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Coreopsis major is a North American species of tickseeds, in the family Asteraceae.  It is native to the eastern United States, from Louisiana to Virginia and as far inland as Indiana and Ohio. There are isolated populations in Pennsylvania, Long Island, and Massachusetts, most likely escapes from cultivation.
Coreopsis major is a perennial herb up to 90 cm (3 feet) tall with yellow flower heads.


Coreopsis palmata is a North American species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae native to North America. Common names include stiff tickseed, wedgeleaf coreopsis, prairie coreopsis, prairie tickseed, and finger coreopsis.


Coreopsis palmata is a perennial herb reaching about 80 centimeters (32 inches) in height. The leaf blades are often lobed, but are not divided into leaflets as in some related species. The flower heads contain ray florets up to 2.5 centimeters long, or sometimes longer. They are yellow, and generally a paler shade of yellow than related native Coreopsis. The center of the head has many disc florets that bloom yellow and darken as they dry. The plants flower in summer and the herbage may age red in the fall.


It is native to the central United States and central Canada, mostly the Mississippi Valley and adjacent areas from Louisiana north to Manitoba and east into southwestern Michigan. The native habitat of this species includes woods, disturbed prairies, roadsides, rocky ridges, and prairie.


Coreopsis tripteris is a North American species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae. It is widespread across much of eastern and central North America from the Florida Panhandle west as far as eastern Texas and north to Québec and Ontario. Its common names include tall tickseed, tall coreopsis, and Atlantic coreopsis.
This perennial herb usually reaches nearly 100 cm (40 inches) in height, sometimes approaching 200 cm (80 inches). The leaves are mostly divided into 3 leaflets which are smooth-edged to lobed and several centimeters long. The flower heads have yellow ray florets 1 to 2 cm (0.4 to 0.8 in) long, or longer. The center of the head has many disc florets in shades of reddish brown to purplish. It produces short, stout rhizomes.
This plant grows in moist habitat, such as streambanks and wet meadows. It flowers in summer.
This plant is commercially available for use in cultivation as an ornamental.


Corethrogyne filaginifolia (syn. Lessingia filaginifolia) is a species of flowering plant in the daisy family known by the common names common sandaster and California aster.
The taxonomy of this plant and certain relatives is currently changing; recently the Corethrogynes have been grouped together under the name Lessingia filaginifolia, and then moved back to genus Corethrogyne as a single species with many synonyms.
It is native to western North America from the southwestern corner of Oregon through California to Baja California, where it is a common member of many plant communities, including chaparral and woodlands, forests, scrub, grasslands, and the serpentine soils flora.


Corethrogyne filaginifolia is a robust perennial herb or subshrub producing a simple to multibranched stem approaching 1 metre (3.3 ft) in maximum length or height. The densely woolly leaves are several centimeters long and toothed or lobed low on the stem and smaller farther up the stem.
The inflorescence is a single flower head or array of several heads at the tips of stem branches. The head is lined with narrow, pointed, purple-tipped phyllaries which curl back as the head matures. Inside are many purple, lavender, pink, or white ray florets and a center packed with up to 120 tubular yellow disc florets.
The fruit is an achene with a pappus of reddish bristles on top.


Coreus marginatus is a herbivorous species of true bug in the family Coreidae. It is commonly known as the dock bug as it feeds on the leaves and seeds of docks and sorrels. It is a medium-sized speckled brown insect, between 13 and 15 mm long as an adult, with a broad abdomen. It occurs throughout Europe, Asia and northern Africa. It is often found in dense vegetation, such as hedgerows and wasteland.


This species was among the first Hemiptera formally described in the scientific literature by the Swedish biologist Carl Linnaeus in 1758, under the name Cimex marginatus. It was transferred to the genus Coreus by the Danish zoologist Johan Fabricius in 1794. It has numerous synonyms and was historically placed in the genus Syromastus.
The specific epithet marginatus refers to the prominent margins of the abdomen.


The head, pronotum and abdomen of an adult dock bug are speckled reddish brown. The antennae are composed of four segments, red-orange in colour except for the final fourth segment which is black. Between the antennae are two small projections, known as antenniferous tubercles, which can be used to distinguish this species from other superficially similar species. The pronotum has angular upward facing projections and the scutellum is clearly visible. The rounded edge of the abdomen has lighter coloured markings. Adults are between 13 to 15 millimetres (0.51 to 0.59 in) long and males are typically smaller than females but have longer antennae.

 Young nymphs look different in appearance to the adults. They are heavily spined, less uniform in colouration and have disproportionately large antennae compared to their body size. Older nymphs looks more similar to adults with a more uniform speckled brown colouration but lacking developed wings.
Like other Coreidae, Coreus marginatus has scent glands with small pores in the middle of its thorax which can release strong-smelling, irritating, volatile defensive chemicals when disturbed. The pores have an ultrastructure composed of mushroom-like structures that are connected to each other via ridges and trabecules. The chemical composition of the scent gland secretions is similar between males and females, although the relative proportions are different. In females the most prevalent chemical compound is hexanoic acid while in males it is stearic acid.


Linnaeus originally described the species from Europe with only one of his specimens having a specific locality of England. Other early specimens collected by Goeze are from France  The current distribution is extensive and covers: Europe, from Portugal to Finland; Asia, from Russia to China; and Africa, known only from Algeria.


Like other Coreidae the dock bug has an annual life cycle consisting of an egg followed by five successive nymphal instars before becoming an adult. It overwinters as an adult and copulates in the typical heteropteran back-to-back position, laying large brown eggs between late May and early July. The eggs take around 3 to 4 weeks to hatch. The young nymphs will feed on leaves and stems while the older nymphs, like the adults, feed on seeds. The nymphs mature to adults from August onwards.


The dock bug is herbivorous and feeds on a wide variety of plants from different families. While the common name in English refers to its preferred diet of docks and sorrels and other  plants in the family Polygonaceae, they also readily feed on certain species of Asteraceae and Rosaceae. Adults are known to feed on raspberry, gooseberry and sometimes blackcurrant.


Corizus hyoscyami subs. hyoscyami is found in most of Europe; in Britain, the species appears to be spreading northwards, having been recorded in Yorkshire. Corizus hyoscyami subs. nigridorsum is present in Spain, Italy, Morocco and Tunisia.


Adults of Corizus hyoscyami are about 9 millimetres (0.35 in) long. Like all scentless plant bugs, it lacks well-developed scent glands and can be distinguished by numerous veins in the membrane of the hemelytra, characteristic of all members of the Rhopalidae.
In Corizus hyoscyami subs. hyoscyami the third and fourth abdominal tergites are red, while in Corizus hyoscyami subs. nigridorsum they are completely black. The dorsum colours are visible in elitrale transparency under the membrane.
Although striking in colour, Corizus hyoscyami may be confused with the similarly marked but unrelated  Pyrrhocoris apterus (firebug) (see comparison).


The species is a plant feeder on a  wide range of plants. Adults can be found all year around. This species overwinters as an adult. The new generation appears in August–September.
Adult: All year


The white-throated treecreeper (Cormobates leucophaea) is an Australian treecreeper found in the forests of eastern Australia. It is unrelated to the northern hemisphere treecreepers. It is a small passerine bird with predominantly brown and white plumage and measuring some 15 cm (6 in) long on average. It is insectivorous, eating mainly ants. Unlike treecreepers of the genus Climacteris, the white-throated treecreeper does not engage in cooperative breeding, and wherever it overlaps with species of that genus, it feeds upon much looser bark besides typically using different trees.


It was first described by ornithologist John Latham in 1801 as Certhia leucophaea. For many years it was classified in the genus Climacteris.
The generic name is derived from the  Ancient Greek kormos 'trunk of a tree', and 'batēs' from the verb 'to go' or 'to travel', and refers to its mode of walking up and down trees. Its specific name is derived from the Ancient Greek leuko- 'white' and phaios 'dun' or 'dusky', and refers to its plumage. Some guidebooks have the binomial name written as Cormobates leucophaeus, however a review in 2001 rules that the genus name was feminine, hence leucophaea is the correct specific name.
The Papuan treecreeper (Cormobates placens) was previously considered a subspecies but is now recognized as a separate species, although molecular studies have yet to be done on the two taxa.


Five subspecies are recognised:
C. l. leucophaea, the nominate subspecies, occurs in southeastern Australia, from southeastern South Australia, through Victoria to south and central eastern New South Wales.
C. l. grisescens is found in the Mount Lofty Ranges of South Australia.
C. l. intermedius, described in 1983 by Walter Boles and Wayne Longmore, is restricted to the Clark and Connors Ranges in Central Queensland.
C. l. metastasis, described by Richard Schodde in 1989, is found in southeastern Queensland and northeastern New South Wales.
C. l. minor occurs in northern Queensland. It was originally described by Edward Pierson Ramsay in 1891 after being collected near Cairns.


The white-throated treecreeper is found from the Gulf St Vincent in South Australia, through Victoria, and eastern New South Wales and southeastern Queensland, with an area further north from Mount Spec to Cooktown. Wet sclerophyll forest and rainforest is the preferred habitat.
It is Protected in Australia under the National Parks and Wildlife Act, 1974.


The white-throated treecreeper is predominantly insectivorous, eating mainly ants, although will eat also nectar. A 2007 study in the Australian Capital Territory showed the white-throated treecreeper preferred foraging on the rough-barked eucalypt, the red stringybark (Eucalyptus macrorhyncha), rather than the smooth barked species, the inland scribbly gum (Eucalyptus rossii). Birds would glean (take prey while bird is perched) and peer, as well as drill in dead wood, for insects. A female was observed feeding on white punk (Laetiporus portentosus), a bracket fungus.


