Arrow arum, Peltandra virginica, is a member of the arum family, Araceae, and is known by the names tuckahoe, green arrow arum, and peltandre.
It was first identified as "tockowhough" by William Strachey, Secretary of the Colony of Virginia in 1611, in his book "The Historie of Travaile Into Virginia Britannia". He describes its starchy root as a primary food source of the Powhatan Indians which they gathered from the marshes of Virginia. It was originally described as Arum virginicum by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 and has also been placed in the genera Alocasia, Caladium, Calla, Lecontia, and Rensselaeria. Other synonyms include Peltandra luteospadix and P. tharpii.
In the eastern United States and Canada where Peltandra virginica resides, one other Peltandra species exists, P. sagittifolia. P. virginica can be distinguished from the other extant taxon of Peltandra by the variation in leaf form, average greater size in non-reproductive structures, and the difference in color of the fruit. The fruit of P. sagittifolia is red with a white spathe, and the fruit of P. virginica are green to purple with a green to yellow green spathe.


Peltandra virginica is a native to North America; its range spans the entire eastern coast of the United States and goes as far west as Texas. It is also naturalized in areas of California up to Oregon and is present in eastern regions of Canada. It mostly inhabits the wetlands and swamps, including marshes and bogs.


Based on the Red List of Threatened Species 2016, P. virginica is a taxon of Least Concern, this is because of its broad range in eastern and central North America. In some areas within the range of P. virginica the populations are diminishing. It has also been found in California. While common in most of its range, P. virginica is listed as Endangered in Iowa.


The plant contains calcium oxalate crystals, making it unpalatable. Indigenous peoples of the Americas used most parts of the plant for food, however, cooking it for hours first to make it safe to eat.
Historical accounts suggest that Native Americans may have used Peltandra virginica as a food source. They may have eaten the seeds and fruits as well as the leaves and roots. The section of P. virginica's range where its populations are highest, from Pennsylvania to coastal Virginia, are where it was most likely used for food. In other times and places, it has been used as an ornamental plant and to stabilize sediments in small bodies of water.


Peltandra virginica is considered a low percentage of various animals' food sources. Peltandra virginica makes up 5-10% of the diet of small mammals that reside within its range and makes up 10-25% of the diet of water birds that share its range. Peltandra virginica makes up 5-10% of the diet of water birds that share its range.


The non-reproductive structures of Peltandra virginica are known to contain calcium oxalate crystals, that can irritate the gastrointestinal system of animals and people and has been linked to the development of kidney stones.


The dusky-legged guan (Penelope obscura) is a species of bird in the family Cracidae, the chachalacas, guans, and curassows. It is found in Uruguay, northeastern Argentina and southernmost areas of Paraguay and Brazil. In early 2021, the former subspecies P. o. bridgesi, found in southwestern Bolivia and northwestern Argentina, was elevated to species rank as Yungas guan.


Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forest.


The bird measures an average of 73 centimeters in length and weighs an average of 1.2 kilograms, being very similar in appearance to its smaller relative, the rusty-margined guan (P. supercilliaris).


It eats fruit, flowers and buds taken from the ground or plucked from tree branches, and acts as a seed disperser for various species of trees and palms, such as the endangered palm Euterpe edulis, or the palms of the genus Syagrus (e.g. queen palm and licuri).


Pennantia corymbosa, commonly known as kaikomako (from the Māori kaikōmako), is a small dioecious forest tree of New Zealand.
Small creamy, white flowers are produced between November and February, followed by a shiny black fruit in autumn. They are a favourite food of the New Zealand bellbird.
The Māori name kaikōmako means food (kai) of the bellbird (kōmako). Traditionally, Māori used the tree to make fire by repeatedly rubbing a pointed stick into a groove on a piece of mahoe.
An English name is "duck's foot", coming from the shape of the juvenile plant's leaf. Juvenile plants have small leaves with tangled, divaricating stems, while mature plants have much larger leaves and a normal tree architecture.


Penstemon centranthifolius is a species of penstemon known by the common name scarlet bugler. It is native to California and parts of Mexico, where it grows in many types of dry habitat from coast to desert, such as chaparral and oak woodland.


Penstemon centranthifolius is a perennial herb with many straight, hairless, erect branches which may exceed one meter in maximum height. The thick, untoothed leaves may be up to 10 centimeters long and are arranged oppositely, with some pairs fused together about the stem. The top of the stem is occupied by a long inflorescence bearing narrow tubular flowers with small projecting lobes at the lips, the longest flowers 3 centimeters long. The flowers are bright red to orange-red and hairless all over, including the staminode.


This species commonly hybridizes with showy penstemon (Penstemon spectabilis), a species with wide-mouthed purple-blue flowers, to produce a penstemon with pinkish-purple flowers which is intermediate in size and named Penstemon × parishii.


Penstemon cobaea is a flowering plant in the plantain family, commonly known as cobaea beardtongue, prairie beardtongue or foxglove penstemon. The plant is native to the central United States, primarily the Great Plains from Nebraska to Texas, with additional populations in the Ozarks of Missouri and Arkansas. There are also populations reported in the southwestern United States as well as in Illinois and Ohio, but these appear to be introductions.


Penstemon cobaea grows on hillsides, gravel, rocky outcrops, and gypsum soils, and eroded pastures.


Penstemon cobaea is usually about 30 cm (1 foot) tall, but occasionally reaches as much as 1.23 m (4 ft). The flowers are 5–7.5 cm (2–3 in) long and have five lobes, with two large lobes on top and three small lobes on the bottom. The flowers have a structure reminiscent of a ribcage inside, and can be white or pink with magenta lines. The leaves of the plant are broad, at about 3.8–15 cm (1+1⁄2–5+7⁄8 in) long and 0.6–5 cm (1⁄4–2 in) wide.


The flowers of Penstemon cobaea will eventually become brown and black capsules, which contain the seeds. After planting, the seeds will take about two years to flower. It is good to leave 40 to 50 cm (16 to 20 in) between plants when gardening, and lime is often needed in the soil.


Penstemon digitalis (known by the common names foxglove beard-tongue, foxglove beardtongue,  talus slope penstemon, and white beardtongue) is a species of flowering plant in the plantain family, Plantaginaceae. The flowers are white and are borne in summer. It is native to eastern Canada and the eastern and southeastern United States. Penstemon digitalis is the most widespread species of Penstemon east of the Mississippi River.


Penstemon digitalis is a glabrous 3 to 5 foot tall herbaceous plant with opposite, shiny green, simple leaves, on slender, purple stems. The leaves are up to 5 inches long. While upright, the stems average anywhere from 2 to 3 feet tall. The flowering panicle extends to almost one third of the plant's height and has pairs of branches which repeat with two flowers multiple times. The pedicels are almost one fourth of an inch long and produce 1.25 inch long two-lipped tubular flowers over dark green foliage.  The flowers have tiny white hairs on the outside of the tube.  The plant has elliptic basal leaves and lance-shaped to oblong stem leaves.
The species was originally described as "Fox-Glove-Like Pentstemon" (sic) and the specific epithet digitalis is a direct reference to the foxglove genus Digitalis. The plant grows in moist, sandy soil in full sun in meadows, prairies, fields, wood margins, open woods and along railroad tracks. Its bloom period is from late spring to early summer. The plant is known to attract butterflies and birds such as hummingbirds. It tolerates deer browsing. Native states for P. digitalis include Iowa, Nebraska, and Missouri although it is less common in Iowan native prairies compared to other Penstemon species.


The genus Penstemon is the largest in North America with 270 species. However, genome size was relatively unknown for the species, which can be important for taxonomy. Scientists estimated the genome size for 40% of the species in the genus using flow cytometry. Penstemon digitalis has one of the largest genomes of the genus Penstemon.


Like other Penstemon species, it is used in roadside planting because it is easily grown and showy. It is recommended for easy use in gardens from the Midwest to the Atlantic coast and Pacific Northwest by the American Penstemon Society. Iowa's Living Roadway Profiler from the Iowa Department of Transportation says that the plant's "decorative seed capsules add interest in the fall and winter".
One of the plant's cultivars is named Husker Red because of its red foliage that has white or bluish-pink flowers. The Perennial Plant Association chose the Husker Red cultivar of Penstemon digitalis as the 1996 Perennial Plant of the Year. The author of the book Perennial All-Stars described Husker Red as "a stunning flowering perennial" and that "you can easily see why the Perennial Plant Association chose this perennial above all others". Husker Red was named after the Nebraska Cornhuskers. The other cultivar, Mystica, is green at first and then later changes to red in the fall.
Penstemon 'Dark Towers' is a hybrid between Penstemon digitalis 'Husker Red' and Penstemon 'Prairie Splendor' (which in turn is a hybrid of Penstemon cobaea and Penstemon triflorus). The hybrid has tubular pink flowers that grow up to 1.5 inches tall, red foliage, and is 1.5 feet to 3 feet tall. Although Dark Towers is similar to Husker Red, its red foliage is darker than that of the Husker Red cultivar and has more height. It also stays red for a longer time in the summer. Dale Lindgren created and named both Husker Red and Dark Towers at the University of Nebraska in 1983. Lindgren decided to create Husker Red because of its purplish-red foliage.


Penstemon heterophyllus is a species of penstemon known by the common names bunchleaf penstemon, foothill penstemon, and foothill beardtongue. It is endemic to California.
The plant can be found in all of the major coastal mountain ranges and the northern Sierra Nevada foothills. It is a member of the flora in many local habitat types such as: hillsides, grasslands, chaparral, and open oak woodland and forest areas.


Penstemon heterophyllus is a perennial herb producing upright, branching stems easily exceeding one meter in height and becoming woody at the bases. The leaves are variable in shape and may reach nearly 10 centimeters long. The inflorescence produces several wide-mouthed tubular flowers up to 4 centimeters in length. The flowers may be shades of blue or purple to nearly magenta.


