Pachygrapsus crassipes, the striped shore crab or lined shore crab, is a small crab found on both rocky and hard-mud soft seashores of the northeastern and northwestern Pacific Ocean. In North America, this species occurs from central Oregon, south through California to near Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico.  There is an isolated population with a wide range disjunction at Bamfield on Vancouver Island, Canada. The western Pacific population, including both Korea and Japan is isolated with a divergence time from the eastern Pacific population estimated between 0.8 and 1.2 Mya.


It will spend over half of its time on land. It will purposely submerge to wet its gills but can sustain itself on land for up to ~70 hours. They enjoy hiding in small crevices within rock, but will emerge at night when there is less danger of predation. This opportunistic predator's diet consists of green algae, red algae, brown seaweed, diatoms, worms, mussels, small decaying organisms, limpets, snails, flies, hermit crabs, seaweed, isopods, and sometimes even each other when the lesser crab has just finished molting. They have preference to small mussels over larger mussels over seaweed.  Although there will be aggressive intraspecies competition over food, they do not keep a standard territory to defend. Generally they are eaten by seagulls, octopuses, rats, raccoons, and humans, but are vulnerable to other organisms especially during their juvenile stages.
Hunting strategies will differ based on their habitat. On rocky shores they will hunt more often than they forage, and under the cover of night, whilst in intertidal pools they will focus more on herbivory even during daytime hours. Intraspecies conflicts occur more out of defense in close captivity out of water, whilst in water it occurs more out of aggression. Over time a social hierarchy for the species within its habitat will form.


Typically, this crab will have a brown/purple or black carapace with green stripes. Its carapace is square and can reach 4 to 5 cm in size.  The claws are red/purple with a mottled and striped pattern on the upper surface, and whitish-grayish on the lower surface, while its legs are purple and green with a similar mottled appearance.


The cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) is a large cat native to Africa and central Iran. It is the fastest land animal, estimated to be capable of running at 80 to 128 km/h (50 to 80 mph) with the fastest reliably recorded speeds being 93 and 98 km/h (58 and 61 mph), and as such has several adaptations for speed, including a light build, long thin legs and a long tail. It typically reaches 67–94 cm (26–37 in) at the shoulder, and the head-and-body length is between 1.1 and 1.5 m (3 ft 7 in and 4 ft 11 in). Adults weigh between 21 and 72 kg (46 and 159 lb). Its head is small and rounded, and has a short snout and black tear-like facial streaks. The coat is typically tawny to creamy white or pale buff and is mostly covered with evenly spaced, solid black spots. Four subspecies are recognised.
The cheetah lives in three main social groups: females and their cubs, male "coalitions", and solitary males. While females lead a nomadic life searching for prey in large home ranges, males are more sedentary and instead establish much smaller territories in areas with plentiful prey and access to females. The cheetah is active  during the day, with peaks during dawn and dusk. It feeds on small- to medium-sized prey, mostly weighing under 40 kg (88 lb), and prefers medium-sized ungulates such as impala, springbok and Thomson's gazelles. The cheetah typically stalks its prey to within 60–70 m (200–230 ft), charges towards it, trips it during the chase and bites its throat to suffocate it to death. It breeds throughout the year. After a gestation of nearly three months, a litter of typically three or four cubs is born. Cheetah cubs are highly vulnerable to predation by other large carnivores such as hyenas and lions. They are weaned at around four months and are independent by around 20 months of age.
The cheetah occurs in a variety of habitats such as savannahs in the Serengeti, arid mountain ranges in the Sahara and hilly desert terrain in Iran. The cheetah is threatened by several factors such as habitat loss, conflict with humans, poaching and high susceptibility to diseases. Historically ranging throughout most of Sub-Saharan Africa and extending eastward into the Middle East and to central India, the cheetah is now distributed mainly in small, fragmented populations in central Iran and southern, eastern and northwestern Africa. In 2016, the global cheetah population was estimated at around 7,100 individuals in the wild; it is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. In the past, cheetahs were tamed and trained for hunting ungulates. They have been widely depicted in art, literature, advertising, and animation.


The cheetah is a carnivore that hunts small to medium-sized prey weighing 20 to 60 kg (44 to 132 lb), but mostly less than 40 kg (88 lb). Its primary prey are medium-sized ungulates. They are the major component of the diet in certain areas, such as Dama and Dorcas gazelles in the Sahara, impala in the eastern and southern African woodlands, springbok in the arid savannas to the south and Thomson's gazelle in the Serengeti. Smaller antelopes like the common duiker are a frequent prey in the southern Kalahari. Larger ungulates are typically avoided, though nyala, whose males weigh around 120 kg (260 lb), were found to be the major prey in a study in the Phinda Game Reserve. In Namibia cheetahs are the major predators of livestock. The diet of the Asiatic cheetah consists of chinkara, desert hare, goitered gazelle, urial, wild goats and livestock; in India cheetahs used to prey mostly on blackbuck. There are no records of cheetahs killing humans. Cheetahs in the Kalahari have been reported feeding on citron melons for their water content.
Prey preferences and hunting success vary with the age, sex and number of cheetahs involved in the hunt and on the vigilance of the prey. Generally only groups of cheetahs (coalitions or mother and cubs) will try to kill larger prey; mothers with cubs especially look out for larger prey and tend to be more successful than females without cubs. Individuals on the periphery of the prey herd are common targets; vigilant prey which would react quickly on seeing the cheetah are not preferred.
Cheetahs hunt primarily throughout the day, sometimes with peaks at dawn and dusk; they tend to avoid larger predators like the primarily nocturnal lion. Cheetahs in the Sahara and Maasai Mara in Kenya hunt after sunset to escape the high temperatures of the day. Cheetahs use their vision to hunt instead of their sense of smell; they keep a lookout for prey from resting sites or low branches. The cheetah will stalk its prey, trying to conceal itself in cover, and approach as close as possible, often within 60 to 70 m (200 to 230 ft) of the prey (or even farther for less alert prey). Alternatively the cheetah can lie hidden in cover and wait for the prey to come nearer. A stalking cheetah assumes a partially crouched posture, with the head lower than the shoulders; it will move slowly and be still at times. In areas of minimal cover the cheetah will approach within 200 m (660 ft) of the prey and start the chase. The chase typically lasts a minute; in a 2013 study, the length of chases averaged 173 m (568 ft), and the longest run measured 559 m (1,834 ft). The cheetah can give up the chase if it is detected by the prey early or if it can not make a kill quickly. Cheetahs catch their prey by tripping it during the chase by hitting its rump with the forepaw or using the strong dewclaw to knock the prey off its balance, bringing it down with much force and sometimes even breaking some of its limbs.
Cheetahs can decelerate dramatically towards the end of the hunt, slowing down from 93 km/h (58 mph) to 23 km/h (14 mph) in just three strides, and can easily follow any twists and turns the prey makes as it tries to flee. To kill medium- to large-sized prey, the cheetah bites the prey's throat to suffocate it, maintaining the bite for around five minutes, within which the prey stops struggling. A bite on the nape of the neck or the snout (and sometimes on the skull) suffices to kill smaller prey. Cheetahs have an average hunting success rate of 25–40%, higher for smaller and more vulnerable prey.
Once the hunt is over, the prey is taken near a bush or under a tree; the cheetah, highly exhausted after the chase, rests beside the kill and pants heavily for five to 55 minutes. Meanwhile, cheetahs nearby, who did not take part in the hunt, might feed on the kill immediately. Groups of cheetah devour the kill peacefully, though minor noises and snapping may be observed. Cheetahs can consume large quantities of food; a cheetah at the Etosha National Park (Namibia) was found to consume as much as 10 kg (22 lb) within two hours. However, on a daily basis, a cheetah feeds on around 4 kg (8.8 lb) meat. Cheetahs, especially mothers with cubs, remain cautious even as they eat, pausing to look around for fresh prey or for predators who may steal the kill.
Cheetahs move their heads from side to side so the sharp carnassial teeth tear the flesh, which can then be swallowed without chewing. They typically begin with the hindquarters, and then progress toward the abdomen and the spine. Ribs are chewed on at the ends, and the limbs are not generally torn apart while eating. Unless the prey is very small, the skeleton is left almost intact after feeding on the meat. Cheetahs might lose 10–15% of their kills to large carnivores such as hyenas and lions (and grey wolves in Iran). To defend itself or its prey, a cheetah will hold its body low to the ground and snarl with its mouth wide open, the eyes staring threateningly ahead and the ears folded backward. This may be accompanied by moans, hisses and growls, and hitting the ground with the forepaws. Cheetahs have rarely been observed scavenging kills; this may be due to vultures and spotted hyena adroitly capturing and consuming heavy carcasses within a short time.


The cheetah occurs mostly in eastern and southern Africa; its presence in Asia is limited to the central deserts of Iran, though there have been unconfirmed reports of sightings in Afghanistan, Iraq and Pakistan in the last few decades. The global population of cheetahs was estimated at nearly 7,100 individuals in 2016. The Iranian population appears to have decreased from 60 to 100 individuals in 2007 to 43 in 2016, distributed in three subpopulations over less than 150,000 km² (58,000 sq mi) in Iran's central plateau. The largest population (nearly 4,000 individuals) is sparsely distributed over Angola, Botswana, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa and Zambia. Another population, spread in Kenya and Tanzania, comprises 1,000 individuals. All other cheetahs occur in small, fragmented groups (mostly less than 100 individuals in each) throughout the range. Populations are feared to be declining, especially those of adults. The cheetah was reintroduced in Malawi in 2017.


