattened petiole 4–8 cm (2–3 in) long. The flat petiole allows them to tremble in even slight breezes, and is the source of its scientific name, as well as one of its vernacular names "langues de femmes" attributed to Gerard's 17th-century Herball. The leaves on seedlings and fast-growing stems of suckers (root sprouts) are of a different shape, heart-shaped to nearly triangular. They are also often much larger, up to 20 centimetres (7.9 in) long; their petiole is also less flattened.
The flowers are wind-pollinated catkins produced in early spring before the new leaves appear; they are dioecious, with male and female catkins on different trees. The male catkins are patterned green and brown, 5–10 centimetres (2.0–3.9 in) long when shedding pollen; the female catkins are green, 2–6 centimetres (0.79–2.36 in) long at pollination, maturing in early summer to bear 10–20 (50–80) capsules each containing numerous tiny seeds embedded in downy fluff. The fluff assists wind dispersal of the seeds when the capsules split open at maturity.
It can be distinguished from the closely related North American Populus tremuloides by the leaves being more coarsely toothed.
Like other aspens, it spreads extensively by suckers (root sprouts), which may be produced up to 40 m from the parent tree, forming extensive clonal colonies. This often makes the job of clearing unwanted trees from an area especially difficult, as new suckers will continue to sprout from the extensive root system for up to several years after all surface growth has been eliminated.


Populus tremula, commonly called aspen, common aspen, Eurasian aspen, European aspen, or quaking aspen, is a species of poplar native to cool temperate regions of Europe and Asia, from Iceland and the British Isles east to Kamchatka, north to inside the Arctic Circle in Scandinavia and northern Russia, and south to central Spain, Turkey, the Tian Shan, North Korea, and northern Japan. It also occurs at one site in northwest Africa in Algeria. In the south of its range, it occurs at high altitudes in mountains.


Pyrausta aurata has a wingspan of 18–20 millimetres (0.71–0.79 in). The forewings are purplish-brown with golden yellow markings.  The number and intensity of these markings is quite variable. Usually in the forewings there is a single postmedian round golden spot near the costa, often with some other minor golden spots. The yellow spots can also be greatly reduced up to the complete absence. Sometimes there an almost indistinct wavy golden postmedian line between the dorsum and the main golden spot. The hindwings are dark brown or also black with a broad yellow transverse band approximately in the wing center and without additional spot closer to the basal area.
The moth is very similar to the related Pyrausta purpuralis, a slightly larger moth with a broad postmedian continuous band, usually divided into at least three yellow spots.
The caterpillar can reach a length of 13 mm. It may be light green, dark green, light brown, black gray or reddish, with a darker back line. The head is brownish black. Pupa is quite slender, red-brown to black-brown.


This species can be found in most of Europe and it is also widespread in North Africa and North Asia. In the east it is present from  Siberia to North China, Korea and Japan, in the south, it covers Asia Minor, the Middle East, Iran, Afghanistan, Middle Asia and Mongolia.


Mammals, deer and livestock forage on the leaves. The cherries are eaten by some birds (especially cedar waxwing), who in turn distribute the seeds. The seeds have hard shells which can preserve them for decades before being released by fire.
The tree is a larval host to the blinded sphinx, elegant sphinx, Lorquin's admiral, pale tiger swallowtail, small-eyed sphinx, spring azure, twin-spotted sphinx, and western tiger swallowtail.


The extremely bitter cherries are inedible to humans. Native Americans used the bark in basket making.


Prunus emarginata is a deciduous shrub or small tree growing to 1–15 metres (3+1⁄2–49 feet) tall with a slender oval trunk with smooth gray to reddish-brown bark with horizontal lenticels. The leaves are 2–8 centimetres (3⁄4–3+1⁄8 inches) long, thin, egg-shaped, and yellowish-green with unevenly sized teeth on either side. The flowers are small, 10–15 millimetres (3⁄8–5⁄8 in) diameter, with five white petals and numerous hairlike stamens; they are almond-scented, and produced in clusters in spring, and are pollinated by insects. The fruit is a juicy red or purple cherry 7–14 mm (1⁄4–1⁄2 in) diameter, which, as the plant's English name suggests, are bitter. As well as reproducing by seed, it also sends out underground stems which then sprout above the surface to create a thicket.
There are two varieties:
Prunus emarginata var. emarginata. Usually shrubby; young shoots and leaves hairless or only thinly hairy. Most of the species' range.
Prunus emarginata var. mollis (Dougl.) Brew. A larger tree; young shoots and leaves downy. Reddish-brown bark with light horizontal bands resembling water birch. Oregon north to British Columbia, mainly coastal.