Penstemon heterophyllus is cultivated as an ornamental plant by plant nurseries. It is used as a flowering perennial for traditional flower beds, and in native plant, drought-tolerant, and habitat gardens and public landscapes. It is a nectar source for (native) birds and butterflies.
Several cultivars have been selected for flower color and plant form, for use in Mediterranean climate and other low-water-use gardens, including:
Penstemon heterophyllus 'Electric Blue' — intense blue flowers.
Penstemon heterophyllus 'Margarita BOP' — sky blue to reddish purple flowers.
Penstemon heterophyllus 'Blue Springs' — bright blue flowers.


Penstemon palmeri, known by the common name Palmer's penstemon, is a species of perennial flowering plant in the genus Penstemon that is notable for its showy, rounded flowers, and for being one of the few scented penstemons. The plant, in the family Plantaginaceae, is named after the botanist Edward Palmer.


Penstemon palmeri is native to desert mountains from the eastern Mojave Desert in California, to eastern Nevada, northeastern Arizona, and New Mexico, and north through areas in Utah, Colorado, Wyoming, Idaho, and eastern Washington.
Penstemon palmeri is a drought-tolerant perennial plant, preferring well draining drier soils. It grows in washes and bajadas, roadsides, canyon floors, creosote bush scrub, and juniper woodlands, from 1,100–2,300 metres (3,600–7,500 ft).


Penstemon palmeri, Palmer's penstemon, grows erect and may reach 2 metres (6.6 ft) height. The leaves are generally oppositely arranged and have toothed margins. The inflorescence is a panicle or raceme with small bracts.
The flower has a five-lobed calyx of sepals and a cylindrical corolla which may have an expanded throat. The staminode is partially hairy. The showy, rounded flower has large pink to violet to blue-purple petals and is fragrant, which distinguishes it from other, similar-looking penstemon. Occasional specimens are red, yellow, or white flowered.


There are three Penstemon palmeri varieties:
Penstemon palmeri var. palmeri - Palmer's penstemon, most occurrences of this species are this variety.
Penstemon palmeri var. macranthus - scented beardtongue, is endemic to the Great Basin Desert in Nevada
Penstemon palmeri var. eglandulosus - scented beardtongue, is limited to Utah and Arizona


It is evergreen, and it is a larval host to both the Arachne checkerspot and the variable checkerspot.


Penstemon spectabilis is a species of penstemon known by the common name showy penstemon or showy beardtongue. It is native to  southern California and Baja California, where it grows in the chaparral, scrub, and woodlands of the coastal mountain ranges.


Penstemon spectabilis is a perennial herb growing erect to a maximum height often exceeding one meter. The thin leaves are lance-shaped to oval, serrated on the edges, and up to 10 centimeters in length. The oppositely arranged pairs may fuse about the stem at the bases. The inflorescence bears wide-mouthed tubular purple-blue flowers which may be over 3 centimeters long. The throat is lighter in color, lavender to nearly white, and hairless inside. Flowers bloom April to June.
This plant is often a pioneer species in habitat recently disturbed. It is pollinated by wasps such as Pseudomasaris vespoides, as well as by hummingbirds.


The nominate variety. The inflorescence is glabrous (lacking hair). This variety is distributed across the San Gabriel and San Bernardino Mountains, and the Peninsular Ranges from California to Mexico, reaching its southern distribution at northwest the foothills of the Sierra de San Pedro Martir in Baja California.
Penstemon spectabilis var. subinteger (D.D. Keck) C.C. Freeman
A variety endemic to Baja California, commonly known as the Peninsular showy beardtongue, found from the vicinity of San Telmo and San Quintin south to the Bahia de Los Angeles.
Penstemon spectabilis var. subvicosus (D.D. Keck) McMinn
This variety has a glandular inflorescence. Native to the Transverse Ranges of California.


Pentachondra pumila, also known as carpet heath, is a small alpine shrub in the epacris family (Ericaceae). It is commonly found in Australia and New Zealand in areas of high rainfall, being known for its small white flowers as well as its red, hollow fruit that grows on branch ends. It is distinguishable as a prostrate, mat-like shrub, growing in rocky or boggy alpine areas. The fruit is edible and is a food source for many species of bird.


P. pumila is a prostrate shrub, up to 10 cm in height and 40 cm in diameter. Branches are pubescent or occasionally glabrous. Leaves are crowded near ends of branches and are oblong to elliptical in shape, 3-5 mm long and 1-2 mm wide. Leaves are leathery and bluntly keeled with 5-7 veins on the lower surface, margins are ciliate. Flowering occurs from November through to February; small, white flowers are solitary on or near the ends of branches and sessile, usually facing upright. Flowers are hermaphrodite, with petals fused to form a tube 5 mm long. The upper side of petals is densely hairy, becoming sparser in the corolla tube. Five anthers are fused to the petals with a short style protruding from the centre, reaching 1.5 mm in height. Fruiting occurs from December through to April; fruit is green through winter months, becoming a fleshy red drupe upon ripening in the summer, and is separated into distinct pyrenes, with the style remaining after the death of the flower.


P. pumila occurs in areas above the treeline in cushion bogs, open snow tussock grasslands, and herbfields in Australia (Tasmania, Victoria, and New South Wales) and New Zealand (North, South, and Stewart Island). It is widely distributed through both countries in the aforementioned states, though less so in the North Island of New Zealand and New South Wales in Australia. It frequently grows in exposed, rocky sites or in poorly drained, peaty areas, and is commonly found on the nests of ants (genus Ochetellus). It is often confused with Cyathodes dealbata, which is similar in appearance and growth habit, though can be distinguished by the glaucus veins on the underside of leaves, which is not evident on P. pumila.


P. pumila requires open, sunny positions in areas that are subject to mild winters (no less than -5℃), and cool, moist summers. A high rainfall is required as it is intolerant to drought. It prefers a gritty, peaty soil and rocky ground for establishment.


Self-pollination occurs in most flowers, with pollen falling into the corolla tube from the anthers. Despite the frequency of this occurring, this species of plant has a high degree of self-sterility to prevent intense inbreeding. Through self-pollination, it has been found that only a small number of fruits arise, and those that do, have a reduced number of seeds. In contrast to this, cross pollination has been found to induce high fruit numbers. Although hermaphrodites, the anthers, short stigma, sticky pollen, and nectar that resides in the bottom of the corolla tube suggest that insect pollination is the main means of cross pollination between flowers (both on the same plant and others in the surrounding area)


Pentagramma triangularis, commonly known as the gold fern or the goldback fern, is a species of fern in the family Pteridaceae, native to Western North America, particularly to the state of California.
Its common name "goldback" refers to the light yellow color of the fern's protective coating which inhibits moisture loss. The gold texture appears as a dry powder that is excreted on the underside of the fern.
The Latin specific epithet Pentagramma derives from "five lines" or "stripes" while Triangularis derives from "three sided", describing the shape of the fern's five broad triangular fronds.


Like all ferns, P. triangularis does not produce flowers nor seeds, only spores. It has smooth Rhizome stems that are anywhere from black to brown in color, and its fronds are bright green with spore sacs on the bottom surrounded by a lighter yellow excreted substance.
P. triangularis can grow up to a height of 6 to 12 inches.


The ecological distribution of P. triangularis includes the west coast of North America and extends from Vancouver Island, British Columbia, to Baja California, Mexico, east to Arizona, and in the Blue Mountains of Washington. This species is also found on the Pacific island of Guadalupe, and plants there may represent an undescribed taxon.
P. triangularis prefers shaded areas and is commonly found in rocky crevices and slopes, mixed evergreen and oak forests, and occasionally on dry brushy slopes.
It is found in elevations between 500 ft (152 m) and 8,500 ft (2591 m).


The fronds are eaten by species such as the Dusky-footed woodrat.
The Indigenous tribes of California would use the goldback fern as an analgesic treatment. The Karuk tribe would use the fern to treat pain related to childbirth, and the Miwok tribe would use the fern as a treatment for toothaches. Additionally, Yurok tribe children would use the fern to create body art with the golden powder.


The forest bug or red-legged shieldbug (Pentatoma rufipes) is a species of shield bug in the family Pentatomidae, commonly found in most of Europe. It inhabits forests, woodlands, orchards, and gardens.


P. rufipes can reach a length of 11–14 mm (0.43–0.55 in). These large and flat shield bugs are shaped like an escutcheon-type shield. They have a dark brown body in autumn, lighter in summer, usually bronze-colored. They show red-orange to cream markings at the tip of their scutella. The connexium usually has dark brown, reddish, and light blue bands. The legs and the first segment of the antennae are usually red-brown or bright orange. Its distinguishing characteristic is a pair of projections extending forward from the shoulders at the front of its dorsal thorax. The larvae are dark, but become lighter, especially at the hind body, with increasing age.


Forest bugs are polyphagous. Their main food source is any of several species of oaks, but they can also be found on alder, hazel, and other deciduous trees, including apple and cherry.
They are sap-feeders and use piercing mouthparts to withdraw the liquid. Occasionally, adults consume insects, especially caterpillars, as well as fruits. Adults can be found from July to November. Females lay eggs during the summer in the cracks of tree bark, or on a leaf top, and the larvae hatch the following spring.  Forest bugs are also an agricultural and garden pest, as they feed on fruit and nut trees.


The scarlet minivet (Pericrocotus speciosus) is a small passerine bird. This minivet is found in tropical southern Asia from Northeast India to southern China, Indonesia, and the Philippines. They are common resident breeding birds in forests and other well-wooded habitats including gardens, especially in hilly country. While the male of most subspecies are scarlet to orange with black upper parts, the females are usually yellow with greyish olive upper parts. Several former subspecies have been elevated to a species status in recent works. These include the orange minivet.  All subspecies have the same habits of gleaning for insects and are often seen in mixed-species foraging flocks, usually foraging in small groups, high up in the forest canopy.


The scarlet minivet is 20–22 cm (7.9–8.7 in) long with a strong dark beak and long wings. The male has black upperparts and head, and scarlet underparts, tail edges, rump and wing patches. The shape and colour of the wing patches and the shade or orange in the male varies across populations. In the subspecies nigroluteus and marchesae from south Philippines the scarlet/orange is entirely replaced by yellow. The female is grey above, with yellow underparts (including the face), tail edges, rump and wing patches.