Unlike treecreepers of the genus Climacteris, the white-throated treecreeper does not engage in cooperative breeding. The breeding season is August to December with one brood laid. The cup-shaped nest is composed of fur, hair, feathers, and moss in a hollow in a tree 4–5 m (13–16 ft) above the ground. A clutch of two or three creamy-white oval eggs is laid. Sparsely spotted with dark purple- or red-brown, they measure 23 x 18 mm.


Cornus canadensis is a species of flowering plant in the dogwood family Cornaceae, native to eastern Asia and North America. Common names include Canadian dwarf cornel, Canadian bunchberry, quatre-temps, crackerberry, and creeping dogwood. Unlike its relatives, which are for the most part substantial trees and shrubs, C. canadensis is a creeping, rhizomatous perennial growing to about 20 centimetres (8 inches) tall.


Cornus canadensis is a slow-growing herbaceous perennial growing 10–20 centimetres (4–8 inches) tall, generally forming a carpet-like mat. The above-ground shoots rise from slender creeping rhizomes that are placed 2.5–7.5 cm (1–3 in) deep in the soil, and form clonal colonies under trees. The vertically produced above-ground stems are slender and unbranched. Produced near the terminal node, the leaves are shiny dark green and arranged oppositely on the stem, clustered with six leaves that often seem to be in a whorl because the internodes are compressed. The leaves consist of two types: two larger and four smaller leaves; the smaller ones develop from the axillary buds of the larger leaves. The leaves have petioles 2 to 3 millimetres (3⁄32 to 1⁄8 in) in length and leaf blades that are obovate. The blades have entire margins and are 3.5 to 4.8 cm (1+1⁄2 to 2 in) long and 1.5 to 2.5 cm (1⁄2 to 1 in) wide, with 2–3 veins, cuneate shaped bases and abruptly acuminate apexes. In autumn, the leaves have red-tinted veins and turn completely red.


In late spring to midsummer, white flowers are produced that are 2 cm (25⁄32 inch) in diameter with reflexed petals that are ovate-lanceolate in shape and 1–2 cm (13⁄32–25⁄32 inch) long. The inflorescences are made up of compound terminal cymes, with large showy white bracts that resemble petals. The bracts are green when immature. The bracts are broadly ovate and 0.8 to 1.2 cm (5⁄16 to 1⁄2 inch) long and 0.5 to 1.1 cm (3⁄16 to 7⁄16 inch) wide, with 7 parallel running veins. The lower nodes on the stem have greatly reduced rudimentary leaves. The calyx tube is obovate in shape and 1 mm long, covered with densely pubescent hairs along with grayish white appressed trichomes. Stamens are very short, being 1 mm long. The anthers are yellowish white in color, narrowly ovoid in shape. The styles are 1 mm long and glabrous. Plants are for the most part self-sterile and dependent on pollinators for sexual reproduction. Pollinators include bumblebees, solitary bees, beeflies, and syrphid flies. The fruits look like berries but are drupes.


Each flower has highly elastic petals that flip backward, releasing springy filaments that are cocked underneath the petals. The filaments snap upward flinging pollen out of containers hinged to the filaments. The stamens accelerate at a rate of 24,000 m/s². The motion, which can be triggered by pollinators, takes place in less than half a millisecond. The bunchberry has one of the fastest plant actions found so far requiring a camera capable of shooting 10,000 frames per second to catch the action.


The drupes are green, globose in shape, turning bright red at maturity in late summer; each fruit is 5 mm in diameter and contains typically one or two ellipsoid-ovoid shaped stones. The fruits come into season in late summer. The large seeds within are somewhat hard and crunchy.


While distinctive as a species itself, the generic placement of these plants has differed in various botanical treatments. When the genus Cornus is taken broadly, as done here, this species is Cornus canadensis, and is included in the subgenus Arctocrania. However, if Cornus is treated in a narrower sense, excluding this species, it can instead be classified as Chamaepericlymenum canadense or as Cornella canadensis.
Where C. canadensis, a forest species, and Cornus suecica, a bog species, grow near each other in their overlapping ranges in Alaska, Labrador, and Greenland, they can hybridize by cross-pollination, producing plants with intermediate characteristics.


Its native distribution includes Japan, North Korea, northeastern China (Jilin Province), the Russian Far East, the northern United States, Colorado, New Mexico, Canada and Greenland.
Cornus canadensis is a mesophytic species that needs cool, moist soils. It inhabits montane and boreal coniferous forests, where it is found growing along the margins of moist woods, on old tree stumps, in mossy areas, and among other open and moist habitats.


It is used as ornamental groundcover in gardens. It prefers moist acidic soil.
The fruits are edible raw but have little flavor. The pulp does not easily separate from the seeds. The berries can be cooked, strained, and combined with other fruits or used for pudding.


Claire Waight Keller included the plant to represent Canada in Meghan Markle's wedding veil, which included the distinctive flora of each Commonwealth country.


Cornus drummondii, commonly known as the roughleaf dogwood, is a small deciduous tree that is native primarily to the Great Plains and Midwestern regions of the United States. It is also found around the Mississippi River. It is uncommon in the wild, and is mostly found around forest borders. The roughleaf dogwood is used as a buffer strip around parking lots, in the median of highways and near the decks and patios of homes. It can grow to a height of 15 to 25 feet (4.6 - 7.6 m) with a spread of 10 to 15 feet (3.1 - 4.6 m). The roughleaf dogwood flowers during the summer months. It produces near-white four-petaled flowers that are followed by small white fruits, which ripen from August to October. These dogwoods can form a dense thicket that is used as cover for wildlife. Over forty species of birds are known to feed on the fruits.


Cornus mas, the Cornelian cherry, European cornel or Cornelian cherry dogwood, is a species of flowering plant in the dogwood family Cornaceae, native to Southern Europe and Southwestern Asia.


It is a medium to large deciduous shrub or small tree growing to 5–12 m tall, with dark brown branches and greenish twigs. The leaves are opposite, 4–10 cm long and 2–4 cm broad, with an ovate to oblong shape and an entire margin. The flowers are small (5–10 mm in diameter), with four yellow petals, produced in clusters of 10–25 together in the late winter (between February and March in the UK), well before the leaves appear. The fruit is an oblong red drupe 2 cm long and 1.5 cm in diameter, containing a single seed.


The fruits are red berries. When ripe on the plant, they bear a resemblance to coffee berries, and ripen in mid- to late summer. The fruit is edible, as used in  Eastern Europe, the UK, and British Columbia, Canada, but the unripe fruit is astringent. When ripe, the fruit is dark ruby red or a bright yellow. It has an acidic flavor which is best described as a mixture of cranberry and sour cherry; it is mainly used for making jam. It is also widely used in Azerbaijan to make pickles, add to rice, or make drinks.
The fruit of Cornus mas (together with the fruit of C. officinalis) has a history of use in traditional Chinese medicine in which it is known as shānzhūyú, 山茱萸 and used to retain the jing.


The species is also grown as an ornamental plant for its late winter yellow flowers, which open earlier than those of Forsythia. While Cornus mas flowers are not as large and vibrant as those of the Forsythia, the entire plant can be used for a similar effect in the landscape.


The wood of C. mas is extremely dense and, unlike the wood of most other woody plant species, sinks in water. This density makes it valuable for crafting into tool handles, parts for machines, etc.
Cornus mas was used from the seventh century BC onward by Greek craftsmen to construct spears, javelins and bows, the craftsmen considering it far superior to any other wood. The wood's association with weaponry was so well known that the Greek name for it was used as a synonym for "spear" in poetry during the fourth and third centuries BC.
In Italy, the mazzarella, uncino or bastone, the stick carried by the butteri or mounted herdsmen of the Maremma region, is traditionally made of cornel-wood, there called crognolo or grugnale, dialect forms of Italian: corniolo.


The leaves (and fruit) are used in traditional medicine in Central and Southwest Asia.


Cornus mas, "male" cornel, was named so to distinguish it from the true dogberry, the "female" cornel, Cornus sanguinea, and so it appears in John Gerard's Herbal:
This is Cornus mas Theophrasti, or Theophrastus his male Cornell tree; for he ſetteth downe two ſortes of Cornell trees, the male and the female: he maketh the wood of the male to bee ſound as in this Cornell tree; which we both for this cauſe and for others alſo, haue made to be the male; the female is that which is commonly called Virga ſanguinea, or Dogs berrie tree, and Cornus ſylveſtris, or the wild Cornell tree, of which alſo we will intreate of in the next chap. following.


The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit (confirmed 2017):
’Aurea’ (yellow leaves and flowers, red fruit)
'Golden Glory' (profuse yellow flowers, shiny red berries)
’Variegata’ (variegated leaves, glossy red fruit)


Cornus racemosa, the northern swamp dogwood, gray dogwood, or panicle dogwood, is a shrubby plant native to southeastern Canada and the northeastern United States. It is a member of the dogwood genus Cornus and the family Cornaceae.