Native tribes, most notably Kwakwaka'wakw, used parts of the plant for medicinal purposes, such as poultices and bark infusions. The isoflavone prunetin was isolated for the first time by Finnemore in 1910 from the bark of P. emarginata.


Prunus emarginata, the bitter cherry or Oregon cherry, is a species of Prunus native to western North America, from British Columbia south to Baja California, and east as far as western Wyoming and New Mexico. It is often found in recently disturbed areas or open woods on nutrient-rich soil.


Baptisia tinctoria (common names include yellow false indigo, wild indigo, wild-indigo and horseflyweed) is a herbaceous perennial plant in the family Fabaceae.  It is native to eastern North America.


The multiple bushy stems of Baptisia tinctoria reach 2 to 3 feet tall.  The leaves are silver-green; each is divided into three leaflets about ½ inch long.  The flowers are yellow and grow in spikes 1½ to 3 inches long.
The leaves are eaten by some lepidopteran caterpillars, for example the Io moth (Automeris io).
On Martha's Vineyard, the species is a tumbleweed:  it grows in a globular form, breaks off at the root in the autumn, and tumbles about.


Some Plateau Indian tribes such as the Nlaka'pamux used the bark as a brown dye. Those groups also used the bark for medicinal purposes as a blood purifier, lung strengthener, stomach treatment, laxative, and emetic.
The berries are edible by humans, though not very palatable.
It is mostly prized as a cultivated ornamental.


It is a small to medium-sized deciduous tree, reaching 6–23 metres (20–75 feet) tall, often with a canopy spread of 6 m (20 ft). Its habit varies based on the level of sunlight; in full sun it will have a short trunk with a crown as wide as it is tall, while under a canopy it will have a tapered trunk with a short, slender crown. The trunk attains 15–30 centimetres (6–12 in) in diameter. The bark is reddish brown.
The branches have fine hairs and the young bark is thin and smooth, becoming scale-like with ridges as it ages.
The leaves are opposite, simple, oval, 5–13 cm (2–5 in) long, and 3.8–7.1 cm (1+1⁄2–3 in) broad. They are green with stiff, appressed hairs on top, and hairier and lighter on the bottom. They turn orange to purplish in autumn.
The flowers are individually small and inconspicuous, 2–3 millimetres (1⁄16–1⁄8 in) across, produced in a dense, rounded, greenish-white flower head 2 cm (3⁄4 in) in diameter; the 4–8 large white 'petals' are actually bracts, each bract 4–7 cm (1+1⁄2–2+3⁄4 in) long and broad, creating the appearance of a larger flower head. The flowers commonly bloom twice per season, once in the spring and again in late summer or early fall.
The fruit is a compound pink-red or orange drupe about 1–1.5 cm (1⁄2–1⁄2 in) long, in clusters containing 20–40 drupelets, each of which contains two seeds. They appear in September or October.


It occurs from the lowlands of southern British Columbia to the mountains of southern California. There exists an inland population in central Idaho, where it is considered critically imperiled. It occurs predominantly below 1,500 m (4,900 ft) in elevation.
Cultivated examples are found as far north as Haida Gwaii.
It has high flood tolerance, and is common along streams with moist but well-drained soils, often on gentle slopes. Soil composition can range from clay to sandy loam, and it prefers  a high humus content, moderate to high nutrient levels, and acidic soils with a pH from 5.5 to 6. It has low frost tolerance, and is usually found in low-elevation temperate or mesothermal climates. It is hardy to USDA zone 7.