This minivet catches insects in trees by flycatching or while perched. It flushes insects out of foliage by beating its wings hard. Scarlet minivet will form small flocks. Its song is a pleasant whistling. This bird nests high up in the treetops. The nest is a cup-like structure woven with small twigs and spiders' webs to increase the strength of the nest. Two or three spotted pale green eggs are laid. Incubation is mainly by the female, but both birds help to raise the offspring.


Perilla frutescens, commonly called deulkkae, perilla or Korean perilla, is a species of Perilla in the mint family Lamiaceae. It is an annual plant native to Southeast Asia and Indian highlands, and is traditionally grown in the Korean peninsula, southern China, Japan and India as a crop.
An edible plant, perilla is grown in gardens and attracts butterflies. It is aromatic with a strong mint-like smell. A variety of this plant, P. frutescens var. crispa known as "shiso", is widely grown in Japan. In the United States, perilla is a weed pest, toxic to cattle after ingestion.


Along with other plants in the genus Perilla, the plant is commonly called "perilla". It is also referred to as Korean perilla, due to its extensive cultivation in Korea and use in Korean cuisine.
In the United States, where the plant has become a weed, the plant is known by many names, such as perilla mint, beefsteak plant, purple perilla, Chinese basil, wild basil, blueweed, Joseph's coat, wild coleus and rattlesnake weed.


Perilla frutescens has three known varieties.
P. frutescens (var. frutescens) – called Korean perilla or deulkkae.
P. frutescens var. crispa – also called shiso or tía tô.
P. frutescens var. hirtella – also called lemon perilla.


Perilla is an annual plant growing 60–90 cm (24–35 in) tall, with hairy square stalks.
The leaves are opposite, 7–12 cm (3–4+1⁄2 in) long and 5–8 cm (2–3 in) wide, with a broad oval shape, pointy ends, serrated(saw-toothed) margins, and long leafstalks. The leaves are green with occasional touches of purple on the underside.
The flowers bloom on racemes at the end of branches and the main stalk in late summer. The calyx, 3–4 mm (1⁄8–5⁄32 in) long, consist of upper three sepals and the hairy lower two. The corolla is 4–5 mm (5⁄32–3⁄16 in) long with its lower lip longer than the upper. Two of the four stamens are long.
The fruit is a schizocarp, 2 mm (1⁄16 in) in diameter, and with reticulate pattern on the outside. Perilla seeds can be soft or hard, being white, grey, brown, and dark brown in colour and globular in shape. 1000 seeds weigh about 4 g (1⁄8 oz). Perilla seeds contain about 38-45% lipid.


The plant was introduced into Korea before the Unified Silla era, when it started to be widely cultivated.
In its natural state, the yield of perilla leaves and seeds is not high. If the stem is cut about 5 cm (2 in) above ground level in summer, a new stalk grows and it produces more fruit. Leaves can be harvested from the stem cut off in the summer, as well as from the new stalk and its branches, throughout summer and autumn. The seeds are harvested in autumn when the fruits are ripe. To collect perilla seeds, the whole plant is harvested and the seeds are beat out of the plant, before being spread for sun drying.


Various perilla varieties are used for traditional medicine in Southeast Asia.
Characteristic aroma-active phytochemicals in perilla leaves include hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, furans, and ketones, particularly perilla ketone, egoma ketone, and isoegoma ketone. Other compounds include perillaldehyde, limonene, linalool, beta-caryophyllene, menthol, and alpha-pinene. The crispa variety is differentiated by leaf and stem colors, which vary from green to red to purple, indicating the presence of anthocyanins.
Although perilla is widely cultivated as an edible plant for humans, it is toxic to cattle and other ruminants, as well as horses. In grazing cattle, plant ketones cause acute respiratory distress syndrome, also called "panting disease".


Contact dermatitis may occur in people handling the leaves or oil. Consumption of large amounts of seeds has resulted in anaphylaxis.


Perilla seeds are rich in dietary fiber and dietary minerals such as calcium, iron, niacin, protein, and thiamine. Perilla leaves are also rich in vitamins A, C and riboflavin.


In Manchu cuisine, perilla leaves are used to make efen, ("steamed bun"). The perilla buns are made with glutinous sorghum or glutinous rice flour dough filled with red bean paste and wrapped with perilla leaves. The dish is related to Food Exhaustion Day, a traditional Manchu holiday celebrated on every 26th day of the 8th month of the lunisolar calendar.


In Japan, the plant is used far less compared to shiso (Perilla frutescens var. crispa). In the Tōhoku regions of northeastern Japan, it is known as jūnen ("ten years"), because it was believed to add ten years to a person's lifespan. A local preparation in Fukushima Prefecture, called shingorō, consists of half-pounded non-glutinous rice patties, which are skewered, smeared with miso, blended with roasted and ground jūnen seeds, and roasted over charcoal.
Oil pressed from the seeds was historically used to in lamps. The warlord Saitō Dōsan (1494–1556) was said to have been originally a seller of egoma seed oil.


Having a distinctive nutty aroma and taste, the oil pressed from the toasted perilla seeds is used as a flavor enhancer, condiment, and a cooking oil in Korean cuisine. The press cake remaining after pressing perilla oil can be used as natural fertilizer or animal feed.


Adults show striking sexual dimorphism. The caterpillar has a greyish head and flanks, with the broad black dorsum. Setae are white. Pupa is bristly, piebald in dark grey and cream. Setae in pupa orange. The caterpillar is a minor pest on several banyan species such as Ficus benjamina, Ficus benghalensis, Ficus racemosa, Ficus pumila and Ficus religiosa. and also many crop plants like Artocarpus and Mangifera.
The species is associated with an RNA virus called Perina nuda virus.


The complete genome sequence of Perina nuda picorna-like virus, an insect-infecting RNA virus with a genome organization similar to that of the mammalian picornaviruses.
Perina nuda virus
Life history of the Perina nuda (Fabricius) and virus production of the infected pupae
Continuous Cell line from Pupal Ovary of Perina nuda (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) That Is Permissive to Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus from P. nuda
A Perina nuda cell line (NTU-Pn-HF) from pupal ovary that is persistently infected with a picorna-like virus (PnPV)
Characterization of a multiple-nucleocapsid nucleopolyhedrovirus isolated from Perina nuda (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) larvae
The 5′ untranslated region of Perina nuda virus (PnV) possesses a strong internal translation activity in baculovirus-infected insect cells


The american cockroach (Periplaneta americana) is the largest species of common cockroach, and often considered a pest. In certain regions of the U.S. it is colloquially known as the waterbug, though it is not a true waterbug since it is not aquatic. It is also known as the ship cockroach, kakerlac, and Bombay canary. It is often misidentified as a palmetto bug.
Despite their name, American cockroaches are native to Africa and the Middle East.  They are believed to have been introduced to the Americas only from the 17th century AD onward as a result of human commercial patterns, including the Atlantic slave trade.


Despite the name, none of the Periplaneta species is native to the Americas; P. americana was introduced to what is now the United States from Africa as early as 1625. They are now common in tropical climates because human activity has extended the insects' range of habitation, and are virtually cosmopolitan in distribution as a result of global commerce.


Of all common cockroach species, the American cockroach has the largest body size; molts 6–14 times (mostly 13 times) before metamorphosis; and has the longest lifecycle, up to about 700 days.
It has an average length around 4 cm (1.6 in) and is about 7 mm (0.28 in) tall. They are reddish brown and have a yellowish margin on the pronotum, the body region behind the head. Immature cockroaches resemble adults except they are wingless.
The cockroach is divided into three sections; the body is flattened and broadly oval, with a shield-like pronotum covering its head. A pronotum is a plate-like structure that covers all or part of the dorsal surface of the thorax of certain insects. They also have chewing mouth parts, long, segmented antennae, and leathery fore wings with delicate hind wings. The third section of the cockroach is the abdomen.
The insect can travel quickly, often darting out of sight when a threat is perceived, and can fit into small cracks and under doors despite its fairly large size. It is considered one of the fastest running insects.
In an experiment, a P. americana registered a record speed of 5.4 km/h (3.4 mph), about 50 body lengths per second, which would be comparable to a human running at 330 km/h (210 mph).
It has a pair of large compound eyes, each having over 3500 individual lenses (ommatidia, hexagonal apertures which provide a kind of vision known as the mosaic vision with more sensitivity but less resolution, being common during night, hence called nocturnal vision.) It is a very active night insect that shuns light.
American cockroach nymphs are capable of limb regeneration.


The American cockroach shows a characteristic insect morphology with its body bearing divisions as head, trunk, and abdomen. The trunk, or thorax, is divisible into prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax. Each thoracic segment gives rise to a pair of walking appendages (known as cursorial legs). The organism bears two pairs of wings. The fore wings, known as tegmina, arise from mesothorax and are dark and opaque. The hind wings arise from the metathorax and are used in flight, though cockroaches rarely resort to flight. The abdomen is divisible into 10 segments, each of which is surrounded by chitinous exoskeleton plates called sclerites, including dorsal tergites, ventral sternites, and lateral pleurites.


American cockroaches have three developmental stages: egg, nymph, and adult. Females produce an egg case (ootheca) which protrudes from the tip of the abdomen. On average, females produce 9–10 oothecae, although they can sometimes produce as many as 90. After about two days, the egg cases are placed on a surface in a safe location. Egg cases are about 0.9 cm (0.35 in) long, brown, and purse-shaped. Immature cockroaches emerge from egg cases in 6–8 weeks and require 6–12 months to mature. After hatching, the nymphs feed and undergo a series of 13 moultings (or ecdysis). Adult cockroaches can live up to an additional year, during which females produce an average of 150 young. The American cockroach reproductive cycle can last up to 600 days; it is capable of reproduction through facultative parthenogenesis.


The American cockroach genome is the second-largest insect genome on record, after Locusta migratoria. Around 60% of its genome is composed of repeat elements. Around 90% of the genome can be found in other members of Blattodea. The genome codes for a large number of chemoreceptor families, including 522 taste receptors and 154 olfactory receptors. The 522 taste receptors comprise the largest number found among insects for which genomes have been sequenced. About 329 of the taste receptors are involved in bitter taste perception. These traits, along with enlarged groups of genes relating to detoxification, the immune system, and growth and reproduction, are believed to be part of the reasons behind the cockroach's ability to adapt to human living spaces.


