The steppe eagle shares its distribution with several other birds of prey that can compete for resources. Most similar in feeding niche are largely other eagles, many of which are also similarly migratory. One eagle of similar central distribution is the eastern imperial eagles. The imperial eagle has a similar morphology and can broadly overlap in food selection. It also takes many ground squirrels but is generally less specialized on them during breeding, and often takes similar or larger numbers of prey such as hares, hedgehogs, hamsters and assorted birds both large and medium. In general, the dietary biology is better understood, prey is taken of more diverse sizes and the prey spectrum is far more diverse (perhaps nearly three times as many recorded prey species) in the imperial species. The average weight taken of prey like young marmots is similar in both eagles, averaging 1.5 kg (3.3 lb) in the eastern imperial while the steppe also takes marmots of around this size. Although not common, the imperial eagle can sometimes take prey weighing over 2 kg (4.4 lb), probably rather more frequently than the steppe eagle. It is possible that the steppe eagle gained the preference for relatively more numerous and social but quite small mammals as prey to avoid heavier competition over slightly larger but often more dispersed terrestrial mammals (i.e. hares, hedgehogs, etc.), especially those taken by imperial eagles. Also, the imperial eagle is rather more predatory in food obtainment while wintering, not infrequently eschewing the more vulnerable nestling water birds in the Indian subcontinent to take many adult birds such as waterfowl and coots. The eastern imperial eagle differs most significantly from steppe eagles in nesting habits, favoring tall trees, sometimes in fairly well-wooded areas, which quite contrary to the steppe eagles ground nesting preferences. The migratory course used by imperial eagles is largely the same as the steppe eagle but the imperial is the far less numerous migrant (also more frequently overwintering near their breeding ground) and radiates less far in winter (especially in Africa). Despite the steppe eagle averaging scarcely smaller, data from both breeding and wintering areas indicates that the imperial eagle tends to be behaviorally dominant over steppe eagles. This has manifested in full or partial displacement of steppe eagles locally using pylons as nesting sites by imperial eagles. Furthermore, at shared feeding sites, the steppe eagle tends to back down to the imperial eagle, often allowing it to feed first despite occasional displacement of imperials with full crops. On occasion, in India, steppe eagles succeed in pirating prey from imperial eagles, normally in cooperating parties of steppe eagles. In at least one case in India, the steppe eagle was the aggressor in an interaction with an eastern imperial eagle, causing the two eagles to lock talons and cartwheel down with uncertain results. While the eagles are expected to correspond their sizes in hierarchy when nests are located in the same general area, with the steppe considered as generally subordinate to the imperial which is itself subordinate to the golden eagle, interactions in the Altai region suggest a more complex interspecific relationship. There one study reported several aggressive interactions with both imperial and golden eagles and the steppes were surprisingly the aggressors in each. In one instance, a golden eagle was fiercely attacked by a steppe eagle who appeared to dominate the interaction, grabbing the more formidable-armed golden in air and driving it forcefully to the ground (although the golden eagle was not killed).
Much has been written about what separates the steppe from the tawny eagle but little to no interactions between the species have been noted in the wild. Beyond being strongly allopatric, wintering steppe eagles usually use slightly different habitats, favoring available wetlands quite apart from the arid wooded savanna and semi-desert areas preferred by tawny eagles. The tawny eagle, despite being smaller and proportionately similar in talon size (with a considerably less massive gape), is a rather more powerful and bold predator than the steppe eagle, alternating between capturing relatively large prey, pirating prey from other raptors and scavenging on carrion. The prey sizes taken by tawny eagles are perhaps the most evenly distributed across all weight classes besides the eastern imperial and golden eagles amongst Aquila and Clanga species, with a focus on prey weighing from 0.5 to 4 kg (1.1 to 8.8 lb), i.e. well over the typical prey sizes for steppe eagles in any area. Tawny eagles occasionally attend the same food sources as wintering steppes, such as carcass dumps, other carrion and termite alates, and appear to largely ignore each other; on the other hand, an assertive steppe can sometimes displace a tawny eagle. Apart from imperial eagles, steppe eagles were said to be dominant over other Aquila eagles and spotted eagles in the guild of raptors in Bharatpur. The steppe eagle is quite similar to the lesser and greater spotted eagles in migratory behaviour, but tends to specialize on entirely different prey during breeding. The spotted eagles tend to nest in well-wooded areas near water and catch diverse prey, although usually focus on fairly small prey as does the steppe eagle. The mean prey sizes taken by greater spotted eagles, with a diet often focused on various water-friendly rodents and medium-sized birds, is probably quite similar to that of the steppe eagles, whilst that of lesser spotteds, focused on voles, frogs and small snakes, is expectedly smaller. Especially in Africa, lesser spotted eagles become locally specialized termite eaters very much like the steppe eagle. Spotted eagles appear to be almost invariably dominated by steppe eagle, as has been recorded at carcass dumps during winter. In Bharatpur, spotted eagles species (Indian and greater) are quite often the targets of piracy by steppe eagles. Egyptian vultures (Neophron percnopterus) appear to be subordinate to steppe eagles at carrion but most other vultures are larger (sometimes considerably so) and may be avoided by steppe eagles, although they often fed at carcass dumps alongside assorted vultures. Many other diurnal raptors may share the ground squirrel and other prey that the steppe eagle often subsists on but are generally less specialized and tend to use different nesting habits, usually nesting in trees. These may include saker falcons (Falco cherrug), long-legged buzzards and other buzzards while larger golden eagles and smaller upland buzzards (Buteo hemilasius) often nests in rocks at considerably more elevated altitudes (although the golden may too nest in trees and other habitats).
Smaller raptors like harriers are often the only other diurnal birds of prey to regularly nest on the ground and may co-occur over much of the range of steppe eagles, although usually use damper parts of the steppe as nesting habitats than the eagles. Harriers also often use similar migration routes as do the steppe eagles. In Africa, steppe eagles are often found feeding peaceably in the midst of the numerous yellow-billed kite (Milvus aegyptius) on termites. However, when interactions are of a more competitive nature, the steppe eagle tends to dominate any species of kite. Other raptors both large and small are not infrequently the victims of kleptoparasitism by steppe eagles. In India, Brahminy kites (Haliastur indus), black kites (Milvus migrans), laggar falcons (Falco juggar), Montagu's harrier (Circus pygargus) and western marsh harriers (Circus aeruginosus) among others were robbed of their catches as well as spotted and even tawny eagles. However, house crows (Corvus splendens) often robbed the steppe eagles. In Armenia, common buzzards and Montagu's harriers were seen to be robbed of catches by steppe eagles. Even the golden eagle has seen to have its prey be stolen by steppe eagles in the Bale Mountains.
Predatory interactions with other carnivorous animals where the steppe eagles are victims are largely restricted to the vulnerable young, with the nest sites often being highly vulnerable due to their often accessible positions on mildly elevated ground. Like other Aquila eagles, when the nest is breached, parent steppe eagles may defend their nest but more often briefly flee on the wing. The steppe eagle parent, due presumably to the vulnerability of its nest site, may take longer to return to their nest than other related eagles, further exacerbating the likelihood of the young being lost. Hungry canids are often particularly detrimental predators, particularly red foxes, grey wolves (Canis lupus) and dogs (often herding and feral ones) and more infrequently other foxes and other carnivores like cats and their kin. An unexpected source of steppe eagle nestling mortality was found to be from the unusually aggressive pallid harrier (Circus macrourus) which attacked and killed two consecutive young eagles although never fed on them (possibly due to delayed displacement by the parent eagles). Apart from the vulnerable young on the nesting ground, steppe eagles appear to be seldom killed by natural predators. However, one was reported as the victim of a caracal (Caracal caracal) in Saudi Arabia (probably in a nighttime ambush). More often, the steppe eagle is the predator rather than victim in deadly contests against other predators. Besides the many aforementioned accounts of prey including carnivores like mustelids and foxes, steppe eagles can also on occasion kill other raptorial birds and seems to consider even quite formidable species as viable prey. In the Karaganda region alone, the local steppe eagles were recorded to prey on lesser kestrels (Falco naumanni), long-legged buzzards, Eurasian eagle-owls (Bubo bubo) and seven short-eared owls (Asio flammeus). In the Altai region, in addition to eagle-owls, the black kite has also been recorded as steppe eagle prey. In fact, the steppe eagle apparently is the only bird to have preyed upon Eurasian eagle-owls besides the golden eagle on multiple occasions. Although rarely observed to halt movements or to eat while migrating in Israel, one steppe eagle was seen to suddenly strike down and consume an adult common buzzard while both species were in passage there. A Brahminy kite that was seen attempting to mob a steppe eagle in Tamil Nadu was observed to be killed by the eagle, while at least one other Brahminy there was also injured by an aggressive steppe eagle.


The steppe eagle, like most raptors, breeds in pairs. Otherwise, it displays a preference for solitude whilst summering on the steppe. Like other Aquila eagles, this species may engage in a territorial aerial display. The display of the steppe eagle is not well-known but can be assumed to resemble that of sympatric eagles and is known to include high circling (but perhaps engage in less aerial acrobatics than other Aquila). In Kalmykia, the mean number of pairs per 100 km² (39 sq mi) was 1.7. The steppe eagle is rare in the Saratov area, with peak areas such as Alexandrovo-Gaysky District, Novouzensky District, Saint Petersburg and Ozinsky District hold a mean of about 3 pairs per 100 km² (39 sq mi) while elsewhere in Saratov, the mean number of pairs per that area is about 0.8. Nearest neighbor distance in Transbaikal averaged 6.61 km (4.11 mi). 85 nests in the Altai foothills were found to distanced at a mean of 2,040 m (6,690 ft) although not all of the nests were occupied. In the Ukok Plateau (within the Altais), the mean nearest neighbor distance was found to be 3.15 km (1.96 mi), ranging from 1.09 to 8.06 km (0.68 to 5.01 mi). Another study of the Altai found that there were about 0.51 to 3.11 pairs per 100 km² (39 sq mi) with a number of successful pairs of 0.35–1.35 per this area, and further more found that Khakassia and Krasnoyarsk Krai contained higher nesting densities but that the Tvya Republic contained lowered densities. This study found that in Altai that the mean nearest neighbor distance was on average 4.91 km (3.05 mi), ranging from 1.91 to 17.4 km (1.19 to 10.81 mi). In the borderlands between Kazakhstan and Russia, i.e. Aktobe and Orenburg, there was an estimated 7.1 pairs per 100 km² (39 sq mi). In the southern part of the Aktobe region, such as between Bayganin District and Miyaly, the density of nesting steppes can occasionally reach as high as 2-2.5 pairs per 1 km² (0.39 sq mi). In the Atyrau Region of Kazakhstan, nests on utility towers were spaced at a mean of around 5.3 km (3.3 mi) as opposed to around 10 to 15 km (6.2 to 9.3 mi) apart on other nesting substrates. In the Aral and Caspian areas of Kazakhstan, the mean nearest neighbor distance was 6.31 km (3.92 mi) but the density of breeding pairs varied more than 50 fold based on habitat, with locally cliff habitat being the least productive and clay semi-desert the most productive. Within the Karaganda Region, the mean number of pairs per 100 km² (39 sq mi) was 7.67 while the numbers of successful pairs per such an area was 3.24. In Xinjiang, home ranges were found to range in size from 4.5 to 54 km² (1.7 to 20.8 sq mi). The breeding season falls from late March or early April (occasionally not starting in earnest until late April) to roughly late August, although several steppe eagles can remain on their breeding grounds until at least October.


