Zebra spiders are widespread across Europe, North America, and North Asia, where they are found throughout the Holarctic.
This species is naturally associated with open habitats such as rock faces, shingle beaches and occasionally the trunks of trees. Due to their preference for open, vertical habitats they are often found living in proximity to humans in urban habitat such as on garden fences and the walls of buildings. Spiders have also been known to enter houses, where they can often be found living in the corner of windowsills.


This species breeds during the spring and summer months. When a male and female spider meet, the male will conduct a courtship dance. The dance involves waving their front legs, pedipalps and moving their abdomen up and down. During the courtship dance males use their striped markings to signal that they wish to mate with the female. The courting ritual relies heavily on eyesight. The better the dance the more likely the female will want to mate. Males must be careful when approaching a female as they can risk being attacked or even mistaken as a prey species. If the female is impressed with the male's dance she will allow the male to approach. The female will crouch and allow the male to climb on top of her. Male spiders use a pair of leg-like appendages called pedipalps to transfer sperm to the female during the mating process. Females will stay with their egg sacs and will guard the young after they hatch. After the spiderlings have had their second moult they will leave the mother and fend for themselves.


Zebra spiders tend to hunt smaller spiders and other arthropods. They have been observed feeding on mosquitos that are almost twice their length. They have also been observed taking on prey items up to 3 times the length of the spider, such as some of the smaller species of moth.
Like other jumping spiders, these spiders use their large front eyes to locate and stalk their prey. They move slowly towards their prey until they are close enough to pounce on top of their victim, and their hunting behaviour has been described as cat-like. Using their acute eyesight, they are able to accurately judge the distances they need to jump.


While it has not caused deaths, it is toxic, containing phallotoxins. It is also too small to be of interest.


Conocybe apala is a saprobe found in areas with rich soil and short grass such as pastures, playing fields, lawns, meadows as well as rotting manured straw, fruiting single or sparingly few ephemeral bodies. It is commonly found fruiting during humid, rainy weather with generally overcast skies. It will appear on sunny mornings while there is dew but will not persist once it evaporates. In most cases, by midday the delicate fruiting bodies shrivel, dry and fade from sight. C.apala's fruiting season begins in spring and ends in autumn. It is distributed across Europe and North America.


Easily missed due to their very small size, C. apala fruit bodies are otherwise quite easy to identify. The cap has a pale cream to silvery-white colour and may sometimes have a darker yellow to brown coloration towards the central umbo. Its trademark hood-shaped conical cap expands with age and may flatten out, the surface being marked by minute radiating ridges. The cap ranges from 1–3 cm in diameter. The gills may be visible through the thin cap and these are coloured rust or cinnamon brown and quite dense. They are adnexed or free and release brown to reddish-brown elliptical spores producing a spore print of the same colour. The stem is cap-coloured, elongated, thin, hollow and more or less equal along its length with a height up to 11 cm and diameter of 1–3 mm. It can bear minuscule striations or hairs. The flesh of C. apala has no discernible taste or smell and is extremely fragile to the touch.


The mushroom is considered edible, but not choice. Its taste is harsh, nauseating, and weakly acidic; the odor is strong and ranges from pleasant, resembling bananas, to pungent. When collecting for the table, young specimens are preferred, as older ones "literally seethe with fat, agitated maggots and sag with so much excess moisture that they practically demand to be wrung out like a sponge!" Michael Kuo's 100 Edible Mushrooms (2007) rates the mushroom's edibility as "bad" and warns that dishes cooked with the mushroom will assume an unpleasant taste.


Suillus pungens, commonly known as the pungent slippery jack or the pungent suillus, is a species of fungus in the genus Suillus. The fruit bodies of the fungus have slimy convex caps up to
14 cm (5.5 in) wide. The mushroom is characterized by the very distinct color changes that occur in the cap throughout development. Typically, the young cap is whitish, later becoming grayish-olive to reddish-brown or a mottled combination of these colors. The mushroom has a dotted stem (stipe) up to 7 cm (2.8 in) long, and 2 cm (0.8 in) thick. On the underside on the cap is the spore-bearing tissue consisting of minute vertically arranged tubes that appear as a surface of angular, yellowish pores. The presence of milky droplets on the pore surface of young individuals, especially in humid environments, is a characteristic feature of this species. S. pungens can usually be distinguished from other similar Suillus species by differences in distribution, odor and taste. The mushroom is considered edible, but not highly regarded.
An ectomycorrhizal species, S. pungens forms an intimate mutualistic relationship between its underground mycelium and the young roots of the associated host tree. The fungus—limited in distribution to California—fruits almost exclusively with Monterey and bishop pine, two trees with small and scattered natural ranges concentrated in the West Coast of the United States. Several studies have investigated the role of S. pungens in the coastal Californian forest ecosystem it occupies. Although the species produces more fruit bodies than other competing ectomycorrhizal fungi in the same location, it is not a dominant root colonizer, and occupies only a small percentage of ectomycorrhizal root tips. The fungus's propensity to fruit prolifically despite minimal root colonization is a result of its ability to efficiently transfer nutrients from its host for its own use.