American cockroaches are omnivorous and opportunistic feeders that eat  materials such as cheese, beer, tea, leather, bakery products, starch in book bindings, manuscripts, glue, hair, flakes of dried skin, dead animals, plant materials, soiled clothing, and glossy paper with starch sizing. They are particularly fond of fermenting foods. They have also been observed to feed upon dead or wounded cockroaches of their own or other species.


In the immature (nymph) stage, American cockroaches are wingless and incapable of flight. Adults have useful wings and can fly for short distances. If they start from a high place, such as a tree, they can glide for some distance. However, despite their ability to do so, American cockroaches aren't regular fliers. They can run very fast and, when frightened, these insects more commonly scatter on foot.


American cockroaches generally live in moist areas but can survive in dry areas if they have access to water. They prefer high temperatures around 29 °C (84 °F) and do not tolerate low temperatures. These cockroaches are common in basements, crawl spaces, cracks and crevices of porches, foundations, and walkways adjacent to buildings. In residential areas outside the tropics, these cockroaches live in basements and sewers and may move outdoors into yards during warm weather.


The odorous secretions produced by American cockroaches can alter the flavor of food. Also, if populations of cockroaches are high, a strong concentration of this odorous secretion can be present. Cockroaches can pick up disease-causing bacteria, such as Salmonella, on their legs and later deposit them on foods and cause food poisoning or infection if they walk on the food. House dust containing cockroach feces and body parts can trigger allergic reactions and asthma in certain individuals.
At least 22 species of pathogenic human bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoans, as well as five species of helminthic worms, have been isolated from field-collected P. americana (L.)


The American cockroach has been used as an ingredient in traditional Chinese medicine, with references to its usage in the Compendium of Materia Medica and Shennong Ben Cao Jing. In China, an ethanol extract of the American cockroach, kang fu xin ye, is used as a prescribed drug for wound healing and tissue repair.


Dependent on several factors, including temperature (significantly), sex, and nutrition.
German cockroaches can glide, especially males, but powered flight is uncommon.
American cockroaches can fly short distances, usually starting from high places, but real flight is uncommon, despite popular belief.


The smokybrown cockroach (Periplaneta fuliginosa) is a large species of cockroach, winged, and growing to a length of 1¼–1⅜ inch.


The smokybrown cockroach is very common in Japan, as well as the southern United States and tropical climates; notably, it can be found in Florida, Eastern North Carolina, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas, and other Gulf coastal states, and along the southern Mississippi River. The cockroach can also be found in Australia, such as in warmer cities like Sydney and Brisbane. Most notably in South America, these cockroaches are seen in Argentina to Paraguay geographical range. The cockroach has also been recently reported in Asia, Europe, Australia, and Northern America.
The smoky brown cockroach prefers warmer climates and is not cold-tolerant. It may, however, be able to survive colder climates by going indoors. It often lives around the perimeter of buildings especially places where these insects can feed and confine themselves.


These species can be detrimental to human health, thereby due to their proximity of inhabitance to humans they are a vector for diseases from the parasitism of nematodes. They are harmful due to humans through their ability to feed on fecal matter, which transmits parasites and many diseases. The parasitic nematode, Leidynema appendiculata, is known to parasitize the smoky brown cockroach, in which they invade and live in the cockroach's gut. The eggs of the nematode are passed through the cockroach's feces and spread to other hosts by cockroaches eating the excrement. The invasion of homes by these cockroaches greatly increases the prevalence of asthma, pathogen exposure, and allergens seen. Exposure to the cockroach's feces, the shed outer layer of the exoskeleton, and other body parts mainly cause the transfer of parasites and allergens. In addition, human exposure to these parasitic nematodes can cause conditions such as colitis, and infections of the female reproductive tract.


In 1760 the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson included a description of the Canada jay in his Ornithologie based on a specimen collected in Canada. He used the French name Le geay brun de Canada and the Latin Garralus canadensis fuscus. Although Brisson coined Latin names, these do not conform to the binomial system and are not recognised by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. When in 1766 the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus updated his Systema Naturae for the twelfth edition, he added 240 species that had been previously described by Brisson. One of these was the Canada jay. Linnaeus included a brief description, coined the binomial name Corvus canadensis and cited Brisson's work.
William John Swainson named it Dysornithia brachyrhyncha in 1831. French ornithologist Charles Lucien Bonaparte assigned the Canada jay to the genus Perisoreus in 1838 in A geographical and comparative list of the birds of Europe and North America, along with the Siberian jay, P. infaustus. The Canada jay belongs to the crow and jay family Corvidae. However, it and the other members of its genus are not closely related to other birds known as jays; they are instead close to the genus Cyanopica, which contains the azure-winged magpie. Its relatives are native to Eurasia, and ancestors of the Canada jay are thought to have diverged from their Old World relatives and crossed Beringia into North America.
A 2012 genetic study revealed four clades across its range: a widespread "boreal" or "taiga" clade ranging from Alaska to Newfoundland and ranging south to the Black Hills of South Dakota, Wyoming and Utah in the west and New England in the east, a "transcascade" clade in eastern Washington and Oregon and ranging into Alberta and Montana, a "Rocky Mountains (Colorado)" clade from the southern Rocky Mountains, and a "Pacific" clade from coastal British Columbia, Washington, and southwestern Oregon. There was also a population of the boreal clade in the central Rocky Mountains between the Colorado and transcascade clades. Genetic dating suggests the Pacific clade diverged from the common ancestor of the other clades around three million years ago in the Late Pliocene.
The boreal clade is genetically diverse, suggesting that Canada jays retreated to multiple areas of milder climate during previous ice ages and recolonized the region in warmer times.
In 2018 the common name was changed from grey jay to Canada jay by the American Ornithological Society in a supplement to their Check-list of North American Birds. This change was also made in the online list of world birds maintained on behalf of the International Ornithologists' Union by Frank Gill and David Donsker.
Nine subspecies are recognized:
Perisoreus canadensis albescens, also known as the Alberta jay, was described by American ornithologist James L. Peters in 1920. It ranges from northeastern British Columbia and northwestern Alberta southeastward, east of the Rocky Mountains to the Black Hills of South Dakota. It is an occasional visitor to northwestern Nebraska.
P. c. bicolor, described by American zoologist Alden H. Miller in 1933, is found in southeastern British Columbia, southwestern Alberta, eastern Washington, northeastern Oregon, northern and central Idaho, and western Montana. Miller noted that the subspecies appeared to be a stable intermediate form between canadensis and capitalis. It was a similar size to subspecies canadensis, and had a wholly white head with a black nape. Its body markings resembled those of capitalis but its coloration resembled canadensis.
P. c. canadensis, the nominate subspecies, breeds from northern British Columbia east to Prince Edward Island, and south to the northern reaches of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Vermont, and New Hampshire, as well as northeastern New York and Maine. It winters at lower altitudes within the breeding range and south to southern Ontario and Massachusetts, and is an occasional visitor to central Minnesota, southeastern Wisconsin, northwestern Pennsylvania, and central New York. P. c. canadensis is also a vagrant to northeastern Pennsylvania (Philadelphia).
P. c. capitalis is found in the southern Rocky Mountains from eastern Idaho, south-central Montana, and western and southern Wyoming south through eastern Utah, and western and central Colorado, to east-central Arizona and north-central New Mexico. American naturalist Spencer Fullerton Baird described this subspecies in 1873. It has a wholly whitish head with a pale band on the back of the neck, and overall more ashy grey plumage. It is also generally larger than the nominate subspecies canadensis.
P. c. griseus occurs from southwestern British Columbia and Vancouver Island south through central Washington and central Oregon to the mountains of north-central and northeastern California. It was described by Robert Ridgway in 1899.
P. c. nigricapillus, also known as the Labrador jay, is found in northern Quebec (Kuujjuaq, Whale River, and George River), throughout Labrador and Nova Scotia, and in southeastern Quebec (Mingan and Blanc-Sablon). It was described by Ridgway in 1882.
P. c. obscurus, described by Ridgway in 1874, is native to the coastal strip from Washington (Crescent Lake, Seattle, and Columbia River) through western Oregon to northwestern California (Humboldt County). Also known as the Oregon jay, this subspecies has more dark brown than grey upperparts.
P. c. pacificus ranges from central Alaska to northwestern Canada, including the Yukon and along the Mackenzie River. It was described by Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1788.
P. c. sanfordi is found in Newfoundland. Harry C. Oberholser described it in 1914 from a specimen collected by a Dr. Sanford, whom he named it after. Oberholser reported that it was smaller and darker than the nominate race P. c. canadensis and more closely resembled P. c. nigricapillus.
Two additional subspecies were formerly recognized:
P. c. arcus was the name given to populations that are found in the Rainbow Mountains area and headwaters of the Dean and Bella Coola Rivers of the central Coast Ranges, British Columbia. Described by Miller in 1950, it is often recognized as P. c. obscurus.
P. c. barbouri was described by Allan Brooks in 1920. Abundant on Anticosti Island in eastern Quebec, this subspecies is significantly heavier but not larger than other Canada jay subspecies in Quebec, and does not appear to be genetically distinct from P. c. nigricapillus or other populations in Quebec.


