Eurydema ornata can reach a length of 7–8 millimetres (0.28–0.31 in). The body has gray or bright red colors, with black markings. Sometimes it shows the red patches coloured white and yellowish-green. This shield bug sucks the sap of plants, especially crucifers (family Brassicaceae), such as cabbage, cress and radish. It may become a parasite that can damage crops. It overwinters as an adult. The nymph is pale yellow and orange with dark brown or black pronotum and markings on the dorsal side of the abdomen.


This species occurs in Europe, North Africa, South and East Asia. It prefers open areas with low vegetation.


The Oriental dollarbird (Eurystomus orientalis) is a bird of the roller family, so named because of the distinctive pale blue or white, coin-shaped spots on its wings. It can be found from Australia to Korea, Japan and India.


The Oriental dollarbird was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1766 in the twelfth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Coracias orientalis. Linnaeus based his description on "Le Rollier des Indes" that had been described and illustrated by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760. The type locality is the island of Java in Indonesia. The Oriental dollarbird is now placed in the genus Eurystomus that was introduced in 1816 by the French ornithologist Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot.
A molecular phylogenetic study published in 2018 found that the azure dollarbird (Eurystomus azureus) was nested in a clade containing subspecies of the Oriental dollarbird. Formerly, some authorities have also considered the broad-billed roller and the azure dollarbird to have been subspecies of the oriental dollarbird.  The generic name derives from Ancient Greek eurustomos 'wide-mouthed' and the specific epithet is Latin orientalis 'eastern'. Alternate names for the oriental dollarbird include the Asian dollarbird, dark roller, dollar roller, dollarbird, eastern broad-billed roller and oriental broad-billed roller.
Ten subspecies are recognized:
E. o. cyanocollis - Vieillot, 1819: Found from the Himalayas through China to south-eastern Siberia, Korea and Japan
E. o. orientalis - (Linnaeus, 1766): Found from the southern Himalayas to Indochina, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Borneo and the Philippines
E. o. laetior - Sharpe, 1890: Found in south-western India
E. o. gigas - Stresemann, 1913: Found on southern Andaman Islands
E. o. irisi - Deraniyagala, 1951: Found in Sri Lanka
E. o. oberholseri - Junge, 1936: Found on Simeulue (off north-western Sumatra)
Australian roller (E. o. pacificus) - (Latham, 1801): Originally described as a separate species in the genus Coracias. Found on the Lesser Sunda Islands, northern and eastern Australia
E. o. waigiouensis - Elliot, DG, 1871: Originally described as a separate species. Found on New Guinea, western Papuan islands, D'Entrecasteaux Islands and the Louisiade Archipelago
E. o. crassirostris - Sclater, PL, 1869: Originally described as a separate species. Found in the Bismarck Archipelago
E. o. solomonensis - Sharpe, 1890: Originally described as a separate species. Found in the Solomon Islands


The oriental dollarbird has a length of up to 30 cm. It is dark brown but this is heavily washed with a bluish-green sheen on the back and wing coverts. Its belly and undertail coverts are light coloured, and it has glossy bright blue colouring on its throat and undertail. Its flight feathers are a darker blue. Its bill is short and wide and in mature animals is coloured orange-red with a black tip. It has very light blue patches on the outer parts of its wings which are highly visible in flight and for which it is named. The females are slightly duller than the males but overall the two are very similar. Immature birds are much duller than the adults and do not have the blue colouring on their throats. They also have brown bills and feet instead of the red of the adults.


The oriental dollarbird is found from Australia to Japan and India. It breeds in northern and eastern Australia between the months of September and April and winters in New Guinea and nearby islands. The birds prefer open wooded areas with hollow-bearing trees to build nests in.


The oriental dollarbird is most commonly seen singly with a distinctive upright silhouette on a bare branch high in a tree, from which it hawks for insects, returning to the same perch after a few seconds.


Protographium marcellus, the zebra swallowtail, (formerly listed under genera Eurytides, Iphiclides, Graphium and Papilio by some authorities) is a swallowtail butterfly native to the eastern United States and southeast Canada. It is the state butterfly of Tennessee. Its distinctive wing shape and long tails make it easy to identify, and its black-and-white-striped pattern is reminiscent of a zebra. The butterflies are closely associated with pawpaws, and are rarely found far from these trees. The green or black caterpillars feed on the leaves of various pawpaw species, while the adults feed on flower nectar and minerals from damp soil.


The zebra swallowtail has a wingspan of 6.4 to 10.4 cm (2.5 to 4.1 in). The triangular wings are white to greenish white with black longitudinal stripes. A pair of swordlike tails extend from the hindwings. The inner margin of the hindwing has two blue spots on the corner and a red spot near the body. A red stripe runs along the middle of the ventral hindwing. P. marcellus has two seasonal forms, one occurring in the spring and the other in the summer. Spring forms are smaller, more white, and have short, black tails with white tips. Summer forms are larger, have broader black stripes, and longer, black tails with white edges.


The zebra swallowtail can be seen from late March to August in the northern portion of its range and from February to December in the southern portion. It has two broods in the north and three to four in the south, with the first brood being the most numerous.


Since the caterpillars are cannibalistic, females lay their eggs singly on pawpaw leaves or on the tree trunks. The round egg is pale green, later turning orange brown. Young caterpillars are black with lighter colored transverse stripes. Older larvae have two color forms. The more common form is green with yellow and white transverse stripes; the rarer form is black and banded with white and orange. In both forms, between the swollen thorax and the abdomen, there is a yellow, black, and bluish-white band. The larva has a yellow, foul-smelling, forked gland called an osmeterium which it will use to deter predators, especially spiders and ants. The chrysalis is either green or brown, and is more compact compared to chrysalids in the genus Papilio. Three small horns project from the head and thorax. The chrysalis hibernates in areas of its range with cold winters.


The zebra swallowtail caterpillar feeds on species within the genus Asimina and was found to accept, oviposit and grow on leaves of the tropical soursop- Annona muricata in 1998. Commonly used species include Asimina angustifolia (slimleaf pawpaw), A. incana (woolly pawpaw), A. parviflora (smallflower pawpaw), A. reticulata (netted pawpaw), A. tetramera (four-petal pawpaw), and A. triloba (common pawpaw). P. marcellus caterpillars ingest chemicals called annonaceous acetogenins from their host plants, which are retained in the body tissues of both the caterpillar and the adult, and may help chemically protect the butterfly from birds.


Eusarca confusaria, the confused eusarca, is a moth species of the  family Geometridae that occurs in North America and Brazil. It is the only member of the  genus Eusarca that inhabits the northern portion of the United States and Canada.


The wingspan of this species is between 29 and 41 mm. Adults are quite variable but tend to be yellow to tan with gray smudging, some specimens look exceptionally dark compared to lighter variants. Uncommonly individuals will have dark spotting in the subterminal area of the forewing. There are several species that are easily confused with E. confusaria including the dark-edged eusarca (Eusarca fundaria), juniper geometer (Patalene olyzonaria), curve-toothed geometer (Eutrapela clemataria), large maple spanworm  (Prochoerodes lineola) and the rose hooktip (Oreta rosea).


There is one flight from April to October throughout its range. Larvae feed on asters, clover, dandelions, and goldenrod.


Throughout its flight they can be found in the eastern portions of North America including Nova Scotia south to Florida. They are as far west as Texas and Saskatchewan. Throughout this range they can be found in meadows and fields with their host plants.


Euschistus servus, the brown stink bug, is a species of stink bug in the family Pentatomidae. It is found in Central America and North America.


These two subspecies belong to the species Euschistus servus:
Euschistus servus euschistoides (Vollenhoven, 1868) (brown stink bug)
Euschistus servus servus (Say, 1832)


Eustixia is a monotypic moth genus of the family Crambidae described by Jacob Hübner in 1823. Its only species, Eustixia pupula, the spotted peppergrass moth, described by the same author in the same publication, is found in North America from Massachusetts to Florida, west to Texas and north to Ontario.
The wingspan is about 17 mm. Adults are on wing from June to August.
The larvae feed on the leaves of Lepidium species, Thlaspi arvense and cabbage.


Euthamia graminifolia, the grass-leaved goldenrod or flat-top goldentop, is a North American species of plants in the family Asteraceae.
It is native to much of Canada (from Newfoundland to British Columbia), and the northern and eastern United States (primarily the Northeast, the Great Lakes region, and the Ohio Valley, with additional populations in the Southeast, the Great Plains, and a few scattered locations in the Pacific Northwest).
There are also introduced populations in Europe and Asia.


Euthamia graminifolia is a herbaceous plant on thin, branching stems. Leaves are alternate, simple, long and narrow much like grass leaves (hence the name of the species). One plant can produce many small, yellow flower heads flat-topped arrays sometimes as much as 30 cm (1 foot) across. Each head has 7–35 ray florets surrounding 3–13 disc florets. The species is very common in fallow fields, waste places, fencerows, and vacant lots in many places.


Euthrix potatoria, the drinker,  is an orange-brown moth of the family Lasiocampidae.
The species' common and scientific names derive from the larva's supposed drinking of drops of dew.


The scientific name Euthryx potatoria was given to this moth by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. In choosing the name potatoria ‘drinker-like’, he was inspired by the Dutch entomologist Johannes Goedaert, who had called the animal dronckaerdt ‘drunkard’ “because it is very much inclined to drinking”. This remark refers to the moth’s habit of repeatedly plunging its head into the water. The English name drinker (moth) also refers to Goedaert’s analogy.


Subspecies include:
Euthrix potatoria mikado Bryk
Euthrix potatoria potatoria (Linnaeus, 1758)


This species can be found in Europe. The species is fairly common in the southern half of Britain. In Scotland, it is common in the west but not in the east of the country. It is most frequently found in marshy places, fens and riversides but may also be seen in drier, grassy terrain.


In a recent survey to determine the status of all macro moths in Britain this species was classified as common.


The fully grown larva is about 6 cm long, hairy, striped and spotted, with distinctive tufts fore and aft. Larvae hibernate while young and resume feeding in the spring, pupating in a cocoon during the summer.


This nocturnal moth flies from June to August depending on the location. Males especially are attracted to light. The females lay their eggs in small clusters, mainly on the stem of grasses or reeds. The larvae feed on various grasses and reeds (Alopecurus, Deschampsia, Dactylis, Elytrigia, Carex, Luzula and other Gramineae).