New sprouts are good browse for both wild and domesticated ungulates, especially after a recent fire, but the mature foliage is usually ignored by all species except slugs.
The fruit are eaten by deer mice, pileated woodpeckers, the band-tailed pigeon, and bears.
It provides habitat and cover to small birds such as Wilson's warbler, and small mammals including the red tree vole.


Anthanassa frisia, the Cuban crescentspot, Cuban checkerspot or Cuban crescent, is a butterfly of the family Nymphalidae. Subspecies tulcis is known by the common names pale-banded crescent or Tulcis crescent; it is treated as a species by some authors. The nominate subspecies is found in the West Indies and southern Florida, with strays to northern Florida. Subspecies tulcis is found from Argentina north through Central America and Mexico to southern Texas, strays to west Texas and southern Arizona. Other subspecies are resident to South America.
The wingspan of subspecies frisia is 32–45 mm. Adults are on wing most of the year in southern Florida and throughout the year in the tropics.  Subspecies tulcis has a wingspan of 32–35 mm. Adults are on wing from May to November in southern Texas.
Larvae of subspecies frisia feed on Beloperone guttata, while tulcis larvae have been recorded on Dicliptera species. Other recorded food plants include Ruellia species. Adults feed on flower nectar.


Lycaena gorgon, known generally as the gorgon copper or stream water-crowfoot, is a species of copper in the butterfly family Lycaenidae. It is found in North America.
The MONA or Hodges number for Lycaena gorgon is 4255.


Monardella villosa forms a small bush or matted groundcover tangle of hairy mint-scented foliage. It produces rounded inflorescences of small, thready, bright lavender or pink flowers. It is a perennial subshrub and flowers from May to August.


The flowers are attractive to butterflies, with the nectar providing a food source for them.
This plant was used by the indigenous peoples of California as a remedy for stomach upset, respiratory conditions, and sore throat. It may also be steeped into a bitter mint tea.


Monardella villosa is a plant in the mint family which is known by the common name coyote mint.
This is a perennial wildflower found only in California, except for one subspecies which sometimes occurs in Oregon. It grows in habitats of the California chaparral and woodlands in the California Coast Ranges and Sierra Nevada foothills.


Clitarchus hookeri is found from Northland to the Wellington region in the south of the North Island of New Zealand. On the South Island it is not as widespread, being found mainly in eastern coastal areas from Nelson and Marlborough in the north through Canterbury to its southern limit in Dunedin. It is also found in Great Britain, where it has been introduced. The UK population is all-female but came from a sexual population in Taranaki. The species is most commonly found on manuka, but has also been observed feeding on kanuka, pohutukawa, Muehlenbeckia australis, roses, white rata, and Coprosma.


Clitarchus hookeri are hemimetabolous, meaning that the nymphs grow through a series of six instars before a final moult into their adult stage.
Adults are found during the summer months and are mostly active at night. During the day they hide among the branches of their host trees, before emerging at sunset to feed and mate. Females hang off the edge of branches feeding on the leaves of their host plant and signalling to males by releasing a mix of volatile chemicals. The long-legged adult males move around at night in search of mates. Males court females by laying his forelegs across her for between 10 minutes to 1 hour, after which he climbs onto the female and attempts to clasp onto her sub genital plate using his genital claspers. If the male successfully attaches to the female, mating begins when the female's operculum opens and the male inserts his genitalia. Males remain attached to the female for extended periods, ranging from one through to 10 nights, during which they may mate multiple times.
Clitarchus hookeri is geographically parthenogenetic, meaning that in some localities females do not mate to reproduce. Instead, they are able to produce fertile eggs without mating. In the South Island Clitarchus hookeri males are rare or absent, while in the North Island both asexual and sexual populations occur. Although females who reproduce asexually lay similar number of eggs and have similar hatching success as those who reproduce sexually, their eggs took longer to hatch. Eggs from parthenogenic females took between 21 and 23 weeks, while eggs from mated females took between 9–16 weeks. Females from parthenogenetic populations show a barrier to fertilization in captivity when provided with mates, however, males cannot distinguish between sexual and parthenogenetic females. However, two wild populations in New Zealand have reverted to sexual reproduction very recently.