Canada jays are omnivorous. They hunt such prey as arthropods, small mammals including rodents, and nestling birds, and have even been recorded taking a magnolia warbler (Dendroica magnolia) in flight. They have been reported to opportunistically hunt young amphibians such as the western chorus frog (Pseudacris triseriata) in Chambers Lake, Colorado, and the long-toed salamander (Ambystoma macrodactylum) in Whitehorse Bluff in Crater Lake National Park, Oregon. Canada jays have been seen landing on moose (Alces alces) to remove and eat engorged winter ticks (Dermacentor albipictus) during April and May in Algonquin Provincial Park. Researchers also found a Canada jay nest containing a brooding female, three hatchlings, and three warm, engorged winter deer ticks. Because the ticks were too large for the hatchlings to eat, it was hypothesized that the ticks may have served as "hot water bottles", keeping hatchlings warm when parents were away from the nest.
Nestling birds are common prey, being taken more often from nests in trees rather than on the ground. Canada jays find them by moving from perch to perch and scanning surroundings. Avian nest predation by Canada jays is not necessarily higher in fragmented versus unfragmented forest. Evidence from studies in the Pacific Northwest suggest a moderate increase in nest predation in logged plots adjacent to mature conifer forest, which is the Canada jay's preferred habitat. Studies of nest predation by Canada jays in Quebec have shown that the birds prefer preying on nests in open forest with high prominence of jack pine, and greater rates of predation in riparian forest strips and green-tree retention stands versus clearcuts. This may be due to increased availability of perch sites for avian predators such as the Canada jay. Canada jays are suspected but not proven to prey on nests of the threatened marbled murrelet (Brachyramphus marmoratus) in coastal areas of the Pacific Northwest.
Carrion, fungi, fruits such as chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), and seeds are also eaten. Two Canada jays were seen eating slime mold (Fuligo septica) near Kennedy Hot Springs in the Glacier Peak Wilderness, Washington. This was the first report of any bird consuming slime mold in the field. Risk and energy expenditure are factors in food selection for the Canada jay, which selects food on the basis of profitability to maximize caloric intake. Increased handling, searching, or recognition times for a preferred food item lowers its profitability. Canada jays wrench, twist, and tug food apart, unlike other birds known as jays (such as the blue jay, Cyanocitta cristata), which grasp and hammer their food. Canada jays commonly carry large food items to nearby trees to eat or process for storage, possibly as defense against large scavengers.


Perispasta is a genus of moths of the family Crambidae. It contains only one species, Perispasta caeculalis, or Titian Peale's pyralid moth, which is found in North America, where it has been recorded from Quebec west to British Columbia, south to Florida, Texas and Colorado. The habitat consists of fields and meadows. Both the genus and species were first described by Philipp Christoph Zeller in 1875.
The wingspan is 16–18 mm. The forewings are dark brown with a white discal bar. The hindwings are white. Adults have been recorded on wing from January to November, depending on the location.


Peritoma arborea (formerly Isomeris arborea, syn. Cleome isomeris), is a perennial shrub or bush in the spiderflower family (Cleomaceae) known by the common names bladderpod, bladderpod spiderflower and burro-fat. It has yellow flowers in bloom all months of the year. It emits a foul odor to discourage herbivory from insects.


Peritoma arborea is commonly found along roadsides, desert dry washes, and flat areas up to 4,200 feet (1,300 m), in the western Mojave Desert and Colorado Desert to Baja California Peninsula. It is native to California and Baja California Peninsula where it grows in a variety of habitats usually described as desert or brush.


It is a densely branching shrub 0.5–2 metres (1 ft 8 in – 6 ft 7 in) high covered with tiny hairs. Its stalked leaves are generally composed of three equal leaflets 15–45 millimetres (0.6–1.8 in) long, oval to elliptic in shape and pointed at the tip. The plant produces abundant inflorescences at the ends of the stem branches much of the year. The four sepals are fused about halfway from their base.  Each flower has four bright yellow 8–14 millimetres (0.3–0.6 in) long petals, six protruding 15–25 millimetres (0.6–1.0 in) stamens with 2–2.5 millimetres (0.1–0.1 in) anthers. The style is 0.9–1.2 millimetres (0.04–0.05 in) or aborts before flowering. The fruit is a leathery prolate spheroid capsule 30–60 millimetres (1.2–2.4 in) long and 10–25 millimetres (0.4–1.0 in) wide on a 10–20 millimetres (0.4–0.8 in) stalk. It is smooth and green when new, aging to light brown.
A typical inflorescence bears a number of flower buds at its tip, open flowers proximal to the buds, and maturing fruits which have shed their flowers below these.
In the previous genus name, "Iso" means "equal", and "meris" means "part", referring to the stamens being of equal length.


Cleome serrulata (syn. Peritoma serrulata), commonly known as Rocky Mountain beeplant/beeweed, stinking-clover, bee spider-flower, skunk weed, Navajo spinach, and guaco, is a species of annual plant in the genus Cleome. Many species of insects are attracted to it, especially bees, which helps in the pollination of nearby plants. It is native to southern Canada and the western and central United States. The plant has often been used for food, to make dyes for paint, and as a treatment in traditional medicine.


In 1814, Frederick Traugott Pursh described this species in the first volume of Flora Americae Septentrionalis, based upon specimens collected by the Lewis and Clark Expedition near the Vermillion River in South Dakota.
In the first volume of Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis in 1824, Augustin Pyramus de Candolle moved this species to a genus which he named Peritoma (replacing the earlier illegitimate name Atalanta Nuttall), and calling the species Peritoma serrulatum.
In 1901, Edward Lee Greene expanded Candolle's Peritoma, including this species as Peritoma serrulatum DC. and  Peritoma lutem Raf. as well as two other species that he knew little about. At least Peritoma serrulata has been determined to be a synonym of Cleome serrulata.


Cleome serrulata has been used in the southwestern United States as a food, medicine, and dye since prehistoric times and is one of very few wild foods still in use. As food, its seeds can be eaten raw or cooked, or dried and ground into meal for use as a mush. The tender leaves, flowers and shoots can be cooked and eaten as a cooked vegetable or added to cornmeal porridge. Among the Zuni, the leaves gathered in large quantities and hung indoors to dry for winter use. The young leaves are cooked with corn strongly flavored with chili peppers. To reduce its bitter taste, pieces of iron or rust were sometimes added to the cooking pot. Animals rarely feed on this plant because of its disagreeable taste and odor. Nitrate poisoning can result if too much is consumed. Birds do eat the seeds, and the plant provides good cover for land reclamation and upland birds. The Tewa and other Southwestern United States tribes often included Cleome serrulata as a 'fourth sister' in the Three Sisters agriculture system because it attracts bees to help pollinate the beans and squash.
In traditional Native American and frontier medicine, an infusion of the plant is used to treat stomach troubles and fevers, and poultices made from it can be used on the eyes. As a dye, the plant can be boiled down until it is reduced to a thick, black syrup; this was used as a binder in pigments for painting black-on-white pottery at least as long ago as 900-1300 by the Ancestral Puebloans. The Navajo still use it to make yellow-green dye for their rugs and blankets. Plant paste is used with black mineral paint to color sticks of plume offerings to anthropic gods, and the whole plant except for the root is used in pottery decorations.


The flowers are attractive to and support a wide variety of pollinators.  It is a larval host to the checkered white.


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Perityle emoryi is a species of flowering plant in the aster family known by the common name Emory's rockdaisy. It is native to the Southwestern United States, northwest Mexico, and the Baja California Peninsula. It is a common wildflower of the deserts, and can also be found in California coastal regions.
It grows in many types of habitat, it tolerates disturbance, and it can become somewhat weedy. The plant is also known from Chile and Peru and it is an introduced species in parts of Hawaii. Its distribution is apparently expanding.


Perityle emoryi, a polyploid plant, is quite variable genetically and in appearance. It is an annual herb growing 2 to 60 centimeters tall, its stem small, delicate, and simple, or thick, branching, and sprawling. It is usually hairy and glandular in texture. The alternately arranged leaves have blades of various shapes which are toothed or divided into lobes and borne on petioles.
The inflorescence is a single flower head or an array of a few or many heads. The head is hemispherical to bell-shaped and generally no more than a centimeter wide. The head has a center of many golden disc florets and a fringe of 8 to 12 white ray florets each just a few millimeters long. The fruit is an achene, usually with a pappus at the tip.


The crested honey buzzard (Pernis ptilorhynchus) is a bird of prey in the family Accipitridae, which also includes many other diurnal raptors such as kites, eagles, and harriers.  Pernis ptilorhynchus has 6 subspecies.  The size ranges between 57–60 cm (22–24 in) which makes it a medium-sized raptor.  This species is also known as the Oriental, Asiatic, or Eastern honey buzzard.  The name is derived from its diet which consists mainly of the larvae of bees and wasps extracted from honey combs.
The crested honey buzzard migrates for breeding to Siberia and Japan during the summer.  The migratory birds winter in Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent.  It is also year-round resident in these latter areas.  It prefers well-forested areas with open spaces and is found from sea-level up to 1,800 m (5,900 ft).  Unusually for raptors, the sexes can be differentiated.
The species has several adaptations for its specialist diet.  These include an elongated head for foraging on underground nests and a groove in the tongue for feeding on honey.  A mass of short, dense feathers on the head and neck protect against stinging attacks by social wasps.  Juveniles may have adopted Batesian mimicry to deter predators.


The crested honey buzzard was obtained from the island of Java by the Dutch zoologist C.J. Temminck.  He depicted and named it as Falco ptilorhynchus in March 1821.  Temminck's later text description submitted to the Bibliothèque Nationale in July 1823 used the spelling ptilorhyncus. Later, in 1839, Temminck used the spelling ptilorhynchus in the Tableau Méthodique.  Both Temmick’s spellings have been used, for example Salim Ali used -cus while Grimmett et al. used -chus. Recently Dickinson et al. have argued that the original spelling -chus must stand.
The British Museum Catalogue of Accipitres published in 1874 by R. Bowdler Sharpe lists the names Falco ptilorhynchus (attributed to Temminck, 1823) and Pernis ptilorhynchus (attributed to J.F. Stephens, 1826).  Sharpe was perhaps unaware that Temminck’s early illustrations had scientific names on the wrappers of the parts (livraisons) of his work and he cited Temminck's later works.  In 1874, the British Museum had 18 specimens of the crested honey buzzard and its Catalogue listed 9 different species names of genus Pernis for these.
The crested honey buzzard (Pernis ptilorhynchus) includes 6 subspecies shown in the Table.
Despite its name, the crested honey buzzard is not related to Buteo buzzards, and is taxonomically closer to the kites.