The nest is a large stick platform, varying greater in size based on available materials but averaging flatter than those of other Aquila eagles, excepting the tawny eagle. Most nests are around 70 to 100 cm (28 to 39 in) in diameter and around 20 to 50 cm (7.9 to 19.7 in) deep. Nests in the Transbaikal averaged 118 cm (46 in) across with nests located on cliffs or rocks getting larger at up to 50 to 85 cm (20 to 33 in) deep. In the Sarastov area, 14 nests measured on average 92 cm (36 in) in diameter by 27 cm (11 in) in depth, with ranges of 80 to 125 cm (31 to 49 in) and 15 to 35 cm (5.9 to 13.8 in), respectively. Nests in Xinjiang could diameters of as much as 180 cm (71 in). The largest nest in the southern Aktobe region reached a diameter of 2.4 m (7.9 ft); while height of the nest could vary there from 10 to 90 cm (3.9 to 35.4 in) those in trees could reach up to 80 to 106 cm (31 to 42 in). The nest is generally lined with twigs and much clutter. This is due to sparser nesting material in their habitat, so nest structures frequently include peculiar items: paper, polyethylene bags, pieces of wool and manure, bones, feathers, old rags and other human refuse. The nest is traditionally place in an exposed site among stones, often on a hummock. Other nesting sites can include very low bushes and a spot on the ground which is usually raised slightly above the mean layout of the environment. Some other nest sites are known have including haystacks or ruins for a slight prominence, also sometimes on a non-steep cliff or rarely in a tree. Although some older studies claimed that steppe eagles avoided nesting near human activity this has been largely disproven. In Kalmykia, all nests were only 50 to 100 m (160 to 330 ft) from paved roads. A nest in the West Kazakhstan Region was found to be quite close to a village. However, in Transbaikal, the conversion of areas to farmland was a primary cause of a large population contraction for the eagles there. Of 14 nests in Kalmykia, 10 were located on the ground and 4 were in trees or shrubs, not to mention some located on transmission towers at a mean nest height of 11.7 m (38 ft). In Transbaikal, 53.7% of 47 nests were on hills. Those located on rocky outcrops in Transbaikal, averaged 1.95 m (6.4 ft) above the mean ground level. In the region of Lake Baskunchak, most of 16 nests found for the species were on rocky rubble and boulders, karst craters and cliffs, with two located on trees. In the Altai region, 62.4% of territories contained only one nest but 27.4% contained 1 alternate nests, 4.7% contained 2 alternate nests and 5.9% contained 3 alternate nests. A study in Altai determined that nests were often in virgin or fallow steppe near larch forests, and were often reused in subsequent years. The location of Altai nests were on gently sloping rocky outcrops, or cuesta escarpments, mostly, which were about 82% of known nest sites (with only 4% on flat ground) In the borderlands of Kazakhstan and Russia, of 418 total nests, 75.6% of nests were on ledges of rocks and boulders or quartz ridges and only 15.8% were on flat ground. Within the region of Atyrau in Kazakhstan, 26% of raptor nests located on electrical transmission towers (or pylons) were those of steppe eagles. 38% of nests in the Aral-Caspian region were either on pylons or at the base of them. In the Karaganda Region, 75.6% of nests were on outcrops and a further 10.84% were on rock disintegrations, and all nest sites had a rocky substrate (including a very small amount on low bushes as well). The Karaganda nests were at a mean elevation of 528.7 m (1,735 ft). In the general West Kazakhstan Region, of 286 nests 30.42% were on ground or rocks, 28.32% in trees or bushes and 27.27% on utility poles. The nests in the West Kazakh area that were on rocks and cliffs averaged 10.55 m (34.6 ft) above the ground, those on poles averaged 13 m (43 ft) above ground, in trees and those in bushes averaged 2.09 m (6.9 ft) above the ground. One nest near the Ili River was noted to be a small tree, Haloxylon, while another was a perhaps dangerously hot sandy dune. One successful nest near the Irtysh River was on the shrub Iberian meadowsweet (Spiraea hypericfolia) (while another unsuccessful one was on a thick growth of Lonicera tatarica). Another unusual Kazakh nest was on the ground with rather loamy grasslands that was probably unsafe due to excessive sun exposure (only blocked for 20% of the day) and a considerable local presence of red foxes. Of 49 nests found in Mongolia 47.8% were on the ground, 32.6% were on rock columns or large boulders, 8.7% on cliffs, 8.7% on artificial substrates, including a car tire, an abandoned car cabin and an artificial nest platform and 2.2% was in a tree. All Mongolian nest in this study were at elevations between 1,100 and 2,500 m (3,600 and 8,200 ft), with a mean of 1,415 m (4,642 ft). In Mongolia, the height of nests above the surrounding flat earth was 2.28 m (7.5 ft).


Out of 10 nests in two locations in Kalmykia, alarmingly, 7 contained dead embryos that never hatched. Thus, the breeding success rate here was quite low at 30–40%. Study from the Altai region determined that than occupied nests produced an average of 1.52 fledglings. Within the Ukok Plateau part of the Altais, 31.6% of 19 checked nests were found to be successful. The mean number of fledglings in Mongolia per nest was 0.9 with a fledgling success rate of 42.2%, with no strong annual variations. Nest located on cliffs were more successful in Mongolia, the reasons inferred were greater protection from the elements and from predators, while for those nesting on artificial substrates, the success rate was lower (37.5%). Of 30 failures recorded in Mongolia, 37.5% were due to desertion by the parents, 16.7% due to infertile eggs, 6.7% due to predation (possibly from wolves and common ravens (Corvus corax)), 10% due to starvation, 3.3% from cannibalism and the remaining 26.7% from unknown causes. In the Lake Baskunchak area, several nests were abandoned due to reportedly accidental human intrusions. Study in Xinjiang indicated that about two-thirds of nesting attempts by steppe eagles there appear to fail. In Tuva, the dictating factors of nesting success were considered habitat quality, food supply, disturbance levels, and the ability to rapidly change home ranges as habitats were unnaturally altered via the felling of tall trees. Starvation and dehydration seem to be leading causes of chick mortality in Lake Baskunchak. In the Orenburg region, 41.1% of nestling mortality was due to starvation (after a decline of the little ground squirrel), 38.3% due to steppe fires, human disturbance at just under 10% and more minor causes were parental inexperience and predation. Among active nests in the Karaganda Region, as of 2017, 42.26% were successful and a high rate of 54.46% completely failed, producing 0.61 fledglings per occupied nest and 1.45 per successful nest. Many Karaganda nests were noted to include infertile eggs, while many nests were destroyed in steppe fires. A follow-up study 2 years later found even more severe nest failure rates, with only 28.42% of nests succeeding. The reduction of the number of occupied nests here was 18.9% and by number of successful nests, the reduction was 63.9%. The breeding of a large quantity of visibly younger eagles in a breeding population is generally thought to indicate stress on the population of a raptor species. The steppe eagle, in sync with its overall decline, has shown an alarming increase of subadult specimens breeding. In Kalmykia, the number of breeding subadults increased from 1.75% prior to 5.26% during the 2011–2015 period. This is a relatively small amount of breeding underaged eagles compared to some other populations. In the Aral and Caspian areas, 39.62% of 58 breeding pairs contained 1 subadult breeding bird of around 3–5 years of age. Similarly, within the Ukok Plateau, only 23.8% of 67 sighted steppe eagle were mature adults, indicating the reduction of mature individuals is similarly severe there. Subadult breeding steppe eagles were also noticed in Mongolia.