Euthyrhynchus floridanus, the Florida predatory stink bug, is a species of carnivorous shield bug in the family Pentatomidae, the only species in the genus Euthyrhynchus. It is native to the hottest parts of the southeastern United States and is considered beneficial because it feeds on many species of pest insects. They also feed on things such as grasshoppers and other small insects. This species also hunts in a pack, with up to twelve.


The adult male Florida predatory stink bug is approximately 12 mm (0.5 in) long while the female can reach 17 mm (0.7 in) in length. The appearance is somewhat variable, but the ground colour is usually bluish-black or purplish-brown, and there are characteristic red spots at the sides and rear of the scutellum. There is also a distinctive spine on the humerus, but this species lacks the spine on the underside of the femur on the front leg that exists in other similar species found in Florida. The first segment of the beak-like mouthparts is short and thick which is in contrast to the slender mouthparts of its herbivorous, sap-sucking relatives.


The female lays batches of between twenty and ninety eggs. These are barrel-shaped and have a number of small projections at the edge of the operculum. The nymphs go through five instars in their growth process and have bluish-black heads and thoraxes and red abdomens. The first instars stay close to the egg mass and the later instars also tend to group together, sometimes feeding on a common prey item. In the laboratory, the nymphs have fed on larvae of the greater wax moth (Galleria mellonella), several stages of the Mexican bean beetle (Epilachna varivestis), larvae of tobacco budworm (Heliothis virescens) and larvae of black cutworms (Agrotis ipsilon). Other recorded prey include beetles, planthoppers, weevils, larvae of the long-tailed skipper (Urbanus proteus), and the southern green stink bug (Nezara viridula). The insects have been found on a range of plant types including ornamental plants, citrus, weeds, grasses, trees, bushes and other habitats.
Euthyrhynchus floridanus has a longer period of development than any of its close relatives in the subfamily Asopinae. At 24 °C (75 °F) the eggs hatch in 35 days and the nymphal development takes 65 days. At 27 °C (81 °F) these figures are 20 and 40 days respectively. As the adult female takes about a fortnight to mature, and lays a total of about 140 eggs, populations of this bug do not build up as quickly as some other species with shorter life cycles.


Eutrapela is a genus of moths in the family Geometridae. It contains only one species, Eutrapela clemataria, the curve-toothed geometer moth or purplish-brown looper, which is found in North America, where it has been recorded from Nova Scotia to Florida, west to Texas and north to Saskatchewan. The habitat consists of deciduous and mixed woodlands.
The wingspan is 38–56 mm. The ground color of the wings is yellowish-tan with brownish-grey or brown mottling. The forewings have a fine, mostly straight postmedial line. The hindwing outer margin is scalloped. Adults are on wing from March to August in most of the range, but year round in the south. There are two generations per year.
The larvae feed on the leaves of various trees, including ash, basswood, birch, elm, fir, maple, poplar and willow. Young larvae have a dark brown body. Older larvae have a greenish or tan to dark purplish-brown body.


Eutrochium fistulosum (Eupatorium fistulosum), also called hollow Joe-Pye weed, trumpetweed, or  purple thoroughwort, is a perennial North American flowering plant in the family Asteraceae. It is native to southern Canada and throughout the eastern and south central United States from Maine west to Ontario, Wisconsin, and Missouri and south as far as Florida and Texas.  The specific name fistulosum refers to the tubular stem; see fistula.
Eutrochium fistulosum is a herbaceous perennial plant sometimes as much as 350 cm (140 in; 11 ft 6 in) tall. It is found in moist, rich soil alongside ditches and marshes, or in wet forests. It flowers from mid-summer to the first frosts, makes an attractive backdrop in garden plots, and is very attractive to butterflies, bees, and other nectar-feeding insects. In addition, it is a larval host to the Clymene moth, eupatorium borer moth, ruby tiger moth, and the three-lined flower moth.
The plant has one simple erect stem, which is green with purple dots or longitudinal dashes and can grow over six feet tall. The upper stems are reddish or purplish. Leaves and primary subdivisions of the flower head appear in whorls of 3–5 (rarely 2 or 6, the rotational symmetry of most plants is consistent). Leaves are large, long and sharply toothed. One plant can produce several flower heads in a branching array, each head with 4-7 pink or purple disc flowers but no ray flowers.


Eutrochium maculatum,  the spotted joe-pyeweed, is a North American species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae. It is widespread through much of the United States and Canada. It is the only species of the genus Eutrochium  found west of the Great Plains.
This herbaceous perennial sometimes grows as high as 2 m (6 ft 7 in). Stems are sometimes completely purple, sometimes green with purple spots. One plant can produce numerous rose-purple flower heads in late summer, each head with  8-22 disc flowers but no ray flowers. The specific name maculatum, meaning spotted, refers to the purple spots on the stem.
Spotted joe-pyeweed thrives in marshes, rich fens and swamps. It also does well in man-made moist expanses such as ditches, seepage areas and wet fields. Above all else the plant flourishes in the non-shaded environments that are also abundant in wetlands.
It is a larval host to the Clymene moth, the eupatorium borer moth, the ruby tiger moth, and the three-lined flower moth. The plant also attracts butterflies and honeybees.


The following varieties are known:
Eutrochium maculatum var. bruneri (A. Gray) E. E. Lamont - western Canada (British Columbia to Saskatchewan), western USA (Minnesota west to Idaho, south to Arizona + New Mexico)
Eutrochium maculatum var. foliosum (Fernald) E. E. Lamont - eastern Canada (Newfoundland to Ontario), northern USA (Maine to Minnesota)
Eutrochium maculatum var. maculatum - eastern Canada (Newfoundland to Ontario), eastern USA (Maine to Minnesota, south to northern Georgia)


The following cultivars are recipients of the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit (listed under the synonym Eupatorium maculatum):-
(Atropurpureum Group) 'Orchard Dene'
(Atropurpureum Group) 'Purple Bush'
(Atropurpureum Group) 'Riesenschirm'


Eutrochium purpureum, commonly known as purple Joe-Pye weed or sweetscented joe pye weed, is an herbaceous perennial plant in the family Asteraceae. It is native to eastern and central North America, from Ontario east to New Hampshire and south as far as Florida, Louisiana, and Oklahoma.


Eutrochium purpureum is a clump-forming herb that grows to 1.5–2.4 meters (4.9–7.9 ft) tall and about 1.2 meters (3.9 feet) wide. Plants are found in full sun to part shade in mesic to wet soils. Stems are upright, thick, round, and purple, with whorls of leaves at each node. As the plant begins to bloom the stems often bend downward under the weight of the flowers. The leaves grow to 30 cm (12 in) long and have a somewhat wrinkled texture. The purplish flowers are produced in large loose, convex shaped compound corymbiform arrays. Plants bloom mid to late summer and attract much activity from insects that feed on the nectar produced by the flowers.


Eutrochium purpureum shows a high amount of variability, and up to two or three varieties are currently recognized by current botanical authorities. They differ based in leaf shape, leaf pubescence, and achene glandularity. The precise delineation of these varieties is difficult due to integration between them. The commonly recognized varieties are:
Eutrochium purpureum var. carolinianum- Southeastern Piedmont
Eutrochium purpureum var. holzingeri-  Midwestern
Eutrochium purpureum var. purpureum- Widespread in eastern North America
This species hybridizes readily with other species of Eutrochium and where this species and those species overlap in distribution the resulting plants can be difficult to resolve to a specific taxon.


Many species of butterflies, moths, bees, and flies visit the flowers.
It is larval host to the eupatorium borer moth (Carmenta bassiformis), the red groundling moth (Perigea xanthioides), the ruby tiger moth (Phragmatobia fuliginosa), and the three-lined flower moth (Schinia trifascia).
The larvae of Calycomyza flavinotum, a leaf miner fly, create blotch-shaped mines on the leaves.


Eutrochium purpureum is sometimes cultivated and has escaped from cultivation in parts of New Zealand.


Eutropis longicaudata, the longtail mabuya or long-tailed sun skink, is a species of skink. It is found in southern China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, and Peninsular Malaysia.
Some populations have been found to exhibit paternal care in response to predation by egg-eating snakes.


Exaireta spinigera, known generally as the garden soldier fly or blue soldier fly, is a species of soldier fly in the family Stratiomyidae. It is native to Australia; however, it has been introduced to countries and islands such as New Zealand, Belgium and Hawaii.


Exochomus quadripustulatus, common name pine ladybird or pine lady beetle, is a species of beetle of the family Coccinellidae. The distribution range of Exochomus quadripustulatus includes Europe, Northern Asia (excluding China), and North America.


Exochomus quadripustulatus can reach a length of about 4-6 millimeters. It is almost circular, convex and shining, with a flange around the base. The color is quite variable and may change with ageing. Usually elytra are black with two larger red comma-shaped spots and two smaller red round or oval spots. The color of these spots can also be orange or yellow, but completely reddish brown specimens may occur. The pine ladybird in both adult and larval stages preys aphids and scale insects, especially Diaspidiotus perniciosus. Adults overwinter.


This species is present in most of Europe, in the eastern Palearctic realm, and in the Near East. It was first recorded in Ireland (County Armagh) in 2014.<


This fairly common ladybug can be found from April to October on conifers and in areas with deciduous trees, but it can also occur elsewhere.


The Oriental beetle (Anomala orientalis, often given as Exomala orientalis under an invalid genus name) is a species of shining leaf chafer in the family Scarabaeidae. It is a beetle about 0.7 - 1.1 cm (0.3 - 0.4 inches) long, with mottled, metallic brown- and black-colored elytra and a similarly colored thorax and head during the adult stage. It is sometimes confused with the larger and more colorful Japanese beetle. During the larval stage, the Oriental beetle can be identified by the parallel line raster pattern.
This species is native to Asia. It was introduced to North America and has since spread to, and become a pest in, several mid-Atlantic states. Its invasive range extends from Maine to South Carolina and Wisconsin. In its larval stage, the grub feeds on the roots of grasses, while the adults feed on various plants. Sex pheromone traps are often used to capture and kill the Oriental beetle.


Fagus sylvatica, the European beech or common beech is a deciduous tree belonging to the beech family Fagaceae.