About 57–60 cm (22–24 in) in size, the crested honey buzzard is a medium-sized raptor.  The head lacks a strong superciliary ridge, giving it a facial appearance very unlike a raptor. It appears long-necked with a small head resembling that of a pigeon.  It has a long tail and a short head crest. It is brown above, but not as dark as the European honey buzzard, and paler below. A dark throat stripe is present. Unusually for a large bird of prey, the sexes can be distinguished. The male has a blue-grey head with brown iris, while the female's head is brown and the iris is yellow. She is slightly larger and darker than the male. The male has two black bands in the tail and three black under wing bands, while the female has three black tail bands and four narrower black under wing bands.  The juvenile has extensive black primary tips with narrower under-wing bands. It has a yellow cere at the base of the bill, and a dark iris.  The colouration and the tail pattern of the species are highly variable.
In flight, it is likely to be mistaken at a distance for the short-toed snake-eagle.  However, it can be distinguished by its slimmer head and longer neck.  It is usually seen soaring singly or in pairs, or perched on a tree top.  It is quiet even while nesting, sometimes uttering a single high-pitched screaming whistle.  In flight it has deep elastic beats and high upstrokes.  It glides and soars on flat or slightly arched wings at right-angles to the body.  The long broad wings well rounded at 6–fingered tips.  The tail is broad, of medium length with a rounded tip.  The tail is shorter than the breadth of the wing bases.  The wing span is 2.4 times total length in the Palearctic (Eurasian) sub-species, but 2.0–2.2 in the Indo-Malayan sub-species.
The similarity in plumage between juvenile crested honey buzzards and the Nisaetus hawk-eagles may have arisen as a partial protection against predation by larger raptors. The eagles have stronger bills and talons, and are likely to be less vulnerable than the Pernis species.  Similar mimicry is shown by the juvenile of the European honey buzzard, which resembles the common buzzard. Although the northern goshawk is capable of killing both species, it is likely to be more cautious about attacking the better protected Buteo species.  These are examples of Batesian mimicry, named for the English naturalist and explorer H.W. Bates who first reported such mimicry in the context of Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies) in 1861.


The crested honey buzzard is a summer migrant to Siberia and Japan, wintering in tropical Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent.  It leaves Siberia in late August and returns in May.  The summer sojourn in Japan is April-May to mid-September.  Elsewhere, it is more-or-less resident.  Crested buzzards that migrate from breeding areas in Japan to wintering areas in Southeast Asia fly over the East China Sea. This 700 km (430 mi) nonstop flight over water is possible because during autumn, winds over the sea blow in the same direction as the birds' direction of flight (i.e. wind support).
The crested honey buzzard prefers well-forested lowland and hilly areas that are broken by open glades.  In South and Southeast Asia it is sometimes found in small groves near villages.  It is found from sea-level to 1,500 m (4,900 ft), occasionally up to 1,800 m (5,900 ft).  During migrations it goes above 3,000 m (9,800 ft).


The crested honey buzzard breeds in woodland, and is inconspicuous except in the spring, when the mating display includes wing-clapping. The display of roller-coasting in flight and fluttering wings at the peak of the ascent are characteristic of the genus Pernis.  It is as yet uncertain whether the roller-coaster display is related to courtship. The breeding season in the migratory range is June to mid-September for central Siberia and April to August in Japan.  In India, it is April - June, though it starts in February in South India.
The nest is a platform of sticks 40–80 cm (16–31 in) across, lined with dry or green leaves.  It is located at a height of 10–28 m (33–92 ft) in conifers in the north, and 6–20 m (20–66 ft) in banyan, mango, casuarina or coconut in India.  The female normally lays 2 eggs.  The colour is variable, ranging from pale cream to chestnut brown.  Incubation takes 4-5 weeks, the chicks are fledged in 5-6 weeks and they become independent after a further 5-8 weeks.  Male and female share the responsibilities of rearing the young.


Unlike most of their relatives, crested honey buzzards prefer a diet of the larvae, pupae and honey combs of social wasps. In their summer breeding grounds in Japan, the birds dig up underground social wasp nests with their talons. The short toe depth and long talon on the second digit facilitate this behaviour. In addition, the long slender beak with a hooked tip, and the eyes set far back, are adaptations well-suited for foraging in underground nests. The tongue has a groove adapted for extracting larvae from the honey comb. In the wintering regions in South Asia, crested honey buzzards are observed attacking social wasp nests in trees.
When foraging both underground and arboreal nests, the birds have to contend with stinging attacks by wasps. The feathers around the head and neck are well-suited to repelling attacks. A study in 2016 by a British and a Japanese researcher compared the head and neck feathers of crested honey buzzards with those of the black kite (Milvus migrans) and grey-faced buzzard (Butastur indicus). These are similar raptors, but only the honey buzzard forages on wasp nests. The researchers found significant adaptations of the feathers. The honey buzzard has a dense mat of short feathers under its beak, around its eyes and nostrils and on its neck with barbules closer together. They are stiffer with more hooks and nodes for barbules to attach to one another, yielding an armour-like appearance. In the other kites, the feathers are longer and softer, with fewer barbules towards the tips. Thus, more of the skin is exposed. The head and neck feathers of the crested honey buzzard are shorter, being only 50-70% the length of the feathers in the other two species.
The crested honey buzzard may have also evolved a chemical defense. Its feathers were observed to have a white filamentous covering that is not present in black kites and grey-faced buzzards.  Videos indicate that social wasps attack bears and other mammals more than they attack honey buzzards.  Experiments indicate that the substance from the wings of honey buzzards renders wasps inactive. However, this is as yet speculative and the composition of the substance is yet to be determined. In a wasp attack on two crested honey buzzards observed in Japan, the wasps mainly attacked the head and neck. Their stings were about 1 mm (0.039 in) in size. Most of the stings were embedded in the dense mat of feathers. A few stings pierced the skin where feathers where missing. Thus, the feather adaptations provided partial protection against wasp attacks.


In the Java island of Indonesia, people living in or near forested areas suffer from attacks, sometimes fatal, by giant honey bees. The local people and honey collectors blame the honey buzzards for these attacks. This raptor attacks the nests of the giant honey bee. As it flies away with a piece of the honeycomb in its claws, it is pursued by angry bees. The local belief is that as its escape strategy the honey buzzard flies close to humans in the vicinity to transfer the attack of the angry bees to the humans.  However, in a study of the hunting behaviour of honey buzzards conducted between 2003 to 2019, no evidence of this strategy was observed by the researchers. They surmised that a decline in the habitat due to human activity has increased the conflict between bees and humans.


Persicaria capitata, the pink-headed persicaria, pinkhead smartweed, pink knotweed, Japanese knotweed, or pink bubble persicaria, is  an Asian species of plants in the genus Persicaria within the buckwheat family. It is native to Asia (China, Indian Subcontinent, Indochina) and grown as an ornamental in other countries. It has become naturalized in Australia, South Africa and a few scattered locations in the United States.


Persicaria capitata is a prostrate herb. The leaves are 1–6 cm long, 0.7–3 cm wide with pink to red bands or blotches and short scattered hairs. The spikes are 5–10 mm long and 5–7 mm in diameter.
Persicaria capitata has a strong urine-scented odour.


Persicaria capitata is a native of Asia. It has naturalised in parts of Australia and North America. Between 2008 and 2013 it has been recorded as an invasive plant in Ireland from the Counties Fermanagh, Kilkenny, Wexford and Mayo.


Persicaria capitata has been widely used in China in the treatment of various urologic disorders including urinary calculi and urinary tract infections.


Persicaria hydropiper (syn. Polygonum hydropiper), also known as water pepper, marshpepper knotweed, arse smart or tade, is a plant of the family Polygonaceae. A widespread species, Persicaria hydropiper is found in Australia, New Zealand, temperate Asia, Europe and North America. The plant grows in damp places and shallow water. Cultivated varieties are eaten in East Asia for their pungent flavor.


Water pepper is an annual herb with an erect stem growing to a height of 20 to 70 cm (8 to 28 in). The leaves are alternate and almost stalkless. The leaf blades are narrowly ovate and have entire margins  fringed by very short hairs. They are tapering with a blunt apex. Each leaf base has stipules which are fused into a stem-enclosing sheath that is loose and fringed at the upper end. The inflorescence is a nodding spike. The perianth of each tiny flower consists of four or five segments, united near its green base and white or pink at the edges. There are six stamens, three fused carpels and three styles. The fruit is a dark brown oval, flattened nut.
P. hydropiper is an annual, and prefers damp environments for optimal growth; it will readily grow in riparian zones on the banks of streams and rivers, but can also grow in other areas where water collects, such as on the banks of canals, tyre and hoof tracks in woodlands, waterlogged soil, and around gates in fields. P. hydropiper is also tolerant of partial shade and base-poor soil. In the United Kingdom, where the plant is native, it can grow at any altitude between sea level and 505 metres.


Persicaria longiseta is a species of flowering plant in the knotweed family known by the common names Oriental lady's thumb, bristly lady's thumb, Asiatic smartweed, long-bristled smartweed, low smartweed, Asiatic waterpepper, bristled knotweed, bunchy knotweed, and tufted knotweed. It is native to Asia (China, India, Russia, Japan, Malaysia, etc.), and it is present in North America and Europe as an introduced species and often a weed.
Persicaria longiseta is an annual herb with stems 30 to 80 centimeters (12–32 inches) long, sometimes reaching one meter (40 inches). The hairless, branching stems may root at lower nodes that come in contact with the substrate. The leaves are lance-shaped and up to 8 centimeters (3.2 inches) long by 3 cm (1.2 inches) wide. They have bristly ochrea. The inflorescence is an elongate cluster up to 8 centimeters (3.2 inches) long and contains many pink flowers. The fruit is a small, smooth achene.
In its native region this plant is a common weed of rice paddies. It was introduced to North America near Philadelphia around 1910 and probably spread via the railroads. It is present in much of the eastern United States and much of Canada. It grows in moist habitat types such as wetlands, as well as dry and upland habitat. It can be found in meadows, marshes, mudflats, riverbanks, floodplains, levees, and lowland and upland forests. It is invasive in some areas.