Stellaria media contains plant chemicals known as saponins, which can be toxic to some species (notably fish). It is unlikely that most land animals will be affected, as the quantities involved are not large. However, it is not advised for pregnant and breastfeeding mothers.
S. media should also not be confused with the mildly toxic Euphorbia.


The plant has medicinal properties and is used in folk medicine. It has been used as a remedy to treat itchy skin conditions and pulmonary diseases. 17th-century herbalist John Gerard recommended it as a remedy for mange. Modern herbalists prescribe it for iron-deficiency anemia (for its high iron content), as well as for skin diseases, bronchitis, rheumatic pains, arthritis, and period pain. Not all of these uses are supported by scientific evidence. The plant was used by the Ainu for treating bruises and aching bones. Stems were steeped in hot water before being applied externally to affected areas.


Stellaria media is widespread in Asia, Europe, North America, and other parts of the world. There are several closely related plants referred to as chickweed, but which lack the culinary properties of plants in the genus Stellaria.


Stellaria media is edible and nutritious, and is used as a leaf vegetable, often raw in salads. It is one of the ingredients of the symbolic dish consumed in the Japanese spring-time festival, Nanakusa-no-sekku. Some varieties or similar species may be too fibrous to eat.
It is also eaten by chickens, wild birds, and mountain sheep.


This species is an annual in colder climates, becoming evergreen and perennial in warmer zones, with weak slender stems, up to 40 cm (16 inches). Plants are sparsely hairy. Stellaria media has one line of fine hairs on the stem. The leaves are oval and opposite, the lower ones with stalks. Flowers are white and small with five very deeply lobed petals. Some plants have no petals. There are usually three stamens and three styles. The flowers quickly form capsules. Plants may have flowers and capsules at the same time.
Plants in the genus Cerastium are very similar in appearance to those of Stellaria, and are in the same family (Caryophyllaceae) but have hairs uniformly covering their stems.


Commercial aquaculture in both tanks and on nets of C. exasperatus was attempted as early as the 1970s in Washington state. It can also be grown in the air if sprayed with sea water, which conserves water but risks losing the crop if the pumps fail. The gel within the blades has also been harvested to make cosmetics. Intact blades are used in baths or for thalassotherapy, along with species such as feather boa (Egregia menziesii), finger kelp (Laminaria digitata), and Fucus.


It is a perennial species. Like many species in Gigartinaceae, the appearance of C. exasperatus can vary depending upon grown conditions. It can be confused with Chondracanthus spinosus and Gigartina binghamiae, and it might take RFLP analysis to be sure of the species. In addition, the names of the species in the genera Gigartina and Chondracanthus have been adjusted several times since 1961.  It is also similar to Mastocarpus species, known as Turkish washcloths, but is smaller, with branched blades. The leaf margins of the blades are smooth in cooler water and then become toothed and jagged as the temperature increases. In more exposed areas, the blades are thicker. Increased water velocity will cause the blades to change shape. The color of the thallus is greenish when exposed to ultraviolet light, but when it grows in deeper water it is darker red to purple. Though it prefers lower water temperatures it can grow at 25 °C, but ends up dark red to black in color and having flat or cylindrical branch clusters.
As originally described, C. exasperatus has a leafy stipe, with large 2–3 feet (0.61–0.91 m) long leathery-membranaceous blades that are lanceolate and simple. The blade, and the majority of the thallus, is purplish-red. Blade margins are thick, with rounded teeth, and appendiculate. The thallus has simple, ramenta-like spiny projections (papillae) thickly strewn on both sides. Coccoid pedicels are in marginal spines emerging from the thallus.
C. exasperatus grows the fastest in the summer and slowest near the winter solstice. Thalli have a moisture content of about 81.4% and protein content of 1.59-1.97%.