Fagus sylvatica is a large tree, capable of reaching heights of up to 50 metres (160 feet) tall and 3 m (10 ft) trunk diameter, though more typically 25–35 m (82–115 ft) tall and up to 1.5 m (5 ft) trunk diameter. A 10-year-old sapling will stand about 4 m (13 ft) tall. It has a typical lifespan of 150–200 years, though sometimes up to 300 years. In cultivated forest stands trees are normally harvested at 80–120 years of age. 30 years are needed to attain full maturity (as compared to 40 for American beech). Like most trees, its form depends on the location: in forest areas, F. sylvatica grows to over 30 m (100 ft), with branches being high up on the trunk. In open locations, it will become much shorter (typically 15–24 m or 50–80 ft) and more massive.
The leaves are alternate, simple, and entire or with a slightly crenate margin, 5–10 centimetres (2–4 inches) long and 3–7 cm broad, with 6–7 veins on each side of the leaf (as opposed to 7–10 veins in F. orientalis). When crenate, there is one point at each vein tip, never any points between the veins. The buds are long and slender, 15–30 millimetres (5⁄8–1+1⁄8 in) long and 2–3 mm (3⁄32–1⁄8 in) thick, but thicker (to 4–5 mm) where the buds include flower buds.
The leaves of beech are often not abscissed (dropped) in the autumn and instead remain on the tree until the spring. This process is called marcescence. This particularly occurs when trees are saplings or when plants are clipped as a hedge (making beech hedges attractive screens, even in winter), but it also often continues to occur on the lower branches when the tree is mature.
Small quantities of seeds may be produced around 10 years of age, but not a heavy crop until the tree is at least 30 years old. F. sylvatica male flowers are borne in the small catkins which are a hallmark of the Fagales order (beeches, chestnuts, oaks, walnuts, hickories, birches, and hornbeams). The female flowers produce beechnuts, small triangular nuts 15–20 mm (5⁄8–3⁄4 in) long and 7–10 mm (1⁄4–3⁄8 in) wide at the base; there are two nuts in each cupule, maturing in the autumn 5–6 months after pollination. Flower and seed production is particularly abundant in years following a hot, sunny and dry summer, though rarely for two years in a row.


The natural range extends from southern Sweden to northern Sicily, west to France, southern England, northern Portugal, central Spain, and east to northwest Turkey, where it intergrades with the oriental beech (Fagus orientalis), which replaces it further east. In the Balkans, it shows some hybridisation with oriental beech; these hybrid trees are named Fagus × taurica Popl. [Fagus moesiaca (Domin, Maly) Czecz.]. In the southern part of its range around the Mediterranean, it grows only in mountain forests, at 600–1,800 m (1,969–5,906 ft) altitude.
Although often regarded as native in southern England, recent evidence suggests that F. sylvatica did not arrive in England until about 4000 BC, or 2,000 years subsequent to the English Channel forming following the ice ages; it could have been an early introduction by Stone Age humans, who used the nuts for food. The beech is classified as a native in the south of England and as a non-native in the north where it is often removed from 'native' woods. Localised pollen records have been recorded in the North of England from the Iron Age by Sir Harry Godwin. Changing climatic conditions may put beech populations in southern England under increased stress and while it may not be possible to maintain the current levels of beech in some sites it is thought that conditions for beech in north-west England will remain favourable or even improve. It is often planted in Britain. Similarly, the nature of Norwegian beech populations is subject to debate. If native, they would represent the northern range of the species. However, molecular genetic analyses support the hypothesis that these populations represent intentional introduction from Denmark before and during the Viking Age. However, the beech in Vestfold and at Seim north of Bergen in Norway is now spreading naturally and regarded as native.
Though not demanding of its soil type, the European beech has several significant requirements: a humid atmosphere (precipitation well distributed throughout the year and frequent fogs) and well-drained soil (being intolerant of excessive stagnant water). It prefers moderately fertile ground, calcified or lightly acidic, therefore it is found more often on the side of a hill than at the bottom of clayey basin. It tolerates rigorous winter cold, but is sensitive to spring frost. In Norway's oceanic climate planted trees grow well north to Bodø, and produce seedlings and can spread naturally in Trondheim. In Sweden, beech trees do not grow as far north as in Norway.
A beech forest is very dark and few species of plant are able to survive there, where the sun barely reaches the ground. Young beeches prefer some shade and may grow poorly in full sunlight. In a clear-cut forest a European beech will germinate and then die of excessive dryness. Under oaks with sparse leaf cover it will quickly surpass them in height and, due to the beech's dense foliage, the oaks will die from lack of sunlight.


The root system is shallow, even superficial, with large roots spreading out in all directions. European beech forms ectomycorrhizas with a range of fungi including many Russula species, as well as Laccaria amethystina, and with the species Ramaria flavosaponaria. Tomentella Pat. species and Cenococcum geophilum have been found in Danish and Spanish beech forests. These fungi are important in enhancing uptake of water and nutrients from the soil.
In the woodlands of southern Britain, beech is dominant over oak and elm south of a line from about north Suffolk across to Cardigan. Oak are the dominant forest trees north of this line. One of the most beautiful European beech forests called Sonian Forest (Forêt de Soignes/Zoniënwoud) is found in the southeast of Brussels, Belgium. Beech is a dominant tree species in France and constitutes about 10% of French forests. The largest virgin forests made of beech trees are Uholka-Shyrokyi Luh (8,800 hectares or 22,000 acres) in Ukraine and Izvoarele Nerei (5,012 ha or 12,380 acres in one forest body) in Semenic-Cheile Carașului National Park, Romania. These habitats are the home of Europe's largest predators, (the brown bear, the grey wolf and the lynx). Many trees are older than 350 years in Izvoarele Nerei and even 500 years in Uholka-Shyrokyi Luh.
Spring leaf budding by the European beech is triggered by a combination of day length and temperature. Bud break each year is from the middle of April to the beginning of May, often with remarkable precision (within a few days). It is more precise in the north of its range than the south, and at 600 m (2,000 ft) than at sea level.
The European beech invests significantly in summer and autumn for the following spring. Conditions in summer, particularly good rainfall, determine the number of leaves included in the buds. In autumn, the tree builds the reserves that will sustain it into spring. Given good conditions, a bud can produce a shoot with ten or more leaves. The terminal bud emits a hormonal substance in the spring that halts the development of additional buds. This tendency, though very strong at the beginning of their existence, becomes weaker in older trees.
It is only after the budding that root growth of the year begins. The first roots to appear are very thin (with a diameter of less than 0.5 mm). Later, after a wave of above ground growth, thicker roots grow in a steady fashion.


European beech is a very popular ornamental tree in parks and large gardens in temperate regions of the world. In North America, they are preferred for this purpose over the native F. grandifolia, which despite its tolerance of warmer climates, is slower growing, taking an average of 10 years longer to attain maturity. The town of Brookline, Massachusetts has one of the largest, if not the largest, grove of European beech trees in the United States. The 2.5-acre (1 ha) public park, called 'The Longwood Mall', was planted sometime before 1850 qualifying it as the oldest stand of European beeches in the United States.
It is frequently kept clipped to make attractive hedges.
Since the early 19th century there have been numerous cultivars of European beech made by horticultural selection, often repeatedly; they include:
copper beech or purple beech (Fagus sylvatica purpurea) – a mutation of the European beech which was first noted in 1690 in the "Possenwald" forest near the town of Sondershausen in Thuringia, Germany. It is assumed that about 99% of all copper beeches in the world are descendants of this copper beech. Its leaves are purple, in many selections turning deep spinach green by mid-summer. In the United States Charles Sprague Sargent noted the earliest appearance in a nurseryman's catalogue in 1820, but in 1859 "the finest copper beech in America... more than fifty feet high" was noted in the grounds of Thomas Ash, Esq., Throggs Neck, New York; it must have been more than forty years old at the time.
fern-leaf beech (Fagus sylvatica Heterophylla Group) – leaves deeply serrated to thread-like
dwarf beech (Fagus sylvatica Tortuosa Group) – distinctive twisted trunk and branches
weeping beech (Fagus sylvatica Pendula Group) – branches pendulous
Dawyck beech (Fagus sylvatica 'Dawyck') – fastigiate (columnar) growth – occurs in green, gold and purple forms; named after Dawyck Botanic Garden in the Scottish Borders
golden beech (Fagus sylvatica 'Zlatia') – leaves golden in spring


The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-
F. sylvatica
'Dawyck'
'Dawyck Gold'
'Dawyck Purple'
'Pendula' (weeping beech)
'Riversii'
F. sylvatica var. heterophylla 'Aspleniifolia'


The nuts are eaten by humans and animals. Slightly toxic to humans if eaten in large quantities due to the tannins and alkaloids they contain, the nuts were nonetheless pressed to obtain an oil in 19th-century England that was used for cooking and in lamps. They were also ground to make flour, which could be eaten after the tannins were leached out by soaking.
Primary Product AM 01, a smoke flavouring, is produced from Fagus sylvatica L.


The wood of the European beech is used in the manufacture of numerous objects and implements. Its fine and short grain makes it an easy wood to work with, easy to soak, dye, varnish and glue. Steaming makes the wood even easier to machine. It has an excellent finish and is resistant to compression and splitting and it is stiff when flexed. Milling is sometimes difficult due to cracking. The density of the wood is 720 kilograms (1,590 pounds) per cubic meter. It is particularly well suited for minor carpentry, particularly furniture. From chairs to parquetry (flooring) and staircases, the European beech can do almost anything other than heavy structural support, so long as it is not left outdoors. Its hardness make it ideal for making wooden mallets and workbench tops. The wood rots easily if it is not protected by a tar based on a distillate of its own bark (as used in railway sleepers).  It is better for paper pulp than many other broadleaved trees though is only sometimes used for this, the high cellulose content can also be spun into modal, which is used as a textile akin to cotton. The code for its use in Europe is fasy (from FAgus SYlvatica). Common beech is also considered one of the best firewoods for fireplaces.


Falcaria vulgaris, the sickleweed or longleaf, is the sole species in the genus Falcaria. It is a biennial herb of the spherical shape. Blossoms in June–July. Grows in Europe, Siberia, Middle East, Northern Africa, North and South Americas. Contains alkaloids, carotene, vitamin C, proteins.
Its use as an alternative medicine may offer several advantages, especially in the treatment of stomach and skin ulcers, diabetes, infections, and liver and kidney disorders.