Gray dogwood grows 1.2 to 3 m (4 to 10 ft) high, rarely to 8 m (26 ft). It often sends up suckers from underground rhizomes, forming thickets. Its bark is gray and its twigs have white pith. The leaves are 4–8 cm (1+1⁄2–3+1⁄4 in) long and 1–4 cm (1⁄2–1+1⁄2 in) wide, and typically have 3 or 4 pairs of lateral veins, fewer than other dogwood species. The plant grows upright with a rounded habit, oppositely arranged leaves, and terminally born flowers. The white flowers are small, with four petals 2.3 to 3 mm (0.091 to 0.118 in) long, and clustered together in rounded clusters 2.5 to 5 cm (1 to 2 in) wide called diachasial cymes, produced sometime between May and July. After flowering, green fruits (drupes) are produced, and they ripen and turn white from August to October. The flowers and fruit are attached to the plant by bright red pedicels. Many species of birds feed on the fruits. Old branches grow slowly, while new stems are fast growing. In the fall the foliage can take on a reddish or purplish color, though it is not overly showy from a distance.


Cornus racemosa has been variably treated as a subspecies of Cornus foemina Mill., with which it overlaps.
It occasionally hybridizes with Cornus amomum (silky dogwood), the products of which are named Cornus × arnoldiana.


Cornus rugosa, commonly called roundleaf dogwood, is a deciduous tree native to northern parts of the eastern and central United States and southern parts of central and eastern Canada.


Cornus rugosa is a shrub or small tree, 1–4 m (3–13 ft) tall, with yellowish-green twigs that may have red or purple blotches.  Pith is white.  Leafs are oppositely arranged, round orbicularly shaped with an acuminate tip, have an entire margin, and are woolly to hairless below. Leaves have 6-8 pairs of lateral veins and 7–15 cm long. Leaf scars are broadly U-shaped with 3 bundle scars.
White flowers appear in early summer arranged on flat topped cymes. The flowers themselves are pedunculate with 4 calyx lobes and 4 petals. The cymes are 3–6 cm (1+1⁄4–2+1⁄4 in) wide and contain 20–50 flowers. Fruits are blue to greenish white drupe that matures in October.
Roundleaf dogwood prefers well drained to normal moisture soil and, like most dogwoods, is shade tolerant.


Cornus sanguinea, the common dogwood or bloody dogwood, is a species of dogwood native to most of Europe and western Asia, from England and central Scotland east to the Caspian Sea. It is widely grown as an ornamental plant.


It is a medium to large deciduous shrub, growing 2–6 metres (7–20 ft) tall, with dark greenish-brown branches and twigs. The leaves are opposite, 4–8 centimetres (2–3 in) long and 2–4 centimetres (0.8–1.6 in) broad, with an ovate to oblong shape and an entire margin; they are green above, slightly paler below, and rough with short stiff pubescence. The hermaphrodite flowers are small, 5–10 millimetres (0.2–0.4 in) diameter, with four creamy white petals, produced in clusters 3–5 centimetres (1–2 in) diameter, and are insect pollinated. The fruit is a globose black berry 5–8 millimetres (0.2–0.3 in) diameter, containing a single seed.  The berries are sometimes called "dogberries".


It prefers moderate warmth in sunny places, though it can tolerate shade and in the more southern areas of its distribution area grows in the mountains. In cooler areas such as Scandinavia it grows at sea level.
It requires light, often alkaline soils. The species spreads by seeds and stolons. Its natural range covers most of Europe and western Asia. It is especially abundant in riversides, especially in shady areas and ravines.  It grows in the margins of forests or unforested areas as woods in regeneration, prickly woodland fringes, with other thorny shrub species (for example, Clematis vitalba, Crataegus monogyna, Malus sylvestris, Prunus spinosa, Rubus idaeus or Rubus ulmifolius).
It reproduces by seed and root sprouts, which makes it effective at occupying areas of land and forming dense groves. Depending on circumstances, it can be invasive.


The leaves provide food for some animals, including Lepidoptera such as the case-bearer moth Coleophora anatipennella. Dogberries are eaten by some mammals and many birds. Many frugivorous passerines find them irresistible, and prefer them over fruits grown by humans. The plant is thus often grown in organic gardening and permaculture to prevent harm to orchard crops, while benefitting from the fact that even frugivorous birds will hunt pest insects during the breeding season, as their young require much protein to grow.
Garden varieties are often called "winter fire" because the leaves turn orange-yellow in autumn and then fall to reveal striking red winter stems.
The straight woody shoots produced by the plant can be used as prods, skewers or arrows. The prehistoric archer known as Ötzi the Iceman, discovered in 1991 on the border between Italy and Austria, was carrying arrow shafts made from dogwood.


Cornus sericea, the red osier or red-osier dogwood, is a species of flowering plant in the family Cornaceae, native to much of North America. It has sometimes been considered a synonym of the Asian species Cornus alba. Other names include red brush, red willow, redstem dogwood, redtwig dogwood, red-rood, American dogwood, creek dogwood, and western dogwood.


In the wild, it most commonly grows in areas of rich, poorly drained soils, such as riparian zones and wetlands, or in upland areas which receive more than 20 inches of precipitation annually. More uncommonly, it may be found in drier zones albeit at lesser abundance. Red osier dogwood is tolerant of flooding and has been known to survive up to seven years of water above root crown level. It occurs from sea level to 10,000 feet (3,000m), but in many areas is most common above 1,500 feet.
It is a medium to tall deciduous shrub, growing 1.5–4 m tall and 3–5 m wide, spreading readily by underground stolons to form dense thickets. The branches and twigs are dark red, although wild plants may lack this coloration in shaded areas.
The leaves are opposite, 5–12 cm long and 2.5–6 cm broad, with an ovate to oblong shape and an entire margin; they are dark green above and glaucous below; fall color is commonly bright red to purple. Like all dogwoods, they have characteristic stringy white piths within the leaf stalks, which can be used for identification.
The flowers are small (5–10 mm diameter), flat, umbella-like and dull white, in clusters 3–6 cm diameter.
The fruit is a globose white berry 5–9 mm diameter.
The Latin specific epithet sericea means "silky", referring to the texture of the leaves.


Red osier dogwood provides food and cover for many species of mammals and birds. The stems and especially new shoots are browsed by moose, elk, bighorn sheep, mountain goats, beavers, and rabbits, while the fruits are an important autumn food source for bears, small mammals, and 47 different bird species. In winter, red osier dogwood is heavily browsed by ungulates; in some areas use exceeds availability and individuals which have not been browsed are rare. The shrub is also important for nesting habitat and cover for a great variety of animals.
Cornus sericea is shade tolerant but prefers intermediate to high light levels. It tolerates disturbance well, and appears early in both primary and secondary succession throughout its native range, but especially in floodplains and riparian zones. It thrives in fire-disturbed sites, sprouting from seeds or damaged shrubs.
Although its conservation status is overall secure, it is considered vulnerable in Iowa and critically imperiled in Kentucky and Virginia.


Cornus sericea is a popular ornamental shrub that is often planted for the red coloring of its twigs in the dormant season. The cultivars 'Bud's Yellow',
'Flaviramea' with lime green stems,
and 'Hedgerows Gold' (variegated foliage) have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit (confirmed 2017).
Like most dogwood species native to North America, C. sericea can be parasitized by the dogwood sawfly, possibly leaving much of the plant devoid of leaves. A variety of pesticides are effective; however, hand-picking the larvae is also an option.


Cornus sericea is frequently used for waterway bank erosion protection and restoration in the United States and Canada. Its root system provides excellent soil retention, it is hardy and provides an attractive shrub even when bare in winter, and its ability to be reproduced by cuttings makes it a low-cost solution for large-scale plantings.
Some Plateau Indigenous tribes ate the berries to treat colds and to slow bleeding.
Known as cansasa in Lakota, the inner bark was also used by the Lakota and other Native Americans as "traditional tobacco", either by itself or in a mixture with other plant materials. Among the Algonquian peoples such as the Ojibwe, the smoking mixtures, known as kinnikinnick, blended the inner bark with tobacco, while more western tribes added it to the bearberry leaf to improve the taste.
The Ojibwe used red-osier dogwood bark as a dye by taking the inner bark and mixing it with other plants or minerals.
The withies, or osiers, are used in basketry.


It is a variable species, with two subspecies commonly accepted:
Cornus sericea subsp. sericea – throughout the range of the species. Shoots and leaves hairless or finely pubescent; flower petals 2–3 mm.
Cornus sericea subsp. occidentalis (Torr. & A.Gray) Fosberg – western North America. Shoots and leaves densely pubescent; flower petals 3–4.5 mm.


It is native throughout boreal and temperate zones in northern and western North America from Alaska east to Newfoundland, south to Durango and Nuevo León in the west, and Illinois and Virginia in the east.
Cornus sericea L. has been recorded from counties Antrim and Londonderry in Northern Ireland.


Corokia cotoneaster is a flowering plant in the family Argophyllaceae. Which was described by Étienne Fiacre Louis Raoul in 1846. This plant is commonly known as the wire-netting bush, korokio, or korokia-tarango. The word "Koriko" comes from the Māori language.


Corokia cotoneaster is a highly branched shrub with a strongly divaricating habit with rough dark-colored bark, usually growing to about 3 m in height. Common variable shrubs with thin gray zig-zag twigs that contain small white clusters underneath with dented or rounded edges and on flat, black petioles. Yellow flowers, star-shaped and red fruits. The leaves are variable, depending on altitude and to the degree of exposure to wind, and are obvo-cuneate to obovate-oblong, 2–15 cm long and 1–10 cm wide. The leaves of juveniles are long and spathulate with 3 lobes. Flowers are borne in leaf axils or terminally in groups of 2 to 4 flowers with bright yellow petals. The main flowering season is December to January.