Cheetahs are induced ovulators and can breed throughout the year. Females can have their first litter at two to three years of age. Polyestrous, females have an oestrus ("heat") cycle is 12 days long on average, but it can vary from three days to a month. A female can conceive again after 17 to 20 months from giving birth, or even sooner if a whole litter is lost. Males can breed at less than two years of age in captivity, but this may be delayed in the wild until the male acquires a territory. A 2007 study showed that females who gave birth to more litters early in their life often died younger, indicating a trade-off between longevity and yearly reproductive success.
Urine-marking in males can become more pronounced when a female in their vicinity comes into oestrus. Males, sometimes even those in coalitions, fight among one another to secure access to the female. Often one male will eventually win dominance over the others and mate with the female, though a female can mate with different males. Mating begins with the male approaching the female, who lies down on the ground; individuals often chirp, purr or yelp at this time. No courtship behaviour is observed; the male immediately secures hold of the female's nape, and copulation takes place. The pair then ignore each other, but meet and copulate a few more times three to five times a day for the next two to three days before finally parting ways.
After a gestation of nearly three months, a litter of one to eight cubs is born (though those of three to four cubs are more common). Births take place at 20–25 minute intervals in a sheltered place such as thick vegetation. The eyes are shut at birth, and open in four to 11 days. Newborn cubs might spit a lot and make soft churring noises; they start walking by two weeks. Their nape, shoulders and back are thickly covered with long bluish grey hair, called a mantle, which gives them a mohawk-type appearance; this fur is shed as the cheetah grows older. A study suggested that this mane gives a cheetah cub the appearance of a honey badger, and could act as camouflage from attacks by these badgers or predators that tend to avoid them.
Compared to other felids, cheetah cubs are highly vulnerable to several predators during the first few weeks of their life. Mothers keep their cubs hidden in dense vegetation for the first two months and nurse in the early morning. The mother is extremely vigilant at this stage; she stays within 1 km (0.62 mi) of the lair, frequently visits her cubs, moves them every five to six days, and remains with them after dark. Despite trying to make minimal noise, she cannot generally defend her litter from predators. Predation is the leading cause of mortality in cheetah cubs; a study showed that in areas with a low density of predators (such as Namibian farmlands) around 70% of the cubs make it beyond the age of 14 months, whereas in areas like the Serengeti National Park, where several large carnivores exist, the survival rate was just 17%. Deaths also occur from starvation if their mothers abandon them, fires, or pneumonia because of exposure to bad weather. Generation length of the cheetah is six years.
Cubs start coming out of the lair at two months of age, trailing after their mother wherever she goes. At this point the mother nurses less and brings solid food to the cubs; they retreat away from the carcass in fear initially, but gradually start eating it. The cubs might purr as the mother licks them clean after the meal. Weaning occurs at four to six months. To train her cubs in hunting, the mother will catch and let go of live prey in front of her cubs. Cubs' play behaviour includes chasing, crouching, pouncing and wrestling; there is plenty of agility, and attacks are seldom lethal. Playing can improve catching skills in cubs, though the ability to crouch and hide may not develop remarkably.
Cubs as young as six months try to capture small prey like hares and young gazelles. However, they may have to wait until as long as 15 months of age to make a successful kill on their own. At around 20 months, offspring become independent; mothers might have conceived again by then. Siblings may remain together for a few more months before parting ways. While females stay close to their mothers, males move farther off. The lifespan of wild cheetahs is 14 to 15 years for females, and their reproductive cycle typically ends by 12 years of age; males generally live as long as ten years.


European beavers are herbivorous, eating "water and river bank plants", including tubers, "rootstocks of myrtles, cattails, water lilies", and also trees, including softwood tree bark. Their long appendices and the microorganisms within make possible the digestion of bark cellulose. Their daily food intake is approximately 20% of their body weight.


The Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber) or European beaver is a beaver species that was once widespread in Eurasia, but was hunted to near-extinction for both its fur and castoreum. At the turn of the 20th century, only about 1,200 beavers survived in eight relict populations in Europe and Asia. It has been reintroduced to much of its former range, and now occurs from Spain, Central Europe, Great Britain and Scandinavia to a few regions in China and Mongolia. It is listed as least concern on the IUCN Red List, as it recovered well in most of Europe. It is extirpated in Portugal, Moldova, and Turkey.


Eurasian beavers have one litter per year, coming into estrus for only 12 to 24 hours, between late December and May, but peaking in January. Unlike most other rodents, beaver pairs are monogamous, staying together for multiple breeding seasons. Gestation averages 107 days and they average three kits per litter with a range of two to six kits. Most beavers do not reproduce until they are three years of age, but about 20% of two-year-old females reproduce.


Hunts in rivers for small fish, amphibians, other snakes, and invertebrates, such as earthworms.


The blackneck garter snake can be found in southeastern and central Arizona, parts of the southwestern United States, Mexico and Guatemala.


Found near water in desertscrub, grasslands, chaparral, woodland environments.


It is active during the day and during twilight activities, and occasionally at night, hibernating from late fall to winter and mating in late spring or summer.


The tokay gecko is a large nocturnal gecko, reaching a total length (including tail) of 10–12 in (25–30 cm) on average, but some grow as large as 16 in (40 cm) long. It is believed to be the third largest species of gecko, after the giant leaf-tail gecko (Uroplatus giganteus) and New Caledonian giant gecko (Rhacodactylus leachianus). It is cylindrical but somewhat flattened in body shape. The eyes have vertical pupils. The skin is soft to the touch and is generally blue-gray with red or orange spots and speckles, but the animal can change the color of its skin to blend into the environment. The species is sexually dimorphic, the males being more brightly colored and slightly larger.
Tokay geckos are generally aggressive, territorial, and can inflict a strong bite. Females lay clutches of one or two hard-shelled eggs and guard them until they hatch. The tokay gecko feeds on insects and small vertebrates. In a study conducted in Thailand, researchers noticed that there was little variation in the diets males, females, and juveniles, which was likely due to low insect availability in this area.  It is a strong climber with foot pads that can support the entire weight of the body on a vertical surface for a long period of time. Compared to other gecko species, the tokay gecko has a robust build, with a semi-prehensile tail, a large head and muscular jaws. Though common in the pet trade, the strong bite of the tokay gecko makes it ill-suited for inexperienced keepers. In addition, the strength of the bite depending on the gecko's size; larger (usually male) tokay geckos are capable of piercing skin, which often results in immediate bleeding.


This species is found in northeast India, Bhutan, Nepal, and Bangladesh; throughout Southeast Asia, including Thailand, the Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia; and toward western New Guinea. Its native habitat is rainforest, where it lives on trees and cliffs, and it frequently adapts to rural human habitations, roaming walls and ceilings at night in search of insect prey. This is an introduced species in some areas outside its native range. It is established in Florida in the United States, Martinique, the islands of Belize, and possibly Hawaii. Increasing urbanization is reducing its range.
It is currently unclear whether the species is native but very uncommon in Taiwan or whether the rare reports of individuals since the 1920s are based on repeated anthropogenic translocations that may or may not have resulted in established populations by now.


Tokay geckos are becoming more popular as pets because of their striking colors and large size. Most of them are wild-caught imports, but captive-bred ones are becoming more common. Wild-caught adults can be difficult to keep because of their aggressive nature and powerful bite, but captive-bred juveniles can be less aggressive if handled from a young age.
When well cared for, tokay geckos can live up to 15–20 years.


Fox squirrels are most abundant in open forest stands with little understory vegetation; they are not found in stands with dense undergrowth. Ideal habitat is small stands of large trees interspersed with agricultural land. The size and spacing of pines and oaks are among the important features of fox squirrel habitat. The actual species of pines and oaks themselves may not always be a major consideration in defining fox squirrel habitat. Fox squirrels are often observed foraging on the ground several hundred meters from the nearest woodlot. Fox squirrels also commonly occupy forest edge habitat.
Fox squirrels have two types of shelters: leaf nests (dreys) and tree dens. They may have two tree cavity homes or a tree cavity and a leaf nest. Tree dens are preferred over leaf nests during the winter and for raising young. When den trees are scarce, leaf nests are used year-round. Leaf nests are built during the summer months in forks of deciduous trees about 30 feet (9 m) above the ground. Fox squirrels use natural cavities and crotches (forked branches of a tree) as tree dens. Den trees in Ohio had an average diameter at breast height (d.b.h.) of 21 inches (53 cm) and were an average of 58.6 yards (53.6 m) from the nearest woodland border. About 88% of den trees in eastern Texas had an average d.b.h. (diameter at breast height) of 12 inches (30 cm) or more. Dens are usually 6 inches (15 cm) wide and 14–16 inches (36–41 cm) inches deep. Den openings are generally circular and about 2.9 to 3.7 inches (7.4 to 9.4 cm). Fox squirrels may make their own den in a hollow tree by cutting through the interior; however, they generally use natural cavities or cavities created by northern flickers (Colaptes auratus) or red-headed woodpeckers (Melanerpes erythrocephalus). Crow nests have also been used by fox squirrels.
Fox squirrels use leaf nests or tree cavities for shelter and litter rearing. Forest stands dominated by mature to over mature trees provide cavities and a sufficient number of sites for leaf nests to meet the cover requirements. Overstory trees with an average d.b.h. of 15 inches (38 cm) or more generally provide adequate cover and reproductive habitat. Optimum tree canopy closure for fox squirrels is from 20% to 60%. Optimum conditions of understory closure occur when the shrub-crown closure is 30% or less.
Fox squirrels are tolerant of human proximity, and even thrive in crowded urban and suburban environments. They exploit human habitations for sources of food and nesting sites, being as happy nesting in an attic as they are in a hollow tree.