The prairie falcon (Falco mexicanus) is a medium-large sized falcon of western North America.  It is about the size of a peregrine falcon or a crow, with an average length of 40 cm (16 in), wingspan of approximately 1 meter (40 in), and average weight of 720 g (1.6 lb). As in all falcons, females are noticeably bigger than males.  Though a separate species from the peregrine, the prairie falcon is basically an arid environment adaptation of the early peregrine falcon lineage, able to subsist on less food than the peregrine, and generally lighter in weight than a peregrine of similar wing span.  Having evolved in a harsh desert environment with low prey density, the prairie falcon has developed into an aggressive and opportunistic hunter of a wide range of both mammal and bird prey.  It will regularly take prey from the size of sparrows to approximately its own weight, and occasionally much larger.  It is the only larger falcon native only to North America.  It is resident from southern Canada, through western United States, and into northern Mexico. The prairie falcon is popular as a falconry bird, where with proper training it is regarded as being as effective as the more well known peregrine falcon.


Male prairie falcons are usually 37 to 38 cm in length (~15 inches) and weigh 500 to 635g (1.1 to 1.4 lbs).  Females are about 45 cm in length (17.7 inches) and weigh 762 to 970g (1.7 to 2.1 lbs).  A large female can be nearly twice the size of a small male, with wingspan reaching to 1.1 meters (3.5 feet), and tends to hunt significantly larger prey.
Plumage is warm gray-brown (sometimes called "sandy") above and pale with more or less dark mottling below. The darkest part of the upper side is the primary wing feathers; the lightest is the rump and tail, particularly the outer tail feathers. The head has a "moustache" mark like a peregrine falcon's but narrower, and a white line over the eye. A conspicuous character is that the axillars ("wingpits") and underwing coverts are black, except along the leading edge of the wing. This creates an effect of "struts" from the body along each wing.


There are several ways to distinguish juvenile (first year) Prairie Falcons from adult (second year or older) Prairie Falcons.  Each of these methods vary between individuals and several appearance factors may need to be considered as a whole.   1. Vertical dark streaking especially on the upper breast tends to be more prevalent in adults. 2. Exposed portions of shoulder and back feathers tend to be more uniformly colored in juveniles and barred with light and dark horizontal stripes in adults. 3. Skin around eyes, above beak (cere) and on legs and talons tends to be more yellow and sometimes with tinges of orange or green in adults.  Skin tends to be gray in juveniles.
Factor one can be mistakenly observed because a Prairie Falcon's crop expands and distends upon feeding exposing the white under feathers of the upper breast so that a juvenile Prairie Falcon which just fed can appear from a distance to have a very bright white upper breast like an adult. Also, factor 3 varies so that sometimes a Prairie Falcon's feet begin to turn yellow while juvenile and some individuals have gray skin as adults. It's thought that these fluctuations are caused by diet and resulting hormonal fluctuations between individuals. Of the three factors, factor 2 is probably the most reliable. However, all three factors should be used in conjunction.
Interestingly, sometimes one can ascertain whether a Prairie Falcon is exactly in its second year. Some Prairie Falcon individuals molt into adult plumage back and wing feathers that have a more gray tinge than their brown juvenile feathers. First year molts tend to be usually incomplete particularly in the "shoulder" region. If the individual's back and wing feathers have a gray tinge and there are several feathers on the upper wings (shoulder) with a subtle but distinctly different brown tinge, then the bird is a second year bird because it didn't fully molt.


Experts can separate a distant prairie falcon from a peregrine (generally the only similar species in its range) by its shape and flight style. The prairie falcon has a longer tail in proportion to its size; a more tubular, less stocky body; and the wing joint is farther from the body. Its wingbeats are described as strong and shallow like the peregrine's and having the same quick cadence, but stiffer and more mechanical.


The prairie falcon outwardly resembles the peregrine as well as the Old World "hierofalcons", especially the saker falcon.


It was previously often considered the only New World member of the hierofalcon subgenus, but in recent decades this assumption has been disproven by genetic analysis.  DNA studies beginning in the 1980s have shown the prairie falcon to be closer to the peregrine than to the hierofalcons.


It now is considered an early aridland offshoot of the peregrine falcon lineage, much as the hierofalcons represent a later separate divergence that similarly adapted to arid habitat. Thus, the similarities between the prairie falcon and the hierofalcons are a good example of convergent evolution, with the prairie falcon and similar looking and behaving Old World forms such as the saker and lanner falcons not being the closest of related species, but instead ecological equivalents.  However, "closely related" is a relative term here, since most or all the members of the genus falco are closely enough related that they can produce hybrid offspring via artificial insemination.  But, only the most closely related of these species will produce fertile or partially fertile offspring.


The karyological data of Schmutz and Oliphant provided early scientific evidence of the unexpectedly close relationship between the peregrine and prairie falcons.  Wink and Sauer-Gürth later estimated using molecular systematics that the prairie falcon diverged about 3 to 5 million years ago from an archaic peregrine ancestor, assuming a molecular clock calibration of 2% sequence divergence per 1 million years.  The prairie falcon then evolved from its peregrine stock forebears in a process of parapatric speciation based on partially separated environments where different selective pressures lead to separate genetic drift and eventually to separate species.  This process has led to the prairie falcon having enhanced survivability in the sparse arid environment that dominates the interior of the American west.  This enhanced competitiveness in this environment is based on superior energy efficiency (being no larger than the prey base and competition with other raptors requires), and versatility in the utilization of a wider range of prey. Moderately lower weight than the muscular peregrine for similar wingspan not only allows lower food and energy requirements by the simple expedient of less muscle to support, but also allows a lighter wing loading (weight per square unit of wing area) that allows more distance to be covered per calorie consumed when hunting over prey sparse terrain.  The lighter wing loading also allows greater maneuverability, which is valuable in the pursuit of agile lightly wing loaded prey and rapidly dodging ground prey.  When the prairie falcon locates needed prey, it is relentless in its pursuit.  Quoting from the book The Prairie Falcon, "Because they evolved in the harsh western environment, prairie falcons have the stamina to out-fly the strongest quarry.  They have the spirit to crash through dense cover when attacking prey, something peregrines seldom attempt." In the longer distance lower prey density American west, the prairie falcon also has evolved eyes that are proportionally larger relative to head size than the already large eyes of other falcons. The specialization of the prairie falcon to this particular environment is also reflected by the fact that there are no subspecies of the prairie falcon evolved to fit other environments, and that it seldom strays far outside the native range to which it is most suited and within which it has competitive advantages over the peregrine falcon.
Though they are separate species after several million years of mostly separate evolution, prairie falcons are known to still occasionally interbreed with peregrines in the wild. The male offspring of these crossings may be fertile, and provide an avenue for at least some gene flow to possibly still occur between the species.  Such gene flow in the past may have contributed to the continuing genetic closeness of the two species today.


The natural habitat of the prairie falcon is open country, especially arid, in summer including alpine tundra to shortgrass prairie and high desert. In winter it is more widespread, ranging to low deserts and occasionally to towns. It breeds from southern Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and south-central British Columbia south through the western United States–roughly between the eastern edge of the Mountain Time Zone and the Cascade Mountains, as well as the Central Valley of California–to the Mexican states of Baja California, Durango, and northern San Luis Potosí. It is much less migratory than the other North American falcons, but in winter it does withdraw somewhat from the northernmost and highest-elevation parts of its breeding range and spreads west to the deserts and Pacific coast of California, east to about the 100th meridian, and south to Baja California Sur, Jalisco, and Hidalgo.


The prairie falcon eats mostly small mammals (especially in summer) and small to medium-sized birds caught in flight, though as an opportunistic predator it will occasionally take larger birds. Though accounts of the prairie falcon taking prey as large as geese are verifiable (a prey that may be over 5 times heavier than a large female prairie falcon), it usually takes prey smaller than itself that it may safely subdue and which can be carried to the nest or to a safe perch to consume.  The majority of prey is 150g or less, a weight that even the smaller tiercel (male) can carry long distances back to the nest.  Most prey is thus 30% or less of the weight of the tiercel, which is a common prey size fraction across numerous species of falcons where the males do the majority of the hunting during the nesting season.  However, over shorter distances wildlife biologists have documented prairie falcons carrying up to about 60-70% of their body weight. Common mammalian prey for prairie falcons includes squirrels, ground squirrels, prairie dogs, chipmunks, gophers, and rabbits of various species.  Reptiles are also sometimes taken.  Bird prey commonly includes sparrows, starlings, grackles, doves, quail, meadow larks, pigeons, coots, teal, and mallards—virtually any bird of up to approximately the falcon's own size and occasionally significantly larger.  However, the need to feed their young focuses them on prey they can carry during nesting season, and the reproductive success of the prairie falcon depends upon such smaller prey being available.


In keeping with the needs of a predator living in a prey-sparse desert environment, the prairie falcon has developed a wide range of hunting and flight styles.   Like the Merlin, it often hunts by flying fast and low, at a height of only a few meters or so, hoping to find surprised prey as it comes over the terrain or around bushes. Its cruising speed is estimated at 72 km/h (45 mph) and it accelerates in the chase.  A variation on this method is for the falcon to stoop down from altitude and then level out near the ground, initially traveling at more than 100 mph at altitudes of a meter or two, sometimes gliding for more than a kilometer this way. If the rapidly approaching falcon flushes bird prey, the falcon has the speed advantage and may rapidly close with the prey.  Another variation on these low attacks is using terrain as cover to approach beneath a flock of birds, then using its speed to perform a rapid climbing surprise attack into the flock.   It also pursues prey sighted from a perch in the manner of the short-winged accipiter hawks, again often flying low and using its speed to close with the prey in a tail-chase. Prairie falcons may even deliberately emulate the flight style of other birds in order to deceive potential prey and allow a surprise attack by the falcon.  The dramatic high speed diving stoop from high altitude in the manner of the peregrine falcon, allowing overtaking the swiftest of birds or delivering a knock-out blow to large prey, is also a very natural part of the hunting repertoire of the prairie falcon. At impact the prey is hit with a closed foot or feet, or swiped with an open foot armed with talons. High-speed films have shown that this second method is the more common, with the toes closed into a “fist” immediately after striking. The claw on the hind toe, or hallux, is particularly effective and deadly in raking the prey. When the closed foot strike is used it is typically directed against the head or wing of the prey, and if it does not outright kill, the prey is often rendered unconscious or unable to fly.  These strikes are often accompanied by an explosion of feathers and an audible impact that may be heard from the ground hundreds of feet away.  They have been known to be so forceful they can literally separate the head from the body of the prey.