Suillus pungens is an ectomycorrhizal (EM) basidiomycete that forms symbiotic relationships almost exclusively with Monterey pine (Pinus radiata) and bishop pine (Pinus muricata); some collections have been made under knobcone pine (Pinus attenuata) and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), but only within the range of Monterey pine. All these trees have small scattered natural ranges largely restricted to California. An EM symbiosis is a mutualistic relationship between an EM fungus and the root tip of a compatible EM plant. The fruit bodies of Suillus pungens grow solitarily, scattered or in groups in humus. They are often found growing near fruit bodies of Chroogomphus vinicolor and Helvella lacunosa. Suillus pungens is often the most abundant Suillus in the San Francisco Bay Area. The type collection was made on the campus of San Francisco State University in San Francisco, where it occurs in abundance during the fall and winter seasons. Although it occurs most frequently in the autumn and winter, it is one of the few species of Suillus that continue to fruit sporadically throughout the year, especially in wet weather. It has also been identified in the southeastern Sierra Nevada and on Santa Cruz Island.
A genet is a group of genetically identical individuals that have grown in a given location, all originating vegetatively from a single ancestor. Once established, genets vegetatively spread hyphae out from the root tip into the soil and may connect two or more trees to form a network of mycorrhizae. In field studies, the approximate size of fungal genets is typically estimated by collecting and mapping fruit bodies on a site, determining which fruit bodies are genetically identical by either somatic incompatibility (a method fungi use to distinguish self from non-self by delimiting their own mycelia from that of other individuals of the same species) or various molecular techniques, and then determining the distance between identical fruit bodies. In a 1996 study, mycologists Monique Gardes and Thomas Bruns hypothesized that S. pungens, an abundant fruiter in pine forests, would be dominant on the roots of the pine trees. However, by sampling underground ectomycorrhizae in addition to above-ground fruit bodies, they found that the fungus can fruit prolifically while occupying only a small fraction of the ectomycorrhizal root assemblage, which was otherwise dominated by Russula species and Tomentella sublilacina. Gardes and Bruns hypothesized that the disparity between above- and below-ground representation may be because the fungus invests less energy in vegetative growth and persistence and more in fruiting, or alternatively, because the species is particularly efficient at acquiring carbon from its hosts and so needs to colonize only a few rootlets to obtain enough to allow abundant fruiting. A 1998 study by Pierluigi Bonello and colleagues used single-strand conformation polymorphism analysis to detect minute genetic differences among S. pungens genets, and showed that most of the fruiting occurred from a single large genet. This result indicates that the fungus persists because of extensive vegetative growth, rather than frequent establishment of new genets from spores, and that it uses carbon resources efficiently. The study also described an S. pungens genet with an area of approximately 300 m² (3,200 sq ft) and a span greater than 40 m (130 ft) across, which was at the time the largest EM fungal genet reported. The large S. pungens genet was not detected after wildfire, demonstrating that it did not survive in the absence of a host, and suggesting that spores are the primary means by which the fungus recolonizes after a fire.


Roridomyces austrororidus, commonly known as the austro dripping bonnet, is a species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae. Described as new to science in 1962 by American mycologist Rolf Singer, it is found in South America, New Zealand, and Australia, where it grows on rotting wood.
The fruit bodies (mushrooms) have several distinguishing characteristics that facilitate identification, including thick, white, mucilaginous stipes, and white to pale cream, convex caps that measure 1–2 cm (0.4–0.8 in). The gills are white, widely spaced, and have a fused or decurrent attachment to the stipe. Spores are smooth, ellipsoid, and measure about 9–15 by 6–9 micrometres. The smooth and white stipes are 4–6 cm (1.6–2.4 in) long and 0.1–0.2 cm (0.04–0.08 in) thick, and covered with a thick coating of gluten.


The cap is shallowly convex to convex or irregularly convex, and with or without a shallow umbo, measuring up to 16 mm (0.63 in) in diameter and up to 5 mm (0.2 in) high. The cap margin is curved downward, sometimes slightly flared, and sometimes has translucent radial striations marking the positions of the gills underneath. The white flesh—thickest at the center of the cap—tapers gradually to the margin. The gills are broadly adnate (fused) to decurrent (running down the length of the stipe). The gill edges are either smooth and even, or may have minute teeth. The gills are well-spaced, with 16 to 24 gills extending fully from the cap margin to the stipe, and two or three tiers of interspersed lamellulae (short gills that do not extend fully from the cap margin to the stipe). The smooth, cylindrical stipe is up to 27 mm (1.1 in) long, and up to 2.5 mm (0.1 in) in diameter at the base, narrowing towards the top. It is hollow, silky to shiny, and mucilaginous—usually with thick slime at the base. Sometimes, there are short white hairs at the bottom of the stipe, although their presence is variable. The mushroom has no distinctive odor.
Spores are roughly ellipsoidal in shape with a Q ratio (the fraction of length/width) of 1.6, and dimensions of 9.4–15.4 by 6.2–9.0 μm. They have a small, oblique apiculus, lack oil droplets, and are smooth with thin walls, and hyaline (translucent). The spores are acyanophilous and strongly amyloid, meaning they stain with Methyl blue and Melzer's reagent, respectively. The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are four-spored (rarely two-spored) and club-shaped with long, robust sterigmata up to 6.0 μm long; they have clamp connections at their bases, and measure 35.3–49.6 by 10.3–14.4 μm. Roridomyces austrororidus has two types of cheilocystidia (cystidia on gill edges). One is rare, broadly club-shaped, and tapers to a narrow stem; it measures 24.1–39.5 by 6.8–12.7 μm. The other cheilocystidia are moderately dense to abundant, and form a sterile gill edge. They are cylindrical, measuring 27.5–70.4 by 5.4–10.4 μm, and often have a swollen tip that splits into two, rarely three branches.


Cyclosa turbinata are found across North America, Mexico, and the northern regions of South America. They are extremely common along forest edges and fencing.
Cyclosa turbinata have been found on cotton and peanut crops, grassland pastures, on sand dunes, shrubs, pecan orchards, and various plants such as bluebonnets, croton, prickly pear, Baccharis, and Monarda citriodora. In woodland habitats, they favor live oak, Quercus buckleyi, Quercus virginiana, and Ulmus crassifolia trees, building their webs in hollow sycamore trees or in shrubs.
One reason these spiders are thought to be so widely distributed is that their young can efficiently travel through the air via wind currents. The spiderling first climbs onto a perch and extends a line of silk into the air. The wind catches the silk, and when the silk is long enough and the tug powerful enough, the spiderling releases its grip on the perch and flies through the air. This allows the species to colonize vast areas of land.
Five species of Cyclosa occur in North America north of Mexico, and these species differ in how their webs are positioned within vegetation, and for that reason, species diversity is highest in habitats that have high architectural and botanic diversity.