Global range
Corokia cotoneaster is a native and endemic plant in New Zealand. Related species can be found on several small islands around the Pacific Islands.
New Zealand range
Corokia cotoneaster is most commonly found throughout the North and South Islands in New Zealand.
Habitat preference
Corokia cotoneaster prefers to survive in areas that are not wet. This plant likes to grow and develop in dry, rocky, and dense soils. Therefore, this species is very fertile in dry areas such as in the hills, rocky mountains, and in dry land.


The fleshy drupe is spread by frugivory, where the spread of plant growth is caused by animals such as lizards and birds that help regenerate Korokia with seeds that fall to the ground. It has spring blooms of small fragrant yellow flowers followed by red berries in autumn and with round ripe fruits that turn bright red or yellow in late summer. Also, this plant can be the focal point of every garden and research shows that the abundance of divaricate bushes can be a mechanism to avoid photosynthesis when carrying out photosynthesis under certain winter conditions. This branched architecture provides protection for the leaves of green plants in bright sunlight during winter. This plant gets better with age and can be admired throughout the year. Korokia flowers must bloom from April to May.


Edaphic factors
Most of the Canterbury plains consist of dry shallow soils, very vulnerable to drought during the summer months. These include shallow Waimakariri land and also rocky and shallow Chertsey, Lismore, and Eyre soils. However, there are a number of strong native plants that have adapted to these conditions and the community plays an important role in conditioning the soil. This process creates a friendlier environment for less strong native species and eventually giant podocarp like Korokia. The seasonal climate makes dry and windy summer, cold, and humid winter. Land generally has low natural fertility. Also, various habitats in hilly areas, steep cliffs along incised rivers, and old river terraces.
Predators, parasites and diseases
Korokia can be a food source on the site in terms of fruit trees, flowering, and nurseries. The thickness of leaf litter is also a factor for lizards who like to eat insects. Corone cotoneaster fruit is usually removed at the latest, with many plants producing large numbers of ripe fruit in late fall. Fruits have large, hard endocarp-covered seeds that are covered by a very thin fruit pulp, which offers relatively few gifts for frugivores. However, fruits (especially cotoneaster in mid-Canterbury) are abundant in the diets of many extinct herbivorous moa species. Hard endocarp seeds are common in species that are known to have been eaten by moa (e.g. Cyathodes, Leucopogon, Myrsine, and Corokia), so it is possible (though not tested) that slow cotoneaster release is the result of moa extinction. This plant has problems with very few pests. Berries are favored by birds so protection may be needed in the fall. The only other damage suffered by Corokia caused by crickets. These insects lay eggs in the branches of this plant so to do this they cut the clump with a triangle mark into the bark. You can find a lot of this damage towards the end of the summer especially if you live in or near the bush. Although this is not fatal to this plant, it weakens the branches and creates unsightly scars.


Corokia cotoneaster is said to be a useful and versatile plant with natural advantages. For example, this plant is useful for landscaping such as barriers in parks that can withstand the strongest winds. Therefore, this plant will remain compact and maintain a good shape. Cutting from time to time will greatly improve their appearance. They also respond well to strong clippings which make them ideal shrubs to be shaped or hedged. They form an attractive hedge, from very low to medium height. Dense small leaves mean the fence will remain tight and compact and has a beautiful color. Also, Corokia cotoneaster produces many red, orange, and yellow fruits so that variations in berry colour in one population can be quite extraordinary.  Corokia cotoneaster colour changes are muted in sub-alpine landscape.


Corokia cotoneaster plays a role in New Zealand's cultural sector and the medical sector. In the Māori tradition, korokio or karamu leaves are used in ceremonies to remove tapu from food. Hardwood from its intertwined branches is made into fish hooks and also made into knives to pierce the skin in treating wounds or wounds of war. Ngāi Tahu use the delicate branches of corchio as a hole when making fire (hika or hinga), using polished wood (kauati) from kaikōmako or tōtara on a grooved base (kaueti) like softwood. And also unique, in healing and Māori herbs, some shrubs of this species have medicinal value as a tonic. Chorea leaves are boiled and when cooled, the liquid is drunk as a treatment for stomach complaints and ulcers, which according to some sources provide instant relief. Also, Māori make wooden knives from the branches of this plant and use them to pierce the skin when needed to treat wounds.


Correa reflexa, commonly known as common correa or native fuchsia, is a shrub which is endemic to Australia.


Plants are quite variable and a large number of varieties and local forms have been identified. Heights vary from prostrate to 1.5 metres high. Leaves are generally oval in shape and range from 10mm to 50mm long. Their surfaces often have visible oil glands and short hairs. The pendant, tubular flowers occur in groups of 1 to 3 and are up to 40 mm long with 4 flaring triangular tips. Colour is variable including pale green, red with yellow tips and other variations.


The species was first formally described in 1800 by botanist Jacques Labillardière in Relation du Voyage à la Recherche de la Pérouse based on the type from Adventure Bay in southern Tasmania. He gave it the name Mazeutoxeron reflexum and published the description in Relation du Voyage à la Recherche de la Pérouse. The species was transferred to the genus Correa as C. reflexa in 1803 by Étienne Pierre Ventenat in Jardin de la Malmaison.
The following varieties are accepted by the Australian Plant Census:
C. reflexa var. angustifolia Paul G.Wilson - Grampians correa (Vic.)
C. reflexa var. insularis Paul G.Wilson (S.A.)
C. reflexa var. lobata Paul G.Wilson - Powelltown correa (Vic.)
C. reflexa var. nummulariifolia (Hook.f.) Paul G.Wilson - roundleaf correa (Tas.)
C. reflexa (Labill.) Vent. var. reflexa (S.A., Qld., N.S.W., A.C.T., Vic., Tas.)
C. reflexa var. scabridula Paul G.Wilson - western correa (S.A.,Vic.)
C. reflexa var. speciosa (Donn ex Andrews) Paul G.Wilson - eastern correa (N.S.W., Vic.)
Natural hybrids have been recorded with Correa alba, C. pulchella, C. aemula and C. decumbens.


Correa reflexa prefers a position with good drainage and some shade. The species is generally not suited to tropical regions, although use of forms from sub-tropical areas of New South Wales may afford some success. Tip pruning after flowering promotes a more compact form and enhanced flowering in the following season. Plants are generally pest and disease free. Propagation from seed is difficult, but plants may be readily propagated from semi-mature cuttings of new seasons growth which also ensures plants are true-to-form.
Correa reflexa has received the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


C. reflexa 'Briagalong'
C. reflexa 'Brisbane Range'
C. reflexa 'Carpenter Rocks'
C. reflexa 'Clearview Fairy'
C. reflexa 'Clearview Large Red'
C. reflexa 'Crystalline'
C. reflexa 'Dawn Glow'
C. reflexa 'Desert Glow'
C. reflexa x C. pulchella  'Dusky Bells',
C. reflexa 'Dutchembegarra'
C. reflexa 'Fat Fred'
C. reflexa 'Icicle'
C. reflexa 'Kangaroo Island'
C. reflexa 'Lemon and Lime'
C. reflexa 'Maroondah Tricolor'
C. reflexa 'Mary's Choice'
C. reflexa 'Maryborough'
C. reflexa 'Mountain Giant'
C. reflexa 'Clearview Giant'
C. reflexa 'Mt Richmond Red'
C. reflexa 'Narrow Neil'
C. reflexa 'Old Gold'
C. reflexa 'Portland Dawn Glow'
C. reflexa 'Portland Peach'
C. reflexa 'Portland'
C. reflexa 'S.E. Gippsland'
C. reflexa 'Squat Queen'
C. reflexa 'Squat'
C. reflexa 'Wildfire'
C. reflexa 'Wilson's Promontory Lime and Gold'
C. reflexa 'Lemon and Lime'
C. reflexa 'Yanakie'


Cortaderia jubata is a species of grass known by several common names, including purple pampas grass and Andean pampas grass. It is similar to its more widespread relative, the pampas grass Cortaderia selloana, but it can get quite a bit taller, approaching seven meters in height at maximum.
This grass is native to the northern Andes but it is well-known elsewhere as an invasive species noxious weed. This grass has only pistillate parts, that is, all individuals are female. It reproduces by apomixis, in which embryos develop without fertilization.


This pampas grass, Cortaderia jubata, has long, thin, razor-edged leaves forming a large bunch grass tussock from which the eye-catching inflorescences arise. At the top of a stem several meters in height is an inflorescence of plumelike spikelets. These panicles are pink or purplish when new and they gradually turn cream or white. Each inflorescence is packed full of fruits which develop despite the plant's having never been fertilized. Each plant produces millions of seeds per year. They disperse easily by several methods, including wind, water, and soil transport.


In New Zealand C. jubata is listed on the National Pest Plant Accord prohibiting it from sale, and commercial propagation and distribution.


Cortaderia jubata grows well in the conditions provided by the cool, moist California coast, where it was presumably an introduced species as an attractive ornamental plant. It is a common weed of Redwood National and State Parks, the Central Coast region, and Big Sur, as well as other coastal hillsides and roadsides throughout the state. The plant competes with native vegetation, interferes with the natural scenery of the unique  ecosystems and habitats (i.e. redwood and coastal sage scrub), harbors pest species such as rats, and produces large amounts of dry foliage which is a wildfire hazard.


The plant features on the list of invasive alien species of Union concern. This means that it cannot be traded anymore.