This species nests on cliff ledges, so breeding adults are local during the breeding season.


The clutch averages four eggs, which are subelliptical and pinkish with brown, reddish-brown, and purplish dots.  As part of their adaptation to hotter and lower humidity desert climates, the eggs of the prairie falcon are less porous and retain water better than those of their peregrine falcon cousins, leading to a higher hatching rate under these conditions.


The young fledge (first fly) from 36 to 41 days after hatching.  They continue to be supported by their parents while learning to fly and hunt, with the parents gradually winding down the amount of food they provide as the youngsters' hunting skills improve. At approximately 65 days of age they are ready to be self-sufficient, and disperse from their natal area.


In its range the prairie falcon must compete for food and space with other often larger raptors including the peregrine falcon, red tailed hawk, Harris's hawk, ferruginous hawk, great horned owl, and golden eagle.  The large, powerful, and surprisingly agile golden eagle is the apex avian predator in this range, and is generally willing and able to attack and kill any of these other raptors.  Under the right circumstances all these species are capable of sometimes displacing and occasionally killing the prairie falcon.  However, the prairie falcon will aggressively defend its territory against any of them, with male and female often mounting a coordinated attack, and often turns the tables on these larger raptors.  Wildlife biologists report numerous observations of prairie falcons successfully driving away and sometimes killing raptors larger than themselves. When a prairie falcon kills a larger raptor, it usually does so in a diving stoop with striking methods similar to what it uses against prey much larger than itself. It may use a foot with talons clinched like a fist to make a high energy strike against the head or wing of its opponent, or use an extended talon in a rapier like thrust to create a fatal wound. However, it is not a given that prairie falcons will always be in conflict with nearby raptors.  In years when food is plentiful, prairie falcons have been known to nest within a few hundred meters of great horned owls, peregrine falcons, red-tailed hawks, and golden eagles, with both sets of parents successfully rearing their young.


As of 2006, the population of prairie falcons was estimated to be stable or increasing at over 5,000 pairs, with perhaps 200 pairs breeding at the Snake River Birds of Prey National Conservation Area in Idaho. By contrast, in the years before DDT contamination extirpated the eastern U.S. peregrine falcon population in the 1950s and 1960s, the number of eastern peregrines in the United States had already dropped to about 350 pairs.  It is thought the prairie falcon mostly avoided the population loss suffered by the peregrine from DDT induced egg shell thinning due to its more remote environment partly insulating it from pesticide contamination. The loss of peregrine population allowed the expansion of prairie falcon range to cliff nesting sites in areas formerly occupied by peregrines moderately outside historic prairie falcon territory.  The successful reintroduction of peregrines to eastern and central United States brought peregrine and prairie falcons back into competition in these areas. The reintroduction program led by the Peregrine Fund bred and released more than 4,000 peregrine falcons from 1974 to 1997. The program necessarily made use of available captive bred peregrine stock with a strong genetic influence from larger bodied peregrine subspecies.  The created strain of mixed subspecies peregrine tends to be heavier and stronger than the prairie falcon, and where they conflict over nesting sites they often displace prairie falcons. However, these reintroduced peregrines are little threat to prairie falcon populations within their natural range, as the prairie falcon with its greater heat tolerance, lower daily food requirement, and wider prey base has the survival advantage in the harsh high desert environment in which it has evolved to prosper.


This species is often used in falconry.  It is the most popular falcon captured from the wild for falconry purposes in the United States, due to its abundance and relative ease to acquire. It is valued for its aggressiveness, agility, and determination to bring down game.  Although some falconers considered the prairie falcon hard to train and unpredictable, others note that with proper training taking into account its impatient nature it may be as effective as the peregrine falcon.  In his book The Hunting Falcon, biologist and falconer Bruce Haak states "In the field, the prairie falcon leaves no doubt that it can hold its own against the peregrine as a stylish and dedicated hunting companion."
The smaller and more agile males are particularly effective in the taking of small game birds such as dove, quail, and smaller ducks, while the larger and more powerful females reliably take larger game up through the size of large ducks and even pheasants.  Some prairie falcons will strike still larger game such as geese and greater sage-grouse, but their willingness to do so runs the risk of injury to the falcon. The sage-grouse in particular is difficult game, with the males weighing as much as 8 lbs,  and being so hard-muscled that inexperienced falcons can easily be injured in striking them in a high-speed stoop. It takes a skilled falcon that knows how to forcefully but carefully and accurately strike them in the head or wing to bring them down cleanly.  For this difficult prey experienced falconers usually prefer larger peregrine females, gyrfalcons, or gyr-peregrine hybrids, though some female prairie falcons do master the art of bringing down larger game.
Proper training for prairie falcons includes providing abundant food when raising them (to avoid them developing the habit of screaming for food), and extensive "manning" (close contact and handling) when training them.  Unlike the peregrine, they do not respond well to training with the swung lure, as missing the lure brings out their impatience.  Teaching prairie falcons to climb and “wait on” to stoop on game is best accomplished by a reward system of flushing game or serving live birds such as pigeons for the falcon to chase when the falcon has assumed the proper position several hundred feet or more above the falconer.  The prairie falcon's eagerness to hunt and chase requires that it be patiently taught that when it assumes the proper waiting on position the falconer can be trusted to reliably flush game. As the falcon comes to understand this, it learns to hunt as an effective team with the falconer.
The availability of commercially bred falcons has in recent years reduced the need to capture falcons from the wild for use in falconry.  The prairie falcon along with the peregrine and gyrfalcon is now often available via captive breeding.  The prairie falcon is also sometimes hybridized with the peregrine falcon or gyrfalcon to create a falcon combining the aggressiveness and heat tolerance of the prairie falcon with the easier trainability and slightly greater strength of the larger peregrine subspecies, or the greater horizontal speed and significantly larger size and strength of the gyrfalcon.


Due to this species' large range and apparently increasing population, it has been classified by the IUCN as least concern. However, it has experienced some local declines in Texas, California, and Alberta as grasslands are developed for agriculture, cities, and other human uses. Such a decline could result in an inability for birds to find mates or suitable habitat.


BirdLife International (2016). "Falco mexicanus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T22696504A93568930. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22696504A93568930.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
Pirate of the Plains, Bruce Haak, Hancock House Publishers, 1995, ISBN 0-88839-320-2, p.69
The Hunting Falcon, Bruce Haak, Hancock House, ISBN 0-88839-292-3, 1992, p. 60
The Prairie Falcon, Stanley Anderson and John Squires, University of Texas Press, ISBN 0-292-75148-6, 1997, p. 8
Icenoggle, Radd (2003). Birds in Place. Helena, MT, USA: Farcountry Press. p. 163. ISBN 978-1-56037-241-7.
Dunne, Sibley & Sutton (1989)
"Phylogenetic relationships among Falcon species (genus Falco) according to DNA sequence variation of cytochrome b gene", A.J. Helbig et al., Raptor Conservation Today, 1994
"Phylogenetic Relationships in the Hierofalco Complex (Saker-, Gyr-,Lanner-, Lagger Falcon)", Michael Wink et al., Raptors Worldwide, 2004
Earlier results that suggested the hierofalcons to be the most ancient group of living falcons (Helbig et al. 1994, Wink et al. 1998) based on mtDNA cytochrome b sequence data were in error due to presence of a numt in the hierofalcons (Wink & Sauer-Gürth 2000).
Helbig et al. (1994), Wink et al. (1998), Griffiths (1999), Wink & Sauer-Gürth (2000), Wink et al. (2004), Nittinger et al. (2005)
"Chromosome study of peregrine, prairie, and Gyrfalcons with implications for hybrids", Schmutz S.M. and Oliphant W., Journal of Heredity, 1987, 78:388-390
"Advances in the molecular systematics of African raptors", Wink M. and Sauer-Gürth H, pp. 135-147 in R.D. Chancellor and B.-U. Meyburg (eds.), "Raptors at Risk", World Working Group on Birds of Prey, Berlin, and Hancock House, 2000
The Hunting Falcon,Haak, p.60
Anderson and Squires, p.114
Anderson and Squires, p. 25
"Hybridization Between a Peregrine Falcon and a Prairie Falcon in the Wild", Lynn Oliphant, Journal of Raptor Research, 1991
Anderson and Squires, p. 45
Anderson and Squires, p. 44
The Hunting Falcon,Haak, pp 59-62
Anderson and Squires, p. 29
Anderson and Squires, p.31
Anderson and Squires, p.32
The Hunting Falcon,Haak, p.61
Falcons of North America, Kate Davis, Kindle location 546, Mountain Press Publishing Company, ISBN 9780878425532
Davis, Kindle location 546
Anderson and Squires, p.24
The Hunting Falcon,Haak, pp 209-210
Anderson and Squires, p. 76
Anderson and Squires, pp. 45-50
Anderson and Squires, p.47 and p.50
"Prairie falcon (Falco mexicanus)". Snake River Birds of Prey National Conservation Area. Bureau of Land Management. Archived from the original on January 12, 2006. Retrieved June 1, 2016.
"Snake River Birds of Prey National Conservation Area". Federal Transit Administration. Archived from the original on March 6, 2005. Retrieved June 1, 2016.
Pirate of the Plains, p.62
Pirate of the Plains, p.8
"Peregrine and Prairie Falcon Interaction: Boulder County Open Space, Boulder Mountain Park", Andrew Orahoske, April 1999, accessed at https://www-static.bouldercolorado.gov/docs/4477_Orahoske_Andrew_Peregrine-1-201307151442.pdf, June 4, 2016.
The Hunting Falcon, Haak, p.61
The Hunting Falcon,Haak, p.59
The Hunting Falcon, Haak, p.59,
Anderson and Squires, p. 115
Falconer on the Edge, Rachel Dickinson, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2009, ISBN 978-0-618-80623-2, pp.64-65
Anderson and Squires, pp. 115-116
The Hunting Falcon, Haak, pp. 121-130
The Hunting Falcon,Haak, pp 203-206
"Prairie Falcon". The Peregrine Fund. Peregrine Fund. Retrieved 13 July 2019.


The lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni) is a small falcon. This species breeds from the Mediterranean across Afghanistan and Central Asia, to China and Mongolia. It is a summer migrant, wintering in Africa and Pakistan and sometimes even to India and Iraq. It is rare north of its breeding range, and declining in its European range. The genus name derives from Late Latin falx, falcis, a sickle, referencing the claws of the bird, and the species name commemorates the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Naumann.


Despite its outward similarity, this species appears not to be closely related to the common kestrel. In fact, mtDNA cytochrome b sequence analysis places it at a basal position with regards to the other "true" kestrels (i.e., excluding the American kestrel and probably the grey African kestrels too). Its divergence is tentatively placed to around the Miocene-Pliocene boundary (Messinian to Zanclean, or about 7–3.5 mya). The morphological similarity with the common kestrel is most puzzling, but still it appears to betray the present species' actual relationships: the lack of a malar stripe seems ancestral for kestrels, and the grey wing colour unites the lesser kestrel with most other Falco species, but not the other true kestrels.


The lesser kestrel is, as the name implies, a smaller and more delicate bird than the common kestrel, and it is entirely sympatric in its breeding range with it; they compete to a limited extent. Thus, the possibility that there is some form of adaptive advantage to the similar coloration deserves study. Considering that the lesser kestrel would in fact have an advantage if some would-be predators confused it with the larger species and consequently avoided it, it might be a case of Müllerian mimicry.
The lesser kestrel eats insects, but also small birds, reptiles and rodents (especially mice), which are often taken on the ground. It nests colonially on buildings, cliffs, or in tree holes, laying up to 3–6 eggs. No nest structure is built, which is typical for falcons. On their wintering grounds in West Africa, lesser kestrels favor a "latitude belt" through Senegal where locusts and grasshoppers are plentiful. Surveys of lesser kestrels wintering in January 2007 by the Ligue pour la Protection des Oiseaux revealed them roosting communally. A roost in Senegal discovered during one of the surveys held 28,600 birds, together with 16,000 scissor-tailed kites Chelictinia riocourii.
It is widespread and plentiful on a global scale, and the IUCN have classed it as Least Concern. Apart from possible habitat destruction, it appears that indiscriminate use of pesticides has a strong effect on this species due to its insectivorous habits.


The bat falcon (Falco rufigularis) is a falcon that is a resident breeder in tropical Mexico, Central and  South America, Trinidad. It was long known as Falco albigularis; the names Falco fusco-coerulescens or Falco fuscocaerulescens, long used for the aplomado falcon, are now believed to refer to the present species.
It is probably closely related to and looks like a small version of the orange-breasted falcon with which it has been misidentified. These two, in turn, are probably closest to the aplomado falcon and constitute a rather old American lineage of Falco species.
The female bat falcon, at 30.5 cm length, is much larger than the 23-cm-long male. Adults have a black back, head, and tail. The throat, upper breast, and neck sides are creamy white, the lower breast and belly are black, finely barred white, and the thighs and lower belly are orange. Young birds are similar, but with a buffy throat. The call of this species is a high pitched ke-ke-ke like the American kestrel.
This small, dark bird of prey inhabits open woodlands and forest clearings. Bat falcons perch conspicuously on high, open snags, from which they launch aerial attacks on their prey. They hunt bats, birds, small rodents and large insects such as dragonflies. The smaller male takes more insects, and the female more birds and bats. The flight is direct and powerful. This falcon is partly crepuscular, as the bats in its diet suggest. It lays two or three brown eggs in an unlined treehole nest.


According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) the first recorded bat falcon sighting in the U.S. occurred in December 2021 in the Santa Ana National Wildlife Refuge in Alamo, Texas. Wildlife officials determined that the bird sighted was a juvenile male based on its buff-cinnamon throat and crest bars, and the thickness of the tarsus and beak.


The rock kestrel (Falco rupicolus) is a bird of prey species belonging to the kestrel group of the falcon family Falconidae. It was previously considered a subspecies of the common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus).
This species occurs in Africa, from northwestern Angola and southern Democratic Republic of Congo to southern Tanzania, and south to South Africa.


Rock kestrels feed on a wide variety of organisms. They eat primarily invertebrates, but have been known to consume rodents, reptiles and birds.
Two primary forms of hunting are employed: hover hunting and perch hunting. Hover hunting describes the method whereby the kestrel remains stationary in the air with minimal wing flapping by utilizing updrafts. Hover hunting generally happens at medium to high windspeeds. It is usually small prey (such as insects) which are caught via this method, and are subsequently eaten during flight. Perch hunting is when the kestrel utilizes either natural (for instance cliffs and trees) or artificial (for instance electricity pylons and telephone poles) perches to scan the surrounding area for prey. Rock kestrels have been observed following baboons through grasslands and catching the insect species flushed out. There are also reports of rock kestrels robbing nests for young birds and eating termites on the floor.
Their call is a harsh chay-chay-chay, especially when scaring off intruders, unlike the common kestrel's kee-kee-kee.


Rock kestrels usually nest in either old stick nests or on cliffs, where they may make a depression in the sand. They have also been observed utilizing buildings, but this appears to be unusual. Clutch sizes vary between 1 and 6 eggs. The female incubates the eggs full-time while the male sources food. After 26 to 32 days the chicks hatch. Chicks will remain in the nest for a further 31 to 39 days post hatching. Thereafter they leave the nest, but often remain in the vicinity for several weeks. Breeding density varies across habitats however a study in Namibia noted values of between 19.1 and 28.9 pairs per 100 square kilometers.


The rock kestrel is common in many protected areas, and as a result is not threatened.


The American kestrel (Falco sparverius), also called the sparrow hawk, is the smallest and most common falcon in North America. It has a roughly two-to-one range in size over subspecies and sex, varying in size from about the weight of a blue jay to a mourning dove.  It also ranges to South America and is a well-established species that has evolved into 17 subspecies adapted to different environments and habitats throughout the Americas. It exhibits sexual dimorphism in size (females being moderately larger) and plumage, although both sexes have a rufous back with noticeable barring. Its plumage is colorful and attractive, and juveniles are similar in plumage to adults.
The American kestrel usually hunts in energy-conserving fashion by perching and scanning the ground for prey to ambush, though it also hunts from the air. It sometimes hovers in the air with rapid wing beats while homing in on prey. Its diet typically consists of grasshoppers and other insects, lizards, mice, and small birds (e.g. sparrows). This broad diet has contributed to its wide success as a species.  It nests in cavities in trees, cliffs, buildings, and other structures. The female lays three to seven eggs, which both sexes help to incubate.
Its breeding range extends from central and western Alaska across northern Canada to Nova Scotia, and south throughout North America, into central Mexico and the Caribbean. It is a local breeder in Central America and is widely distributed throughout South America. Most birds breeding in Canada and the northern United States migrate south in the winter. It is an occasional vagrant to Western Europe.
Based on appearance and behavior it was for many years considered a member of the primarily European and African kestrel clade within the genus Falco, but DNA analysis shows the American kestrel to actually be genetically more closely related to the larger American falcons such as the aplomado, peregrine, and prairie falcons. Though the species has not been renamed as a result of these genetic analyses, it is not actually a kestrel in the phylogenetic sense.  Instead, a process of convergent evolution to fit a similar small prey niche in the ecosystem as the true kestrels have left it with similar physical characteristics and hunting methods.
The American kestrel is a common bird used in falconry, especially by beginners. Though not as strong a flyer as many other, larger falcons, proper training and weight control by the falconer allows many American kestrels to become effective hunters of birds in the size range of sparrows and starlings, with occasional success against birds up to approximately twice their own weight.


Under traditional classification, the American kestrel is the smallest raptor in America. The American kestrel is sexually dimorphic, although there is some overlap in plumage coloration between the sexes. The bird ranges from 22 to 31 cm (8.7 to 12.2 in) in length with a wingspan of 51–61 cm (20–24 in). The female kestrel is larger than the male, though less so than larger falcons, being typically about 10% to 15% larger within a subspecies. The more northern subspecies tend to larger sizes, with a large northern female being about twice the size of a small southern male. The male typically weighs 80–143 g (2.8–5.0 oz), and the female 86–165 g (3.0–5.8 oz). In standard measurements, the wing bone is 16–21 cm (6.3–8.3 in) long, the tail is 11–15 cm (4.3–5.9 in) and the tarsus is 3.2–4 cm (1.3–1.6 in).
Physically, American kestrels are leaner and less muscular than larger falcons. The pectoral flight muscles of the American kestrel make up only about 12% of its body weight, as compared to about 20% for the strongest flying falcons such as the peregrine. The wings are moderately long, fairly narrow, and taper to a point. Their less muscular body type is adapted to energy-conserving ambush hunting, rather than spending large amounts of energy-consuming time on the wing and getting into long tail-chases of bird prey. For their size, they have strong talons and beaks, and can swiftly dispatch prey. Their lean build and energy-conserving strategy allow a lower daily food intake than if they were more strongly muscled, yet with enough strength to commonly take bird prey as large as themselves, and occasionally larger. The success of this body style and hunting strategy is reflected in the high success of the species in densely populating a large range throughout the Americas. The flight of the American kestrel is not so dramatic and swift as more muscular falcons such as merlins and peregrines, but their efficient adaptation to a broader diet of more available smaller prey, and need for less food per day, has resulted in there being many more of them.
In contrast to many other raptor species, the sexes differ more in plumage than in size. Males have blue-grey wings with black spots and white undersides with black barring. The back is rufous, with barring on the lower half. The belly and flanks are white with black spotting. The tail is also rufous, with a white or rufous tip and a black subterminal band. The back and wings of the female American kestrel are rufous with dark brown barring. The undersides of the females are creamy to buff with heavy brown streaking. The tail is noticeably different from the male's, being rufous in color with numerous narrow dark black bars. Juveniles exhibit coloration patterns similar to the adults'. In both sexes, the head is white with a bluish-grey top. There are also two narrow, vertical black facial markings on each side of the head, while other falcons have one. Two black spots (ocelli) can be found on each side of the white or orangish nape. The function of these spots is debated, but the most commonly accepted theory is that they act as "false eyes", and help to protect the bird from potential attackers.