Known to readily construct webs within wooden frames both in the field and in the laboratory, the spider Cyclosa turbinata are known for creating orb-shaped webs, which are webs that utilize both the sticky and non-sticky threads, mostly during times of complete darkness. Across its spiral wheel-shaped web, the Cyclosa turbinata is unique in that it also creates the so-called "trashline" web, which is a line of various components such as prey's carcasses, detritus, and, at times, egg cases. This trashline appears to hinder the predators from visually locating the spider within its web. The trashline" helps the spider to camouflage exceptionally well. But, even though the trashline itself attracts attacking wasps, these wasps are unable to locate the spider within the web since the debris of the web's decoration is of similar color, size, and shape as the spider itself. Because of the variability in the amount of silk reserves the spider has, webs of different diameters may be created. However, larger web diameters do not impact the insect-trapping efficiency of stabilimenta-adorned webs, and instead, the efficiency is dependent solely on the presence of stabilimenta, a type of web decoration.
Specifically for the female spider, they occupy the web hub, which is the center, almost continuously and conduct their sit-and-wait foraging behavior. This behavior allows the female spiders to ensnare prey at nearly any time of day, and they only leave their spot to replace the web prior to sunrise. However, the prey that gets stuck to the web are still sometimes able to release itself, which gives the spiders another reason to leave the security of the web hub to ensure the prey is fully captured. Due to this, pursuing an increase in energy reserves comes at the direct cost of increased exposure to visual predators such as wasps, and females must balance these two to maximize their fitness and reproductive success.
The size of the prey that is captured using the web is actually related to the physical size of the spider and not so much the spider's life stage. So in addition, when Cyclosa turbinata spiders' are under poor nutritional conditions, they strategically assess their silk resources before initiating web construction and alter their behavior to produce a highly regular web in spite of their diminished silk reserves. Since prey discrimination through interpretation of web-borne vibrations is found to not be as feasible in Cyclosa turbinata spiders, Cyclosa turbinata spiders shake their webs back and forth, possibly to warn other larger animals of the webs existence in order to drive it away when they feel threatened.
It is also known that juveniles Cyclosa turbinata build their webs higher above the ground than spiders of other Cyclosa species and both juvenile and adult Cyclosa turbinata have the widest mesh compared to the rest of the genus. Adult and juvenile Cyclosa turbinata differ most dramatically from other species in their choice of plants for attaching webs. Other Cyclosa species prefer using goldenrod, but Cyclosa turbinata is known for also using species of Ambrosia (ragweed), Asclepias (milkweed), and Cirsium (thistle).


Hymenopterans, specifically wasps, are a primary source of predation and parasitism in C. turbinata. The diet of sphecid wasps contains up to 75% orb-weaving spiders, and these two populations live in close proximity across much of North America.
Experts agree that female C. turbinata generally starts foraging at lower levels of energy reserves during the middle of the day when predators are most abundant. Because their visually oriented predators are mostly diurnal, female C. turbinata is expected to mostly ignore potential prey in the day time and instead complete their foraging at night to avoid revealing their presence to predators.


The web of Cyclosa turbinata not only can constraint the prey but also convey some information. The vibration generated by the prey can tell the spider about its size, power, and dangerousness. Experiment has shown that Cyclosa turbinata can respond to different types of vibrations. They selectively avoid some dangerous prey that can potentially cause injury during feeding. Statistical analysis showed that Cyclosa turbinata can adjust their strategies towards preys, including waiting time and frequency of turning.


Cyclosa turbinata is a relatively small species with sizes about 4– 7 mm in length. Their color is a mix of browns, blacks, and whites, and their abdomen tapers to a rounded point, hence their given name.
Females are typically within 3.3 and 5.2 mm in body length, while males are on average 2.5 mm long.
Males are most active from March to September, while females are more active from March to October. Females of Cyclosa turbinata can be differentiated from females of Cyclosa conica, a very similar species, by their smaller size and the presence of two anterior dorsal humps.
Mangora gibberosa, otherwise known as the lined orbweaver, is also commonly misidentified as C. turbinata due to its similar appearance and orb-style webs.


In one study conducted in East Texas, researchers studied webs built-in mid-August with an average diameter of 9.13 inches. In these webs, 42% of the prey that had been caught had been so strongly crushed and macerated by the spider's chelicerae that they could not be identified. Among the remaining 58% of prey, aphids were most prominent, followed by small dipterans, small hymenopterans, leafhoppers, thrips, small coleopterans, and lastly red fire ants.


This species is the most widely distributed Trionychid in North America. The spiny softshell has a wide range, extending throughout much of the United States, as well as north into the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec, and south into the Mexican states of Tamaulipas, Nuevo León, Coahuila and Chihuahua.