Cortaderia selloana is a species of flowering plant in the Poaceae family. It is referred to by the common name pampas grass, and is native to southern South America, including the Pampas region after which it is named.


Cortaderia is derived from the Argentine Spanish name ‘cortadera’, meaning ‘cutter’, in reference to its razor sharp leaf margins.
Selloana is named for Friedrich Sellow (1789-1831), a German botanist and naturalist from Potsdam who worked as a plant collector in Brazil. He studied the flora of South America, especially that of Brazil. The specific epithet selloana was given by Josef August and Julius Hermann Schultes in 1827.


Several cultivars are available, of which the following have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-.
Aureolineata
Evita
Monstrosa
Patagonia
Pumila
Silver Feather Notcort
Sunningdale Silver —grows to a height of 4 m (13.1 ft) and has particularly dense flowering plumes


Cortaderia has become invasive in mild-winter areas of North America. It has also been banned in Hawaii and New Zealand because of its ability to outgrow and displace native plants. In Europe, it was first introduced in the United Kingdom, later spreading to other countries in the continent like Ireland, Portugal, Spain, France, and Italy.
Pampas grass is fast-growing and can form large masses along the roads, cliffs, riverbanks, and open areas that have been disturbed by human activities or natural disturbances. Pampas grass can displace native plants and destroy their habitats, reducing biodiversity. The blade-like leaves may cause physical harm to the birds who feed off of it.
The plant also competes with other native plants by monopolizing resources like shade, sunlight, and ground nutrients. Because of the large surface area, the leaves pose a significant fire hazard if placed near flammable substances.


Pampas grass can be controlled through herbicide treatment. To accomplish this, the grass is cut down near the base. Next, a 2% glyphosate chemical solution is combined with a silicone-based surfactant and applied to enhance the penetration potential. This method works best in the fall because there is overall better control compared to other seasons. Another control method is to cut and bag inflorescences to prevent seeds from spreading or pulling seedlings.
Soil disturbance that creates bare ground can promote invasion, so it is essential to minimize disturbance or provide competition to seedlings. In order to control disturbance, applying mulch to exposed bare ground to smother seeds and prevent germination can be done. Also, planting or seeding desirable, non-invasive plants can provide competition to reduce germination and seedling establishment.


Author Li Hengrui (李恒瑞), whose work Kite Capriccio (風箏暢想曲) describes life as a child in 1950s Fengtai County, Anhui mentions the use of the long stem of the Puwei (蒲葦, Chinese for Cortaderia selloana) in the construction of kites.
Several media outlets reported that it was planted by some couples who practise swinging in the United Kingdom as a way to indicate to other swingers that they enjoy that lifestyle.
The reports caused a plunge in already declining sales, but the odd association has been dismissed by enthusiasts and gardening experts as "silly".


The white-necked raven (Corvus albicollis) is somewhat smaller (50–54 cm in length) than the common raven or its nearest relative, the thick-billed raven C. crassirostris. It is native to eastern and southern Africa.


The white-necked raven has a much shorter tail than the common raven, as well as a deeper bill with a white tip that is almost as strongly arched as that of the thick-billed raven. Though predominantly black, the throat, breast and neck show a faint purple gloss. There is a large patch of white feathers on the nape of the neck.
Soars well with shallower wingbeats than other Corvidae.


Length: 50 – 54 cm
Wingspan: 752 – 860 mm (17 unsexed birds)
Weight: 762 - 865 g


Often described as a raven with a sore throat, it has very similar calls to the common raven, but with a more husky note. It has a croak like the other raven species but with a more whispering note. Like all corvids, the White-necked raven is capable of vocal mimicry. However, this behavior is only ever recorded in captivity.


Most of this bird's food is obtained from the ground, but it will take food from trees as well. It has been seen to drop a tortoise from a height on to hard ground, preferably on rocks, and then swoop down to eat it, or even pick it up again if not sufficiently broken. White-necked ravens will also readily take carrion from road kills. Fruit, grain, insects, small reptiles, peanuts and human food are also readily taken, and the bird forages in back yards and gardens quite openly. Like all or most raven species, White-necked ravens form flocks after leaving their parents and, once fully matured, will pair off and form territories. They are often found in the company of other scavengers such as kites or vultures.
Nests are bowls of sticks lined with grass, hair, and wool, built mainly on cliff ledges but occasionally found in trees. There are usually 3-5 eggs laid.


The American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos) is a large passerine bird species of the family Corvidae. It is a common bird found throughout much of North America. American crows are the New World counterpart to the carrion crow and the hooded crow. Although the American crow and the hooded crow are very similar in size, structure and behavior, their calls and visual appearance are different. The American crow, nevertheless, occupies the same ecological niche that the hooded crow and carrion crow do in Eurasia.
From beak to tail, an American crow measures 40–50 cm (16–20 in), almost half of which is tail. Mass varies from about 300 to 600 g (11 to 21 oz). Males tend to be larger than females. The most usual call is CaaW!-CaaW!-CaaW!. Plumage is all black, with iridescent feathers. It looks much like other all-black corvids. They can be distinguished from the common raven (C. corax) because American crows are smaller; from the fish crow (C. ossifragus) because American crows do not hunch and fluff their throat feathers when they call; and from the carrion crow (C. corone) by size, as the carrion crow is larger and of a stockier build. They are very intelligent, and adaptable to human environments.
American crows are common, widespread, and susceptible to the West Nile virus, making them useful as a bioindicator to track the virus's spread. Direct transmission of the virus from crows to humans is impossible. They are considered an agricultural pest, and are subject to hunting and management.


The American crow was described by German ornithologist Christian Ludwig Brehm in 1822. Its scientific name means literally 'short-billed crow', from Ancient Greek βραχυ- brachy- ('short-') and ρυνχος rhynchos ('billed').
A 2012 genetic analysis of the genus Corvus by Knud A Jønsson and colleagues using nuclear and mitochondrial DNA calculated that the American crow diverged from a lineage that gave rise to the collared, carrion and hooded crows around 5 million years ago.
"American crow" has been designated the official name by the International Ornithologists' Union (IOC).


The number of subspecies varies by authority, ranging between three and five. The unclear taxonomy of the northwestern crow, previously its own species, has complicated subspecies determinations. Subspecies differ in bill proportion and form a rough NE–SW clinal in size across North America. Birds are smallest in the far west and on the southern coast.
C. b. brachyrhynchos (Brehm, 1822) – eastern crow: northeastern United States, eastern Canada and surroundings. The nominate subspecies, and largest.
C. b. hesperis (Ridgway, 1887) – western crow: western North America except the Arctic north, the Pacific Northwest and the extreme south. Smaller overall with a proportionally more slender bill and low-pitched voice.
C. b. caurinus (Baird, 1858) – northwestern crow: of the Pacific temperate rain forests was formerly considered a distinct species as C. caurinus, averaging smaller in size than other American crows with a distinctly hoarser call. It forms a hybrid swarm with American crow (sensu stricto) in coastal Washington and British Columbia. The American Ornithological Society lumped the northwestern crow with the American crow in 2020. It is now considered a geographic variation within C. b. hesperis.
C. b. pascuus (Coues, 1899) – Florida crow: Florida. Mid-sized, short-winged, but decidedly long bill and legs.
C. b. paulus (Howell, 1913) – southern crow: southern United States. Smaller overall, bill also small.


The American crow is a large, distinctive bird with iridescent black feathers all over. Its legs, feet and bill are also black. They measure 40–53 cm (16–21 in) in length, of which the tail makes up about 40%. The wing chord is 24.5 to 33 cm (9.6 to 13.0 in), with the wingspan ranging from 85 to 100 cm (33 to 39 in). The bill length can be from 3 to 5.5 cm (1.2 to 2.2 in), varying strongly according to location. The tarsus is 5.5 to 6.5 cm (2.2 to 2.6 in) and the tail is 13.5 to 19 cm (5.3 to 7.5 in). The body mass can vary from 316 to 620 g (11.1 to 21.9 oz). Males tend to be larger than females.
The most usual call is a loud, short, and rapid caaw-caaw-caaw. Usually, the birds thrust their heads up and down as they utter this call. American crows can also produce a wide variety of sounds and sometimes mimic noises made by other animals, including other birds such as barred owls.
Visual differentiation from the fish crow (C. ossifragus) is extremely difficult and often inaccurate. Nonetheless, differences apart from size do exist. Fish crows tend to have more slender bills and feet. There may also be a small sharp hook at the end of the fish crow's upper bill. Fish crows also appear as if they have shorter legs when walking. More dramatically, when calling, fish crows tend to hunch and fluff their throat feathers.
If seen flying at a distance from where size estimates are unreliable, the distinctly larger common ravens (C. corax) can be distinguished by their almost lozenge-shaped tail and their larger-looking heads. They also fluff their throat feathers when calling — like fish crows, only more so. Ravens also soar for extended periods, unlike crows, which rarely fly more than a few seconds without flapping their wings.
Crows have been noted to be intelligent. They have the same brain-weight-to-body ratio as humans. This has led to some studies that have identified that crows are self-aware and that young crows take time to learn from tolerant parents. While a human has a neocortex, the crow has a different area in their brain that is equally complex.
The average lifespan of the American crow in the wild is 7–8 years. Captive birds are known to have lived up to 30 years.