Densities of steppe eagles vary greatly both regionally and annually. This species has specialized food requirements, making this species more dependent on food availability than many other raptors. European Russia in the 1990s was estimated to hold up to 20,000 pairs while steppe eagles were considered very rare in some parts of breeding range (i.e. central-south Siberia). Even in recent decades, the steppe eagle has been considered easily one of the most numerous migrating eagles in the world. The species has largely been regarded as "widespread and common" in winter in Indian subcontinent. Estimates of the world population were projected based on the total breeding range encompasses over 8,000,000 km² (3,100,000 sq mi) and average density very roughly of 50 km² (19 sq mi), which would put the population would be in six figures, but density were perceived to be slightly lower (i.e. 1 pair/100 km² (39 sq mi)) gives a total of 80,000 breeding pairs. A refined and more recent estimate of the global population posited that there were 53,000–86,000 remaining breeding pairs globally for steppe eagles, with 43,000–59,000 pairs estimated in Kazakhstan, 2000–3000 estimated in Russia, 6000–13,000 estimated in Mongolia, and 2000–6000 estimated in China. This study projects the global number to be between 185,000 and 344,000 individuals at peak times, which is the end of the breeding season, with only 17,700–43,000 remaining adults. The Aral-Caspian area is estimated to hold about 5742–7548 breeding pairs (51% of which are thought to breed in Uzbekistan, the remainder in Kazakhstan). Post-breeding, the Aral-Caspian is thought to hold about 10,000–14,000 individuals. It is thought that the West Kazakhstan Region and Kalmykia region are the epicenter of the world population, holding the maximum genetic diversity (via haplotype) in the world, with the genetic diversity narrowing farther east in the breeding range. The Altai and Sayan region is thought to hold 43–51% of the current breeding population of steppe eagles in Russia, with the Altai Republic estimated to hold 270–280 breeding pairs. A slight recovery has been noted in the Tuva Basin, going up to as much as 200–300 pairs between 2008 and 2014.
The breeding range of the steppe eagle was already contracted markedly early on in the 20th century, especially in the west, largely as result of habitat loss (in particular appropriation of steppes for agriculture) but also persecution and predation, factors that may have drove some pairs to elevated nest sites. Steppe eagles once bred in Romania, Moldova and, more recently, Ukraine. Careless pesticide use in Europe depleted prey populations and collapsed nearly the whole local ecosystem, which alongside habitat conversions and persecution drove the steppe eagle's European breeding population to extinction. Range contraction is very considerable today in the European Russia area where it is almost locally extinct as well. Declines overall have been rapid and alarming. It is estimated that as of the 20 years prior to 2015, the population worldwide has declined at minimum by 58.6%. As a result, the steppe eagle was uplisted in 2015 to being endangered by the IUCN. In the borderlands of Russia and Kazakhstan, an estimated 11.9% population decline was detected in merely 6 years of study. Primary global threats appear to be habitat loss, persecution, wildfires, predation (and trampling by cattle) of chicks and electrocutions and wire collisions, especially the latter causes. Furthermore, the steppe eagles genetic diversity may be rapidly declining as well. The diagnosed causes of decline in Xinjiang, Tibet and Qinghai were found mostly to be poaching, poisoning from rodent control programs (with systemic efforts dating back at least 60 years), poisoning also targeted towards predators, illegal trade, food shortages and wire collisions but perhaps most of all habitat destruction, often with their former homes destroyed to make way for roadworks, tourism and mine exploration, with more destruction from overharvest of trees and plants and overgrazing by livestock, and accidental are frequent. Poisoning is thought to be quite prevalent in the Altais, as well as powerline electrocutions. A mean of 13.3 individual steppe eagles in Kazakhstan were estimated to be killed by each 10 km (6.2 mi) of powerline. The steppe eagle can even been the most frequently electrocuted raptor in Kazakh data, at up to about 35% of 129 dead raptors or 49% of 223 dead raptors in a couple of relatively small stretches. Many birds of various families are killed by these powerlines, as was recorded in Central Kazakhstan, in addition to the various raptorial birds which (due to their low reproductive rates and large territories) are often unable to withstand continuous powerline losses. It is estimated that in West Kazakhstan that no fewer than 1635 nests (or 7.9% of the entire breeding Kazakh population) fail due to the parents being electrocuted on powerlines. Across the border in Orenburg, Russia, a high rate of electrocutions is known be occurring as well. Furthermore, overgrazing and habitat alterations by humans have destroyed much of what remains around Haloxylon stands of west Kazakhstan (in turn destroying about 50% of local nesting attempts), while some steppe eagles cannot nest locally due to presumed competitive exclusion by imperial eagles. Locally predation and nest losses can claim up to 80% of chicks but productivity is heavily dependent on foods. In the Karaganda Region, 20.9% of nests were recorded to be ruined by steppe fires. Less well understood losses in West Kazakhstan may be due to continued poaching, poisonings and blackflies which kill nestlings and seem to have increased with the warming temperatures. The number of steppe fires appears to be higher than ever before which also may be due to increasing warmth and aridity. The probable and irrevocable extinction of this species is projected if numerous detrimental factors are not reversed, namely the mitigation of electrical lines and towers in breeding areas, the removal of grazing and manmade fires in breeding areas as well as habitat destruction and the several other threats. Ambiguities exist over whether Kazakhstan can institute protective laws strong enough to prevent the loss of the species, as even powerline alterations have not occurred at the national level. However, continued relative stability of the species has been detected in the more minor eastern part of the range (based on largely unchanged numbers of migrants from here in Nepal and elsewhere in the Himalayas) such as Altai. One potential stopgap solution to mitigate some of the electrocutions may be to install T-shaped perches around transmission towers which has been effective in reducing the more minor decline from powerlines in the Mongolian part of the range. Notably, the rate of decline in the western part of the range is so pronounced which is quite to the contrary other similar raptors like eastern imperial eagles and long-legged buzzards have begun to recover in similar areas (the opposite pattern almost manifests in the imperial eagle, which is declining much more severely in the east such as Baikal).
The nomadic nature of steppe eagles in winter can make accurate counts of the species in that season difficult. However, the species is still considered relatively frequent during winter in Pakistan. Declines from migrating and wintering areas appear to be generally poorly documented. There is concern that landfills function as ecological traps for these species, due to poisoning being frequent and powerlines frequently a present threat. From the years 1882 to 2013, an estimated 76,879 steppes were recorded in 9 countries in Indian subcontinent, including Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, Sikkim, Myanmar and Bangladesh, often gathering around garbage and carrion dumps. They may be even locally increasing somewhat in number in locales in India such as Kerala, possibly concentrated more so due to less competition from vultures. However, toxic levels of diclofenac were found in two dead steppe eagles at the cattle carcass dump in Rajasthan. A paper based on joint research conducted by the Bombay Natural History Society, Royal Society for the Protection of Birds and Indian Veterinary Research Institute, published in May 2014 in the journal of the Cambridge University Press, highlighted that steppe eagles are adversely affected by diclofenac and may fall prey to veterinary use of it. The research found the same signs of kidney failure as seen in the Gyps vulture killed due to diclofenac. They found extensive visceral gout, lesions and uric acid deposits in the liver, kidney and spleen, as well as deposits of diclofenac residue in tissues. Steppe eagles are opportunistic scavengers, which may expose them to the risk of diclofenac poisoning. Declines have pronounced in passage at Eilat, Israel, where the number of steppe eagle juveniles to adult has dropped 30% from the early 1980s and by 1.4% by 2000; all record low annual numbers in migration there have been subsequent to the 1990s. However, lower numbers in Eilat may be due in part to increasingly large portions of the steppe eagle population now wintering in Arabia rather than Africa. Persecution of raptors in Eilat appears to be still quite prevalent, with steppe eagles accounting for 9.1% of 77 raptors that were found killed by poachers (often appeared to been wrapped in rope and sometimes mutilated), doing so apparently largely out of superstition. Some population declines of migrants in Israel may too have depleted as well by the Chernobyl disaster. Israeli biologist have strongly advocated that stricter protection be undertaken and a conserved greenbelt be instituted to accommodate the steppe eagle and other raptors in passage. The similar numbers seen in passage exiting Africa in spring as those entering in autumn indicate that mortality for the species is not high in that continent. Persecution through shooting likely continues to be of determent to steppe eagles migrating or wintering in the countries of Georgia, Armenia, Iraq and Jordan, with the eagles being relatively vulnerable due to their sluggish, unwary demeanor and, in Iraq, along with many raptors end up being offered at local markets. In Saudi Arabia, the turnover to more intensive farming activity has depleted to available habitat usable for steppe eagles. In Saudi Arabia as well as Iraq and Armenia, other conservation concerns are similar as elsewhere, including dangerous powerlines and potential poisonings.


The tawny eagle (Aquila rapax) is a large bird of prey. Like all eagles, it belongs to the family Accipitridae.  Its heavily feathered legs illustrate it to be a member of the subfamily Aquilinae, also known as "booted eagles". Tawny eagles have an extensive but discontinuous breeding range that constitutes much of the African continent as well as the Indian subcontinent, with rare residency occurring in the southern Middle East.  Throughout its range, it favours open dry habitats such as semideserts, deserts steppes, or savanna plains. Despite its preference for areas of aridity, the species seldom occurs in areas where trees are entirely absent. It is a resident breeder which lays one to three eggs in a stick nest mostly commonly in the crown of a tree.  The tawny eagle is perhaps the most highly opportunistic of all of its taxonomic clan, and often scavenges on carrion or engages in kleptoparasitism towards other carnivorous animals but is also a bold and active predator, often of relatively large and diverse prey.  It is estimated that tawny eagles can reach the age of 16 years old. Nonetheless, precipitous declines have been detected throughout the tawny eagle's range. Numerous factors, particularly loss of nesting habitat due to logging and global warming, as well as persecution (largely via poisoning) and other anthropogenic mortality (largely through contact with various manmade objects) are driving the once numerous tawny eagle perhaps to the brink of extinction.


There are three described races of tawny eagles. The subspecific classification of the species has at times been considered complicated by variations and existence of different morphs, in turn they were once considered tentative. However, each subspecies is largely allopatric in geography, the only primary ambiguities lying in the northern part of east Africa where both African races may intergrade.
A. r. rapax; distributed in Africa from the southern Democratic Republic of the Congo and central Kenya to all points southwards. However, this race may range up to as far north as Ethiopia as well (thus likely intergrading considerably with the following subspecies which is widespread in Ethiopia). Adult often of this nominate subspecies are often relatively more strongly rufous in colour than other races and are sometimes dark streaked below. Meanwhile, the juvenile tends to be light rufous. wing chord lengths in this race have been measured at 485 to 540 mm (19.1 to 21.3 in) in males and 509 to 565 mm (20.0 to 22.2 in) in females. The mean wing chord length in two samples of A. r. rapax measured 501 and 512 mm (19.7 and 20.2 in) in males and 541 and 545 mm (21.3 and 21.5 in) in females. The tail length of both sexes in A. r. rapax measures 245 to 295 mm (9.6 to 11.6 in) with a tarsus length of 79 to 92 mm (3.1 to 3.6 in). Body mass can range roughly from 1.6 to 3.1 kg (3.5 to 6.8 lb) in overall samples of at least 36 eagles.
A. r. belisarius; this race resides in west Africa to Ethiopia and southwest Arabia as well as far south as the northern Democratic Republic of the Congo and northern Kenya. This race is described to appear "neater" than the nominate subspecies, possibly due to this race often occurring in even more desert-like conditions than the other races and thus having more compact feathering. It is when compared to the nominate, often duller and browner above, showing less of a rufous tinge. Meanwhile, individual pale morph of A. r. belisarius often a shade or two darker than pale nominate but not consistently so.  Although said to be slightly larger, measurement data shows this subspecies to of broadly very similar size to the nominate race. In males, the wing chord is 495 to 535 mm (19.5 to 21.1 in) and, in females, the wing chord is 500 to 562 mm (19.7 to 22.1 in). The mean wing chord lengths were reportedly 515 mm (20.3 in) in males and 525 mm (20.7 in), which indicates a slightly less pronounced sexual dimorphism than in the nominate race. As for body mass, 1 male was found to weigh 2 kg (4.4 lb) while three females weighed from 1.9 to 2.5 kg (4.2 to 5.5 lb).
A. r. vindhiana; excluding the Arabian Peninsula, this race likely comprises all the tawny eagles found in Asia, such as in southeastern Iran and the Indian subcontinent. However, ambiguities exists on where the range of A. r. belisarius ends and of vindhiana begins, especially in Middle Eastern areas. Sometimes A. r. vindhiana is suggested as full species. This subspecies averages darker than either other race and usually is lacking in warmer rufous tone. In general, it is somewhat more similar in hue to the steppe eagle. Adult irises are sometimes brown in A. r. vindhiana (again reminiscent of the steppe eagle). The pale morph of this race is greyer and less rufous than African tawny eagles, although generally juveniles and immature are sometimes more rufous. It may be marginally the smallest subspecies, although in general the tawny eagle evidences remarkably little size variation across its wide range. Wing chord measurements are 473 to 535 mm (18.6 to 21.1 in) in males and 510 to 560 mm (20 to 22 in). In males, the wing chord reportedly averages about 495 mm (19.5 in) and in females, it averages 525 mm (20.7 in). In males the tail length is 242 to 258 mm (9.5 to 10.2 in) and in female it is 242 to 285 mm (9.5 to 11.2 in). The tarsus length of male A. r. vindhiana is 80 to 87 mm (3.1 to 3.4 in) and in females is 84 to 91 mm (3.3 to 3.6 in). Unsexed adults in India weighed from 1.5 to 2.1 kg (3.3 to 4.6 lb).