Food habits of fox squirrels depend largely on geographic location. In general, fox squirrel foods include mast, tree buds, insects, tubers, bulbs, roots, bird eggs, pine seeds and spring-fruiting trees, and fungi. Agricultural crops such as corn, soybeans, oats, wheat, and fruit are also eaten. Mast eaten by fox squirrels commonly includes turkey oak (Quercus laevis), southern red oak (Quercus falcata), blackjack oak (Quercus marilandica), bluejack oak (Quercus incana), post oak (Quercus stellata), and live oak (Quercus virginiana).
In Illinois, fox squirrels rely heavily on hickories from late August through September. Pecans, black walnuts (Juglans nigra), osage orange (Maclura pomifera) fruits, and corn are also important fall foods. In early spring, elm buds and seeds are the most important food. In May and June, mulberries (Morus spp.) are heavily used. By early summer, corn in the milk stage becomes a primary food.
During the winter in Kansas, osage orange is a staple item supplemented with seeds of the Kentucky coffee tree (Gymnocladus dioicus) and honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos), corn, wheat, eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides var. deltoides) bark, ash seeds, and eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) berries. In the spring, fox squirrels feed primarily on buds of elm, maple, and oaks but also on newly sprouting leaves and insect larvae.
Fox squirrels in Ohio prefer hickory nuts, acorns, corn, and black walnuts. The squirrels are absent where two or more of these mast trees are missing. Fox squirrels also eat buckeyes, seeds and buds of maple and elm, hazelnuts (Corylus spp.), blackberries (Rubus spp.), and tree bark. In March, they feed mainly on buds and seeds of elm, maple, and willow. In Ohio, eastern fox squirrels have the following order of food preference: white oak (Quercus alba) acorns, black oak (Quercus velutina) acorns, red oak (Quercus rubra) acorns, walnuts, and corn.
In eastern Texas, fox squirrels prefer the acorns of bluejack oak, pecans, southern red oak (Q. falcata), and overcup oak (Q. lyrata). The least preferred foods are acorns of swamp chestnut oak (Q. michauxii) and overcup oak. In California, fox squirrels feed on English walnuts (J. regia), oranges, avocados, strawberries, and tomatoes. In midwinter, they feed on eucalyptus seeds.
In Michigan, fox squirrels feed on a variety of foods throughout the year. Spring foods are mainly tree buds and flowers, insects, bird eggs, and seeds of red maple (Acer rubrum), silver maple (Acer saccharinum), and elms. Summer foods include a variety of berries, plum and cherry pits, fruits of basswood (Tilia americana), fruits of box elder (Acer negundo), black oak acorns, hickory nuts, seeds of sugar (Acer saccharum) and black maple (Acer nigrum), grains, insects, and unripe corn. Fall foods consist mainly of acorns, hickory nuts, beechnuts, walnuts, butternuts (Juglans cinerea), and hazelnuts. Caches of acorns and hickory nuts are heavily used in winter.


In captivity, fox squirrels have been known to live 18 years, but in the wild most fox squirrels die before they become adults. Their maximum life expectancy is typically 12.6 years for females and 8.6 years for males. Because of overhunting and the destruction of mature forests, many subspecies of fox squirrel (the Delmarva fox squirrel for example) are endangered. Another major cause of fox squirrel population decline is mange mite (Cnemidoptes sp.) along with severe winter weather.
Relatively few natural predators can regularly capture adult fox squirrels. Of these predators, most only take fox squirrels opportunistically. Predators include: bobcats (Lynx rufus), Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis), foxes (Vulpes vulpes and Urocyon cinereoargenteus), red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), red-shouldered hawks (Buteo lineatus), great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), barred owls (Strix varia), and coyotes (Canis latrans). Former predators extirpated from most of the fox squirrel's range included cougars (Puma concolor) and gray wolves (Canis lupus). Nestlings and young fox squirrels are particularly vulnerable to climbing predators such as raccoons (Procyon lotor), opossums (Didelphis virginiana), rat snakes (Pantherophis spp.), and pine snakes (Pituophis melanoleucus). In those states where fox squirrels are not protected, they are considered a game animal.  Fox squirrels were an important source of meat for European settlers in the 17th and 18th centuries. They are still hunted over most of their range.
 Overhunting has been reported from small woodlots and public shooting areas in Ohio, Michigan, and Indiana.


The fox squirrel (Sciurus niger), also known as the eastern fox squirrel or Bryant's fox squirrel, is the largest species of tree squirrel native to North America. Despite the differences in size and coloration, it is sometimes mistaken for American red squirrels or eastern gray squirrels in areas where the species co-exist.


Female fox squirrels come into estrus in mid-December or early January, then again in June. They normally produce two litters a year; however, yearling females may only produce one. Females become sexually mature at 10 to 11 months of age and usually produce their first litter when they are a year old.
Gestation occurs over a period of 44 to 45 days. Earliest litters appear in late January; most births occur in mid-March and July. The average litter size is three, but can vary according to season and food conditions.
Tree cavities, usually those formed by woodpeckers, are remodeled to winter dens and often serve as nurseries for late winter litters. If existing trees lack cavities, leaf nests known as dreys are built by cutting twigs with leaves and weaving them into warm, waterproof shelters. Similar leafy platforms are built for summer litters and are often referred to as "cooling beds."
Tree squirrels develop slowly compared to other rodents. At birth, the young are blind, without fur and helpless. Eyes open at 4 to 5 weeks of age and ears open at 6 weeks. Eastern fox squirrels are weaned between 12 and 14 weeks but may not be self-supporting until 16 weeks. Juveniles usually disperse in September or October, but may den either together or with their mother during their first winter.


P. volitans is native to the Indo-Pacific region, including the western and central Pacific and off the coast of western Australia. However, the species has been accidentally introduced into the Western Atlantic, becoming an invasive species there and in the northern Gulf of Mexico as well.


In its invasive range, few predators of the lionfish have been documented. Most larger Atlantic and Caribbean fish and sharks that should be able to eat the lionfish have not recognized them as prey, likely due to the novelty of the fish in the invaded areas. Lionfish have, however, been found in the stomachs of Nassau and tiger groupers in the Bahamas, but the former is critically endangered and therefore highly unlikely to provide significant predation. In its native range, two species of moray eels were found preying on lionfish. The Bobbit worm, an ambush predator, has been filmed preying upon lionfish in Indonesia; similar species inhabit the Caribbean.
The lionfish themselves are voracious feeders and have outcompeted and filled the niche of the overfished snapper and grouper. When hunting, they corner prey using their large fins, then use their quick reflexes to swallow the prey whole. They hunt primarily from late afternoon to dawn. High rates of prey consumption, a wide variety of prey, and increasing abundance of the fish lead to concerns the fish may have a very active role in the already declining trend of fish densities. As the fish become more abundant, they are becoming a threat to the fragile ecosystems they have invaded. Between outcompeting similar fish and having a varied diet, the lionfish is drastically changing and disrupting the food chains holding the marine ecosystems together. As these chains are disrupted, declining densities of other fish populations are found, as well as declines in the overall diversity of coral reef areas.


The red lionfish (Pterois volitans) is a venomous coral reef fish in the family Scorpaenidae, order Scorpaeniformes. It is mainly native to the Indo-Pacific region, but has become an invasive species in the Caribbean Sea, as well as along the East Coast of the United States and East Mediterranean and also found in Brazil at Fernando de Noronha.
P. volitans and a similar relative, Pterois miles, have both been deemed invasive species. Red lionfish are clad in white stripes alternated with red, maroon or brown stripes. Adults in this species can grow as large as 47 cm (18.5 in) in length, making it one of the largest species of lionfish in the ocean, while juveniles are typically shorter than 1 inch (2.5 cm). The average red lionfish lives around 10 years. As with many species within the family Scorpaenidae, it has large, venomous spines that protrude from the body, similar to a mane, giving it the common name lionfish. The venomous spines make the fish inedible or deter most potential predators. Lionfish reproduce monthly and are able to quickly disperse during their larval stage for expansion of their invasive region. No definitive predators of the lionfish are known, and many organizations are promoting the harvest and consumption of lionfish in efforts to prevent further increases in the already high population densities.


Mud turtles (genus Kinosternon) are fresh water turtles that are found in the Southeastern and Northeastern United States. They live in rivers, lakes and swamps. Mud turtles prefer ponds that have a lot of vegetation. These animals can generally be found in spring-fed streams, and they prefer clean, oxygenated water. The Eastern mud turtle rarely basks, but in the instance they do, they will bask on rocks or debris floating on the surface of the water. In the wild, they also prefer sandy and muddy areas, as they will hibernate by burrowing into the mud. The Eastern Mud Turtle prefers hibernacula sites about 70 meters from wetlands and that have a large amount of leaf and pine litter and not too much tree cover. They will burrow at the wetland edges at a minimum depth of 1.3 cm below the soil surface to a maximum depth of 3 cm. The leaf litter helps to keep the soil moisture and the temperature consistent, while a more open canopy exposes turtles to higher temperatures before emergence.
Mud turtles can tolerate brackish water so they may be found near salt marshes and on coastal islands.


The eastern mud turtle is a small and often hard to identify species. It measures 3–4 in (7.6–10.2 cm) in carapace length. The carapace is keelless, lacks any pattern, and varies in color from yellowish to black. The plastron is large and double hinged, and can be yellowish to brown, and may sometimes have a dark pattern. The chin and throat are a yellowish grey, streaked and mottled with brown, while the limbs and tail are grayish. The eye, or iris, of the eastern mud turtle is yellow with dark clouding, and its feet are webbed.


The eastern chipmunk lives in deciduous wooded areas and urban parks throughout the eastern United States and southern Canada. It prefers locations with rocky areas, brush or log piles, and shrubs to provide cover.


The chipmunk is mainly active during the day, spending most of its day foraging. It prefers bulbs, seeds, fruits, nuts, green plants, mushrooms, insects, worms, and bird eggs. It commonly transports food in pouches in its cheeks.


The eastern chipmunk defends its burrow and lives a solitary life, except during mating season. In fact, the chipmunk's solitary existence has been noted as "one of the most characteristic behavioral features of the chipmunk," whereas "social interaction of a relatively peaceful nature occurs only during the brief period of courtship and mating, and during the six to eight weeks that the young spend with the mother after birth." Females usually produce one or two litters of three to five young. The two breeding seasons are from February to April and from June to August. During the winter, the chipmunk may enter long periods of hibernation.
Predators of the eastern chipmunk include hawks, owls, foxes, raccoons, snakes, weasels, coyotes, bobcats, lynx, domestic dogs and domestic cats. On average, eastern chipmunks live three or more years in the wild, but in captivity they may live as long as eight years.
Eastern chipmunks are known to be one of many hosts for the parasitic larvae of Cuterebra botflies.