The range of the American crow now extends from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean in Canada, on the French islands of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, south through the United States, and into northern Mexico. The increase in trees throughout the Great Plains during the past century due to fire suppression and tree planting facilitated range expansions of the American crow as well as range expansions of many other species of birds. Virtually all types of country from wilderness, farmland, parks, open woodland to towns and major cities are inhabited; it is absent only from tundra habitat, where it is replaced by the common raven. This crow is a permanent resident in most of the US, but most Canadian birds migrate some distances southward in winter. Outside of the nesting season these birds often gather in large (thousands or even millions) communal roosts at night.
The American crow was recorded in Bermuda from 1876 onwards.


Studying the behavior of American crows is laborious due to the difficulty in catching them to band them, let alone catching them again. Thus much of their behavior, including daily routine, migration, molting, survivorship, age of first breeding, nestling development, nature of nesting helpers, and more remains poorly studied.


The American crow is omnivorous. It will feed on invertebrates of all types, carrion, scraps of human food, fruits, nuts such as walnuts and almonds, seeds, eggs and nestlings, stranded fish on the shore and various grains. American crows are active hunters and will prey on mice, young rabbits, frogs, and other small animals. In the winter and autumn, the diet of American crows is more dependent on nuts and acorns. Occasionally, they will visit bird feeders. The American crow is one of only a few species of bird that has been observed modifying and using tools to obtain food.
Like most crows, they will scavenge at landfills, scattering garbage in the process. Where available, corn, wheat and other crops are a favorite food. These habits have historically caused the American crow to be considered a nuisance. However, it is suspected that the harm to crops is offset by the service the American crow provides by eating insect pests.


American crows are socially monogamous cooperative breeding birds. Mated pairs form large families of up to 15 individuals from several breeding seasons that remain together for many years. Offspring from a previous nesting season will usually remain with the family to assist in rearing new nestlings. American crows do not reach breeding age for at least two years. Most do not leave the nest to breed for four to five years.
The nesting season starts early, with some birds incubating eggs by early April. American crows build bulky stick nests, nearly always in trees but sometimes also in large bushes and, very rarely, on the ground. They will nest in a wide variety of trees, including large conifers, although oaks are most often used. Three to six eggs are laid and incubated for 18 days. The young are usually fledged by about 36 days after hatching. Predation primarily occurs at the nest site and eggs and nestlings are frequently eaten by snakes, raccoons, ravens and domestic cats. Adults are less frequently predated, but face potential attack from great horned owls, red-tailed hawks, peregrine falcons and eagles. They may be attacked by predators such as coyotes or bobcats at carrion when incautious, although this is even rarer.


American crows succumb easily to West Nile virus infection. This was originally a mosquito-borne African virus causing encephalitis in humans and livestock since about 1000 AD, and was accidentally introduced to North America in 1999, apparently by an infected air traveller who got bitten by a mosquito after arrival. It is estimated that the American crow population has dropped by up to 45% since 1999. Despite this decline, the crow is considered a species of least concern.
The disease runs most rampant in the subtropical conditions which encourage reproduction of its mosquito vectors among which Culex tarsalis is most significant. Mortality rates appear to be higher than those in other birds, causing local population losses of up to 72% in a single season. Because of this, American crows are a sentinel species indicating the presence of West Nile virus in an area. Crows cannot transmit the virus to humans directly.


American crows, like other corvids, are highly cunning and inquisitive. They are able to steal food from other species, often in creative ways. One example shows a group of crows stealing a fish from a Northern river otter: one bird pecked the otter's tail to distract it while other birds swooped in and stole the fish. They are able to use and modify tools.


The intelligence and adaptability of the American crow has insulated it from threats, and it is instead considered an agricultural pest. In 2012, BirdLife International estimated the American crow population to be around 31 million. The large population and vast range result in the least concern status for the American crow, meaning that the species is not threatened with extinction.
Crows have been killed in large numbers by humans, both for recreation and as part of organized campaigns of extermination. In Canada, American crows have no protections, aside from Quebec which bans their hunting during the nesting season. Laws on their hunting vary throughout the United States. New Jersey allows for a limited hunting season, unless if they are agricultural pests in which case they may be killed. Oklahoma allows hunting even during the nesting season. In the first half of the 20th century, state sponsored campaigns dynamited roosting areas, taking large numbers of crows. A campaign in Oklahoma from 1934 to 1945 dynamited 3.8 million birds. The effect on populations was negligible and damage to agricultural crops did not decrease, and thus the campaign was halted as ineffective. In a study taking data from 1917 to 1999, intentional killings were the overwhelming cause of death for crows, accounting for 68% of all recovered bird bands.
Non-deadly methods of managing crows are varied but usually limited in their effectiveness. High value crops may be netted, but this is cost prohibitive for most other crops. Frightening may be used to disperse crows, including loud noises from guns, fake hawks flown from balloons, fake owls that move with the wind, strips of reflective tape on fences, or recordings of crow distress calls. Poisoned baits are of limited effectiveness, as only the most toxic baits work, and those are generally unacceptable for use. Crows quickly learn to avoid the less-toxic baits, as the baits make crows sick. The actual effect of crows on agriculture has been poorly studied. There is some suggestion that they may be a benefit to farmers, by eating insect pests and chasing off livestock predators like hawks.


The hooded crow (Corvus cornix) (also called the scald-crow or hoodie) is a Eurasian bird species in the genus Corvus. Widely distributed, it is found across Northern, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe, as well as parts of the Middle East. It is an ashy grey bird with black head, throat, wings, tail, and thigh feathers, as well as a black bill, eyes, and feet. Like other corvids, it is an omnivorous and opportunistic forager and feeder.
The hooded crow is so similar in morphology and habits to the carrion crow (Corvus corone) that for many years they were considered by most authorities to be geographical races of one species. Hybridization observed where their ranges overlapped added weight to this view. However, since 2002, the hooded crow has been elevated to full species status after closer observation; the hybridisation was less than expected and hybrids had decreased vigour. Within the hooded crow species, four subspecies are recognized, with one, the Mesopotamian crow, possibly distinct enough to warrant species status itself.


The hooded crow was one of the many species originally described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae; he gave it the binomial name Corvus cornix. Linnaeus specified the type locality as "Europa", but this was restricted to Sweden by the German ornithologist Ernst Hartert in 1903. The genus name Corvus is Latin for "raven" while the specific epithet cornix is Latin for "crow". The hooded crow was subsequently considered a subspecies of the carrion crow for many years, hence known as Corvus corone cornix, due to similarities in structure and habits. "Hooded crow" has been designated as the official name by the International Ornithologists' Union (IOC). It is locally known as a 'hoodie craw' or simply 'hoodie' in Scotland and as a grey crow in Northern Ireland. It is also known locally as  "Scotch crow" and "Danish crow". In Irish, it is called caróg liath, or the "grey crow", as its name also means in the Slavic languages and in Danish. It is referred to as the "mist crow" (Nebelkrähe) in German, and the "dolman crow" (dolmányos varjú) in Hungarian.


Four subspecies of the hooded crow are now recognised; previously, all were considered subspecies of Corvus corone. A fifth subspecies, C. c. sardonius (Kleinschmidt, 1903) has been listed, although it has been alternately partitioned between C. c. sharpii (most populations), C. c. cornix (Corsican population), and the Middle Eastern C. c. pallescens.
C. c. cornix Linnaeus, 1758 – the nominate race, occurs in Britain, Ireland and the rest of Europe south to Corsica.
C. c. sharpii Oates, 1889 – named for English zoologist Richard Bowdler Sharpe. This is a paler grey form found from western Siberia through to the Caucasus region and Iran.
C. c. pallescens (Madarász, 1904)  – found in Turkey and Egypt, and is a paler form as its name suggests.
C. c. capellanus Sclater, PL, 1877 – sometimes considered a separate species. This distinctive form occurs in Iraq and southwestern Iran. It has very pale grey plumage, which looks almost white from a distance. It is possibly distinct enough to be considered a separate species.


The hooded crow (Corvus cornix) and carrion crow (Corvus corone) are two closely related species whose geographical distribution across Europe is illustrated in the accompanying diagram. It is believed that this distribution might have resulted from the glaciation cycles during the Pleistocene, which caused the parent population to split into isolates which subsequently re-expanded their ranges when the climate warmed causing secondary contact. Jelmer Poelstra and coworkers sequenced almost the entire genomes of both species in populations at varying distances from the contact zone to find that the two species were genetically identical, both in their DNA and in its expression (in the form of mRNA), except for the lack of expression of a small portion (<0.28%) of the genome (situated on avian chromosome 18) in the hooded crow, which imparts the lighter plumage colouration on its torso. Thus the two species can viably hybridize, and occasionally do so at the contact zone, but the all-black carrion crows on the one side of the contact zone mate almost exclusively with other all-black carrion crows, while the same occurs among the hooded crows on the other side of the contact zone. They concluded that it was only the outward appearance of the two species that inhibits hybridization.


Except for the head, throat, wings, tail, and thigh feathers, which are black and mostly glossy, the plumage of the hooded crow is ash-grey, with the dark shafts giving it a streaky appearance. The bill and legs are black; the iris dark brown. Only one moult occurs, in autumn, as in other crow species. Male hooded crows tend to be larger than females, although the two sexes are otherwise similar in appearance. Their flight is slow, heavy and usually straight. Their length varies from 48 to 52 cm (19 to 20 in). When first hatched, the young are much blacker than the parents. Juveniles have duller plumage with bluish or greyish eyes, and initially possess a red mouth. Wingspan is 105 cm (41 in) and weight is on average 510 g.
The hooded crow, with its contrasted greys and blacks, is visually distinct from both the carrion crow and the rook, but the kraa  call notes of the hooded and carrion crows are almost indistinguishable.