The tawny eagle is considered to appear "inelegant, scruffy-looking" but has a fairly characteristic aquiline silhouette. The species has a fairly long neck and long deep bill with a gape line level with the eye, moderately long wings with fairly pronounced "fingers" and a slightly rounded to almost square-ended and shortish tail, which can be more reminiscent of the tail of a vulture than that of other eagles. The feathering on the legs is extensive and can appear almost baggy-looking.  The bill and head are strong and bold, the body well-proportioned and feet are powerful while the countenance is quite fierce-looking. While perching, the tawny eagle tends to sit rather upright, often on stumps, posts, low trees or treetops for long periods of the day or may descend to the ground to walk somewhat unsteadily with a more horizontal posture. The wingtips when perched are roughly even with the tip of the tail. Adults have variably colored eyes, ranging from yellow to pale brown to yellow brown, while those of juveniles are dark brown. Both the cere and feet are yellow at all ages. The tawny eagle is polymorphic with considerable individual variation in plumage, resulting in occasional disparities in plumages that can engender confusion in some. In adulthood, they can vary in coloration from all dark grey-brown to an occasionally streaky (or more plain) foxy-rufous to buffish-yellow. Most adults are usually a general grey-brown or rufous-tawny color, with occasional pale spotting visible at close quarters on the nape and belly, coverts uniformly toned as the body. The nape is consistently dark and uniform despite the feathers often being tipped paler with other feathers in adults, lacking the contrasting paler feathers often seen in other Aquila. Females, in addition to being slightly larger, may tend to be slightly darker and more streaked than the males. The most blackish-brown individuals tend to occur in India. Adults often show relatively little varying colors apart from their somewhat blacker wing and tail feathers, though when freshly molted great wing coverts and secondaries may show small pale tips which may form pale lines along closed wing has tawny upper parts and blackish flight feathers and tail. The head is often similarly tawny in colour as the body but may also sometimes shows darker eyebrows, other thin brown streaks or a darker chin. Meanwhile, the tail is plain or obscurely dark barred (with around 7 subtle bands). The dark morph adult is essentially all dark, dull brown. Some dark morph tawny eagles with wear may show irregular streaking or molting browns and more blackish feathers. Intermediate morph are dark to rufous brown above with the mantle and wing coverts variably streaked or molted lighter rufous as is the head with the crown or crown-sides being paler. The intermediate morph's underside is largely rufous (especially farther south in Africa) with breast and flanks very heavily and broadly streaked dark brown, though at times appears all dark brown contrasting with plain trousers and crissum. Pale morph adult tawny eagles always show a clear contrast between the pale body and wing coverts which bear darker flight feathers and tail. In pale morphs, the underparts are rufous buff to lighty tawny-brown, phasing into somewhat darker lesser and median wing coverts to darker brown to even blackish greater coverts and flight feathers. The head may too be tawny in pale morph tawny eagles but sometimes with thin brown streaks or darker chin. Below pale morph adults are all light rufous to tawny buff or brown, sometimes paler below the belly area. In worn individuals the bodily feathers of pale morph tawny eagles can appear almost whitish.  Dark morph juvenile tawny eagles are generally light rufous to rufous brown with creamier lower back to upper tail coverts. Juveniles show thinly pale-tipped dark brown greater coverts and remiges while the tail is barred grey and brown usually with a narrow creamy tip. Dark morph juveniles may fade to pale buff or creamy often before molting into browner plumage. Subsequent stages are not as well-known but it appears dark morph subadults gradually manifest a darker brown or rufous brown color on the mantle, as well as on the head and upper breast while maintaining a buffish rear body (i.e. lower back and rump patch). Generally other morphs are similar but not as well-known and are perhaps individually inconsistent. Many are rufous or sandy after a molt but have mottling later on, the extent of pale feathers indicative perhaps of their ultimate adult morph.
In flight, the tawny eagle appears as a large raptor with a noticeably protruding head on a long neck, with a deep chest, long and broad wings with a somewhat narrower seven-fingered hand. The trailing edge of the wing is slightly curved outwards, indenting at the junction of primaries and secondaries, whilst the rounded, medium-length tail is usually held spread. The deep beats of the kinked wings can make their flight appear rather heavy and slow but they are quicker and more expansive in wing movements and often less forceful-looking than larger Aquila like steppe eagles and can be very agile when chasing other raptors to rob them. Tawny eagles soar with flat wings or very slightly raised and hands only slightly lower, and may fly similarly in a glide but may too arch when in a fast glide. Adult dark morphs are more or less uniform dark brown above and below, showing indistinctly and slightly paler and greyish primaries on both sides. Above, the main contrast on dark morphs above is paler creamy rump patch while, on the underside, the greyish color is contrasted with blackish tips and a diffused trailing edge along both the wings and tail. Intermediate morph tawny eagles are variably rufous streaked on brown to rufous brown on the back and wing coverts with a similar contrasting pale rump above as dark morphs. Below the intermediate's heavy dark streaks are only subtly different and their coloring can appear almost uniform. The wing quills of intermediate morphs are often greyer with a stronger contrast of the paler inner primaries and blackish wing ends. Pale morph are all pale tawny or buffish on both sides of the wing, which contrasting strongly with demarcated dark brown about the greater coverts, flight feathers and tail and usually the scapulars. The primaries are quite pale on pale morphs with sometimes the hint of a pale carpal comma. Some pale adults have pale bases to all the underprimaries and the quills are sometimes unbarred, but more usually the feathers have dense but narrow dark bars. Dark morph juveniles are light rufous to pale tawny body above which contrasts strongly with dark brown greater coverts, rear scapulars, flight feathers and tail, in turn all highlighting the creamy lower back to tail coverts. Below dark morph juveniles can look similar to pale morph adults apart from trailing whitish edges and often irregular pale diagonals along tips of greater wing coverts, though usually these fade early on. Little is known plumage development but the young eagles moult into brown, becoming patchy with intermediate often showing 1-3 darker bars on wing linings. The underparts of subadults (i.e. around 2 to 3 years or old) are typically two-toned, with darker brown about the breasts, belly and underwings coverts while the remainder of the underbody is creamy light in colour. This two-toned pattern is evidenced in subadult tawny eagles both from India and Africa. Adult plumage is obtained between the 4th and 5th years of life.


The tawny eagle lives in multiple areas where other broadly similar brownish hued and largish raptors often occur. Thus identification can be said to seldom be straightforward. One source that can especially engender potential confusion in its wintering range is the formerly conspecific steppe eagle. The steppe is larger with a shorter neck, relatively longer and narrower wings, a more massive beak, particularly via the exceptional depth of the gape (although in flight can appear smaller headed due its less protruding neck) and has a longer and rounder tail. Furthermore, steppe eagles tends to have much bolder and widely spaced barring on the wings than tawny eagles and more distinct dark trailing wing edges and paler throats. Beyond steppe eagles, comparisons to various other groups of sympatric booted eagles may be made. Compared to the spotted eagles, in tawny eagles, the tail is longer, the bill more prominent, the wings usually less squared-off in appearance, the neck longer and a rangier overall look is evidenced despite these species being of often similar size. In contrast to the imperial eagles, the wings of the tawny eagle are broader and have less even trailing edges, the bill is slightly less prominent and the wings are more likely to be held slightly upwards while the body size is smaller. When compared to the golden eagle species complex, of which only the golden and the Verreaux's eagle (Aquila verreauxii) are usually relevant (albeit three dissimilar and sympatric pale-bellied eagles, of a size with tawny eagles or smaller, are found as part of this evolutionary chain), the size of the tawny eagle is considerably smaller, the wings do not taper as do they nor are as likely to be held in a strong dihedral and proportionately, the bill is notably longer and the tail is rather shorter. Greater spotted eagles (Clanga clanga), like the steppe eagle a Palearctic breeding eagle who often winters near the residencies of tawny eagles, is fairly similar but that species has a relatively shorter and broader tail, less baggy feathers on the legs and is usually rather darker and more uniform in adult plumage. The fulvescens form of the greater spotted eagle must be distinguished from the pale forms of the tawny eagle via their underwing pattern, often with completely blackish underwing coverts and usually plain looking dark remiges over the entire primaries with more distinct pale carpal arcs. The also migratory lesser spotted eagle (Clanga pomarina) is smaller than the tawny eagle and more compact with a distinct white U above the tail. The residential African Wahlberg's eagle (Hieraeetus wahlbergi) can have a similar uniform plumage as in tawny eagles but always has greyer flight feathers and is much smaller than tawny eagles with relatively longer and more rectangular wings and a longer, narrower and straighter ended tail.  The eastern imperial eagle in juvenile plumage can appear similar to the pale and intermediate morph tawny eagles but the imperial eagle is usually visibly larger, with slenderer, longer wings, a longer, broader tail as well as having dark brown streaking on the chest, mantle and wing coverts and bearing more distinct pale trailing edges and wing bars. Dark morph tawny eagles in India may be distinguished from similarly sized black eagles (Ictinaetus malaiensis) by the latter being slenderer with longer, darker and more paddle-shaped wings with a narrower base and having a much longer, narrower and distinctly barred tail. More dissimilar eagles such as Circaetinae, i.e. brown snake eagles (Circaetus cinereus), black-breasted snake eagles (Circaetus pectoralis) and juvenile bateleurs (Terathopius ecaudatus), are sometimes mentioned as a potential source of confusion but are usually rather distinct (all larger headed, rather smaller billed, shorter tailed and bare legged with often less uniform coloring) even in their most similar hues.