The eastern chipmunk (Tamias striatus) is a chipmunk species found in eastern North America. It is the only living member of the chipmunk subgenus Tamias, sometimes recognized as a different genus. The name "chipmunk" comes from the Ojibwe word ᐊᒋᑕᒨ ajidamoo (or possibly ajidamoonh, the same word in the Ottawa dialect of Ojibwe), which translates literally as "one who descends trees headlong." First described by Mark Catesby in his 1743 The Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands, the chipmunk was eventually classified as Sciurus striatus by Linnaeus, meaning "striped squirrel" in Latin. The scientific name was changed to Tamias striatus, meaning "striped steward," by Johann Illiger in 1811.


Italian cook and author Antonio Carluccio reports this is one of the most common fungi brought to him to identify, having been mistaken for an edible species. Young specimens can be confused with many edible boletes, though as the pores become more pink the species becomes easier to identify. Some guidebooks advocate tasting the flesh, the smallest piece of which will be very bitter. The dark-on-light reticulation in the stalk is distinctive and is the opposite colouration to that on the stalk of the prized Boletus edulis. T. felleus  is found in the same habitat as B. badius, though the latter's yellow tubes and blue-bruising flesh easily distinguish these very dissimilar species. B. subtomentosus may have a similar-coloured cap but its yellow pores and slender stalk aid identification.
Tylopilus rubrobrunneus, found in hardwood forests of eastern North America, is similar in appearance to T. felleus but has a purplish to purple-brown cap. It is also inedible owing to its bitter taste. Another North American species, T. variobrunneus, has a cap that is reddish-brown to chestnut-brown, with olive tones in youth. It has shorter spores than T. felleus, typically measuring 9–13 by 3–4.5  μm. In the field it can be distinguished from the latter species by its mild to slightly bitter taste. T. rhoadsiae, found in the southeastern United States, has a lighter-coloured cap which is smaller, up to 9 cm (3.5 in) in diameter. The edible T. indecisus and T. ferrugineus can be confused with T. felleus but have less reticulated stalks. The dimensions of the spores of the Australian species T. brevisporus range from 9.2 to 10.5 by 3.5 to 3.9 μm. T. neofelleus, limited in distribution to deciduous forests of China, New Guinea, Japan and Taiwan, can be distinguished from T. felleus macroscopically by its vinaceous-brown cap and pinkish-brown to vinaceous stalk and microscopically by its smaller spores (measuring 11–14 by 4–5 μm) and longer pleurocystidia (49–107 by 14–24 μm).


As its common name suggests, it is extremely bitter, though not toxic as such. This bitterness is worsened by cooking. One specimen can foul the taste of a whole meal prepared with mushrooms. Despite this it is sold in markets (tianguis) in Mexico. A local recipe from France, Romania and East Germany calls for stewing it in skimmed milk, after which it can be eaten or powdered and used for flavouring. The mushroom is not bitter for those who lack genetic sensitivity to bitter taste, a trait endowed by the gene TAS2R38 (taste receptor 2 member 38). The compound responsible for the bitter taste has not been identified.


The mycelium of Tylopilus felleus can be grown in axenic culture, on agar containing growth medium. The fungus can form fruit bodies if the temperature is suitable and the light conditions simulate a 12-hour day. The mushrooms are usually deformed, often lacking stalks so that the cap grows on the surface direct and the caps are usually 0.5–1.0 cm (0.2–0.4 in) in diameter. There are few Boletaceae species known to fruit in culture since ectomycorrhizal fungi tend to not fruit when separated from their host plant.
Compounds from T. felleus have been extracted and researched for potential medical uses. Tylopilan is a beta-glucan that was isolated from the fruit bodies in 1988 and shown in laboratory tests to have cytotoxic properties and to stimulate non-specific immunological response. In particular it enhances phagocytosis, the process by which macrophages and granulocytes engulf and digest foreign bacteria. In experiments on mice with tumour cells it appeared to have antitumour effects when administered in combination with a preparation of Cutibacterium acnes in a 1994 Polish study. Researchers in 2004 reported that extracts of the fruit body inhibit the enzyme pancreatic lipase; it was the second most inhibitory of 100 mushrooms they tested. A compound present in the mushroom, N-γ-glutamyl boletine, has mild antibacterial activity.


The cap of this species grows up to 15 cm (6 in) in diameter, though some North American specimens reach 30 cm (12 in) across. Grey-yellow to pale- or walnut-brown, it is slightly downy at first and later becomes smooth with a matte lustre. It is initially convex before flattening out with maturity.  The cap skin does not peel away from the flesh. The pores underneath are white at first and become pinkish with maturity. They are adnate to the stalk and bulge downwards as the mushroom ages. The pores bruise carmine or brownish, often developing rusty-brown spots with age, and number about one or two per millimetre. The tubes are long relative to the size of the cap, measuring 2–3 cm (0.8–1.2 in) deep in the middle part of the cap. The stalk is initially bulbous before stretching and thinning in the upper part; the lower part of the stalk remains swollen, sometimes shrinking at the base where it attaches to the substrate. It measures 7–10 cm (2.8–3.9 in)—rarely to 20 cm (7.9 in)—tall, and 2–3 cm (0.8–1.2 in) wide, and can bulge out to 6 cm (2.4 in) across at the base. It is lighter in colour than the cap, and covered with a coarse brown network of markings, which have been likened to fishnet stockings in appearance. Described as "very appetising" in appearance, the flesh is white or creamy, and pink beneath the cap cuticle; the flesh can also develop pinkish tones where it has been cut. It has a slight smell, which has been described as pleasant, as well as faintly unpleasant. The flesh is softer than that of other boletes, and tends to become more spongy as the mushroom matures. Insects rarely infest this species.
The colour of the spore print is brownish, with pink, reddish, or rosy tints. Spores are somewhat fuse-shaped, smooth, and measure 11–17 by 3–5 µm. The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are club-shaped, four-spored, and measure 18–25.6 by 7.0–10.2 µm. Cystidia on the walls of the tubes (pleurocystidia) are fuse-shaped with a central swelling, thin-walled, and have granular contents. They possess sharp to tapered tips, and have overall dimensions of 36–44 by 8.0–11.0 µm. On the pore edges, the cheilocystidia are similar in shape to the pleurocystidia, measuring 24.8–44.0 by 7.3–11.0 µm. The hymenium of Smith and Thiers's variety uliginosus, when mounted in Melzer's reagent, shows reddish globules of pigment measuring 2–8 µm that appear in the hyphae and throughout the hymenium, and a large (8–12 µm) globule in the pleurocystidia.
Several chemical tests have been documented that can help confirm the identify of this species. On the cap flesh, application of formaldehyde turns the tissue pinkish, iron salts result in a colour change to greyish-green, aniline causes a lavender to reddish-brown colour, and phenol a purplish pink to reddish brown. On the cap cuticle, nitric acid causes an orange-salmon colour, sulphuric acid creates orange-red, ammonia usually makes brown, and a potassium hydroxide solution usually makes orange.


Tylopilus felleus, commonly known as the bitter bolete or the bitter tylopilus, is a fungus of the bolete family. Its distribution includes east Asia, Europe and eastern North America, extending south into Mexico and Central America. A mycorrhizal species, it grows in deciduous and coniferous woodland, often fruiting under beech and oak. Its fruit bodies have convex to flat caps that are some shade of brown, buff or tan and typically measure up to 15 cm (6 in) in diameter. The pore surface is initially white before turning pinkish with age. Like most boletes it lacks a ring and it may be distinguished from Boletus edulis and other similar species by its unusual pink pores and the prominent dark-brown net-like pattern on its stalk.
French mycologist Pierre Bulliard described this species as Boletus felleus in 1788 before it was transferred into the new genus Tylopilus. It is the type species of Tylopilus and the only member of the genus found in Europe. Tylopilus felleus has been the subject of research into bioactive compounds that have been tested for antitumour and antibiotic properties. Although not poisonous it is generally considered inedible owing to its overwhelming bitterness.


The Atlantic calico scallop  ranges from Delaware to Brazil, and is still sometimes fished commercially. It  is not found in bays; instead it lives in open water up to 100-foot depths. The shells are commonly found washed up on ocean beaches.
Valve color and shell morphometry distinguish calico scallops from related species. In the Indian River Lagoon in Florida, two other scallops occur: the bay scallop, (Argopecten irradians), which generally has a uniform gray to gray-brown coloration with distinct convexity of the right (lower) valve. The other is the rough scallop, (Aequipecten muscosus), which has unequal 'ears' and has sharp scales on the lower surface of the ribs. The color of the rough scallop is yellow, orange, red or brownish.


O. ventralis eats a range of insects, such as grasshoppers, crickets and beetles, and will also consume spiders, small mice, snails, and the eggs of other reptiles and ground-nesting birds. Unlike snakes, glass lizards do not have flexible jaws, and this limits the size of prey items they can consume. They forage both above ground and underground in burrows.


O. ventralis is commonly found from extreme southeastern Virginia to south Florida and west to Louisiana. Isolated records exist of its occurrence in Oklahoma and Missouri.


Adults of O. ventralis grow to 46–108 cm (18–43 in) in total length, although the head-body length is only 30.5 cm (12.0 in) at most. There are 99 or more scales along the lateral groove. In this species, no dark longitudinal stripes are present below the lateral groove or under the tail, and there is no distinct mid-dorsal stripe. The neck is marked with a series of mostly vertical, or highly irregular, white marks, with white markings on posterior corners of scales. Dorsally, older specimens have a pattern consisting of numerous longitudinal dark lines or dashes. Occasionally, similar parallel lines cover the entire mid-dorsal area. Older adults may be greenish above and yellow below; this is the only Ophisaurus species that may have a greenish appearance. Juveniles are khaki-colored and usually have two dark stripes that run down the back. O. ventralis are commonly mistaken as a species of snake because they lack limbs.  Unlike snakes, they have moveable eyelids, external ear openings located behind their eyes, and inflexible jaws.
No subspecies are currently recognized.