The hooded crow breeds in northern and eastern Europe, and closely allied forms inhabit southern Europe and western Asia. Where its range overlaps with that of the carrion crow, as in northern Britain, Germany, Denmark, northern Italy, and Siberia, their hybrids are fertile. However, the hybrids are less well-adapted than purebred birds (one of the reasons behind its reclassification as a distinct species from the carrion crow). Little or no interbreeding occurs in some areas, such as Iran and central Russia.
In the British Isles, the hooded crow breeds regularly in Scotland, the Isle of Man, and the Scottish Islands; it also breeds widely in Ireland. In autumn, some migratory birds arrive on the east coast of Britain. In the past, this was a more common visitor.


The hooded crow is omnivorous, with a diet similar to that of the carrion crow, and is a constant scavenger. It drops molluscs and crabs to break them after the manner of the carrion crow, to the point that an old Scottish name for empty sea urchin shells was "crow's cups". On coastal cliffs, the eggs of gulls, cormorants, and other birds are stolen when their owners are absent, and hooded crows will enter the burrows of puffins to steal eggs. It will also feed on small mammals, scraps, smaller birds, and carrion. The hooded crow often hides food to feed on later, especially meat, nuts, and any insects that may be present on these, in places such as rain gutters, flower pots, or in the earth under bushes. Other crows will often watch a crow that hides food and then search the hiding place later when the first crow has left.


Nesting occurs later in colder regions: mid-May to mid-June in northwest Russia, Shetland, and the Faroe Islands, and late February in the Persian Gulf region. In warmer parts of the European Archipelago, the clutch is laid in April. The bulky stick nest is normally placed in a tall tree, but cliff ledges, old buildings, and pylons may be used. Nests are occasionally placed on or near the ground. The nest resembles that of the carrion crow, but on the coast, seaweed is often interwoven in the structure, and animal bones and wire are also frequently incorporated. The four to six brown-speckled blue eggs are 4.3 cm × 3.0 cm (1+3⁄4 in × 1+1⁄8 in) in size and weigh 19.8 g (11⁄16 oz), of which 6% is shell. The altricial young are incubated for 17–19 days by the female alone, that is fed by the male. They fledge after 32 to 36 days. Incubating females have been reported to obtain most of their own food and later that for their young.
The typical lifespan is unknown, but that of the carrion crow is four years. The maximum recorded age for a hooded crow is 16 years, and 9 months.
This species is a secondary host of the parasitic great spotted cuckoo, the European magpie being the preferred host. However, in areas where the latter species is absent, such as Israel and Egypt, the hooded crow becomes the normal corvid host.
This species, like its relative, is regularly killed by farmers and on grouse estates. In County Cork, Ireland, the county's gun clubs shot over 23,000 hooded crows in two years in the early 1980s.


The IUCN Red List does not distinguish the hooded crow from the carrion crow, but the two species together have an extensive range, estimated at 10 million square kilometres (4 million square miles), and a large population, including an estimated 14 to 34 million individuals in Europe alone. They are not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e., declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations), so are evaluated as least concern. The carrion crow and hooded crow hybrid zone is slowly spreading northwest, but the hooded crow has on the order of three million territories in just Europe (excluding Russia). This movement is also attested to by the fact that in April 2020 the hooded crow was redlisted in Sweden, where the Species Information Centre does distinguish between hooded and carrion crow.


In Irish folklore, the bird appears on the shoulder of the dying Cú Chulainn, and could also be a manifestation of the Morrígan, the wife of Tethra, or the Cailleach. This idea has persisted, and the hooded crow is associated with fairies in the Scottish highlands and Ireland; in the 18th century, Scottish shepherds would make offerings to them to keep them from attacking sheep. In Faroese folklore, a maiden would go out on Candlemas morn and throw a stone, then a bone, then a clump of turf at a hooded crow – if it flew over the sea, her husband would be a foreigner; if it landed on a farm or house, she would marry a man from there, but if it stayed put, she would remain unmarried.
The old name of Royston crow originates from the days when this bird was a common winter visitor to southern England, with the sheep fields around Royston, Hertfordshire providing carcasses on which the birds could feed. The local newspaper, founded in 1855, is called The Royston Crow, and the hooded crow also features on the town's coat of arms.
The hooded crow is one of the 37 Norwegian birds depicted in the Bird Room of the Royal Palace in Oslo. Jethro Tull mentions the hooded crow on the song "Jack Frost and the hooded crow" as a bonus track on the digitally remastered version of Broadsword and the Beast and on their The Christmas Album.
In January 2014, a hooded crow and a yellow-legged gull each attacked one of two peace doves which Pope Francis had allowed children to release in Vatican City.


The Australian raven (Corvus coronoides) is a passerine bird in the genus Corvus native to much of southern and northeastern Australia. Measuring 46–53 centimetres (18–21 in) in length, it has all-black plumage, beak and mouth, as well as strong grey-black legs and feet. The upperparts are glossy, with a purple, blue, or green sheen, and its black feathers have grey bases. The Australian raven is distinguished from the Australian crow species by its throat hackles, which are prominent in adult birds. Older adult individuals have white irises, younger adults have white irises with an inner blue rim, while younger birds have dark brown irises until fifteen months of age, and hazel irises with an inner blue rim around each pupil until age two years and ten months. Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Thomas Horsfield described the Australian raven in 1827, its species name (coronoides) highlighting its similarity with the carrion crow (C. corone). Two subspecies are recognized, which differ slightly in calls and are quite divergent genetically.
The preferred habitat is open woodland and transitional zones. It has adapted well to urban environments and is a common city bird in Sydney, Canberra, and Perth. An omnivorous and opportunistic feeder, it eats a wide variety of plant and animal material, as well as food waste from urban areas. In eastern Australia, its range is strongly correlated with the presence of sheep, and it has been blamed for killing lambs. However, this is very rare, and the raven most often scavenges for afterbirth and stillborn animals as well as newborn lamb faeces. The Australian raven is territorial, with pairs generally bonding for life. Breeding takes place between July and September, with almost no variation across its range. The nest is a bowl-shaped structure of sticks sited high in a tree, or occasionally in a man-made structure such as a windmill or other building.


The Australian raven was first described by Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Thomas Horsfield in 1827, when they reported George Caley's early notes on the species from the Sydney district. Its specific epithet coronoides "crow-shaped" is derived from the Greek corone/κορόνη "crow" and eidos/είδος "shape" or "form". The two naturalists regarded the Australian raven as very similar in appearance to the carrion crow (C. corone) of Europe, though they noted it was larger with a longer bill. They did not give it a common name. The location where the type specimen was collected is not recorded, but thought to be in the Parramatta district. Christian Ludwig Brehm described Corvus affinis in 1845, later determined to be this species. In his 1865 Handbook to the Birds of Australia, John Gould recognised only one species of corvid in Australia, Corvus australis, which he called the white-eyed crow. He used Johann Friedrich Gmelin's 1788 name, which predated Vigors and Horsfield's description. In 1877 Richard Bowdler Sharpe recognised two species, but recorded that the feather bases of the type specimen of C. coronoides were white. He named C. coronoides as the "crow" and C. australis (as Corone australis) the "raven". Scottish naturalist William Robert Ogilvie-Grant corrected this in 1912 after re-examining the type specimen, clarifying the species as C. coronoides (raven, and incorporating little and forest ravens) and C. cecilae (Torresian crow).
Gregory Mathews described the western subspecies perplexus in 1912, naming it the southwestern crow and noting that it was smaller than the nominate subspecies. He called C. coronoides coronoides the eastern crow, listing its range as New South Wales, and described what is now the Australian crow as another subspecies, C. coronoides cecilae, calling it the north-western crow and recording its range as northwestern Australia. In the same work he listed the raven as Corvus marianae, with a type specimen from Gosford and listing its range as New South Wales. He listed the little raven and forest raven as subspecies. Mathews had erected C. marianae in 1911 as the name after declaring Corvus australis Gould to be preoccupied; French-American ornithologist Charles Vaurie acted as first reviser under Article 24 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) Code and discarded C. australis as a junior homonym—in 1788, Gmelin had used the same binomial name to describe the black nunbird—to preserve the stability of the name. This has been followed by later authors.
German ornithologist Erwin Stresemann lumped all Australian corvids plus other species as far as India into a single species, C. coronoides, as he believed there was intergradation between all characteristics such as iris colour, colour of feather bases and plumage. This was hotly disputed by Mathews. The official RAOU checklist listed three species (Australian raven, Torresian crow and little crow), with the little raven recognised as a fourth species in 1967 and forest raven in 1970. Stresemann described C. difficilis in 1943 from a single specimen, now thought to have been an unusual Australian raven or an Australian raven/Torresian crow hybrid.
"Australian raven" has been designated the official name by the International Ornithologists' Union (IOC). Alternative names sometimes seen include southern raven, southern crow and Kelly, the last thought to have alluded to the Kelly Gang, though did not appear until the 1920s. Southern crow was considered by the RAOU before Australian raven was adopted as the official name for the species in 1926. The term "crow" is colloquially applied to any or all species of Australian corvid. The Australian raven was called wugan by the local Eora and Darug inhabitants of the Sydney Basin.