The American kestrel has three basic vocalizations – the "klee" or "killy", the "whine", and the "chitter". The "klee" is usually delivered as a rapid series – klee, klee, klee, klee when the kestrel is upset or excited. This call is used in a wide variety of situations and is heard from both sexes, but the larger females typically have lower-pitched voices than the males. The "whine" call is primarily associated with feeding but is also uttered during copulation. The "chitter" is used in activities that involve interaction between male and female birds, including courtship feeding, copulation, and the feeding of nestlings. Nestlings can produce calls similar to those of adults at 16 days old.


Until the sixth edition of the AOU Checklist of North American Birds was published by the American Ornithologists' Union in 1983, the most commonly used name for the American kestrel was the sparrow hawk. This was due to a mistaken connection with the Eurasian sparrowhawk in the genus Accipiter. The sixth edition of the AOU Checklist corrected this, officially renaming the bird American kestrel. Several other colloquial names for the kestrel are also in use, including grasshopper hawk, due to its diet, and killy hawk, due to its distinct call.
As noted in the introduction, DNA analysis shows the American kestrel to actually be genetically more closely related to the larger American falcons than to the true kestrels. However, based on its physical similarity to the kestrels and the established nature of the name American kestrel, there has been little impetus to change its name. This could change in the future if continued genetic research more precisely determines the evolutionary history of the American kestrel within the genus Falco. The entire genus is actually a set of species so closely related that most or all can be hybridized by artificial insemination.  Significant natural hybridization of species has occurred in the past during the evolution of this closely related set of species, such that precise evolutionary genetic analysis as to which species are more basal to other species or to the genus as a whole is difficult to render.
The American kestrel's scientific name, Falco sparverius, was given by Carl Linnaeus in his 18th century work Systema Naturae. The genus refers to the falcate, or hooked, shape of the beak, and the specific name means "pertaining to a sparrow", referring to the bird's small size and hunting of sparrows as a typical prey.
Seventeen subspecies of the American kestrel are recognized, generally based upon plumage, size, and vocalizations:
F. s. sparverius, described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, is the nominate subspecies. It is found in most of the United States, Canada and Mexico.
F. s. paulus, described by Howe and King in 1902, is found in the southeastern United States from Louisiana to Florida.
F. s. peninsularis, described by Edgar Alexander Mearns in 1892, is found in southern Baja California.
F. s. tropicalis, described by Ludlow Griscom in 1930, is found from southern Mexico to northern Honduras.
F. s. nicaraguensis, described by Howell in 1965, is found in Honduras and Nicaragua.
F. s. sparveroides, described by Nicholas Aylward Vigors in 1827, is found on Cuba, Isla de Juventud and the central and southern Bahamas.
F. s. dominicensis, described by Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1788, is found on Hispaniola (both the Dominican Republic and Haiti) and Jamaica.
F. s. caribaearum, described by Gmelin in 1788, is found on Puerto Rico and throughout the Lesser Antilles to Grenada.
F. s. brevipennis, described by Hans von Berlepsch in 1892, is found in the Netherlands Antilles.
F. s. isabellinus, described by William John Swainson in 1837, is found from Venezuela to northern Brazil.
F. s. ochraceus, described by Charles B. Cory in 1915, is found in eastern Colombia and northwestern Venezuela.
F. s. caucae, described by Frank Chapman in 1915, is found in western Colombia.
F. s. aequatorialis, described by Mearns in 1892, is found in northern Ecuador.
F. s. peruvianus, described by Cory in 1915, is found in southwestern Ecuador, Peru and northern Chile.
F. s. fernandensis, described by Chapman in 1915, is found on the Juan Fernández Islands off Chile.
F. s. cinnamominus, described by Swainson in 1837, is found in Peru, Chile and Argentina.
F. s. cearae, described by Cory in 1915, is found from northeastern Brazil south to eastern Bolivia.


American kestrels are found in a wide variety of habitats, including grasslands, meadows, deserts and other open to semi-open regions. They can also be found in both urban and suburban areas. A kestrel's habitat must include perches, open space for hunting, and cavities for nesting (whether natural or man-made). The American kestrel is able to live in very diverse conditions, ranging from above the Arctic Circle, to the tropics of Central America, to elevations of over 4,500 m (14,800 ft) in the Andes Mountains. The bird is distributed from northern Canada and Alaska to the southernmost tip of South America, Tierra del Fuego. It is the only kestrel found in the Americas, though as mentioned above this classification is genetically inaccurate. It has occurred as a vagrant in the UK, Denmark, Malta and the Azores.
American kestrels in Canada and the northern United States typically migrate south in the winter, sometimes going as far as Central America and the Caribbean. Birds that breed south of about 35° north latitude are usually year-round residents. Migration also depends on local weather conditions. American Kestrels breeding at lower latitudes – below 48ºN to be precise – arrive earlier after warmer springs, whereas birds from higher latitudes return to their breeding grounds at the same time each year. These patterns suggest that short-distance migrants are better able to cope with climate change. Wintering kestrels' choice of habitat varies by sex. Females are found in open areas more often than males during the non-breeding season. A common explanation for this behavior is that the larger females who are bigger than the males arrive at the preferred habitat first and exclude males from their territory.
The American kestrel is not long-lived, with a lifespan of <5 years for wild birds. The oldest banded wild bird was 11 years and 7 months, while captive kestrels can live up to 14–17 years. In a study, humans accounted for 43.2% of 1,355 reported deaths, which included direct killing and roadkills, while predation (including by larger birds of prey) accounted for 2.8%. This statistic is likely biased, however, as reported deaths are usually found near or in areas populated by humans.


American kestrels feed largely on small animals such as grasshoppers, crickets, butterflies, moths, dragonflies, beetles, lizards, mice, voles, shrews, frogs, and small birds. The kestrel has also been reported to have killed snakes, bats, and squirrels. The kestrel is able to maintain high population densities, at least in part because of the broad scope of its diet. The American kestrel's primary mode of hunting is by perching and waiting for prey to come near. The bird is characteristically seen along roadsides or fields perched on objects such as trees, overhead power lines, or fence posts. It also hunts by kiting, hovering in the air with rapid wing beats and scanning the ground for prey. Other hunting techniques include low flight over fields, or chasing insects and birds in the air.
Prey is most often caught on the ground, though occasionally they take birds in flight.  Before striking, the kestrel characteristically bobs its head and tail, then makes a direct flight toward the prey to grab it in its talons. Much like the red-tailed hawk, American kestrels conserve energy in a hunt and pick their attacks with care as to position and odds of success. During the breeding season, the bird will carry large prey back to its mate or young. One study found that an American kestrel pair "foraged in ways that minimized the costs of energy acquisition in its particular situation". For example, if the success rate for catching prey decreases significantly in a particular area, the bird will move to a different area.


American kestrels are sexually mature by their first spring. In migratory populations, the males arrive at the breeding ground before females, then the female selects a mate. Pair bonds are strong, often permanent. Pairs usually use previous nesting sites in consecutive years. This gives birds an advantage over younger or invading individuals, as they would already be familiar with the hunting grounds, neighbors, predators, and other features of the site. Males perform elaborate dive displays to advertise their territory and attract a mate. These displays consist of several climbs and dives, with three or four "klee" calls at their peaks. Females are promiscuous for about one to two weeks after their arrival at the nesting site. This is thought to stimulate ovulation. Food transfers from the male to the female occur from about four to five weeks prior to egg laying to one to two weeks after.
American kestrels are cavity nesters, but they are able to adapt to a wide variety of nesting situations. They generally prefer natural cavities (such as in trees) with closed tops and tight-fitting entrances that provide for maximum protection of the eggs and young. Kestrels occasionally nest in holes created by large woodpeckers, or use the abandoned nests of other birds, such as red-tailed hawks, merlins, and crows. They have been recorded nesting on cliff ledges and building tops, as well as in abandoned cavities in cactuses. American kestrels also commonly utilize nesting boxes.
Three to seven eggs (typically four or five) are laid approximately 24–72 hours apart. (Two supernormal clutches of eight eggs and one of nine have been documented. One egg in one of the eight-egg clutches hatched as did one egg in the nine-egg clutch.)
The average egg size is 32 mm × 29 mm (1.3 in × 1.1 in), 10% larger than average for birds of its body size. The eggs are white to cream in color with brown or grey splotching. Incubation usually lasts 30 days and is mainly the responsibility of the female, although the male incubates 15–20% of the time. Eggs that are lost are typically replaced in 11–12 days. Hatching takes place over three to four days. Hatchlings are altricial, and are only able to sit up after five days. They grow rapidly, reaching an adult weight after 16–17 days. After 28–31 days, their wings have developed and they are able to leave the nest.
The young adult kestrels may breed from a year old, and the species has approximately a three to five-year life expectancy in the wild.
In ecological terms, the reproductive pattern of the American kestrel leans towards a small bird "r selection" strategy. In r/K selection theory, selective pressures are hypothesized to drive evolution in one of two generalized directions: r or K selection.  R-selected species are those that place an emphasis on a high growth rate, typically exploiting less-crowded ecological niches, and produce many offspring, each of which has a relatively low probability of surviving to adulthood (i.e., high r, low K). By contrast, K-selected species display traits associated with living at densities close to carrying capacity, and typically are strong competitors in such crowded niches that invest more heavily in fewer offspring, each of which has a relatively high probability of surviving to adulthood (i.e., low r, high K). Between these two extremes, the American kestrel is one of the few raptor species that lean towards being r-selected.  They are able to breed at one year old, have few non-breeding adults in the population, and have larger broods.  Their population growth rate is high relative to larger raptors, which typically lean towards being K-selected.


American kestrels are often useful in scientific studies on animal physiology, and are typically captured using the bal-chatri method or raised in nest boxes for experiments. Kestrel metabolic rate has been found to increase in response to rainfall, and at ambient temperatures below about 25 °C. Kestrel metabolic responses to weather and temperature do not vary, however, with sex. Kestrels will increase their oxygen consumption, and therefore their metabolic rate in cold and wet conditions to counteract heat loss.