Eastern glass lizards are a common species near wetlands and moist soils. O. ventralis habitat consists of flatwoods adjacent to wetlands with sandy soils. They heavily rely on prescribed fire to maintain their habitat.  They have also been found in tidal areas such as coastal dunes because they are resistant to salty conditions.
A study in 2020 found O. ventralis using a crayfish burrow as habitat. Various invertebrates and vertebrates are known to use these burrows but this is the first time a lizard species has been documented using a crayfish burrow. Limited research has been done but could be more widespread behavior.


O. ventralis is oviparous and lays around 5-15 eggs in June and July. Eggs are usually laid under cover or in depressions and sandy or loamy soil. Females will encircle their clutch but may retreat when approached and generally do not defend their eggs.


It is widespread in the tropical and subtropical waters of the Indo-Pacific as far north as Japan and east to the west coasts of the Americas, including the Red Sea. In 2000, its presence was reported in the Mediterranean Sea; since then, it has continued to disperse and is now well established in some areas. This species is considered as part of the Lessepsian migration. It has spread rapidly through the Mediterranean from its origin in the Suez Canal, the first records being off Israel in 2000 and it had reached the southern coast of Spain and as far north as the Gulf of Lions by 2007. Scientists have determined that the fish in the Mediterranean are all descended from a small number of ancestors, possibly as a result of a single invasion event, and are not as genetically variable as their conspecifics in the Red Sea.


The bluespotted cornetfish is usually a solitary predator, stalking and feeding on small fishes, crustaceans, and squid.  Sometimes, they feed in small groups along the bottom on small, bottom-dwelling fish which their long snouts are very efficient at sucking up. Reproduction is oviparous.  The large eggs hatch and develop outside of the body.  Larvae hatch at 6–7 millimetres (0.24–0.28 in).


The bluespotted cornetfish grows to a length of 1.6 m (5.2 ft), but the average is around 1 metre (3 ft 3 in). It is notable for its unusually long, slender body shape.  It has a tubular snout, large eyes and a long tail filament lined with sensory pores which may help with detecting prey.  Its body is greenish-grey to brown with two thin blue stripes or lines of dots on the back and lighter on the front. Its body pattern changes to a broad banded pattern at night.


Carpet pythons kill prey by constriction. Their diet consists mainly of small mammals, birds, and lizards. Incidents of carpet pythons devouring domestic cats and small dogs have been reported.


The species is found throughout mainland Australia, with the exception of the arid centre and the western regions. It is widely distributed throughout the forest regions of Southwest Australia.  It is also found in Indonesia (southern Western New Guinea in Merauke Regency), Papua New Guinea (southern Western Province, the Port Moresby area of Central Province), and on Yule Island. The type locality given is "Nouvelle-Hollande" [Australia].
It occurs in a wide variety of habitats, from the rainforests of northeastern Queensland (M. s. cheynei) through the River Red Gum/Riverbox woodlands of the Murray and Darling Rivers (M. s. metcalfei), to the arid, treeless islands of the Nuyts Archipelago off the South Australian west coast (M. s. imbricata). It is also found in temperate grasslands with hot and dry weather. It is often found near human habitation, where it performs a useful service by eating rats and other vermin. M. spilota is known to occur in areas that receive snowfall.


M. spilota is a large species of python in the genus, reaching between 2 and 4 m (6.6 and 13.1 ft) in length and weighing up to 15 kg (33 lb). M. s. mcdowelli is the largest subspecies, regularly attaining lengths of 2.7–3.0 m (8.9–9.8 ft). M. s. variegata is the smallest subspecies, typically 120–180 cm (3.9–5.9 ft) in length. The average adult length is roughly 2 m (6.6 ft). However, one 3-year-old captive male M. s. mcdowelli, measured in Ireland, was found to exceed 396 cm (12.99 ft). Males are typically smaller than females; in some regions, females are up to four times heavier. The head is triangular with a conspicuous row of thermoreceptive labial pits.
The colouring of M. spilota is highly variable, ranging from olive to black with white or cream and gold markings. The patterning may be roughly diamond-shaped or have intricate markings made up of light and dark bands on a background of gray or a version of brown.


The species is oviparous, with females laying 10–50 eggs at a time. Afterward, females coil around the eggs to protect them and keep them warm through using muscular contractions to generate heat. This type of maternal care, which is typical for pythons, ceases once the hatchlings have emerged.


This species is a popular pet among snake enthusiasts. Some forms can be more irascible than others, such as M. s. mcdowelli and M. s. variegata. Forms that tend to be more even tempered include M. s. spilota and M. s. metcalfei.  Although they can be nippy as hatchlings, most grow into docile adults. However, care must be taken when feeding, as these snakes have a strong "feeding response" that can be mistaken for aggression.
The care requirements can be generalized for all subspecies. The subspecies M. s. spilota, the cold-weather diamond python, has some separate requirements and habits. As medium to large snakes, carpet pythons need a proportionately sized enclosure that allows for climbing as well as crawling around on the ground. They generally require moderately high basking temperature and moderate humidity. Captive specimens are normally fed live or frozen (defrosted to room temperature) rats or mice, but it is considered best practice to offer a varied diet which includes other types of rodents and birds to create more balanced nutrition. Young carpet pythons can be fed every 1–2 weeks, but adults have slower metabolisms and should be fed every 2–4 weeks depending on body condition.
With good care, the carpet python is capable of living up to 30 years.


For centuries, laccate (varnished or polished) Ganoderma species have been used as traditional medicine in many parts of Asia. These species are often mislabeled as G. lucidum', although genetic testing has shown this to be multiple species, such as G. lingzhi, G. multipileum, and G. sichuanense.


Fruiting bodies annual and sessile (without a stipe) or pseudostipitate (very small stipe). Fruiting bodies found growing on trunks or root flares of living or dead hardwood trees. Very common taxon, being found in practically every state East of the Rocky Mountains within the United States. Mature fruiting bodies are laccate and reddish-brown, often with a wrinkled margin if dry. Fruiting bodies are shelf-like if on stumps or overlapping clusters of fan-shaped (flabelliform) fruiting bodies if growing from underground roots, and range in size of 3-20 cm in diameter. Hymenium white, bruising brown, and poroid with irregular pores that can range in shape from circular to angular. The context tissue is cream colored and can be thin to thick and on average the same length as the tubes. Black resinous deposits are never found embedded in the context tissue, but concentric zones are often found. Spores appear “smooth”, or nearly so, due to the fine (thin) echinulations from the endosporium, which can differentiate them from other common Eastern North American species such as Ganoderma curtisii (Berk.) Murrill. Elliptical to obovate to obpyriform chlamydospores formed in vegetative mycelium, and are abundant in cultures.


Hemigrapsus sanguineus, the Japanese shore crab or Asian shore crab, is a species of crab from East Asia. It has been introduced to several other regions, and is now an invasive species in North America and Europe. It was introduced to these regions by ships from Asia emptying their ballast tanks in coastal waters.


Because the crabs are opportunistic omnivores, they will eat anything they can get their mouths around. H. sanguineus prefers to consume animals, but during a period of starvation, these crabs tend not to show a food preference. Most of the animals consumed by H. sanguineus are small invertebrates, such as mussels, snails, and amphipods.  The diet of these crabs is overall very broad.


H. sanguineus has a squarish carapace, 2 inches (50 mm) in width, with three teeth along the forward sides; its pereiopods are marked with alternating light and dark bands. The males have a bulb-like structure at the base of the movable finger on their claws. Other distinguishing features include three spines on each side of the carapace. Adult sizes range from 35–42 mm width. These crabs are opportunistic omnivores that tend to favor other animals over algae. As crab density in an invaded area increases, so does the breadth of the species' diet, which suggests that competition alters selection of food. There currently is no mitigation against these crabs. A natural enemy of H. sanguineus is Sacculina polygenea, a parasite that attacks adult shore crabs and is specific to H. sanguineus.


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The species is edible but even a small portion can cause gastrointestinal disturbances for some people.


The cap of the mushroom is 5–25 cm (2–8 in) in diameter, convex with an incurved margin, becoming plane to depressed in shape. Cap colours are generally greyish to light brownish-grey, and often covered in a whitish bloom when young. The surface of the cap is usually dry to moist, and radially fibrillose. The gills are pale, adnate to short-decurrent, close and usually forked. The stem measures 5–10 cm (2–3+7⁄8 in) long and 2–4 cm wide; it is stout, swollen towards the base, becomes hollow with age, and is easily broken. It is usually somewhat lighter than the cap. The flesh is white, and very thick. It usually has a foul-smelling odour, which has been described as slightly farinaceous to rancid.
The spores are yellow and elliptical.
This species is host to the parasitic gilled mushroom Volvariella surrecta, which is found on older specimens.


The species may be confused with the poisonous Entoloma sinuatum both in Europe or North America, though this species has pink sinuate gills. It also resembles Leucopaxillus albissimus and Tricholoma saponaceum. Leucopaxillus giganteus is also similar in stature, but is whiter. Infundibulicybe geotropa has a pale brown cap.


This species can be used to make dyes, producing a reddish-brown color. Indigenous people in North America used the lichen medicinally. The Métis peoples rubbed it on the gums of teething babies, while the Saanich peoples used it for a variety of ailments, with the medicinal qualities depending on what type of tree it was harvested from.
It often grows in lichen communities with other species. In the Jura Mountains of Switzerland, for example, it regularly occurs with Lobaria pulmonaria and various Nephroma species.