Spiny softshell turtles are often referred to as ecological generalists, meaning that they are found in a wide variety of habitats. The spiny softshell can be found in bodies of fresh water including ponds, lakes, rivers, tributaries, and streams. They inhabit shallow water (less than 1 m deep), but can also be found as far as 10 m deep. They can be found in areas with varying levels of vegetation, and although they are generally found in more slow-moving waters, this species abundance is greatest in waters with higher visibility and slower water velocity  Spiny softshells prefer waters with sandy bottoms and clean, sandy banks. Sandy environments are important for nesting sites, proper juvenile growth and development, and camouflage.
Spiny softshells migrate between warm and cold seasons. In each season, turtles generally stay in a single zone, and they move more within their zone during warm months. The spiny softshell will migrate between their zones and their average home range length is 10.8 km
As far as home range, a study of the “Eastern Spiny” subspecies (which has the largest and most northern-reaching distribution) home range behaviour found that turtles of northern Lake Champlain generally had 2 annual concentration areas for spring-summer and fall-winter, contributing to a large home range (Galois, 2002). Mean annual home range was also found, in the same study, to be over 10x larger for female softshells compared to males.


Spiny softshells begin mating between ages 8 and 10. A large female turtle may live up to 50 years. The turtles mate in mid-to-late spring in deep water. The male will nudge the female's head while swimming, and if she chooses to mate, the male will swim above the female without clasping her with his claws (unlike other turtles). A few months later, the female turtle quickly lays her eggs along a sunny sandbar or gravel bank in a flask-shaped cavity she has dug close to the water. This nesting behavior typically begins around July with the females leaving the water and probing the ground with her snout to find the spot to lay her eggs. The turtle nests more than once during a single season. She can lay between 9 and 38 round, calcareous-shelled eggs. The eggs are laid around July and September, and they hatch in the spring. In studies observing nesting behavior, it has been found that the females are more likely to lay eggs on days where there is a small difference between the air and water temperatures. Unlike in other turtles, in the spiny softshell turtle, the sex of the hatchlings is not determined by temperature variations; it is determined by genetics. Although they are not listed on the IUCN Red List in the United States, they are listed as endangered in Canada. This is due to high predation on eggs and low hatchling survival rates.


The false chanterelle is considered poisonous, and may cause serious digestive problems. Amongst other toxins, it contains high levels of the sugar alcohol arabitol. The mushroom was sometimes described as edible (though not tasty) until 1999. Fries described it as venenatus, meaning "poisonous", in 1821. Considering the species edible, David Arora speculated that it may have been confused with similar-looking but definitely poisonous species of Omphalotus. It is reported edible in Russia, among the edible mushrooms from Michael Vishnevsky (Nastalhnsya kniga nachinayushevo gribami 2018) and in Grib Russya 2017 - S. Y. Afonhkin and L. Korsakova. It was eaten, though not especially highly regarded, by the Zapotec people of Ixtlán de Juárez in Oaxaca. The Tepehuán people of northwestern Mexico also occasionally eat the mushroom, which they refer to in their native language as guin'xacan ("delightful") or kia's gio' ("iguana lard"); there, it is commonly prepared by roasting over charcoal, or boiling and garnishing with cheese.


Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca is a widely distributed species. In Europe and North America, it is found in both hardwood and conifer forests, as well as heathland, in summer and autumn. In Mexico, it is common in coniferous forests. It fruits from the ground or from decaying wood, on burned areas in forests, and is often found near fallen trees and tree stumps. The fungus can also grow on woodchips used in gardening and landscaping, and so it also appears on roadsides and other locations where this material is used. Fruit bodies occur singly to scattered, or in clusters, and can be very abundant. Generally considered a dry weather mushroom, it can be plentiful when other mushrooms are scarce. Other locations where the false chanterelle has been recorded include Central and South America, northern Asia, Australia and New Zealand. Populations in California represent a complex of undescribed species that are collectively referred to as Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca sensu lato.
A saprophytic fungus, H. aurantiaca obtains nutrients from forest litter and decomposing wood, causing a brown rot on the wood upon which it grows.
H. aurantiaca secretes large amounts of oxalic acid, a reducing agent and relatively strong acid. This stimulates weathering of the humus layer of forest soil, and influences the solubility and turnover of nutrients (particularly phosphorus and nitrogen), which in turn affects their availability for use by forest trees.


Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca, commonly known as the false chanterelle, is a species of fungus in the family Hygrophoropsidaceae.
It is found across several continents, growing in woodland and heathland, and sometimes on woodchips used in gardening and landscaping. Fruit bodies (mushrooms) are yellow–orange, with a funnel-shaped cap up to 8 cm (3+1⁄8 in) across that has a felt-like surface. The thin, often forked gills on the underside of the cap run partway down the length of the otherwise smooth stipe. Reports on the mushroom's edibility vary – it is considered poisonous, but has historically been eaten internationally.
Austrian naturalist Franz Xaver von Wulfen described the false chanterelle in 1781, noting both its resemblance with the true chanterelles and people's propensity to confuse them. The false chanterelle was then placed in the genus Clitocybe, but it was later observed that its forked gills and dextrinoid spores indicated a relationship to Paxillus. Genetic analysis has confirmed that it belongs to the order Boletales and is more closely related to boletes.