Tawny eagles are generally silent in most of their range. However, unlike steppe eagles, which are extremely silent away from their breeding grounds, they are said to occasionally vocalize in any season. It is also more vocal when not breeding than the spotted eagles. The usual call is a rather harsh, hollow-sounding and loud bark, variously transcribed as kowk-kowk, kau-kau, kiok-kiok, ki-ark and so on. The call is fairly high-pitched (slightly less deep than the steppe eagle's when the latter is breeding) but is still deeper voiced than spotted eagles. In Kruger National Park it is said the call is loud and far-travelling. Male tawny eagles are the most frequent vocalizers in the species, particularly during sky-dances, but also in other contexts. These include but are not limited to food arguments, disturbances during nesting and by males attracting females for food passes. In nine years of monitoring tawny eagles in Zimbabwe,  however, the call was not heard once. The reasons for its silence may be due to the flat landscape in which it inhabits. Other call recorded include a harsh grating k eke ke... in aerial courtship displays and a throaty kra in kleptoparastic pursuits. A kra-kra call may emitted at times to warn intruders. The female may also emit an occasional mewing, high shreep-shreep at the nest as well as a rare raucous scream (possible food-begging and alarm-calls, respectively). The young chick tawny eagle chips initially but once its feathers emerge, it tends to beg with a loud call, i.e. we-yik, wee-yik.


Tawny eagles have an extremely extensive natural distribution. The African population can be found in three, fairly discrete populations. One of these is found in North Africa in south-central Morocco, possibly northern Algeria, southwestern Mauritania, Senegambia, southern Mali, central and southern Niger eastward through southern Chad, northern and central Sudan to most of Ethiopia and Somalia (but for the northeast and central-east). The north African population is scarce. In Morocco, they are heavily depleted with a few populations left in some regions such as Tarfaya, Tan-Tan and Souss-Massa. They are likely extirpated from Tunisia, where they were once frequent. In West Africa, some tawny eagles occur in Gambia, Togo, Nigeria and (though possibly not breeding) in Ivory Coast and Ghana. In east Africa and central Africa, the tawny eagle is found in central and eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and throughout the drier portions of Uganda and in the entire nations of Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia (quite often residing in the Luangwa valley and the Chambeshi drainage), Malawi and Mozambique. In east Africa, it is considered perhaps the most widely distributed and regularly sighted brown eagle. In southern Africa, the tawny eagle is found throughout Zimbabwe (now often rare apart from Matabeleland and Chipinga Uplands), Botswana (still regular in Okavango Delta) and some areas of Namibia, southern and western Angola (Cuando Cubango, Cunene, Huíla Namibe, to Malanje), Eswatini, Lesotho and northern and central parts of South Africa, i.e. mainly north of the Orange River but sometimes down to the Cape Province. The tawny eagle may be extinct as a breeder in Eswatini where it was last confirmed to have bred in 2001.
Out of Africa, the species may possibly be found in the southwestern part of the Arabian peninsula, i.e. in Yemen and extreme southwestern Saudi Arabia in the Tihamah and 'Asir Regions, but few to none confirmed breeding events have been reported in the last few decades. The tawny eagle is considered a rare vagrant in Israel, though some are verified, other reports of them often turn out to be misidentified steppe eagles. They are also known as a rare vagrant in Oman. In Asia, the tawny eagle exists in isolation in southeastern Iran (as in Arabia, verified recent breeding is not known) and somewhat more continuously in eastern Pakistan (often in the Indus valley),  much of north and peninsular India, eastward scarcely through southern Nepal and Assam. Though Nepali tawny eagles are rarely recorded, it is thought that the species still resides there in lowland semi-deserts. The Indian range is from Punjab through the Indo-Gangetic Plain and western Bengal, northeastern Bihar, the Deccan Plateau with range continuing down to Andhra Pradesh,  Karnataka and (mainly north-central) Tamil Nadu. Records of vagrating tawny eagles turning up in Myanmar, northern Vietnam and Thailand are thought to have been likely misidentified steppe eagles or are based on now unidentifiable specimens. A small handful of vagrants have been verified to turn up in Sri Lanka (the only known appearance by an Aquila eagle there). Old reports of vagrancy, probably in need of confirmation, are known also from Afghanistan.


Tawny eagles occurs in fairly open country at varied elevations but usually live in drier areas. In West Africa, the species breeds often in relatively moist forest-savanna mosaics but can move into dry woodlands and semi-deserts when not breeding. In Morocco, the species prefers forested areas near mountains with adjacent plains. Elsewhere in Africa, tawny eagles typically inhabit wooded savanna such as dry Acacia savanna and semi-desert to desert areas. However, extreme desert areas, completely lacking in arborescent growth, are avoided nearly as much so as humid tropical rainforests. It also occurs at times in manmade areas such as arable lands, roadsides, dams, farmland, cattle pastures and game areas if feeding opportunities occur in them. In southern Africa, thornveld is often the preferred habitat with the tawny eagles mostly preferring stands of Acacia. Despite similar climates, within the miombo woodland, the tawny eagle tends to be more scarce. In India, similar habitats may largely be used but the tawny eagle may fairly often occur too in the vicinity of villages and cultivations and frequents garbage dumps and slaughterhouses somewhat more so than they do in Africa. In addition to all gradients of arid zones, in India, the tawny eagle frequently is found around thorn forests. Tawny eagles may live from sea level to about 3,000 m (9,800 ft) but tends to prefer somewhat lower elevations. Despite a certain level of aridity expected in tawny eagle habitats, they normally will not nest unless a habitat meets certain demands. The tawny eagle's presence is predicated on the availability of ephemeral rainfall during the wet season. This reliance on some rainfall is probably key to habitat quality and resulting prey populations to some extent, but also to the availability of nesting sites. The tawny eagle is by and large an obligate tree nester and so areas that become too arid to support tree growth or where trees are overharvested are unlikely to retain the species.


The tawny eagle is unique as an Aquila eagle in the lack of apparent specialization in its feeding behaviour.  While most other Aquila will opportunistically scavenge, the tawny eagle freely takes to scavenging on carrion, perhaps doing so at all times of the year, though do so somewhat more so when not breeding. Routine scavenging often drives tawny eagles to refuse dumps in or near villages and slaughterhouses, particularly in India, and to associate quite often with vultures at carrion sites. They are also frequently recorded on roadsides where roadkill provides a steady food source. More routinely than almost any other raptor, perhaps, it is a very skilled pirate, regularly engaging in kleptoparasitism of other birds of prey.  However, descriptions of the tawny eagle as "sluggish", "not very distinguished" and "unimpressive" are not particularly apt as the tawny eagle is a highly rapacious predator that attacks very variable ranges of live prey including particularly large prey. This species hunts mainly by a short dive or pounce from a perch or by stoop from up high in a soaring flight. In the Indian subcontinent, preferred hunting perch trees were Vachellia nilotica, Prosopis cineraria and Capparis decidua. It may also often forage by walking on the ground. Mostly, tawny eagles target live prey that is on the ground, seldom targeting arboreal prey. However, they will sometimes fly down and take birds on the wing. Avian prey known to be killed in the air has ranged from speckled pigeons (Columba guinea) to flamingoes. Tawny eagles may hunt frequently in pairs during the breeding season, often securing larger prey than in the non-breeding season. Sometimes this tandem hunting by pairs can occur in any season. It is likely that tandem hunting by pairs involves one bird engaging in conspicuous flight to distract the quarry while another flies inconspicuously to sneak up on and kill the prey, as has been reported in other tandem hunting raptors. Nocturnal animals such as genets and springhares have been preyed upon by tawny eagles in areas where there was no possibility they were killed by traffic at night. In addition to other observations have been made where tawny eagles drink and bathe at night, some nocturnal subsistence behaviour by this species has been inferred but no irrefutable evidence has been brought forth either. Semi-regular attendance at grassfires in India, presumably in order to capture displaced creatures, has been reported. More than 200 species, including both live prey and carrion, are known to be eaten by tawny eagles and they may have one of the most variable diet of all tropical eagles. Reportedly, most prey the tawny eagle will take alive will weigh not less than 125 g (4.4 oz) and not more than 2.5 kg (5.5 lb), however live prey has been revealed to be regularly more variable than even that estimate represents. One compilation study showed that, compared to 8 other Aquila and spotted eagles, the tawny eagle's diet was the most evenly spread across all weight classes of prey from under 63 g (2.2 oz) to over 4 kg (8.8 lb), though took prey in the latter prey class slightly less so than the much larger golden and wedge-tailed eagles (Aquila audax). This study further determine that the most often focused on weight class in tawny eagle's diets were 0.5 to 1 kg (1.1 to 2.2 lb) and 1 to 2 kg (2.2 to 4.4 lb) prey class, accounting for a little less than half of the prey by quantity. According to this authority, the mean prey size falls around approximately 921 g (2.030 lb), which is around 5 times greater than the mean estimated prey size for the steppe eagle species, around 38% greater than mean estimated prey size of imperial eagles and considerably less only than the golden, wedge-tailed and Verreaux's eagles among the 8 studied Aquila and Clanga species.