Parmelia sulcata is a foliose lichen with a generally circular thallus that can range in color from glaucous white to gray on the upper cortex; the lower surface is black. The thallus is broadly lobed. Each lobe measures between 2–5 mm (0.08–0.20 in) in width, and lobes are overlapping.
The lichen's medulla and soredia react positively with potassium hydroxide (K), turning red-orange. They react positively with para-phenylenediamene (Pd) as well, also turning orange. The lichen does not fluoresce in ultraviolet light.


Suillus americanus is a species of fungus in the mushroom family Suillaceae. Commonly known as the chicken fat mushroom, American suillus, it grows in a mycorrhizal association with eastern white pine and is found where this tree occurs in eastern North America and China. The mushroom can be recognized by the bright yellow cap with red to reddish-brown scales embedded in slime, the large yellow angular pores on the underside of the cap, and the narrow yellow stem marked with dark reddish dots. Molecular phylogenetics analysis suggests that S. americanus may be the same species as S. sibiricus, found in western North America and western and central Asia. Suillus americanus is edible, although opinions vary as to its palatability; some susceptible individuals may suffer a contact dermatitis after touching the fruit bodies. The fruit bodies contain a beta glucan carbohydrate shown in laboratory tests to have anti-inflammatory properties.


The cap is typically between 3–10 cm (1.2–3.9 in) in diameter, broadly convex with a small umbo (a central elevation) to flat with age. The cap margin is curved inwards in young specimens, and may have remnants of a yellowish, cottony veil hanging from it. The cap surface is colored bright yellow with red or brownish streaks and hairy patches. When the fruit body is young and moist, the surface is slimy; as the cap matures and dries out, it becomes sticky or tacky.
The tubes which comprise the pore layer on the underside of the cap are 0.4 to 0.6 cm (0.16 to 0.24 in) deep, and have an adnate (attached broadly to the stem) to decurrent (running down the length of the stem) attachment to the stem. They are yellow, and stain reddish-brown when bruised. The yellow pores are large (1–2 mm diameter) and angular, and tend to become darker as they age. The pores are slightly wider than long, so that there are about 9–10 pores per centimeter measured radially, but 12 to 13 per centimeter when measured tangentially, about halfway to the edge.  As is the case with all boletes, spores form on the inner surfaces of the tubes and sift through their openings to be borne away on the air currents outside.
The stem is 3–9 cm (1.2–3.5 in) by 0.4–1 cm (0.2–0.4 in), roughly equal in width throughout, often crooked, and becomes hollow with age. The color of the stem surface is lemon yellow, and it is covered with glandular dots that bruise if handled. The partial veil is not attached to the stem, and usually does not leave a ring on the stem. A whitish mycelium present at the base of the stem helps anchor the fruit body in the substrate. The flesh is mustard yellow, and stains pinkish-brown when cut or bruised.


Evechinus chloroticus is mainly herbivorous, feeding on large brown algae, red algae and encrusting substrate. If kina populations become out of control, kelp forest can be entirely eaten away, leaving bare rocks, also known as Kina Barrens.
Larval stages can feed on different species of unicellular algae in a size range between 5 and 50 µm.


Kina (Evechinus chloroticus) is a sea urchin endemic to New Zealand. This echinoderm belongs to the family Echinometridae and it can reach a maximum diameter of 16–17 cm.
Kina have been a traditional component of Māori diet since pre-European times and has been fished commercially since 1986 in small quantities under the quota management system in restricted areas along the coast of New Zealand. Attempts to export E. chloroticus to Asian markets have been unsuccessful, so it may not be an economically attractive species for aquaculture development (James 2010).
Evechinus chloroticus is distributed throughout New Zealand and in some northern and southern offshore islands.


The natural geographic distribution of C. vittatus is formed by several adjoining South-Central US states and northern Mexico. Beginning in the northern Mexico Border States, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas, C. vittatus’s range extends upward longitudinally through Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas, to reach as far north as Thayer County, Nebraska. The area also extends laterally from the Sangre de Cristo Mountains and Rio Grande in New Mexico and south Colorado to the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers in Missouri and Louisiana. In all, the range includes the following states: Arkansas, Colorado, Kansas, Illinois, Louisiana, Missouri, Nebraska, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Florida, Georgia, and Texas.
Reports have also found C. vittatus in locations inconsistent with the aforementioned natural geographic distribution. Populations seem to be found only in particular cities outside its natural distribution, so it is thought likely that human activity has introduced C. vittatus to these areas. They include locations in Iowa (Harrison County), Kentucky (Marshall and Calloway Counties), Louisiana (East Baton Rouge Parish and Orleans Parish), Mississippi (Lamar, Pike, and Rankin Counties), Missouri (Clark County), North Carolina (Dare, Nash, and Wake Counties), and Tennessee (Rutherford and Shelby Counties). Additional sightings have occurred in Arizona (Maricopa County), California (Contra Costa County), and Colorado (Boulder County).
A wide geographic distribution allows C. vittatus to occupy desert, deciduous and coniferous forest, and temperate grassland [biomes], where they can be found in crevices under rock and surface debris, vegetation, old rural structures like sheds and barns, and houses during the day. At night, this species emerges from its daytime home and can be found on the open ground or in vegetation, like microphyllous desertic brushwood or other classifications.


While placement in the genus Centruroides implies this species is a semi-arboreal one, the striped bark scorpion spends a substantial amount of its time on the ground; and can be found  under rock and surface debris, within vegetation, and in weathered rural structures such as old sheds and barns during the day. The terrestrial preferences of this species carry into the night hours, when the scorpion emerges from its temporal shelter at or after sunset to forage for potential prey. Juveniles, however, spend a substantial amount of time in vegetation, likely to avoid predation to which they are more vulnerable. C. vittatus has a very dynamic diet which includes insects, smaller arachnids, and juveniles of the same species.  It is preyed on by birds, reptiles, some mammals, and larger arachnids.
Unlike most species of scorpion, C. vittatus is social, presenting it with more opportunities to mate and compete for mates. Consequently, the process of reproduction is both intricate and extensive. Males begin by engaging behavior to establish dominance to mate. They engage in a showdown that highlights tail-waving and shifting until one male backs down. Once one male has established he is the one to mate, he engages the female in the first “step” of courtship, called the promenade a deux (PAD). During this step, the smaller male maneuvers the female to a spot where he can deposit the spermatophore, a small capsule containing the male’s sperm, for reception. This step determines whether the female will assume the male’s spermatophore, as the male must hold the female long enough to coax her over the spermatophore. Larger males tend to have more success at maneuvering the female than smaller ones. If the male has successfully maneuvered her, the male and female move onto join together and rub chelicera in the “kiss” stage, where the female takes up the spermatophore. The female then allows about 8 months for gestation, whereupon she has live offspring which spend the time for at least one molt on the protection of her back.


A medium-sized scorpion that is rarely longer than 70 mm (up to around 2 3/4 in), the striped bark scorpion is a uniform pale-yellow scorpion that can be identified by two dark, longitudinal stripes on its carapace, with a dark triangle above the ocular tubercle. Minor variations on this theme occur, however; specimens that are lighter-colored and lack the characteristic stripes have been described as separate species in the past. Their color suits their environment well, providing them with a natural camouflage from predators as well as prey. Males have a pectinal tooth count of 21–30, while females count 20–27.


The species inhabits a strip of 25 equatorial African countries, very nearly ranging from the east to west coasts of the continent. The exact boundaries of this strip are not clearly defined, as the species' territory overlaps with that of other baboon species. In many places, this has resulted in cross-breeding between species. For example, considerable hybridisation has occurred between the olive baboon and the hamadryas baboon in Ethiopia. Cross-breeding with the yellow baboon and the Guinea baboon has also been observed. Although this has been noted, the hybrids have not as yet been well studied.
Throughout its wide range, the olive baboon can be found in a number of different habitats. It is usually classified as savannah-dwelling, living in the wide plains of the grasslands. The grasslands, especially those near open woodland, do make up a large part of its habitat, but the baboon also inhabits rainforests and deserts. Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, for instance, both support olive baboon populations in dense tropical forests.


One major reason for its widespread success is that the olive baboon is omnivorous and like other baboons, will eat practically anything. As such, it is able to find nutrition in almost any environment and is able to adapt with different foraging tactics. For instance, the olive baboon in grassland goes about finding food differently from one in a forest. The baboon forages on all levels of an environment, above and beneath the ground and in the canopy of forests. Most animals only look for food at one level; an arboreal species such as a lemur does not look for food on the ground. The olive baboon searches as wide an area as it can, and it eats virtually everything it finds.
The diet typically includes a large variety of plants, and invertebrates and small mammals, as well as birds. The olive baboon eats leaves, grass, roots, bark, flowers, fruit, lichens, tubers, seeds, mushrooms, corms, and rhizomes. Corms and rhizomes are especially important in times of drought, because grass loses a great deal of its nutritional value. In dry, arid regions, such as the northeastern deserts, small invertebrates like insects, grubs, worms, spiders, and scorpions fill out its diet.
The olive baboon also actively hunts prey, such as small rodents, birds and other primates. Its limit is usually small antelope, such as Thomson's gazelle,  but will also kill sheep, goats, and chickens from farms, which may amount to around one third of its food from hunting. Hunting is usually a group activity, with both males and females participating. This systematic predation was apparently developed recently. In a field study, such behaviour was observed as starting with the males of one troop and spreading through all ages and sexes.
In Eritrea, the olive baboon has formed a symbiotic relationship with that country's endangered elephant population. The baboons use the water holes dug by the elephants, while the elephants use the tree-top baboons as an early warning system.