Persicaria maculosa (syn. Polygonum persicaria) is an annual plant in the buckwheat family, Polygonaceae. Common names include lady's thumb, spotted lady's thumb, Jesusplant, and redshank. It is widespread across Eurasia from Iceland south to Portugal and east to Japan. It is also present as an introduced and invasive species in North America, where it was first noted in the Great Lakes region in 1843 and has now spread through most of the continent.


Persicaria maculosa is an annual herb up to 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) tall, with an erect, rather floppy stem with swollen joints. The leaves are alternate and almost stalkless. The leaf blades often have a brown or black spot in the centre and are narrowly ovate and have entire margins. Each leaf base has stipules which are fused into a stem-enclosing sheath that is loose and fringed with long hairs at the upper end. The inflorescence is a dense spike. The perianth of each tiny pink flower consists of four or five lobes, fused near the base. There are six stamens, two fused carpels and two styles. The fruit is a shiny black, three-edged achene. This plant flowers from July to September in the temperate Northern Hemisphere.


The species was first described, as Polygonum persicaria, by Carl Linnaeus in 1753. It was first successfully transferred to the genus Persicaria by Samuel Frederick Gray in 1821, under the name Persicaria maculosa. The name "Persicaria persicaria" cannot be used because tautonyms – binomial names that use the same word for both the genus and the species epithet – are prohibited by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants, and a replacement name (nomen novum) must be used. For this reason the transfer of the species to Persicaria by John Kunkel Small in 1903, which used the tautonym, is invalid.


Persicaria maculosa is native to Europe and Asia, where it can be mistaken for Polygonum minus. The latter has narrower leaves, usually less than 1 cm wide. It has been introduced to North America and is naturalised throughout the mainland continent, growing along roadsides, riverbanks, and on fallow ground. In the United States, it is very similar to Pennsylvania smartweed, but redshank has a fringe of hairs at the top of the ochrea, something which Pennsylvania smartweed lacks. The species has also been found in New Zealand and Australia.


In the British Isles, this plant is a weed, without natural habitat, and always associated with human activity. It likes moist soils, particularly rich ones, and acid peaty loams. It does not like lime, and liming is cited as a means to fight it.


Persicaria maculosa contains persicarin and tannins. The young leaves may be eaten as a leaf vegetable. It is often seen as a weed and rarely cultivated. A yellow dye can be produced from this plant with alum used as a mordant.


Persicaria pensylvanica (syn. Polygonum pensylvanicum) is a species of flowering plant in the buckwheat family, Polygonaceae. It is native to parts of North America, where it is widespread in Canada and the United States. It has also been noted as an introduced species in parts of Europe and South America. Common names include Pennsylvania smartweed and pinkweed.


Pennsylvania smartweed is a variable annual herb reaching 10 cm (3.9 in) to 2 m (6.6 ft) tall. The upright, ribbed stems are branching or unbranched. The lance-shaped leaves reach up to about 2 cm (0.79 in) in length. The blade may be marked with a dark blotch. The brownish  ochrea at the base is up to 2 cm (0.79 in). The inflorescences grow at the top of the stem and from the leaf axils. The flowers have five pinkish or greenish tepals each a few millimeters long.
This plant grows in moist, disturbed habitat types, such as ponds, reservoirs, riverbanks, irrigated fields, and ditches.


This plant is an important part of the habitat for waterfowl and other birds, which use it for food and cover. At least 50 species of birds have been observed feeding on the seeds, including ducks, geese, rails, bobwhites, mourning dove, and ring-necked pheasant. The seeds and other parts are eaten by mammals such as the white-footed mouse, muskrat, raccoon, and fox squirrel.


Native Americans have various uses for the plant. The Chippewa use it for epilepsy. The Iroquois use it for horse colic. The Menominee take a leaf infusion for hemorrhage of blood from the mouth and post-partum healing. The Meskwaki use it on bleeding hemorrhoids.


Persicaria perfoliata (basionym Polygonum perfoliatum) is a species of flowering plant in the buckwheat family. Common names include mile-a-minute, devil's tail, giant climbing tearthumb, and Asiatic tearthumb. It is a trailing herbaceous annual vine with barbed stems and triangular leaves. It is native to most of temperate and tropical eastern Asia, occurring from eastern Russia and Japan in the north, and the range extending to the Philippines and India in the south. P. perfoliata is an aggressive, highly invasive weed.
In Europe, Persicaria perfoliata is included since 2016 in the list of Invasive Alien Species of Union concern (the Union list). This implies that this species cannot be imported, cultivated, transported, commercialized, planted, or intentionally released into the environment in the whole of the European Union.


Persicaria perfoliata has a reddish stem that is armed with downward pointing hooks or barbs which are also present on the underside of the leaf blades. The light green leaves are shaped like an equilateral (equal-sided) triangle and alternate along the narrow, delicate stems. Distinctive circular, cup-shaped leafy structures, called ochreas, surround the stem at intervals. Flower buds, and later flowers and fruits, emerge from within the ocreas. Flowers are small, white and generally inconspicuous. The edible fruits are attractive, metallic blue and segmented, each segment containing a single glossy, black or reddish-black seed.


Persicaria perfoliata prefers warm open areas, along the edges of woods, wetlands, stream banks, and roadsides, and uncultivated open fields, resulting from both natural and human causes, dense wooded areas where the overstory has opened up increasing the sunlight to the forest floor. Natural areas such as stream banks, parks, open space, road shoulders, forest edges and fence lines are all typical areas to find P. perfoliata. It also occurs in environments that are extremely wet with poor soil structure.
Available light and soil moisture are both integral to the successful colonization of this species. It will tolerate shade for a part of the day, but needs a good percentage, 63-100% of the available light. The ability of P. perfoliata to attach to other plants with its recurved barbs and climb over the plants to reach an area of high light intensity is a key to its survival.  It can survive in areas with relatively low soil moisture, but demonstrates a preference for high soil moisture.


Persicaria perfoliata is an edible species. Its tender leaves and shoots can be eaten raw or cooked as a salad green or vegetable and its fruit is sweet and can be eaten fresh.


In traditional Chinese medicine, Persicaria perfoliata is known as gangbangui (Chinese: 杠板归; pinyin: gāngbǎngūi), and is thought to be useful for various remedies in herbal medicine. It can also be used as a fiber or used in rope making.


The first records of Persicaria perfoliata in North America are from Portland, Oregon (1890), and Beltsville, Maryland (1937). Both of these sites were eliminated or did not establish permanent populations of the species. However, the introduction of P. perfoliata somewhere between the late 1930s and 1946 to a nursery site in Stewartstown, York County, Pennsylvania, produced a population of this plant that did become established in the wild. It is speculated that the seed was spread with Rhododendron stock. Starting in 2004, the weevil Rhinoncomimus latipes has been introduced in eastern US to control this plant, with certain amount of success.


Persicaria perfoliata is primarily a self-pollinating plant (supported by its inconspicuous, closed flowers with little scent), with occasional outcrossing. Fruits and viable seeds are produced without assistance from pollinators. Vegetative propagation from roots has not been successful for this plant. It is a very tender annual, withering with a slight frost, and reproduces successfully until the first frost. P. perfoliata is a prolific seeder, producing many seeds on a single plant over a long season, from June until October in Virginia, and a slightly shorter season in more northern geographic areas. It can cover as much as 30 feet (9.1 m) in a single season, maybe even more in the southern United States.
Birds are probably the primary long-distance dispersal agents of P. perfoliata. Transport of seeds short distances by native ant species has been observed. This activity is probably encouraged by the presence of a tiny white food body (elaiosome) on the tip of the seed that may be attractive to the ants. These seed-carrying ants may play an important role in the survival and germination of the seeds of P. perfoliata. Local bird populations are important for dispersal under utility lines, bird feeders, fence lines and other perching locations. Other animals observed eating its fruits are chipmunks, squirrel and deer.
Water is also an important mode of dispersal. Its fruits can remain buoyant for 7–9 days, an important advantage for dispersing seed long distances in stream and river environments. The long vines frequently hang over waterways, allowing fruits that detach to be carried away in the water current.


Persicaria perfoliata contains phenylpropanoid esters such as 6'-acetyl-3,6-diferuloylsucrose (helonioside B), 2',4',6'-triacetyl-3,6-diferuloylsucrose, 1, 2',4',6'-tetraacetyl-3,6-diferuloylsucrose, 1,2',6'-triacetyl-3, 6-diferuloylsucrose, 2',6'-diacetyl-3,6-diferuloylsucrose, 1,3,6-tri-p-coumaroyl-6'-feruloylsucroses, vanicoside A and vanicoside B.


Persicaria punctata (syn. Polygonum punctatum) is a species of flowering plant in the knotweed family known by the common names dotted smartweed and dotted knotweed.
Persicaria punctata is native to the Americas, where it can be found in moist and wet habitat types from Canada to Argentina including the West Indies. It is an extremely variable plant. It may be annual or perennial.
Persicaria punctata grows from a rhizome and produces decumbent or erect stems which may just exceed one meter (40 cm) in length. The branching stems may root at nodes that come in contact with the substrate. The lance-shaped leaves are up to 15 centimeters long and have stipules widened into bristly brown ochrea that wrap around the stems. The inflorescence is a number of branching clusters of dotted greenish flowers with white edges, sometimes tinged pink.


Persicaria sagittata, common names American tearthumb, arrowleaf tearthumb, or arrowvine, is a plant species widespread in the eastern half of North America as well as in eastern Asia. It has been found in every state and province from Texas to Manitoba to Newfoundland to Florida, plus Colorado and Oregon. It also grows in China, the Russian Far East, Siberia, Korea, Japan, northern India and Mongolia. It grows in moist areas along lake shores, stream banks, etc.
Persicaria sagittata is an annual herb up to 200 cm (80 inches) tall, with prickles along the stem. Leaves are up to 10 cm (4 inches) long, heart-shaped or arrowhead-shaped (unusual for the genus). Flowers are white to pink, borne in spherical to elongated clusters up to 15 mm (0.6 inches) long.