Determining whether prey has been taken alive at the nests of tawny eagles is generally considered to be difficult, although observations suggest that during breeding tawny eagles usually deliver fresh prey while raising young, indicating that such prey are usually either taken alive or newly pirated from other predators. Within a Kenyan study, only 1.9% of prey brought to tawny eagle nests was thought likely to be from carrion. While hunting prey, it often takes a variety of prey usually focusing somewhat on small to medium-sized mammals, usually medium-sized to large birds and occasionally medium to large-sized reptiles. A diet analysis in Zimbabwe indicated that among 160 prey items, 36.9% were mammals, 51.9% were birds, 10% were reptiles and 1.2% were amphibians. The leading prey species here were scrub hare (Lepus saxatilis), at about 15.6% of the total, helmeted guineafowl (Numida meleagris), at about 11.9% of the prey total, both chickens and unidentified snakes at around 6.9% and indeterminate spurfowl and doves at 6.2% and 5%, respectively. Birds made up 51.9% of the diet, mammals 36.9%, reptiles 10% and amphibians 1.1%. A similar dietary study conducted in Lochinvar National Park, Zambia found a higher proportion of birds and amphibians (61.4% & 5.5% respectively), with a surprisingly number of water birds being taken. Of 127 prey items here, the main prey species were determined to be helmeted guineafowl at about 15% of the diet, Swainson's spurfowl (Pternistis swainsonii) at 11%, poultry at about 8.7%, the African openbill (Anastomus lamelligerus) at 7.9% with the top mammals in the diet being scrub hares, at 5.5%, and African marsh rats (Dasymys incomtus) at 3.9%; furthermore indeterminate snakes comprised 5.5% of the diet.  The variation in diet between the preceding two study sites is due to differences in habitat and prey availability. A very detailed study was conducted in Tsavo East National Park, Kenya, of the diet of the local tawny eagles over different years. Of 543 total prey items, 41.2% were mammals, 35.4% were birds, and 23.4% were reptiles and amphibians. Of these the most important prey was Kirk's dik-dik (Madoqua kirkii) at 21.7% of the total, yellow-necked spurfowl (Pternistis leucoscepus) at 6.8% of the total, cape hare (Lepus capensis) and crested francolin (Dendroperdix sephaena) both at 6.3% and red-crested korhaan (Lophotis ruficrista) at 5.9%; additionally, unidentified snakes constituted 21.3% of the foods. The dik-dik is a small antelope and is much larger than a tawny eagle. The tawny eagle certainly took dik-diks weighing up to 4 kg (8.8 lb) and possibly even 5 kg (11 lb), with this eagle taking about 80 dik-diks in Tsavo East each year. In different areas of South Africa, small dietary studies determined the diet at nests to be highly variable. In the Highveld, about 52% of 60 prey items were mammals, 45% were birds and a small amount were fish. In Timbavati and Klaserie, 63% of the diet was birds, 34% of it was mammals and 3% were reptiles. At Highveld, 25% of the diet consisted of yellow mongoose (Cynictis penicillata), 15% Cape ground squirrels (Xerus inauris) and 13% helmeted guineafowl. At Timbavati and Klaserie, various francolins were strongly predominant in foods, at about 44% with another 17% by various mongooses.
Out of the southern and eastern areas of Africa, less quantitative analysis has been undertaken into the feeding habits of tawny eagles, even around nests. What is known of their prey elsewhere is mainly from wide-ranging surveys, secondary accounts and photographs. It appears in Ethiopia that the tawny eagle may have a close predatory relationship with the Abyssinian grass rat (Arvicanthis abyssinicus) while one tawny eagle there tore open the nest of the Stresemann's bushcrow (Zavattariornis stresemanni) to access the prey. Unidentified large rats constituted a great majority of prey delivered during the nestling growth stage at some east African nests. Fewer details are known about the prey of tawny eagles in the Indian subcontinent. One study, without quantitative data known, listed the prey of tawny eagles in Saurashtra as Indian palm squirrels (Funambulus palmarum), eggs of red-wattled lapwings (Vanellus indicus), crows, mongooses, Indian hares (Lepus nigricollis) and even Bengal fox (Vulpes bengalensis). Otherwise, the prey incidentally reported in India is extremely varied, including even the hindlegs of a jungle cat (Felis chaus) (but this may have been scavenged). In general, tawny eagles in south Asia may focus on less varying prey in general, often reportedly favoring desert-dwelling rodents and hares.  Tawny eagles may hunt a couple dozen species of rodent from different parts of the range, ranging in size from the 30 g (1.1 oz) Natal multimammate mouse (Mastomys natalensis) to the 3.6 kg (7.9 lb) South African springhare (Pedestes capensis). Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) and yellow-spotted rock hyrax (Heterohyrax brucei) are occasionally preyed upon by tawny eagles. The tawny eagle may be one of the most accomplished predators of mongoose, many food studies reflecting relatively high numbers of them and they appear to be one of the most feared predators at meerkat (Suricata suricatta) colonies. In the Karoo, the local tawny eagles reportedly live mostly off of mongooses, either meerkats or yellow mongooses. Similarly small or slightly larger carnivores like striped polecats (Ictonyx striatus) and genets are not infrequently prey for tawny eagles as well. Bat-eared foxes (Otocyon megalotis) may too be taken alive at times. Various monkeys may be eaten, although not infrequently as carrion, tawny eagles may too in seldom cases attack juveniles of monkeys such as Patas monkeys (Erythrocebus patas), grivets (Chlorocebus aethiops) and vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) up to the size of juveniles of several species of baboon. However, unlike with larger eagles, the troops of certain baboons do not seem to regard tawny eagles as a threat based on their behavioural responses. While most ungulate prey other than dik-diks is probably largely scavenged as carrion or stolen from other predators, the small calves of ungulates such as Thomson's gazelle (Eudorcas thomsonii) are sometimes apparently killed by tawny eagles. A general picture appears to emerge that tawny eagles quite often takes relatively large mammalian prey, surprisingly often creatures weighing up to 3 to 4 kg (6.6 to 8.8 lb) such as hares, dik-diks, the young of other antelopes, hyraxes and so on.
While mammals prey varies from rodents to hares, mongooses and small antelopes, the diversity and size range of bird taken may be even more impressive and more than 120 avian prey species have been reported in the prey spectrum. Included in the prey spectrum are various species of ducks and small or gosling geese, gamebirds, especially francolins and guineafowl, many doves and pigeons, mostly medium-sized species of bustard and hornbill and numerous water birds from small coursers, lapwings, rails and grebes to large flamingoes, storks and herons both small and large. Both young and adult Old World flamingoes of both African species are known to be attacked on occasion, as well as white-breasted cormorants (Phalacrocorax lucidus) and great cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo), all birds similar in size or somewhat heavier than the tawny eagle itself. Further impressive water bird prey includes reportedly spur-winged goose (Plectropterus gambensis), which weighs about twice as much as tawny eagle. Even larger avian prey are taken including a common crane (Grus grus) killed by a pair in Saurashtra (although it was an injured one) and presumably adult female Kori bustard (Ardeotis kori). If average-sized, these prey items likely weighed more than 5 kg (11 lb). More minor avian prey includes nightjars, coucals, sandgrouse, swifts, bee-eaters, kingfishers, rollers, wood hoopoes, turacos, parrots and several passerines. One small passerine the tawny eagle may routinely hunt is the super-abundant red-billed quelea (Quelea quelea). Near poultry farms, tawny eagles can take to not infrequently lifting free-range chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) and other poultry, especially when the eagles must feed their young, thus in turn potentially drawing ire of local farmers.
Various snakes are taken opportunistically by tawny eagles and they can be quite bold about hunting venomous snakes. In southern Africa and Kenya the following snakes have been identified in the foods of tawny eagles: Egyptian sand boa (Eryx colubrinus), young African rock python (Python sebae), speckled sand racer (Psammophis punctulatus), rufous beaked snake (Rhamphiophis oxyrhynchus), black-necked spitting cobra (Naja nigricollis), black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis), boomslang (Dispholidus typus) and puff adder (Bitis arietans). They also hunt lizards not infrequently given the chance, usually favoring fairly large species but capable of taking those ranging from geckos to rock monitors (Varanus albigularis). At one nest in Zimbabwe, monitor lizards made up 29% of 83 prey items, but they were only 8% of 107 prey items of 3 other nests in the same park. One of the most frequently seen prey to be taken by tawny eagles in India have been Indian spiny-tailed lizard (Saara hardwickii). More minor prey have included turtles, frogs and toads and fish. A tawny eagle in southern Africa was seen to wade into shallow water and successfully pull out a largish catfish. Tawny eagles can also take communal nesting and swarming insects fairly frequently. These are generally termites, which can attract several of these eagles especially amongst non-breeding eagles and young ones. When visiting termites, the tawny eagles commonly eat alates and may, with an unusual lack of aggression, share the food source with several other birds of prey, including as many as a half dozen conspecifics. At times, tawny eagles can also be attracted to swarms of grasshoppers. In one case, a tawny eagle was seen consuming the fruit of an Adansonia tree, an unusual instance of frugivory which is very rare in accipitrids other than one unusual species: the palm-nut vulture (Gypohierax angolensis). A tawny eagle was once witnessed picking through elephant dung along with a vulture, presumably searching for dung beetles to consume.


Although the tawny eagle does hunt for food, it also relies extensively on carrion as a food source. Although most booted eagles and Aquila will opportunistically feed on carrion, none is known to do so as routinely as the tawny eagle. They have been recorded feeding on a huge array of carcasses as large as African bush elephants (Loxodonta africana) and at least as small as vervet monkeys and perhaps even down to the size of a dove. Perhaps most frequently in Africa, tawny eagles will feed at carcasses of ungulates such as antelope. At least 30-40 different species of ungulate have been recorded as carrion food-sources for these eagles. At "vulture restaurants" in Ethiopia, feeding stations with dead livestock meant to mitigate the rapid decline in population of most African vultures, the tawny eagle was the second most often recorded scavenger at just under 35% of 1088 of recorded birds to feed at them. The tawny eagle shares its carrion food sources almost invariably with vultures and usually with several other scavengers such as jackals and hyenas. Other birds that frequently also attend carrion are bateleurs, many other eagles (including steppe eagles) and marabou storks (Leptoptilos crumenifer). The producer-scrounger theory predicts that vultures rely on eagles for information on carcasses. Due to their smaller size, eagles, i.e. tawny eagles and bateleurs, are able to begin foraging earlier in the morning and are thus more likely to locate a carcass first. In 91 observed carcass in southern Africa, tawny eagles were verified to be the first to find 5 of them. Furthermore, vultures usually arrived in less than 40 minutes (in 75% of cases) after the tawny eagles found the carcass. At large carcasses, there is a hierarchical social structure based on the size of the scavenger. At Maasai Mara, the top scavengers were the considerably to slightly heavier mammals, i.e. spotted hyenas (Crocuta croctua), black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) and feral dogs (Canis lupus familiaris), then the lappet-faced vulture (Torgos tracheliotos), the Rüppell's griffon (Gyps rueppellii), followed by all other vultures with the tawny eagle and the bateleur in the second most and the most subordinate scavenger positions. Similar scavenger hierarchies have been reported elsewhere as well. Bateleurs were the most likely to first find a carcass of the Maasai Mara scavengers and both the tawny and bateleur were considered as scavengers with "low competitive ability and high search efficiency".
However, tawny eagles will at times be able to displace the smaller species of vulture such as hooded vultures (Necrosyrtes monachus) and Egyptian vultures (Neophron percnopterus), both of which are similar in weight to the tawny eagles themselves, with one tawny eagle even reportedly keeping as many as 20 vultures at bay at a carcass. In general, based on the literature, such an event of aggressiveness by this species at a large carcass would surely be unusual. Tawny eagles do tend to be dominant over bateleur at carcasses, however. Gyps or griffon vultures are usually the most numerous vultures in attendance at carrion and are considerably larger than tawny eagles but sometimes may briefly tolerate a tawny eagle to feed in their midst depending on the circumstances. Usually, the larger the group is of griffon vultures, the less likely the tawny eagle is to get to feed. The eagles not infrequently remain on the periphery of the vulture feeding frenzy and wait for pieces of flesh to appear. Often they will be able to pick up small scraps but will wait until the carcass is finished and few vultures remain to feed. The tawny eagle can benefit from leading other scavengers to carrion or feeding subsequently to them since, unlike the largest and most aggressive vultures, such as lappet-faced vultures and cinereous vultures (Aegypius monachus), the tawny eagle cannot tear open large carcasses on their own and tend rely on another source to access any bits of the nutritious viscera. The tawny eagles when finding an unopened large carcass have few feeding options although may eat the eyes in such circumstances, as was verified in the circumstance of a tawny eagle finding a horse (Equus ferus caballus) carcass offered by researchers. Roadkills are another feeding option as they are often torn asunder by impact with automobiles and the eagle may be able to (at least briefly) monopolize the carcass. Perhaps not coincidentally, in Maasai Mara, the tawny eagles were found to benefit from a carcass being nearer human habitations and in lower quality habitats relative to the other scavengers. In particularly in India, scavenging tawny eagles tend to regularly occur at landfills where vultures seldom come but wintering steppe eagles may often feed alongside them seasonally. Garbage dumps are also visited in different parts of Africa such as Uganda and Ethiopia by hungry tawny eagles. Semi-predaceous and aggressively disposed vultures, like white-headed vultures (Trigonoceps occipitalis) in Africa and red-headed vultures (Sacrogyps calvus) in India as well as the lappet-faced and cinereous vultures, tend to have little tolerance for tawny eagles, with the latter unlikely to approach until these aggressive vultures have had their fill. On the contrary, though, at times white-headed vultures and tawny eagles have been observed peaceably sharing roadkills in some instances. Often tawny eagles will come to smaller carcasses of almost any animal, as will other smaller scavengers like bateleurs and hooded vultures as well as crows, perhaps merely to avoid the competition that often occurs at large carcasses. One subadult tawny eagle was observed to be following a pack of African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus), almost certainly in order to scavenge off of their kills.