Females are sexually mature at seven to eight years old, and males at seven to 10 years. The beginning of a female's ovulation is a signal to the males that she is ready to mate. During ovulation, the skin of the female's anogenital area swells and turns a bright red/pink. The swelling makes it difficult to move and increases the female's chance of microbial or parasitic infection. Females with more swollen anogenital areas reproduce while younger, produce more offspring per year, and those offspring have a better chance of surviving. These females also attract more males, and are more likely to cause aggressive fights between them. Olive baboons tend to mate promiscuously. A male forms a mating consortship with an estrous female, staying close to and copulating with her. Males guard their partner against any other male trying to mate with her. Unless a female is in a multiday consortship, she often copulates with more than one male each day. Multiple copulations are not necessary for reproduction, but may function to make the actual paternity of the female's offspring ambiguous. This lack of paternal certainty could help reduce the occurrence of infanticide. Occasionally, male olive baboons monopolize a female for her entire period of probable conception. The male protects his female from being mated by other males during consortship.
Newborns have black natal coats and bright pink skin. Females are the primary caregivers of infants, but males also play a role. In its first few days, the infant may be unable to stay attached to its mother and relies on her for physical support. Its grasp grows stronger by its first week and it is able to cling to its mother's fur by itself. By two weeks, the infant begins to explore its surroundings for short periods, but stays near her. The distance the infant spends away from its mother increases the older it gets. In general, higher-ranking females are usually more relaxed parents than females of lower rank, which usually keep their offspring close to them. This difference lasts for approximately the first eight weeks of an infant's life. Olive baboons do not seem to practise co-operative parenting, but a female may groom an infant that is not hers. Subadult and juvenile females are more likely to care for another's young, as they have not yet produced offspring of their own. One theory for why immature females tend to seek out infants is that they can prepare for their future roles as mothers. Infant baboons born to first-time mothers suffer higher mortality than those born to experienced mothers, which suggests that prior experience in caring for infants is important. Adult males in the groups also care for the infants, as they are likely to be related to them. Males groom infants, reducing the amount of parasites they may have, and calm them when they are stressed. They may also protect them from predators, such as chimpanzees. Adult males exploit infants and often use them as shields to reduce the likelihood that other males will threaten them.


The olive baboon (Papio anubis), also called the Anubis baboon, is a member of the family Cercopithecidae Old World monkeys. The species is the most wide-ranging of all baboons, being native to 25 countries throughout Africa, extending from Mali eastward to Ethiopia and Tanzania. Isolated populations are also present in some mountainous regions of the Sahara. It inhabits savannahs, steppes, and forests. The common name is derived from its coat colour, which is a shade of green-grey at a distance. A variety of communications, vocal and non-vocal, facilitate a complex social structure.


The caps of Mycena interrupta range from 0.8 to 2 cm, and they are a brilliant cyan blue colour. They are globose when emergent and then become a broad convex as they mature, with the centre of the cap slightly depressed. The caps are often sticky and appear slimy looking, particularly in moist weather.
The length of the stipe typically ranges from 1 to 2 cm long and 0.1 to 0.2 cm thick. It is white, smooth and the base of the stipe is attached to the wood substrate by a flat white disk, similar to Roridomyces austrororidus, which, unlike M. interrupta is attached to the wood substrate by a mass of clumped fine hairs.
The gills are white, adnexed, with blue margins. The spores are white, smooth, ellipsoid and have dimensions of 7–10×4–6 µm.
Unlike some other Mycena species, Mycena interrupta is not bioluminescent.


The hoary bat (Aeorestes cinereus) is a species of bat in the vesper bat family, Vespertilionidae. It lives throughout most of North America (possibly including Hawaii, although this is disputed).


The reproductive cycle of the hoary bat is not yet fully documented, but it is thought that they mate in August with birth occurring in June of the following year. It is thought that the gestation period is only 40 days and that mammalian embryonic diapause (delayed implantation) may play a role. Females typically bear twins, though litter sizes range from 1–4. Young are typically weaned after 7 weeks.


The two-striped garter snake is found in western North America, ranging from central California to Baja California, Mexico. It is a highly aquatic species, and prefers habitat adjacent to permanent or semi-permanent bodies of water. This species feeds primarily on fish and amphibians.


T. hammondii is a medium-sized snake, 18-30 inches in total length (including tail), with a head barely wider than the neck. Two common color variations occur in the wild, a striped variant and a checkered variant. The striped variant has a yellowish lateral stripe on each side, and a fairly uniform dorsal coloring. The checkered variant lacks the lateral stripes and has two rows of small dark spots on each side.


Pumpkinseeds typically live in warm, calm lakes, ponds, and pools of creeks and small rivers with plenty of vegetation.  They prefer clear water where they can find shelter to hide.  They tend to stay near the shore and can be found in numbers within shallow and protected areas.  They will feed at all water levels from the surface to the bottom in the daylight, and their heaviest feeding will be in the afternoon.  Pumpkinseed sunfish usually travel together in schools that can also include bluegills and other sunfish.
Pumpkinseeds are more tolerant of low oxygen levels than bluegills are, but less tolerant of warm water. Groups of young fish school close to shore, but adults tend to travel in groups of two to four in slightly deeper yet still covered waters. Pumpkinseeds are active throughout the day, but they rest at night near the bottom or in shelter areas in rocks or near submerged logs.


The pumpkinseed's natural range in North America is from New Brunswick down the east coast to South Carolina.  It then runs inland to the middle of North America, and extends through Iowa and back through Pennsylvania.
Pumpkinseed sunfish have however been introduced throughout most of North America. They can now be found from Washington and Oregon on the Pacific Coast to Georgia on the Atlantic Coast. Yet they are primarily found in the northeastern United States and more rarely in the south-central or southwestern region of the continent.
In Europe, the pumpkinseed is considered an invasive species. They were introduced to European waters, and could outcompete native fish. This species is included since 2019 in the list of Invasive Alien Species of Union concern (the Union list). This implies that this species cannot be imported, bred, transported, commercialized, or intentionally released into the environment in the whole of the European Union.


Pumpkinseeds are carnivorous and feed on a variety of small prey both at the water surface and at the bottom.  Among their favorites are insects, small molluscs and crustaceans (such as small crawfish), worms, minnow fry, small frogs or tadpoles, and even cannibalizing other smaller pumpkinseeds. They are effective at destroying mosquito larvae and even occasionally consume small pieces of aquatic vegetation and detritus.
The pumpkinseed sunfish has a terminal mouth, allowing it to open at the anterior end of the snout. Pumpkinseed sunfish that live in waters with larger gastropods have larger mouths and associated jaw muscles to crack the shells.


The pumpkinseed sunfish are typically very likely to bite on a worm bait, which makes them easy to catch while angling.  Many fishermen consider the pumpkinseed to be a nuisance fish, as it bites so easily and frequently when the fisherman is attempting to catch something else.  The pumpkinseeds are very popular with young fishermen due to their willingness to bite, their abundance and close locations to the shore.  Although many people consider the meat of a pumpkinseed to be good-tasting, it is typically not a popular sport fish due to its small size.
Because pumpkinseeds tend to remain in the shallows and feed all day, pumpkinseeds are relatively easy to catch via bank fishing. They will bite at most bait — including garden worms, insects, leeches, or bits of fish meat. They will also take small lures and can be fished for with a fly rod with wet or dry flies. They will also hit at grubs early in the winter, but are less active from mid- to late winter. They may be easy to catch and popular with the youngest anglers, but pumpkinseeds are often sought by adults as well. The fish do put up an aggressive fight on line, and they have an excellent flavor and are low in fat and high in protein.
The IGFA world record for the species stands at 0.68 kg (1 lb 8 oz), caught near Honeoye, New York in 2016.


Pumpkinseeds have a small body that is shaped much like a pumpkin seed (thus the common name), typically about 10 cm (4 in) in length, but can grow up to 28 cm (11 in). They typically weigh less than 1 pound (450 g), with the world record being 1 pound 8 ounces (680 g) caught by Robert Warne while fishing Honeoye Lake in Upstate New York. They are orange, green, yellow or blue in color, with speckles over their sides and back and a yellow-orange breast and belly, and the coloration of the ctenoid scales of the pumpkinseed is one of the most vibrant of any freshwater fish and can range from an olive-green or brown to bright orange and blue.  The sides are covered with vertical bars that are a faint green or blue, which are typically more prevalent in female pumpkinseeds.  Orange spots may cover the dorsal, anal, and caudal fins and the cheeks have blue lines across them.  The pumpkinseed is noted for the orange-red spot on the margin of its black gill cover.  The pectoral fins of a pumpkinseed can be amber or clear, while the dorsal spines are black.  They have a small mouth with an upper jaw stopping right under the eye.
Pumpkinseeds are very similar to the larger bluegill, and are often found in the same habitats.  One difference between the two species is their opercular flap, which is black in both species but the pumpkinseed has a crimson spot in the shape of a half moon on the back portion. Pumpkinseeds have seven or eight vertical, irregular bands on their sides that are duller in color compared to the bluegill.


Araniella displicata adults are active in the beginning of summer, around may or june, to lay their eggs and then disappear. They usually lay their eggs around june or july, when the females are fully mature. The eggs are in sacs that could possibly be seen in curled leaf, and the mother is not far from them.
They reside in a small orb web spun in a tree or shrub. The web is normally made on a leaf, and the leaf is then manipulated to become an easy trap. They can spin a large web sometimes between branches and stems. These tiny orb weavers can live in forests edges, field edges, or in woodlands. They would usually be in trees and shrubs, and target the larger leaves for a larger web.
Their diet consists of small insects: beetles, plant bugs and flies are more favorable.


Araniella displicata, the sixspotted orbweaver, is a species of orb weaver in the spider family Araneidae. It is found in North America, Europe, a range from Russia to Kazakhstan, China, Korea, and Japan.


Bjerkandera adusta, commonly known as the smoky polypore or smoky bracket, is a species of fungus in the family Meruliaceae. It is a plant pathogen that causes white rot in live trees, but most commonly appears on dead wood. It was first described scientifically as Boletus adustus by Carl Ludwig Willdenow in 1787. The genome sequence of Bjerkandera adusta was reported in 2013. The species is inedible.