Austrian naturalist Franz Xaver von Wulfen described the false chanterelle as Agaricus aurantiacus in 1781, reporting that it appeared in the fir tree forests around Klagenfurt in October. He added that it could be confused with the chanterelle by the inexperienced, but that its true nature was very different; in contrast to its edible lookalike, he described it as "kind of pernicious". The specific epithet is the Latin word aurantiacus, meaning "orange". James Sowerby illustrated it and gave it the name Agaricus subcantharellus, describing it as a "perhaps unfavourable" variety of A. cantharellus (chanterelle). The fungus was placed in the genus Merulius by Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1792, and then Cantharellus by Elias Fries in 1821. Bernhard Studer-Steinhäuslin concluded it could only be classified in the genus Clitocybe in 1900, based on its white spores, decurrent gills and lack of a ring. It was elevated to the status of genus in Emile Martin-Sans' 1929 publication L'Empoisonnement par les champignons et particulièrement les intoxications dues aux Agaricacées du groupe des Clitocybe et du groupe des Cortinarius, with authorship attributed to René Maire. Martin-Sans concurred with Maire's assessment of Hygrophoropsis, suggesting that it represented a form intermediate between Cantharellus and Clitocybe, and was thus worthy of generic ranking. The genus name refers to a resemblance to the genus Hygrophorus. It is commonly known as the false chanterelle.
Two varieties described by Derek Reid in 1972, H. aurantiaca var. macrospora and H. aurantiaca var. rufa, have since been promoted to distinct species status as H. macrospora (1996) and H. rufa (2008). Two other varieties of the fungus have been described, but they are not considered to have independent taxonomic significance by Index Fungorum: var. nana (Singer 1946), characterized by a small fruit body; and var. robusta (Antonín 2000), characterized by a robust fruit body and an odour similar to Maggi seasoning sauce. Pale forms of the fungus are sometimes referred to as var. pallida. This taxon was first published by Robert Kühner and Henri Romagnesi in 1953, but later considered invalid as it did not conform to nomenclatural rules. Variety nigripes, a taxon with a black-brown stipe, is invalid for similar reasons. H. aurantiaca var. pallida was published validly in 1995.
In 1979, Egon Horak suggested that H. aurantiaca and the New Zealand taxon H. coacta were the same species, but neither Index Fungorum nor MycoBank accept this synonymy. According to MycoBank, H. aurantiaca has several heterotypic synonyms, i.e. different types but considered the same species:
Agaricus alectorolophoides Schaeff. (1774)
Agaricus subcantharellus Sowerby (1809)
Cantharellus brachypodus Chevall. (1826)
Cantharellus ravenelii Berk. & M.A.Curtis (1853)
Merulius brachypodes (Chevall.) Kuntze (1891)
Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca has been confused with the true chanterelles (genus Cantharellus) because of overall similarities in appearance. However, the forked gills, frequently off-centre stipe placement, and dextrinoid spores of H. aurantiaca suggested a relationship with Paxillus, prompting Rolf Singer to classify the genus Hygrophoropsis in the family Paxillaceae in 1946. Several pigments have been identified from the fungus, including the orange variegatic acid, methyl variegate, the red variegatorubin, and several derivatives of pulvinic acid. The presence of these pigments suggests a chemotaxic relationship with the Boletaceae, Coniophoraceae, and Paxillaceae – families of Boletales with members that have similar compounds. Molecular phylogenetic analysis confirmed its affinity lay in the order Boletales in 1997, though later research showed it is not closely related to Paxillus or other gilled members of the order.


Usually hunting at night, the diet of the spectacled caiman varies seasonally. During the wet season, it primarily eats snails and freshwater crabs, while it mostly eats fish in the dry season. Smaller specimens tend to eat more insects and freshwater shrimp, while larger ones more frequently consume mammals and fish. Overall, the most common animals in this species' diet are crabs, fish, mammals, and snails. Other animals that have been known to be a part of its diet include amphibians, arachnids, birds, myriapods, and reptiles (lizards, snakes, and turtles). It has also been known to eat plant matter; in a study of this species in Puerto Rico, about 55% of adult specimens had plants in their diet, primarily grass and seeds. About 8% of adults and 6% of juveniles in the study had gastroliths in their stomach as well. Although the species has been suggested to control piranha populations, piranhas have not been found to be a normal diet component, unlike the yacare caiman. According to the Crocodilian Species List, it is probably a generalist species, being able to adapt to a variety of prey.


The spectacled caiman has the largest range of any caiman, and of any New World crocodilian. It is found in various countries throughout the Americas. It lives in Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, and Venezuela, and may also be extant in Belize and Bolivia. It has been introduced to Isla de la Juventud in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Florida in the United States; in the latter, it is sometimes mislabeled as the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis). Invasive populations have become established in South Florida, with isolated records further north in the state. It is intolerant to cold climates, so its range is unlikely to expand to further north than Florida. It usually lives in forests, inland bodies of fresh water (such as wetlands and rivers), grasslands, shrublands, and savannas, but is very adaptable. It prefers habitats with calm water containing floating vegetation, usually flooding and drying seasonally. It is most common in low-lying areas, but has been found at elevations of up to 800 m (2,600 ft). In Brazil, the species lives in the rivers Amazon, Araguaia, Araguari, Itapicuru, Rio Negro, Paranaíba, Solimões, Tapajós, Tocantins, and Xingu. It is able to live in human-inhabited areas.
The adult population of this crocodilian is estimated to be in the millions and stable. About four million spectacled caimans are found in Venezuela and surveys have shown that it is expected to increase. This is an example of how well the species is able to adapt. However, populations are not doing well in other countries, such as Peru. The population in a single area can be determined the easiest by counting individuals in the dry season at night.