The tawny eagle occurrence in Africa and the Indian subcontinent places it in arguably two of the most competitive environments for birds of prey in the world. In turn, the tawny eagle seems to adapt via a lack of specialization on any particular prey type, hunting style or food source, and via including carrion in the diet quite often. Many other raptors and eagles overlap in habitat use with tawny eagles. However, wintering and residential Aquila and spotted eagles that bear some relation usually use slightly differing habitats in contrast to the tawny eagle. In Tsavo East National Park, the ecology of this eagle was studied at length in contrast to bateleurs and much larger martial eagles, which can appear to have broadly similar habitat and prey preferences, as well as the slightly smaller but larger-clawed African hawk eagles, which tends to habituate to slightly more wooded dry areas. In general within this study, all four eagle species derived a majority of their prey biomass from Kirk's dik-dik but that the martial eagles tended to take slightly larger dik-diks than the bateleur and tawny eagles, took slightly more in the park per pair based on annual estimates and were more unlikely to scavenge the prey while the African hawk-eagle tends to take younger dik-diks. The diet of the tawny eagle and bateleur in Tsavo East overlapped by around 64%, whereas the diet of the tawny and martial eagles only overlapped by 29%. The tawny eagle was the only eagle here to heavily supplement their diet with alternate prey like snakes, although bateleurs also took a wide range of prey. The Tsavo East study further indicated that the predatory pressure on dik-diks is mitigated temporally by the slightly staggered nesting seasons of each eagle, with bateleurs tending to nest rather earlier, the hawk-eagle slightly later, so the peak reliance on the prey did not generally overlap.  Furthermore, habitat differs, with the African hawk-eagle foraging in more wooded areas while the bateleur can forage in more open, treeless areas than tawny eagles because the bateleur is an aerial hunter while the tawny eagle typically requires perches to hunt from. Further study has indicated that, in Africa, the bateleur broadly mirrors the tawny eagle in most respects of ecology. One stark difference from virtually any other known eagle is the tawny eagle's nesting habits. That is that this eagle nests almost invariably on the top of the canopy of a tree, rather than a main trunk or large sturdy branch of trees (or on cliffs or, in steppe eagles, the ground). The nesting location of tawny eagles runs more parallel to those of vultures. Study in Kruger National Park has shown that the tawny eagle and white-backed vulture (Gyps africanus) will freely nest in the treetop nest built by the other species. Furthermore, other species, including large owls and snake eagles, will use old nests built by tawny eagles. Although the habitats used by martial and tawny eagles have been reported as broadly similar, detailed study in the Karoo found that the tawny species preferred areas with higher and more predictable summer rainfall and with higher primary productivity than the martial.
Opportunistically, the tawny eagle will sometimes prey upon smaller birds of prey but this is fairly infrequent and the capture of raptorial birds has thus far been seldom reported. A hungry or food-gathering male tawny eagle may infrequently plunder the nests of other raptorial birds. Incautious, injured or distracted birds of prey may too be vulnerable to being killed as well. Diurnal birds of prey known to be preyed upon by tawny eagle in Africa have included black-winged kites, hooded vultures, pale chanting goshawks (Melierax canorus) and African pygmy falcons (Polihierax semitorquatus). In India, the tawny eagle has been known to prey upon western marsh harriers (Circus aeruginosus), shikras (Accipiter badius) and white-eyed buzzards (Butastur teesa). Owls are apparently fairly vulnerable to tawny eagle predation. Species that they have been known to prey on are barn owls (Tyto alba), spotted eagle-owls (Bubo africanus), little owls (Athene noctua), pearl-spotted owlets (Glaucidium perlatum) and marsh owls (Asio capensis). The fresh remains of a secretarybird were found in one tawny eagle nest in Africa but, if the eagles killed the bird rather than scavenged it, this would need confirmation. The tawny eagle, despite being an eagle of intermediate size, does not seem to be subject to natural predators in adulthood as far as is known and can be said to fulfill the role of an apex predator. Nests and young tawny eagle are commonly vulnerable to assorted natural predators but these are little known. A partial list of probable nest predators are likely corvids, snakes and carnivores capable of climbing. One confirmed predator of nestling tawny eagles is the honey badger (Mellivora capensis).


The tawny eagle often seems to pair for life. Like most birds of prey, they are quite territorial towards conspecifics. The commonest display is single or mutual high circling or soaring often in wide spiral. Males will sometimes dive and stoop repeatedly around the female, though she does not usually respond by turning over. Pairs may engage in the display each to strengthen pair bonds. Occasionally two tawny eagles will interlocks talons to descend rapidly, cartwheeling down 30 m or more within a few seconds, sometimes disengaging just before the ground. In other related eagles of the Aquilinae subfamily, cartwheeling interactions are usually considered to be aggressive fights between a territorial eagle and an intruder of the same gender. Prior studies thought this to be the case for the tawny eagle, with an estimated 82% of cartwheeling instances thought to be aggressive, 11% for courtship and 7% for apparent play. However, through closer observations evidence has been made of frequent cartwheeling between males and females as a regular part of the courtship display. Undulating sky dances are sometimes performed too by males with a series of descents and upward swoops on partially close wings, accompanied by calling. However, instances of this seem to be rare. In one instance, two males appeared to engage in a display for a single female. Per one author's opinion the aerial displays of the tawny eagle are "not particularly spectacular compared to other eagles". The breeding season tends to fall in March to August in northeastern Africa, October to June in west Africa and in almost all months of the year but in central, east and southern Africa, but mainly from May to November in Kenya and April to January in central and southern Africa. In India, the breeding season is usually November to May, but occasionally can vary from any time from October to August. Mating generally occurs in and around the nest vicinity. The density very variable on the African continent overall of breeding pair which were estimated to occupy about 75 to 300 km² (29 to 116 sq mi) each. Zimbabwe nest spacing was found to be 7 to 10 km (4.3 to 6.2 mi) in one study. On the border of Kruger National Park, 7 pairs found in a 460 km² (180 sq mi) area but in regular spaced pylon nests in western Transvaal, nests were 19 to 20 km (12 to 12 mi) apart. In Hwange National Park, over 11 years of study, 92 pairs on were found to be nesting over basalt in a 4,724 km² (1,824 sq mi) area while 84 pairs on Kalahari sands in a 9,876 km² (3,813 sq mi) area. Mean nest distances on basalt were around 4 km (2.5 mi) while on sands it was around 59 km (37 mi). In Zambia, the nesting density was considered high for the species at a pair per 28 km² (11 sq mi).


The nests of the tawny eagle are large platforms, composed of sticks but sometimes incorporating animal bones. Nesting sites tend to be open to the sky, in flat, open or hilly country, and offer a commanding a good view of the surrounding country. The sites are not infrequently close to watering holes and, more so in India, close to villages. Nests are usually 6 to 15 m (20 to 49 ft) above the ground, though seldom can be up to 30 m (98 ft) high. Nests are located at the top crown of the tree and only very rarely are placed beneath the canopy or on a lateral branch. In Kenya, tawny eagles showed no nesting preference according to tree height or spatial distribution of trees; however, they preferred Euphorbia, Boscia and Euclea tree species. In India, commonly used trees used in the northern areas are Ficus religiosa, Dalbergia sissoo and mango trees while in the arid Kutch and western Rajasthan areas they often nest in rather stunted Vachellia nilotica and Prosopis chilensis (i.e. usually the nests here are 4 to 6 m (13 to 20 ft) high but are sometimes down to 4 m (13 ft) ). Trees are usually selected that have prickly branches, presumably for protection. Despite their prominent position in the trees, the nests can be surprisingly hard to perceive peering from the ground level. In Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa, tawny eagles build nests that are positioned in the canopy of large Vachellia erioloba trees. These Kgalagadi pairs tend to be the largest and tallest trees, averaging at 10.9 m (36 ft). Tawny eagles in India reportedly often nest in a tree over successive years, but the species is threatened by the lopping and cutting of all remaining suitable trees for fuel and fodder. Tawny eagles in Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, on the other hand, build new nests yearly and only 2% of nests are reused for breeding purposes the following year. Potential risk of collapse and growth of branches around the nest are thought to be factors limiting nest reuses in Africa. Usually new nests are not more than 2 km (1.2 mi) away from the prior nest. Both sexes participate in nest building and the repair of a nest takes up to 4 to 7 weeks, though most of the construction can be completed within about a week. For an eagle, their nests are relatively wide, flat and shallow. Nests may measure just under 1 m (3.3 ft) in diameter and 20 cm (7.9 in) deep but can easily reach over 1.3 m (4.3 ft) and 30 cm (12 in) with repeated uses. Nests are usually lined with grass, leaves, seedpods and fur as well as odd objects such as newspapers, paper packets and polythene bags. In Kruger National Park, tawny eagles have been recorded using nests of other species of raptor such as white-backed vulture and white-headed vulture. At times, tawny eagles have been known to nest on top of the large communal nests of the white-headed buffalo weaver (Dinemellia dinemelli). In the Central Karoo region of South Africa, tawny eagles build their nests in large electric transmission towers. Populations of large eagles like the martial eagle and Verreaux's eagle have been recorded breeding on these power pylons since the 1970s. Between 2002 and 2003, 39% of electrical faults recorded on transmission lines were due to large eagle nests. As a result, problem nests were dismantled and rebuilt below the electrical conductors.