The Australian raven's closest relatives are the other two species of raven occurring in Australia: the little raven and forest raven. The Australian raven is also somewhat closely related to the Torresian and little crow, although not as closely related as it is to the other raven species. Initial single gene genetic analysis of the genus using mitochondrial DNA showed the three raven species to belong to one lineage and the two crows to another. The genetic separation between species is small and there was a suggestion the little raven may be nested within the Australian raven, though the authors conceded more genetic work was needed. Subsequent multigene analysis using nuclear DNA by Jønsson and colleagues in 2012 showed the eastern and western subspecies of the Australian raven to form two clades, almost as genetically distinct as the forest and little raven are to each other. This led the authors to propose that the subspecies be recognised as separate species.
Ian Rowley proposed that the common ancestor of the five species diverged into a tropical crow and temperate raven sometime after entering Australia from the north, which molecular evidence indicates occurred in the early Pliocene epoch around 4 million years ago. The raven diverged into the ancestor of the forest and little ravens in the east and Australian raven in the west, this split occurring around 2 million years ago in the early Pleistocene. As the climate became cooler and drier, the aridity of central Australia split them entirely. Furthermore, the eastern birds diverged into nomadic little ravens and, in forested refuges, forest ravens. As the climate eventually became warmer, the western birds spread eastwards and almost outcompeted forest ravens on mainland Australia. Rowley noted that the western subspecies of the Australian raven had features intermediate between the eastern subspecies of Australian and little ravens.
Two subspecies are recognised:
C. c. coronoides, the nominate or eastern subspecies, is found across most of eastern Australia. Its range is also highly correlated with the presence of sheep. This is thought to be because of the frequency of dead animals, which can be an important source of food. Ornithologist Ian Rowley held that the eastern subspecies was expanding eastwards before European colonisation, and that this suggested it was of younger origin than the western subspecies, which appears static. The advent of agriculture facilitated further spread.
C. c. perplexus, the western subspecies, occurs from the head of the Great Australian Bight in South Australia westwards into Western Australia where its northern limits are Shark Bay and the mulga-eucalypt boundary line. It is less specialised in its habitat, as it does not share its distribution with the little raven, and does not appear to correlate with the range of sheep. The western subspecies has a slightly lower-pitched call than that of the eastern subspecies, with similarities to calls of the little raven. Of smaller size overall, it has a more slender bill and shorter hackles. There is otherwise no difference in plumage. Intermediate birds are found in the Eyre Peninsula, Gawler Ranges and vicinity of Lake Eyre in South Australia.


Measuring 46–53 cm (18–21 in) in length with a 100 cm (39 in) wingspan and weighing around the 650 g (1.43 lb), the Australian raven is Australia's largest species of corvid. The adult Australian raven is an all black-bird with a black beak, mouth and tongue and sturdy black or grey-black legs and feet. The tibia is fully feathered and the tarsus is long, and the feet large and strong. It has white irises. The plumage is glossy with a blue-purple to a blue-green sheen, greenish over the ear coverts, depending on the light. The underparts are not glossy. The Australian raven has throat feathers (hackles) that are lanceolate with rounded tips, while the other four species of Australian corvids have bifurcate tips, though this can be difficult to see in the field. The hackles are also longer than those of the other four species; when they are raised (such as when the bird is calling), they give the bird an unusual bearded appearance. The upper third of the upper mandible, including the nares and nasal groove, is covered with bristles, which can be up to 3 cm (1.2 in) long. The heavy-set beak is tipped with a slight hook, and is longer than the bird's head. The wings are long and broad, with the longest of its ten primary feathers (usually the seventh but occasionally the eighth) almost reaching the end of the tail when the bird is at rest. The tail is rounded or wedge-shaped.
 The Australian raven can be distinguished from the two species of crow occurring in Australia by the grey base of the feathers, which is white in the latter species. The demarcation between pale and black regions on the feather is gradual in the ravens and sharply delineated in the crows. Feather bases are not normally visible when observing birds in the field, but can sometimes be seen on a windy day if the feathers are ruffled. Unlike the other four species, the Australian raven has a bare patch of skin under and extending to beside, the bill. This can be hard to discern in the field. The three species of raven are more heavily set with a broader chest than the two crow species, with the forest raven the stockiest of all. Relative size of species is only useful when two species can be seen side by side, as the overlap in size is large and the difference in size small.
Juveniles resemble adults, but lack throat hackles, and sometimes have a pink fleshy gape. The bill is shorter and shallower; its base can be pinkish and the tip can be light grey. The plumage is more ruffled and softer in appearance, lacks the glossy highlights and often having a brown tinge. The bare skin on the throat is pink in birds that have recently left the nest. Eye colour varies with age, gradually lightening from juvenile to adult. Nestlings up to four months old have blue-grey irises, juveniles aged from four to fifteen months have dark brown irises, and immature birds have hazel irises with an inner blue rim around each pupil until age two years and ten months. Immature birds older than one year develop hackles, while some pink remains in the gape until the bird is two or three years of age.


The territorial call of the Australian raven is a slow, high ah-ah-aaaah (similar to the near-open front unrounded vowel (IPA:/æ/)) with the last note drawn out. It uses this call to communicate with other Australian ravens in the area. When giving this call, the species has a horizontal posture, holding its head forward and body parallel to the ground, while perched on a prominent position. It ruffles its hackles and lowers its tail, and sometimes holds its beak open between calls. In contrast, the little raven and forest raven hold their bodies in an upright posture. This call becomes louder if trespassers encroach upon the Australian raven's territory. The five Australian species are very difficult to tell apart, with the call being the easiest way to do so, although the drawing-out of the final note—long held to be solely recorded for the Australian raven—has been recorded for the other species and is hence not diagnostic.
The volume, pitch, tempo and order of notes can be changed depending on the message the Australian raven intends to convey. There is a variety of contact calls: a pair often makes a low murmuring sound when preening each other while roosting, and members of a flock carry on with a quiet chattering while at rest. Birds make a call and answer sequence if temporarily out of sight of one another while foraging. Birds in flocks make a single high-pitched caa while flying over another territory as a transit call to signify they are just passing through. An Australian raven will give a longer caa with a downward inflection to signify its return to the nest to its mate.


The Australian raven is common throughout eastern Australia, and southern Western Australia (the populations being connected by a narrow strip across the Nullarbor Plain), but it is rarer and more scattered in the north, with isolated sightings in Cape York at Coen, Windmill Creek and the Mitchell River, and becoming more common south of Rockhampton in central Queensland. It is found throughout New South Wales, though is uncommon in the northeast of the state. It is rare in the Australian Alps, being replaced there by the little raven. It occurs across Victoria and eastern South Australia, through the Eyre Peninsula and Nullarbor Plain into Western Australia, across the state north to the Wooramel River. It is found on some offshore islands such as Rottnest Island and Kangaroo Island. It is a rare vagrant to Lord Howe Island., though it was recorded as a vagrant in New Zealand in the 1870s, this has not been confirmed.
The Australian raven can be found in a wide range of natural and modified habitats. It requires available water and trees (or buildings) to roost in or perch on. Preferred habitats include eucalypt-dominated sclerophyll forest, and farmland adjacent to trees. It is also found in heath and mangroves. In areas where it occurs with the little raven, namely over much of central New South Wales, Victoria and into South Australia, the Australian raven is restricted to more forested areas while the latter species prefers more open areas. Similarly, in inland Australia it can share a range with the little crow, as the two do not appear to compete. However, the ranges of similar-sized forest raven and Torresian crow only narrowly overlap with the Australian raven as all three compete with each other. In central and western regions, Australian ravens and Torresian crows vie for the scattered uncommon trees and outcrops, and only one or the other are found there. It co-occurs with the forest raven in northeastern New South Wales from Port Stephens northwards. The Australian raven has adapted very well to human habitation in some cities and is the most common corvid in Canberra, Sydney and Perth; in Melbourne and Adelaide it is replaced by the little raven, and by the Torresian crow in Brisbane. Its large range, abundance and increasing population mean it is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List.


Difficulties in distinguishing Australian corvids has hampered understanding of seasonal movements. The Australian raven is thought to be largely sedentary, with most movement of over 16 km (9.9 mi) due to flocks of non-breeding subadult birds. Juvenile birds leave their parents and join flocks when they are four or five months old. Smaller flocks of 8–30 birds stay within an area of around 260 square kilometres, while larger flocks of up to 300 birds may travel hundreds of kilometres seeking food.
A single breeding pair and their brood can occupy a territory of up to around 120 hectares (300 acres) and remains there year-round, though groups of ravens may enter this area to forage. Australian ravens will defend their territory by chasing, dive-bombing and occasionally striking the backs of birds of prey, foxes or even people. They generally mate for life, though occasionally one male has been found to be mated with two females in adjacent territories. If the female dies, the male Australian raven maintains the territory and finds another mate, while if the male bird is lost, the female abandons the territory. No courtship behaviour has been observed, and species that mate for life often lack elaborate courting displays. Once they begin breeding at three years of age, they live another four to five years on average. During this time they produce two surviving young each year on average. The longest-lived Australian raven recorded is an adult (of at least 3 years of age) that was banded and recaptured alive 12 years and 5 months later.
Australian ravens generally walk when moving around on the ground, though do hop when hurrying. They preen themselves frequently, particularly when roosting in the middle of the day. They also engage in allopreening, where birds will preen each other's head and neck. This takes place particularly in autumn, winter and spring, and is important in pair bonding. Either member may initiate it, generally by landing near the other bird, shuffling next to its mate, then bending its head forward and presenting its nape.