American kestrels' response to environmental stress is measured as blood concentration of corticosterone (CORT,) a hormone produced by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis that releases stored energy for essential body functions. Extended periods of elevated blood CORT levels may direct metabolic energy away from growth and reproduction. Thus, high levels of traffic disturbance and human development surrounding American kestrel nests are found to increase stress hormones leading to reproductive failure. Among successful nests, however, nestlings do not typically experience a higher stress response to environmental human disturbance, suggesting that they can tolerate a considerable degree of human activity near the nest.


Since American kestrels are carnivores, toxic chemical runoff ingested by their prey can concentrate at high levels in their blood. Wild kestrels are subject to immunomodulation, or an altered immune response, to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), a group of industrial flame retardants that may leach from factories into the environment. When PBDEs accumulate in body tissues of kestrels, the T-cell mediated immune response decreases in efficiency. As a result, kestrels that ingest PBDEs may not respond sufficiently to viruses or other invading microorganisms. In addition, certain PBDEs may suppress the growth and development of the spleen and bursa in American kestrels.
While PBDEs can affect immune response and suppress growth of certain organs, they can also affect the thyroid system of American Kestrels. Exposure to PBDEs in vivo can alter the thyroid system and retinol concentrations in kestrels. This leads to oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation, and changes in glutathione metabolism. These systems are important in early development, growth, regulation of metabolism, thermoregulation, and reproduction. Oxidative stress is also known to contribute to cancers and neurological diseases.
Exposure to PCBs might also affect American Kestrel reproduction. It was found that PCBs affect the function of carotenoids in kestrels. This led to changes in coloration, especially during breeding season for adults. PCB-exposed males where duller and contributed less to egg incubation than unexposed males. PCB-exposed females kept their color longer than they should have. Normally, loss in color is associated with carotenoids being directed to ovaries to help in egg development. PCB-exposed females retained their colors longer, suggesting the PCBs made them less prepared for reproduction. The same females also had significant delays in egg laying. Offspring also showed higher incidence of developmental problems and decreased reproductive success.
PCBs have also been found to affect eye color in American Kestrels. Eye color in kestrels is known to vary with age and sex, however, when exposed to PCBs, color patterns were suppressed regardless of age and sex. While it is unknown what role eye color plays in visual acuity, this maybe be of greater concern to birds like kestrels who rely heavily on vision for hunting.
PDBEs were linked to changes in breeding behavior in kestrels as well. Different levels of PDBE exposure were linked to different changes in behavior as well. Overall, PDBE exposure led to changes in behaviors that strengthen the bond between a breeding pair. Such behaviors include frequent copulation, food transfers, male posturing, nest box inspection, and specific mating calls (7). High exposure levels led to increases in some behaviors and decreases in some, whereas low exposure caused decreases in almost all behaviors observed. PDBE exposure also altered the timing of these behaviors, often delaying them by several days when compared to the control group.
American Kestrels have also been used extensively in toxicology research. Fenthion is a common pesticide that is used to kill insects such as flies and gnats. It was also found that kestrels are highly susceptible to secondary fenthion poisoning. When 14 kestrels were presented with live sparrows who had come into contact with a fenthion solution, all 14 died within 3 days after consuming the sparrows.
Diphacinone is another common pesticide that is often used to kill rodents and is thought to be related to secondary poisoning in birds of prey. When kestrels were orally dosed with diphacinone, blood clotting rates significantly decreases. Kestrels were also found to be 20 to 30 times more sensitive to secondary poisoning from diphacinone than other birds like Northern bobwhite and mallard ducks.
American kestrels can also be significantly influenced by air contaminants. When exposed to common gaseous pollutants such as benzene, toluene, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide, significant changes to the thyroid systems were observed. Higher levels of thyroid activity indicate that exposure to these gases leads to a loss of inhibition of thyroid glands in kestrels. However, there were no changes to immune function or food consumption.


The American kestrel is likely the most abundant falcon in North America, although its total population is difficult to quantify, as local populations can change quickly due to resource availability. Count data from the USGS Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) indicate that the North American breeding population is experiencing long-term and gradual but sustained declines, with some regions, such as New England and coastal California, exhibiting more rapid declines. Count data from raptor migration corridors also indicate regional population declines and largely corroborate BBS data. The North American population has been estimated at 1.2 million pairs, with the Central and South American populations being as large. A smaller estimate is 236,000 birds wintering in North America. A population increase occurred in the 18th and 19th centuries, probably due to deforestation for agriculture. The resulting pastures provided an ideal habitat for kestrels.
The southeastern U.S. subspecies (Falco sparverius paulus) has declined 82% since 1940 due to a decrease in nest site availability. This decline is a result of longleaf pines being cleared for agricultural fields. Despite this, the American kestrel is classed as least concern on the IUCN Red List.
The Peregrine Fund, a leading non-profit organization advancing research and conservation of birds of prey worldwide, launched the American Kestrel Partnership in 2012. The American Kestrel Partnership developed and maintains a web-based network for citizen and professional scientists to enter, manage, and consolidate data from kestrel nest box monitoring programs in the Western Hemisphere. The database is being used by researchers to model and understand relationships between kestrel nesting parameters (e.g., phenology, occupancy, survival, productivity, and nestling weight and exposure to environmental toxins) and environmental factors, such as land use, landscape composition and configuration, climate conditions (e.g., drought), and point sources of environmental toxins. Each breeding season, the American Kestrel Partnership features a live-streaming video feed from the nest box located at The Peregrine Fund's campus in Boise, Idaho.


One important use of American kestrels is in falconry. It is often considered a beginner's bird, though the careful weight control needed to maintain the kestrel's desire to aggressively hunt takes skill. Falconers experienced in extracting the best performance the species is capable of, report they are highly reliable on the normal game of sparrows and starlings. More aggressive individuals are sometimes capable of capturing prey up to approximately twice their own body weight, allowing the occasional capture of true game birds such as quail and dove. However, most falconers interested in the reliable taking of such game do prefer larger falcons or hawks. The advantage the American kestrel offers the experienced falconer is its suitability to simple and urban falconry not requiring large tracts of land or the use of hunting dogs. This form of falconry is sometimes referred to as "micro-falconry" or "micro-hawking."  The other small raptor species commonly used in micro-falconry are the merlin, the sharp-shinned hawk (the smallest accipiter), and the European kestrel (a true kestrel).
Hawking with the American kestrel requires adapting to the strengths and weaknesses of the bird.  It is a tiny falcon, and even for its size, it is less muscular than other small falcons such as the athletic and swift merlin.  It is more adapted to ambush hunting and short chases than to the longer aerial chases larger falcons often adopt.  Used within its limits, it is effective.  Experienced falconer Matthew Mullenix, author of the book "American Kestrels in Modern Falconry", in an article comparing kestrels to merlins, summed their abilities up as follows:
1. "Kestrels are thin-winged, flat-chested, under-powered and lack acceleration compared to merlins. I say that with much affection for them and with thousands of kestrel kills to prove these are not necessarily damning differences. Comparing a red-tailed hawk to a Harris' or goshawk will conjure equally negative points of fact, yet we all know how good trained red-tails can be!"
2. "The chief variable to choosing between a kestrel and a merlin may be your hawking land. If you live in open country or have access at least to good pasture for cattle, a merlin can excel there. If you plan to hunt mostly in town or suburb, and especially if you plan to hawk from a car, I'd recommend the kestrel. The consideration coming in at close second is your intended quarry. To snipe, dove, quail and open-country sparrows, merlins are best suited. For most blackbirds (Icteridea), either falcon can prove effective. Starlings in close are extremely vulnerable to kestrels, but in the open are best prey for merlins. The same holds true for house sparrows, with this exception: sparrows in thick cover are better quarry for kestrels. This is the slip for which I feel the American kestrel is perfect."
3. "Once committed to an attack, trained kestrels tend to follow through to the end. They will stoop into cover, chase birds on foot, bind to quarry twice their size, and never let go voluntarily. They have small feet, but as written elsewhere, also have the strongest feet for their size. It is a simple fact that American kestrels hold starlings better than merlins, on average, and will gladly tackle larger quarry than will any jack (male merlin)."
American kestrels do not train so easily as some larger falcons (particularly the peregrine falcon) in the art of "waiting on" to perform a diving stoop on flushed prey.  However, some individual kestrels do master this skill. Falconers sometimes train them to climb to a stooping position with tidbits on kites or balloons that the kestrels learn to climb after.  More common hunting techniques are to "slip" them after spotted game from the fist, or to release them from a vehicle window close to spotted quarry.  These techniques are more of a natural fit to the kestrel's ambushing methods in the wild.
Falconers using the American kestrel should be alert to protect the falcon from larger predators that may attack the kestrel, particularly if it is distracted on the ground with captured prey.  Domestic cats and dogs are the greatest threat to attack the falcon on the ground, but the Cooper's hawk is well known to boldly attack kestrels.  This mid-sized American accipiter has sufficient size and strength to carry the kestrel away, though falconers have reported often being successful in recovering the kestrel unharmed by acting quickly to intimidate the larger hawk into releasing the kestrel.
American kestrels are bred in captivity for use in falconry and are among the easier falcons to breed.  They are also sufficiently common that "passage" birds in their first year are relatively easy to trap.  Wild-caught kestrels "tame down" fairly quickly.  They will usually be eating from a falconer's hand the day after capture, be training within a week, and be ready to hunt in three to five weeks.  A very tame American kestrel will allow itself to be picked up around the body with one hand while accepting tidbits from the other hand. Such tameness is very useful when checking or treating the bird for injury or illness.
Migratory raptors native to the United States are protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, so American kestrels are illegal to possess without a permit (such as a falconry permit) in the United States, Canada, and Mexico.


The common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) is a bird of prey species belonging to the kestrel group of the falcon family Falconidae. It is also known as the European kestrel, Eurasian kestrel, or Old World kestrel. In the United Kingdom, where no other kestrel species commonly occurs, it is generally just called "kestrel".
This species occurs over a large range. It is widespread in Europe, Asia, and Africa, as well as occasionally reaching the east coast of North America. It has colonized a few oceanic islands, but vagrant individuals are generally rare; in the whole of Micronesia for example, the species was only recorded twice each on Guam and Saipan in the Marianas.