The klipspringer (/ˈklɪpˌsprɪŋər/; Oreotragus oreotragus) is a small antelope found in eastern and southern Africa. The sole member of its genus and subfamily/tribe, the klipspringer was first described by German zoologist Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann in 1783. The klipspringer is a small, sturdy antelope; it reaches 43–60 centimetres (17–23+1⁄2 inches) at the shoulder and weighs from 8 to 18 kilograms (18 to 40 pounds). The coat of the klipspringer, yellowish gray to reddish brown, acts as an efficient camouflage in its rocky habitat. Unlike most other antelopes, the klipspringer has a thick and coarse coat with hollow, brittle hairs. The horns, short and spiky, typically measure 7.5–9 cm (3–3+1⁄2 in).
Typically nocturnal, the klipspringer rests during the middle of the day and late at night. A gregarious animal, the klipspringer is monogamous to a much greater extent than other antelopes; individuals of opposite sexes exhibit long-term to lifelong pair bonding. The mates tend to stay as close as within 5 m (16 ft) of each other at most times. Males form territories, 7.5–49 hectares (18+1⁄2–121 acres), in which they stay with their partners and offspring. Primarily a browser, the klipspringer prefers young plants, fruits and flowers. Gestation lasts around six months, following which a single calf is born; births peak from spring to early summer. The calf leaves its mother when it turns a year old.
The klipspringer inhabits places characterised by rocky terrain and sparse vegetation. Its range extends from northeastern Sudan, Eritrea, Somaliland and Ethiopia in the east to South Africa in the south, and along coastal Angola and Namibia. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) classifies the klipspringer as Least Concern. There are no major threats to the survival of the klipspringer, as its habitat is inaccessible and unfavourable for hunting. Significant numbers occur on private farmlands. As of 2008, nearly 25% of the populations occur in protected areas throughout its range.


Primarily a browser, the klipspringer prefers young plants, fruits and flowers. Grasses, eaten mainly in the wet season, form a minor portion of the diet. Some plants, such as Vellozia, may be preferred seasonally. Klipspringer depend mainly on succulent plants, and not on water bodies, to meet their water requirement. They can stand on their hindlegs to reach tall branches up to 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) above the ground; some individuals in Namibia were observed climbing Faidherbia albida trees up to a height of 5.4 m (17 ft 9 in).


Typically nocturnal (active mainly at night), the klipspringer rests during the midday and at late night; the animal tends to be more active on moonlit nights. It basks in the morning sunlight to warm itself. A gregarious animal, the klipspringer, like the dik-diks and the oribi, exhibits monogamy to a much greater extent than other antelopes; individuals of opposite sexes form pairs that might last until one dies. The mates tend to stay as close as within 5 m (16 ft) of each other at most times; for instance, they take turns at keeping a lookout for predators while the other feeds, and face any danger together. The klipspringer will hop a few metres away from the danger. Other social groups include small family herds of 8 or more members or solitary individuals. Klipspringer greet one another by rubbing cheeks at social meetings.
Males form territories, 7.5–49 hectares (18+1⁄2–121 acres) large (the size depends on rainfall patterns), in which they stay with their partners and offspring. Males are generally more vigilant than females. Klipspringer form large dung heaps, nearly 1 m (3 ft 3 in) across and 10 cm (4 in) deep, at the borders of territories; another form of marking is the secretion of a thick, black substance, measuring 5 mm (1⁄4 in) across, from the preorbital glands onto vegetation and rocks in the territories. A study revealed that the tick Ixodes neitzi detects and aggregates on twigs marked by the klipspringer. Another study showed that plants near the borders with neighbouring territories are particularly preferred for marking. The main vocalisation is a shrill whistle, given out by the klipspringer pair in a duet, as a means of communication or anti-predator response. Predators include the baboon, black-backed jackal, caracal, eagle, leopard, martial eagle, serval, spotted hyena and Verreaux's eagle. Birds such as familiar chats, pale-winged starlings, red-winged starlings and yellow-bellied bulbuls have been observed feeding on ectoparasites of klipspringer.


The klipspringer is a seasonal breeder; the time when mating occurs varies geographically. Females become sexually mature by the time they are a year old; males take slightly longer to mature. Mating behaviour has not been extensively observed. Gestation lasts around six months, following which a single calf, weighing slightly more than 1 kg (2 lb), is born; births peak from spring to early summer. Births take place in dense vegetation. The newborn is carefully hidden for up to three months to protect it from the view of predators; the mother suckles it three to four times a day, the visits gradually lengthen as the offspring grows. Males are protective of their offspring, keeping a watch for other males and predators. The calf is weaned at four to five months, and leaves its mother when it turns a year old. The klipspringer lives for around 15 years.


Unlike many other lizards, Z. vivipara is exclusively carnivorous. Their diet consists of flies, spiders, and various other insects. The species is a predator, so it actively hunts down all of its prey. One study found that when controlled for body size, females consumed more food than males. Feeding rates also increased with increased sunshine.


Z. vivipara is terrestrial, so they spend most of their time on the ground, though they do occasionally visit sites of higher elevation. The lizard thermoregulates by basking in the sun for much of the time. In colder weather, they have been known to hibernate to maintain proper body temperatures. Depending on their exact location, they can hibernate anywhere from September to February. Their typical habitats include meadows, swamps, and other damp environments.
The viviparous lizard is native to much of Europe and northern Asia. In Europe, this includes the UK, Scandinavia and Finland. In Asia, this primarily includes Russia and the Koreas.  Z. vivipara has the largest distribution of any species of lizard in the world.


Zootoca vivipara is a small lizard, with an average length between 50 and 70mm and an average mass of 2 to 5g. They exhibit no particular colour, but can be brown, red, grey, green, or black. The species exhibits some sexual dimorphisms. Female Z. vivipara undergo colour polymorphism more commonly than males. A female lizard's display differs in ventral colouration, ranging from pale yellow to bright orange and a mixed colouration. There have been many hypotheses for the genetic cause of this polymorphic colouration. These hypothesis test for colouration due to thermoregulation, predator avoidance, and social cues, specifically sexual reproduction. Through an experiment conducted by Vercken et al., colour polymorphism in viviparous lizard is caused by social cues, rather than the other hypotheses. More specifically, the ventral colouration that is seen in female lizards is associated with patterns of sexual reproduction and sex allocation.
The underside of the male is typically more colourful and bright, with yellow, orange, green, and blue, and the male typically has spots along its back. On the other hand, females typically have darker stripes down their backs and sides. Additionally, males have been found the have larger heads than their female counterparts, and this trait appears to be sexually selected for. Males with larger heads are more likely to be successful in mating and male-male interactions than smaller-headed Z. vivipara.  Larger males also have been shown to reproduce more frequently during one mating season compared to smaller males. Characteristic behaviors of the species includes tongue flicking in the presence of a predator and female-female aggression that seems to be mediated by the colour of their side stripe.


Z. vivipara typically lives for 5 to 6 years.


This mushroom contains toxins, and is usually considered inedible. It has been used as a condiment in many countries, with the Italian chef Antonio Carluccio recommending it be used only to add its peppery flavour to other mushrooms. Some recommend that it be well-cooked before consumption to minimize the risk of gastric symptoms, but the peppery taste is lost with cooking, and even more so by reducing it to a powdered form.
Fruit bodies can be used for mushroom dyeing; depending on the mordant used, yellow, orange, or greenish-brown dyes can be made.


Fruit bodies of Chalciporus piperatus occur singly, scattered, or in groups on the ground. The fungus occurs naturally in or near coniferous or beech and oak woodlands, often on sandy soils. Fruit bodies appear in Europe in late summer and autumn from August to November. The fungus is widespread across North America, fruiting from July to October in the eastern states and from September to January on the Pacific Coast. It is found in Mexico and Central America. In Asia, it has been collected from Pakistan, West Bengal (India), and Guangdong Province (China). In South Africa, it is known from the southwestern Cape Province and the eastern Transvaal Province.
Chalciporus piperatus grows in conifer plantations associated with the fly agaric (Amanita muscaria) and the chanterelle (Cantharellus cibarius). It has been recorded under introduced loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) plantations in Santa Catarina and Paraná states in southern Brazil, and under introduced trees in the Los Lagos Region of Chile. It has also spread into native forest in northeastern Tasmania and Victoria, having been found growing with the native myrtle beech (Nothofagus cunninghamii). The rare variety hypochryseus occurs only in Europe, including Austria, Czechia, Greece, Italy, and Spain. Also rare, variety amarellus is widespread in European coniferous forests, where it usually found near pines, spruce, and sometimes fir.
Fruit bodies can be parasitised by the mould Sepedonium chalcipori, a highly specialised mycoparasite that is only known to infect this bolete. Infections result in necrotic mushroom tissue and the production of copious yellow conidia.
Initially thought to be ectomycorrhizal (symbiotic with plants, like most Boletaceae), C. piperatus has not been confirmed as such in multiple synthesis studies or in isotope fractionation studies. There is some speculation that C. piperatus is a mycoparasite on the mycorrhiza of Amanita muscaria. In New Zealand, A. muscaria is thought to have been introduced with Pinus radiata, and has made a host jump to the native Nothofagus trees; C. piperatus has since been observed fruiting near Nothofagus trees with A. muscaria associations.  Buchwaldoboletus lignicola is in the same clade as C. piperatus and is thought to be a parasite as well, strengthening the evidence that C. piperatus and its relatives may be mycoparasites.


This slug is native to Europe. It is recorded in most of Europe, including Bulgaria, Czech Republic (where it is of least concern), Italy, Netherlands, Slovakia, Great Britain, Ireland, Finland, Ukraine, and several other countries. It occurs east as far as the Urals. It is common in much of its range, but mostly rare or absent in southernmost Europe. Although known from the Iberian Peninsula and the Balkans, there are no records from Portugal or Greece.


Parasites of Limax cinereoniger include nematodes of genus Elaphostrongylus and Agfa flexilis.


This species lives in woodlands and occasionally parks.