Erigeron compositus is an Arctic and alpine species of fleabane in the family Asteraceae. Common names include dwarf mountain fleabane, cutleaf daisy, and trifid mountain fleabane.
Erigeron compositus has been found in the Russian Far East (Wrangel Island and Chukotka), Alaska, Greenland, much of Canada (all three Arctic territories plus British Columbia, all three Prairie Provinces, Quebec, Newfoundland, and Nova Scotia), and the Western United States (from the Pacific Coast as far east as the Dakotas, Colorado, and New Mexico).
Erigeron compositus is perennial herb rarely more than 25 cm (10 in) tall, with a thick growth of basal leaves, the tips of which are divided. The plant produces a taproot and spreads by means of horizontal underground rhizomes. There is generally only one flower head per stem, each head with 20–60 white, pink or blue ray florets; these are sometimes small and easily mistaken for disc florets. Genuine disc florets are yellow and in the center of the head.


It is native to North America including much of Canada and Alaska and the western and central United States. It grows in a variety of habitats such as open woods, plains, stream banks, stony slopes and disturbed areas.
In the Sierra Nevadas, it grows to 11,200 feet (3,400 m) in moist, rocky soils in mixed coniferous forest, upper montane forest, and subalpine forest.


Helianthus mollis is a species of sunflower known by the common names ashy sunflower, hairy sunflower or downy sunflower. It is widespread across much of the United States and Canada, primarily the Great Lakes region from Ontario south to Texas and Alabama. Additional populations are found in the states of the Atlantic Coast from Maine to Georgia, but these appear to be introduced.
Helianthus mollis grows on prairies, roadsides, dry open woods, rocky glades, fields, and thickets. It is a perennial herbaceous plant up to 1.5 m (4.9 ft) tall, spreading by means of underground rhizomes. The leaves are mostly along the stem rather than crowded near the base, each egg-shaped with teeth along the edges. One plant produces 1-15 flower heads containing 17-22 yellow ray florets surrounding 75 or more yellow disc florets. Flowers bloom from July to September. The Latin specific epithet mollis means soft and is in reference to the downy plant hairs.


The magpie moth's "woolly bear" caterpillars are around 35–38 mm when fully grown and predominantly black with lines of red down its sides and back, blue spots and tufts of hair on each segment. Its liking for the introduced ragwort causes its caterpillars to be sometimes misidentified as those of the cinnabar moth which was introduced as a biological control for ragwort. By contrast cinnabar caterpillars have smooth bodies with alternating yellow and black rings.
The adult moth has black wings with white markings on both the forewings and hindwings. The forewings have two white spots that are more elongated while the hindwing only has a single spot near to the centre; the wingspan is 35–45 mm. The thorax and abdomen of the moth are black with bands of orange. The magpie moth is diurnal which, coupled with its colourful markings means it is often mistaken for a butterfly. It is most active from September to June in the mornings and evenings where it can be seen flying over the tops of host plants.
Nyctemera annulata is closely related to Nyctemera amica, an Australian species which also occurs in New Zealand. The two species may be able to interbreed.


The primary food source of Nyctemera annulata are plants from the tribe Senecioinae of the Asteraceae. Thirty three species are known to exist in the wild and New Zealand has 19 native Senecio species with 14 of them naturalised exotics. N. annulata diet is specifically limited to one specific plant. Even though the magpie moth is a native, it has been found that they do not restrict themselves to only the native Senecio species in New Zealand and will also feed on exotic introduced species.
N. annulata is a monophagous herbivore insect meaning that their diet is limited to a species of plant. A study found that N. annulata did not restrict itself to the native Senecio although the insects were found more frequently in the native forested areas than in the urban/rural area These findings are based on research in the Auckland area, and the study found that the numbers of Nyctemera would be far fewer if there were not the naturalised exotic species available to them.
The most common form of Senecio found in New Zealand is the introduced 'ragwort' (Jacobaea vulgaris) - a weed in most cultivated areas of the country and the magpie moth can often be seen around cultivated farmlands during the summer months and feed primarily on the leaves and flowers. Other favoured plants include Senecio vulgaris (groundsel) and garden cineraria.


Nyctemera annulata, the magpie moth, is a moth of the family Erebidae. The species was first described by Jean Baptiste Boisduval in 1832. It is endemic to New Zealand and found in all parts of the country.