The spectacled caiman reaches sexual maturity from four to seven years old, at a length of 1.2 metres (3.9 ft) for females and 1.4 metres (4.6 ft) for males. Usually, the more dominant individuals mature more quickly. Specimens choose mates and engage in copulation from May to August, the wet season. The females build nests as a mound of dense vegetation, in areas that are close to water but not at risk of being flooded. The nests are over 1 metre (3.3 ft) in diameter and can be 40 centimetres (16 in) high, but the exact size depends on the resources available. Eggs are laid in July and August; the species very rarely nests in the winter, as the temperature is too low for the eggs. Clutch size is 22 on average, but can range from 14 to 40. Larger females have been known to lay larger eggs compared to smaller females. Females stay close to their nests during the incubation period, as several species, such as lizards in the genus Tupinambis, have been known to destroy nests and prey on the eggs. White-nosed coatis and foxes also raid nests. Flooding and human egg collecting can also be a threat to the nests. In a study in the Central Amazonia assessing reproductive similarities between C. crocodilus and Melanochus niger, research found that they indiscriminately separate their nests at larger distances than other species in this family, most likely to avoid predation.
Temperature is important to the developing eggs, so females build their nests in a way that insulates them from extreme temperature changes. As the vegetation in the nests decays, the nests produce heat which can keep the eggs about 5 °C (9 °F) warmer than if they were insulated by mud alone. Heat not only incubates the eggs, but also determines the sex of the developing caimans (temperature-dependent sex determination). When the temperature inside the nest is about 32 °C (90 °F) or higher, the caimans become female, and otherwise become male. Young hatch after 90 days, with 20–25 percent of eggs hatching successfully. They are yellow with black spots, a coloration which fades away as they grow older, with a length of 20–23 centimetres (7.9–9.1 in). Parents raise their young in crèches, with one female taking care of her own, as well as several others' offspring. They take care of their young for 12–18 months. Young are threatened by various predators, such as raptors (like hawks) and wader birds (like herons), causing most to die in their first year. These juveniles are also preyed upon by large fish, large snakes (such as anacondas), and other crocodilians.


The spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus), also known as the white caiman, common caiman, and speckled caiman, is a crocodilian in the family Alligatoridae. It is brownish-, greenish-, or yellowish-gray colored and has a spectacle-like ridge between its eyes, which is where its common name come from. It grows to a length of 1.4–2.5 metres (4.6–8.2 ft) and a weight of 7–40 kilograms (15–88 lb), with males being both longer and heavier than females. Its diet varies seasonally, commonly consisting of crabs, fish, mammals, and snails. Breeding occurs from May to August and 14–40 eggs are laid in July and August. This crocodilian has a large range and population; it is native to much of Latin America, and has been introduced to the United States, Cuba, and Puerto Rico.


These skinks (along with the similar Plestiodon fasciatus) are sometimes wrongly thought to be venomous. Broad-headed skinks are nonvenomous.


Broad-headed skinks are the most arboreal of the North American Plestiodon. They forage on the ground, but also easily and often climb trees for shelter, to sleep, or to search for food. Broad-headed skinks often feed on what are called "hidden prey"; prey items that can only be located by searching under debris, soil or litter.
Broad-headed skinks are preyed on by a variety of organisms including carnivorous birds, larger reptiles, and mammals. Skinks prefer to flee by climbing a nearby tree or seeking shelter under foliage.  These skinks exhibit tail autotomy when caught by a predator. The tails break away and continue to move, distracting the predator and allowing the skink to flee.  When consuming large invertebrates, they often carry them to shelter to avoid being preyed upon during the prey handling time.


Broad-headed skinks are widely distributed in the southeastern states of the United States, from the East Coast to Kansas and eastern Texas and from Ohio to the Gulf Coast.


Together with the Great Plains skink it is the largest of the "Plestiodon skinks", growing from a total length of 15 cm (5.9 in) to nearly 33 cm (13 in).
The broad-headed skink gets its name from the wide jaws, giving the head a triangular appearance. Adult males are brown or olive brown in color and have bright orange heads during the mating season in spring. Females have five light stripes running down the back and the tail, similar to the Five-lined Skink. However, they can be distinguished by having five labial scales around the mouth, whereas Five-lined skinks have only four. Juveniles are dark brown or black and also striped and have blue tails.


Broad-headed skinks are semi-arboreal lizards that are strongly associated with live oak trees. It does not appear that the lizards have a preference for tree size, rather they prefer trees with holes. Juveniles stay closer to the ground on low or fallen branches.  Males have been known to guard preferred trees that are surrounded with dense brushes to limit attack by predators and harbor prey. Dead and decaying trees are important habitat resources for nesting.


Males typically are larger than females.   The larger the female, the more eggs she will lay.  Males thus often try to mate with the largest female they can find, and they sometimes engage in severe fights with other males over access to a female. Females will also mate with the largest males they can find, a result of the Good Genes Hypothesis.  Females emit a pheromone from glands in the base of the tail when they are sexually receptive and males can find them by tracking their chemical trails through tongue-flicking. Males show higher tongue flicking rates when exposed to conspecific females verses heterospecific females when mating and will terminate behavioral interaction without initiating courtship if the pheromones do not match the species.  The female lays between 8 and 22 eggs, which she guards and protects until they hatch in June or July. Female broadhead skinks will lay their clutch in decaying log cavities, and they have been observed to create a sort of nest by packing down debris within their cavities. The hatchlings have a total length of 6 centimetres (2.4 in) to 8 centimetres (3.1 in).


Because the sand tiger shark is worldwide in distribution, it has many common names. The term "sand tiger shark" actually refers to four different sand tiger shark species in the family Odontaspididae. Furthermore, the name creates confusion with the unrelated tiger shark Galeocerdo cuvier. The grey nurse shark, the name used in Australia and the United Kingdom, is the second-most used name for the shark, and in India it is known as blue-nurse sand tiger. However, there are unrelated nurse sharks in the family Ginglymostomatidae. The most unambiguous and descriptive English name is probably the South African one, spotted ragged-tooth shark.


Sand tiger sharks roam the epipelagic and mesopelagic regions of the ocean, sandy coastal waters, estuaries, shallow bays, and rocky or tropical reefs, at depths of up to 190 m (623 ft).
The sand tiger shark can be found in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans, and in the Adriatic Seas. In the Western Atlantic Ocean, it is found in coastal waters around from the Gulf of Maine to Florida, in the northern Gulf of Mexico, around the Bahamas and Bermuda, and from southern Brazil to northern Argentina. It is also found in the eastern Atlantic Ocean from the Mediterranean Sea to the Canary Islands, at the Cape Verde islands, along the coasts of Senegal and Ghana, and from southern Nigeria to Cameroon. In the western Indian Ocean, the shark ranges from South Africa to southern Mozambique, but excluding Madagascar. The sand tiger shark has also been sighted in the Red Sea and may be found as far east as India. In the western Pacific, it has been sighted in the waters around the coasts of Japan and Australia, but not around New Zealand.