Persicaria virginiana, also called jumpseed, Virginia knotweed or woodland knotweed is a North American species of smartweed within the buckwheat family. It is unusual as a shade-tolerant member of a mostly sun-loving genus.  Jumpseed is a perennial, named for its seeds which can "jump" several feet when a ripe seedpod is disturbed.
Persicaria virginiana blooms in midsummer to late summer/early fall. It has a stalk of small white flowers.


Like other Persicaria, jumpseed has alternate leaves, with fine-hairy stipular sheaths (ocrea) with bristle-fringed edges which often turn brownish.  Flowers, widely spaced along slender stalks, are white to greenish-white, rarely pink-tinged, and  fruiting flowers have 2 downward-pointing hook-tipped styles.  Persicaria virginiana is easily distinguished from most other Persicaria species by its much larger, more oval-shaped leaves, although a few species also have large leaves.  It sometimes has a chevron-shaped marking on the leaves; often a single plant will have this marking on some leaves but not others.
Cultivars and naturalized populations from cultivation show much greater variation than wild-type plants, sometimes having variegation or have more involved red patterning, and sometimes having red or pink flowers.


Persicaria virginiana has a wide native range throughout most of eastern North America (from Ontario and Quebec, south to Florida, and west as far as Texas, Nebraska, and Minnesota/), as well as Japan and the Himalayas.
It naturally occurs in full to partial shade, on riverbanks, woods, cliffs, and rocks.


Many variegated cultivars exist including 'Variegata' and 'Painter's Palette'. The cultivated plant prefers medium to moist soil and full sun to part shade.


Petasites albus, the white butterbur, is a flowering plant species in the family Asteraceae. It is native to central Europe and the Caucasus.


Petasites albus is a perennial rhizomatous herb, with large suborbicular (almost round) leaves covered with lax cottony hairs. The flower heads are compact racemes of composite flowers or capitula with white ligules. They are dioecious, the male plants often more common than the females, as in the British range.


The native range of Petasites albus is the mountains of central Europe and the Caucasus. It was first recorded in Sweden in Skåne in 1737 (Nordstedt 1920).
  In the British Isles it is a neophyte, introduced by the 17th century and naturalized in Yorkshire by 1843, but now predominantly distributed in North-east Scotland.


It prefers damp soils in deciduous forests, mountain pastures, springs and streamsides, roadside verges and other areas of rough ground.


Petasites spurius is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae.
 Media related to Petasites spurius at Wikimedia Commons
 Data related to Petasites spurius at Wikispecies


The cave swallow measures 12 to 14 cm in length and weighs 19 g on average. The largest of the five subspecies, P. f. pallida, has an average wing length between 107.0 and 112.3 mm; the smallest subspecies, P. f. aequatorialis, has an average wing length between 93.0 and 93.5 mm. Differences between the sexes are minimal, both are similar in size and weight and are difficult to distinguish from their plumage. It has grey-blue upperparts and brown-tangerine forefront and throat.


The cave swallow is a passerine belonging to the swallow and martin family, Hirundinidae. The genus Petrochelidon is a collection of cliff-nesting swallows and martins, though only the two South American subspecies prefer nesting on cliff-faces. The three North American subspecies prefer nesting in caves and sinkholes, as their common name suggests. Five subspecies of Petrochelidon fulva are currently recognized.
The three North American subspecies are P. f. fulva, P. f. pallida, and P. f. citata. All three will usually nest in natural caves and sinkholes, or in some areas they will nest in or underneath man-made structures (highway culverts, under bridges, etc.). All three have larger wing-spans than the remaining two South American subspecies. P. f. fulva occurs in the Greater Antilles and southern Florida. P. f. pallida (also known as P. f. pelodoma) is found farther west in the south-western United States and into north-eastern Mexico. P. f. citata has the southernmost range of the North American subspecies and is found on the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico.
The remaining two South American subspecies of the cave swallow are sometimes regarded as distinct species separate from the species fulva; not only is their range geographically separate from the North American subspecies but they also choose distinctly different nesting sites. Rather than nesting in caves and sinkholes, P. f. aequatorialis and P. f. rufocollaris nest in open areas, such as on cliff faces and the sides of buildings. P. f. aequatorialis is found in Ecuador, and it is speculated that it may extend its range into Peru. P. f. rufocollaris occurs in north-western Peru. These two subspecies have smaller wingspans than their North American counterparts.
P. f. citata and P. f. pallida are generally accepted as distinct subspecies of P. fulva; however, cytochrome b and microsatellite data support an emerging consensus that P. f. rufocollaris should in fact be considered its own species within Petrochelidon.


P. f. pallida is found farther west in the south-western United States and into north-eastern Mexico. P. f. citata has the southernmost range of the North American subspecies and is found on the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico. P. f. aequatorialis is found in Ecuador, and it is speculated that it may extend its range into Peru. P. f. rufocollaris occurs in north-western Peru.
Breeding is known to occur in Mexico, south-eastern New Mexico, southern Florida, Greater Antilles and in areas of Texas. The South American populations, as well as most Mexican and Caribbean populations, are considered resident populations which breed and overwinter in the same geographic range. The New Mexico and other northern populations migrate south; however, it is not known where they migrate to or which migration routes they take. Cave swallows have been observed to overwinter in southern Texas since at least the 1980s.


Cave swallow chicks begin giving faint calls shortly after hatching. As the chicks develop their calls become louder and more aggressive. These calls allow the chicks to communicate to the attending parent(s) their basic needs, such as hunger.
There is currently no data regarding differences in vocalizations between the subspecies of cave swallows; however, the following descriptions are based on observations of P. f. pallida. Adults utilize five main vocalizations: a song, "che" note, and three types of chattering described by Selander and Baker (1957).
The cave swallow's song typically lasts 3–4 seconds and is described as a "series of squeaks that gradually blend into a 'complex melodic warble' and end in a series of double-toned notes in which a 'gua' sound and a very low 'nock' sound are given simultaneously." Sometimes the song ends with a "sharp eep note."
A high-pitched, nasal "che" note is often given in response to the presence of predators in the nest area, other birds passing near the cave swallow's nest, or while the swallow is in flight. It is the note given most frequently when the bird is away from its nest site.
The first type of chattering is the most common, it is described as a "short, clear weet or cheweet given at medium pitch with an ascending or descending inflection."
The second type of chattering is given in response to predators, most often occurring in series of 2 to 4. It is described as "a high-pitched che or chu note."
The third type of chattering is the least commonly given and usually only when the bird has been disturbed. It is described as a "lower pitched, clearer choo with a descending inflection."
Cave swallows are most often heard singing from March to August in Texas and New Mexico, corresponding more or less to their breeding season. In general, birds are vocal throughout the day when their nesting colony is active; however, they are usually loud and vocal at their nest site, becoming quieter as they move away from their nest.


Cave swallows feed on small to medium-sized flying insects throughout the day. They forage in loose flocks over open areas, on open vegetation, and against cliff-faces. During the nesting season, adult cave swallows preferentially forage in the early hours of the morning and in the late afternoon. They capture a wide variety of insects during the nesting season, included species from the families Acrididae, Lygaeidae, Reduviidae, and others. They drink while in flight by skimming the surface of pools and rivers.
A benefit to nesting in colonies could be the ability to share and procure information about food sources from neighbouring birds while raising chicks. While research has not been conducted on cave swallows themselves, some studies have been done on the closely related cliff and bank swallows. Cliff swallow nesting colonies have been suggested to serve as "information centres", where swallows can gather and glean information from one another regarding how well they are foraging. Cliff swallows have been observed to follow, or be followed by, other birds within the nesting colony to food sources; birds that were unsuccessful foraging will return to the colony to find a fellow roost-mate that has been successful, and which they will then follow to a food source. Bank swallows, however, do not appear to use small nesting colonies (26-52 nesting pairs is considered a small colony) as "information centres", but the cliff swallow colonies previously mentioned were large colonies in which there are more potentially successful foragers for other birds to follow.


Cave swallow eggs are elliptical ovate in shape and typically white in colour with some variation of fine spotting of light to dark brown or even lilac and dull purple. Clutches of three to five eggs are typical and both sexes are thought to contribute to the incubation of the clutch. Only the female is observed to develop a brood patch.
Cave swallows are altricial when they hatch; they are blind and incapable of sustaining their own body heat. They remain in the nest until they are capable of flying, which is approximately 20 to 22 days after hatching. Both parents will feed the nestlings small insects throughout the day and will defend the nest if threatened by swooping and loudly calling at the threat.


The scarlet robin (Petroica boodang)  is a common red-breasted Australasian robin in the passerine bird genus Petroica.  The species is found on continental Australia and its offshore islands, including Tasmania. The species was originally split in 1999 by Schodde and Mason, and as the original collection by Gmelin was from Norfolk Island, this retained the name of multicolor, and is now known as the Norfolk robin.


There are three recognised subspecies of Petroica boodang: the nominate subspecies P.b.boodang is found in mainland southeastern Australia; P.b.leggii is found in Tasmania and Flinders Island in the Bass Strait; and P.b.campbelli occurs in southwestern Western Australia.


Like the rest of the Australasian robins, the scarlet robins are stocky passerines with large heads. They range in size from 12 to 13.5 cm in length and weigh between 12 and 14 g. The plumage is sexually dimorphic. The males have black heads, backs and tails, black and white wings, a scarlet red breast, and white belly, forehead and rump. The female matches the male in pattern, but is duller, with brown plumage instead of black, a much more washed-out red on the breast, and a buff belly. Juvenile birds resemble the female without the reddish wash on the breast.


The scarlet robin is endemic to Australia, where it is found near the coast from southern Queensland to central South Australia, Tasmania and southwest Western Australia. The species is mostly sedentary over its range, but some mainland populations undergo small local movements in the autumn and winter, either to more open habitats or to lower elevations.
The scarlet robin is most commonly found in eucalyptus woodland and forest, from sea level to 1000 m, particularly the more open habitats with grassy and shrubby understories. During the winter, more open environments, including urban habitats, are frequented.


The scarlet robin feeds on arthropods, such as insects and spiders. It adjusts its foraging behaviour seasonally, feeding mostly on the ground during the winter, but during the summer and spring prey is more commonly snatched from bark and foliage.