Eggs are laid at intervals of several days, mainly timed to the dry season but at times also in the wet season. Evidence from the Kalahari Desert shows that egg-laying is timed to exploit a number of food resources with warmer weather in sync with young in the nest, such as various small mammals and the springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) lambing season.  In India, intervals were more prolonged when the habitat was less optimal. Of 26 tawny eagle nests monitored between 1988 and 1996 in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, 84.6% of the laying dates occurred between May and June. These laying dates are similar to populations in Zambia, Zimbabwe and the Maasai Mara region in Kenya as well as elsewhere in southern and southeastern Africa. Cases of eggs being laid in southern Africa in July and August may be cases of replacement clutches. Incidental data on laying phenology from north and West Africa shows the tawny eagles of the area lay eggs usually in the earlier part of the year, i.e. January to April; in Ghana egg-laying may range from October to February, though largely is in December–January; November–February egg-laying occurred in Ethiopia and apparently around April in Morocco. Showing the variation in India, in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, tawny eagles are mainly laying eggs in January while in Kutch and Jaisalmer, the young are already leaving the nests. Clutch sizes range from 1 to 3 eggs per nest, but average 1.7 eggs per clutch. In drier years in Hwange National Park, clutch sizes appear to become reduced. The eggs are white but variously and usually faintly marked with brown, varying from unmarked sometimes to quite well-marked with spots and blotches of reddish brown. In 67 eggs of the nominate subspecies, the eggs were 64 to 75.7 mm (2.52 to 2.98 in) in height by 49.9 to 60 mm (1.96 to 2.36 in) in diameter, with an average of 69.6 mm × 54.8 mm (2.74 in × 2.16 in) in the sample while another 30 from the same race averaged 71.5 mm × 56.3 mm (2.81 in × 2.22 in). In A. r. vindhiana, 80 eggs measured from 58 to 75.1 mm (2.28 to 2.96 in) by 46.4 to 57.6 mm (1.83 to 2.27 in), with an average of 66 mm × 52.8 mm (2.60 in × 2.08 in).


Nest losses of eggs and young appears to be quite high. Young eaglets often die, at times by their siblings, and if poorly guarded nests are often predated by a probably wide range of predators. Nesting success is driven by quality of habitats and food access. Breeding efforts in Zimbabwe produced 19 young in 26 pair years with a replacement rate of 0.73 young per pair per year. In India, tawny eagles pairs seem to adapt to suboptimal overly sandy habitats by more dispersing nests, and can show similar productivity of chicks per nest as a result. In Hwange National Park, 72.4% of pairs present were thought to breed on average in the course of a year, with an average of 0.61 fledglings produced per effort. This is and other studies support that rainfall is key to productive success in tawny eagles of this area, with far more two egg clutches rather than one egg ones (which usually failed) and less confined breeding periods in years that had greater rainfall. Breeding success, recorded as young per pair per year (ypy), was lower still in Namibia and Tsavo East National Park than in Zimbabwe (0.4, 0.5 and 0.78 ypy respectively). Higher nesting success was found in Zambia, where pair produced a mean of 1 fledgling per nest. Although an extensive study of lifespan are not known to have taken place for the tawny eagle, it is known that these eagles can live up to at least 16 years of age in the wild.


The tawny eagle still occupies a large range. In Africa, it has been estimated that the range of the species covers about 15 million square kilometers, in addition to a range of about 3.1 million square kilometers in Asia. As recently as the 1990s, the global population was thought to possibly range into six figures with a population in Asia at that time thought to be in the hundreds of thousands alone. However, the species is currently listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN list of Threatened species. The current population is far less than half of what it was once thought to be, with only about 100,000 to just under 500,000 individuals thought to persist worldwide. There was a clear decrease in tawny eagle sightings between SABAP and SABAP2 in Southern Africa, occurring in only 323 of 1440 quarter degree grid cells. During close study of the tawny and martial eagle in central Namibia, a precipitous decline was detected in both, with a tawny eagle population that was once regionally numbered about 19 pairs down to 2 known pairs. The once seemingly innumerous population of this species within Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park was known by the 1990s to be down to merely 40 known pairs. Roadside counts conducted in Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso show that although the majority of raptor species are in drastic population decline, only the tawny eagle and snake eagles are surviving outside of protected areas. In India, the tawny eagle was once considered "our commonest eagle" but strong declines have been detected with surveys indicating strongholds like Rajasthan have shown reductions of observed pairs by up to half. According to the producer-scrounger foraging theory, vultures are to some extent reliant on tawny eagles to help locate carcasses. Thus, the conservation of eagles outside protected areas is of vital importance to ensure the survival of vultures.


The plant is 15–90 cm (6–35 in) tall. The fern-like leaves are lobed and grouped in threes, growing from the base and off the flowering stems. The flowers are 1–2 in (2.5–5.1 cm) long and have yellow petals with a red spur and red sepals. They appear in late spring (usually in May and June), nodding on stems above the leaves. The round end of the spur contains nectar, which is sought by butterflies and hummingbirds.
The caterpillars of Columbine Duskywing (Erynnis lucilius) feed on the leaves.


Native American tribes used various parts of red columbine in herbal remedies for ailments such as headache, sore throat, fever, rash caused by poison ivy, stomatitis, kidney and urinary problems, and heart problems. Native American men also rubbed crushed seeds on their hands as a love charm.


USA (AL, AR, CT, DC, DE, FL, GA, IA, IL, IN, KS, KY, MA, MD, ME, MI, MN, MO, MS, NC, ND, NE, NH, NJ, NY, OH, OK, PA, RI, SC, SD, TN, TX, VA, VT, WI, WV), Canada (MB, NB, ON, QC, SK, BC).


It is a herbaceous perennial plant often found at elevations of 2,100 to 3,700 m (6,900 to 12,100 ft). It grows to 20–60 cm (7.9–23.6 in) tall, with flowers sprouting in inflorescences produced from the short apical meristem. The flowers are very variable in color, from pale blue (as in the species name coerulea) to white, pale yellow and pinkish; very commonly the flowers are bicolored, with the sepals a different shade to the petals. They consist of five petals, five sepals and an ovary surrounded by 50 to 130 stamens. Five long spurs hang below the calyx and contain nectar at their tips, accessible only to hawkmoths. In addition to hawkmoths, pollinators for this flower include bumble-bees, solitary bees and syrphid flies. Its native habitats include moist woods and open mountain meadows.


It is found in Colorado, south eastern Idaho, southern Montana, Wyoming, northern New Mexico, and Utah.


The blue-and-yellow macaw (Ara ararauna), also known as the blue-and-gold macaw, is a large South American parrot with mostly blue top parts and light orange underparts, with gradient hues of green on top of its head. It is a member of the large group of neotropical parrots known as macaws. It inhabits forest (especially varzea, but also in open sections of terra firme or unflooded forest), woodland and savannah of tropical South America. They are popular in aviculture because of their striking color, ability to talk, ready availability in the marketplace, and close bonding to humans. They can also live for 65–70 years.


Even well-tended blue-and-yellow macaws are known to "scream" for attention, and make other loud noises. Loud vocalizations, especially "flock calls", and destructive chewing are natural parts of their behavior and should be expected in captivity. Due to their large size, they also require plentiful space in which to fly around. According to World Parrot Trust, an enclosure for a blue-and-yellow macaw should, if possible, be at least 15 m (50 ft) in length. Captive macaws, kept with good diet, exercise, and veterinary care are known to have lived 60 or more years. People considering a macaw as a companion parrot must be aware of this and consider that the bird may outlive the owner.
The blue-and-yellow macaw has been noted to blush its bare facial skin and fluff the feathers of its cheeks, head and nape when interacting with humans. This may be an expression of the parrot's emotional state.


The scarlet macaw (Ara macao) is a large red, yellow, and blue Central and South American parrot, a member of a large group of Neotropical parrots called macaws. It is native to humid evergreen forests of the Neotropics. Its range extends from south-eastern Mexico to Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Bolivia, Venezuela and Brazil in lowlands of 500 m (1,600 ft) (at least formerly) up to 1,000 m (3,300 ft), the Caribbean island of Trinidad, as well as the Pacific island of Coiba. Formerly, it ranged north to southern Tamaulipas. In some areas, it has suffered local extinction because of habitat destruction, or capture for the parrot trade, but in other areas, it remains fairly common. It is the national bird of Honduras. Like its relative the blue-and-yellow macaw, the scarlet macaw is a popular bird in aviculture as a result of its striking plumage.


In May 2013, it was announced that a team of scientists, led by Dr. Christopher M. Seabury and Dr. Ian Tizard of Texas A&M University had sequenced the complete genome of the scarlet macaw.


Wild scarlet macaws feed on fruits, nuts, seeds, flowers and nectar.
They also love to eat insects and larvae. They are seen feeding heavily on bugs, snails and foliage. Snails and bugs are great source of protein, as they need additional protein during breeding seasons.
In Costa Rica's Central Pacific they have learned to feed on introduced Teak trees (Tectona grandis) and Almond Beach Trees (Terminalia sp). The local non-profit organizations have planted hundreds of those trees along the coastline from Tarcoles River basin to Esterillos Beach which had helped increase the population drastically. The combined efforts and the correct ecotourism has also an important role in the conservation of such majestic birds. Tour companies along the Tarcoles River and its mangroves have bet on the importance of birdwatching as an asset for the growth on its population.


The South American range is extensive and covers the  Amazon  forest, extending to Peru east of the Andes, to Bolivia. In Bolivia, it is very present in the Aquicuana Reserve, located in the Beni Department, near the city of Riberalta, the Capital of the Bolivian Amazon.
In Central America, the range extends from extreme eastern and southern Mexico and Panama through Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras and Belize, the island of Coiba and infrequently on the mainland of Panama, and in Costa Rica in isolated regions on the Pacific Coast; the Nicoya Peninsula the Carara National Park and Peninsula de Osa.
The scarlet macaw has escaped or been deliberately released in to Florida, but there is no evidence that the population is breeding and may only persist due to continuing releases or escapes.
Scarlet macaws inhabit humid lowland subtropical rain forests, open woodlands, river edges, and savannas.


Aralia nudicaulis (commonly wild sarsaparilla, false sarsaparilla, shot bush, small spikenard, wild liquorice, and rabbit root) is a flowering plant of northern and eastern North America which reaches a height of 30–60 cm (12–24 in) with creeping underground stems.