The majority of prey items of sand tigers are demersal (i.e. from the sea bottom), suggesting that they hunt extensively on the sea bottom as far out as the continental shelf. Bony fish (teleosts) form about 60% of sand tigers' food, the remaining prey comprising sharks and skates. In Argentina, the prey includes mostly demersal fishes, e.g. the striped weakfish (Cynoscion guatucupa) and whitemouth croaker (Micropogonias furnieri). The most important elasmobranch prey is the bottom-living narrownose smooth-hound shark (Mustelus schmitti.). Benthic (i.e. free-swimming) rays and skates are also taken, including fanskates, eagle rays and the angular angel shark, with larger individuals feeding on a higher number of benthic elasmobranchs than smaller individuals. Stomach content analysis indicates that smaller sand tigers mainly focus on the sea bottom and as they grow larger they start to take more benthic prey. This perspective of the diet of sand tigers is consistent with similar observations in the north west Atlantic and in South Africa where large sand tigers capture a wider range of shark and skate species as prey, from the surf zone to the continental shelf, indicating the opportunistic nature of sand tiger feeding. Off South Africa, sand tigers less than 2 m (6.6 ft) in length prey on fish about a quarter of their own length; however, large sand tigers capture prey up to about half of their own length. The prey items are usually swallowed as three or four chunks.


Adult sand tigers range from 2 m (6.6 ft) to 3.2 m (10.5 ft) in length and 91 kg (201 lb) to 159 kg (351 lb) in weight. The head is pointy, as opposed to round, while the snout is flattened with a conical shape. Its body is stout and bulky and its mouth extends beyond the eyes. The eyes of the sand tiger shark are small, lacking eyelids. A sand tiger usually swims with its mouth open displaying three rows of protruding, smooth-edged, sharp-pointed teeth. The males have grey claspers with white tips located on the underside of their body. The caudal fin is elongated with a long upper lobe (i.e. strongly heterocercal). They have two large, broad-based grey dorsal fins set back beyond the pectoral fins. The sand tiger shark has a grey-brown back and pale underside. Adults tend to have reddish-brown spots scattered, mostly on the hind part of the body. In August 2007, an albino specimen was photographed off South West Rocks, Australia. The teeth of these sharks have no transverse serrations (as have many other sharks) but they have a large, smooth main cusp with a tiny cusplet on each side of the main cusp. The upper front teeth are separated from the teeth on the side of the mouth by small intermediate teeth.


The sand tiger shark's description as Carcharias taurus by Constantine Rafinesque came from a specimen caught off the coast of Sicily. Carcharias taurus means "bull shark". This taxonomic classification has been long disputed. Twenty-seven years after Rafinesque's original description the German biologists Müller and Henle changed the genus name from C. taurus to Triglochis taurus. The following year, Swiss-American naturalist Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz reclassified the shark as Odontaspis cuspidata based on examples of fossilized teeth. Agassiz's name was used until 1961 when three palaeontologists and ichthyologists, W. Tucker, E. I. White, and N. B. Marshall, requested that the shark be returned to the genus Carcharias. This request was rejected and Odontaspis was approved by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). When experts concluded that taurus belongs after Odontaspis, the name was changed to Odontaspis taurus. In 1977, Compagno and Follet challenged the Odontaspis taurus name and substituted Eugomphodus, a somewhat unknown classification, for Odontaspis. Many taxonomists questioned his change, arguing that there was no significant difference between Odontaspis and Carcharias. After changing the name to Eugomphodus taurus, Compagno successfully advocated in establishing the shark's current scientific name as Carcharias taurus. The ICZN approved this name, and today it is used among biologists.


C. muricata is native to temperate parts of the western Indo-Pacific region. Its range extends in Australia from Houtman Abrolhos in Western Australia to southern Australia, Tasmania and eastern Australia as far north as Port Denison in Queensland. It is also found in New Zealand, Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island. It is common around southern Australia and New Zealand where it is found on rocks, under boulders and in sandy habitats to depths of about 150 m (500 ft).


In sheltered baylets in Australia, the tunicate Pyura stolonifera can dominate the shallow seabed to the exclusion of other sessile organisms. This provides suitable habitat for filter feeders such as sea cucumbers, brittle stars, and bivalve molluscs, and among them can be found carnivorous starfish such as C. muricata, a specialist feeder on  bivalves. It is often to be found on mussel beds, as well as eating crabs and scavenging for carrion.
This starfish can reproduce by binary fission; a groove appears on the surface of the disc and the two halves of the starfish pull apart from each other. Each part will then regenerate its missing tissues. This is a form of asexual reproduction, and smaller individuals often divide in this way, while larger individuals have an extended breeding season, releasing sperm and eggs into the sea during spring and summer. The larvae are planktonic, and when sufficiently developed, settle onto the seabed in coralline algae habitats.


C. muricata is the largest starfish in southern Australia and can reach a diameter of 50 cm (20 in). It has seven to fourteen arms, with eleven being the commonest number. The aboral (upper) surface of the arms has longitudinal rows of short spines along the surface and margins and the oral (lower) surface has two rows of tube feet. The colour is orange mottled with shades of blue, green, grey and reddish-brown. This starfish is prone to shedding its arms, making it asymmetric until new arms have grown.


Scolopendra heros, commonly known as the giant desert centipede, giant Sonoran centipede, Texas redheaded centipede, and giant redheaded centipede, is a species of North American centipede found in the Southwestern United States and Northern Mexico.