Declana floccosa, the forest semilooper or manuka moth is a moth of the family Geometridae. It is endemic to New Zealand. It was first described by Francis Walker in 1863 using specimens obtained from Colonel Bolton.
The wingspan of this species is 27–35 mm and is extremely variable in colour and patterning.
The larvae feed on a wide range of native and exotic broad-leaved and coniferous shrubs and trees. Exotic hosts include Pinus radiata and other Pinus species, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Larix and Eucalyptus. Native hosts include Muehlenbeckia australis.


Native Americans used fiber in the stems for rope, basketry, and nets. Some Native Americans used the milky sap for medicinal purposes.
Although care is needed to distinguish the species from highly toxic species in the genus, the young leaves and seed pods of A. speciosa can be boiled and eaten.


This flowering plant is a hairy, erect perennial growing up to 120 cm (47 in) in height. The pointed, elongate, simple, entire leaves are about 10–20 cm (4–8 in) long and arranged oppositely on stalks. Milky sap is released when the leaves or stems are bruised or cut.
The flowers are about 2 cm (3⁄4 in) wide, hirsute, pale pink to pinkish-purple, and occur in dense umbellate cymes. Their corollas are reflexed and the central flower parts, five hoods with prominent hooks, form a star shape. The fruit is a rough follicle about 5–10 cm (2–4 in) long and filled with many flat oval seeds, each with silky hairs.
This species flowers from May through August.
Many other species in the genus Asclepias are toxic, particularly to livestock.


This species is native to the western half of North America, including British Columbia and from the Cascade Range in California east to the central United States. It grows along streams, dry slopes, open woodland areas, and roadsides.


Before synthetic dyes revolutionized industry, Bixa orellana (which is the only plant to produce the pigment bixin) was planted commercially. The pigment is extracted from the pericarp of the seeds through use of alkaline water, vegetable oil, or organic solvents.
The annatto pigment has global economic significance, as it is one of the most widely used natural dyes to color food, cosmetics and pharmaceutical products. It is used commonly in foods because the coloring does not alter the flavor and is not toxic. It is mainly used to dye ice cream, meats, dairy products (cheeses, butter and margarine) and condiments. Cosmetic products include lipstick, hair coloring products, nail polish, soaps, lacquers and paints.
Annatto oil is also rich in tocotrienols, beta-carotene, essential oils, saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, flavonoids, and vitamin C.


One major traditional use of the Bixa orellana plant was for body, face, and hair paint among various tribes and ancient civilizations either for decorative purposes or as omens to ward off evil spirits and illnesses. It has been reported to be used by Brazilian native tribes, the native Taínos in Puerto Rico, the Tsáchila of Ecuador and different Amazonian tribes. As a result of the Spanish Conquest, the Bixa orellana was introduced to tribes like the Aztecs, Incas and Mochicas, who showed evidence of later use. The Aztecs also apparently used the annatto pigment as red ink for manuscript painting in the 16th century.
Bixa orellana is used in traditional medicine. The tree has been used in Ayurveda, the folk medicine practices of India, where different parts of the plant are thought to be useful as therapy.
The plant is valued for its stem fiber to make rope mats and for the adhesive gum.


Bixa orellana, also known as achiote, is a shrub native to Central America. Bixa orellana is grown in many countries worldwide.
The tree is best known as the source of annatto, a natural orange-red condiment (also called achiote or bijol) obtained from the waxy arils that cover its seeds. The ground seeds are widely used in traditional dishes in Central and South America, Mexico, and the Caribbean, such as cochinita pibil, chicken in achiote, caldo de olla, and nacatamal. Annatto and its extracts are also used as an industrial food coloring to add yellow or orange color to many products such as butter, cheese, margarine, ice creams, meats, and condiments. Some of the indigenous peoples of North, Central, and South American originally used the seeds to make red body paint and lipstick, as well as a spice. For this reason, the Bixa orellana is sometimes called the lipstick tree.
The species name, Bixa orellana, was given by Linnaeus after the Spanish conquistador, Francisco de Orellana, an early explorer of the Amazon River. The name achiote derives from the Nahuatl word for the shrub, āchiotl [aːˈt͡ʃiot͡ɬ]. It may also be referred to as aploppas, or by its original Tupi name uruku, urucu or urucum ("red color"), which is also used for the body paint prepared from its seeds.