S. heros is primarily a nocturnal predator and hunts invertebrates and small vertebrates, including rodents, reptiles, and amphibians. It is capable of reaching into the air to grab small flying insects. The centipede uses its venom to subdue prey.


S. heros is the largest centipede in North America. It has an average length of 6.5 inches (170 mm), but can reach up to 8 in (200 mm) in the wild, and even longer in captivity. Its trunk bears either 21 or 23 pairs of legs.
It is aposematically colored, to warn off potential predators, and a number of color variants are known in the species. The castaneiceps variant found in Arkansas, Missouri, Texas, and other nearby areas is commonly known as the "giant redheaded centipede" or "Texas redheaded centipede" because of its distinct red head and greenish black body and tail.


Clavaria fragilis is nonpoisonous and reportedly edible, but the fruit bodies are insubstantial and fragile. One field guide says "its flesh is tasteless and so delicate that it seems to dissolve in one's mouth." Its odor has been compared to iodine.


The fruit bodies of C. fragilis are irregularly tubular, smooth to furrowed, sometimes compressed, very fragile, white, up to 15 cm (6 in) tall by 5 mm (0.2 in) thick, and typically grow in dense clusters. The tip of the fruit body tapers to a point, and may yellow and curve with age. There is no distinct stalk, although it is evident as a short, semitransparent zone of tissue at the base of the club. Microscopically, the hyphae of the flesh are swollen up to 12 µm wide and lack clamp connections. The spores are smooth, colourless, ellipsoid to oblong, measuring 5–7 by 3–4 µm. The spores are white in deposit. The basidia (spore bearing cells) measure 40–50 by 6–8 µm, and lack clamps at their bases.


The eastern hog-nosed snake (Heterodon platyrhinos), also known as the spreading adder and many other common names, is a species of mildly venomous rear-fanged snake in the family Colubridae. The species is endemic to North America. There are no subspecies that are recognized as being valid.


The eastern hognose snake feeds extensively on amphibians, and has a particular fondness for toads. This snake has resistance to the toxins toads secrete. This immunity is thought to come from enlarged adrenal glands which secrete large amounts of hormones to counteract the toads' powerful skin poisons. At the rear of each upper jaw, it has greatly enlarged teeth, which are neither hollow nor grooved, with which it punctures and deflates toads to be able to swallow them whole. It will also consume other amphibians, such as frogs and salamanders. Because it is a toad feeding specialist its venom has been modified to be greatly effective against toads and has not been found to be harmful to humans.


The average adult H. platyrhinos measures 71 cm (28 in) in total length (including tail), with females being larger than males. The maximum recorded total length is 116 cm (46 in).
Heterodon is derived from the Greek words heteros meaning "different" and odon meaning "tooth". platirhinos is derived from the Greek words platys meaning "broad or flat" and rhinos meaning "snout".
The most distinguishing feature is the upturned snout, used for digging in sandy soils.
The color pattern is extremely variable. It can be red, green, orange, brown, gray to black, or any combination thereof depending on locality. They can be blotched, checkered, or patternless. The belly tends to be a solid gray, yellow, or cream-colored. In this species the underside of the tail is lighter than the belly.


Studies have shown that H. platirhinos prefers upland sandy pine-forests, old-fields and forest edges. Like most of the genus Heterodon, the Eastern Hognose Snake prefers dry conditions with loose soil for burrowing purposes. These loose soils are preferable habitat components for nesting and egg laying. At the northern end of their range, they have been found to prefer developed lands as their desired habitat followed by mixed forests dominated by Hemlock trees. Based on a study in Canada, the average home range size is about 40 hectares. Some individuals will travel outside of their home range in search of mates and nesting sites.


Eastern hognose snakes mate in April and May. Females lay their eggs in small soil depressions, mammal burrows, or under rocks. Some females have been observed traveling past viable nesting conditions in order to reach communal nesting sites.The females, which lay 8 - 40 eggs (average about 25) in June or early July, do not take care of the eggs or young. The eggs, which measure about 33 mm × 23 mm (1+1⁄3 in × 1 in), hatch after about 60 days, from late July to September. The hatchlings are 16.5–21 cm (6.5–8.3 in) long. They have an average nest temperature of 23-26 degrees Celsius incubating for an average of 49-63 days.


Eastern hognose snakes are occasionally available in the exotic pet trade, but due to their specific dietary requirements, they are not as readily available as other species. Generally, they refuse feeder rodents unless they are scented with amphibians. In Canada, Eastern hognose snakes are considered to be a species-at-risk (COSEWIC designation: Threatened), and consequently capture or harassment of these animals, including their captive trade, is illegal.
These snakes live for approximately 12 years. They shed their skin periodically to grow and develop.


The California whipsnake is known to eat a variety of live animals including insects, lizards, snakes, birds, and small mammals.  It shows a strong preference for lizards, which are captured by a grasp of the mouth, and swallowed alive.


The California whipsnake (Masticophis lateralis) also known as the striped racer, is a colubrid snake found in habitats of the coast, desert, and foothills of California.


Masticophis lateralis is 90–120 centimetres (3.0–3.9 ft) in total length (including tail). It is slender, with a yellowish stripe along each side, set against a dark brown or black back.


Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, the purple sea urchin, lives along the eastern edge of the Pacific Ocean extending from Ensenada, Mexico, to British Columbia, Canada.  This sea urchin species is deep purple in color, and lives in lower inter-tidal and nearshore sub-tidal communities. Its eggs are orange when secreted in water.  January, February, and March function as the typical active reproductive months for the species.  Sexual maturity is reached around two years.
It normally grows to a diameter of about 10 cm (4 inches) and may live as long as 70 years.


The purple sea urchin, along with sea otters and abalones, is a prominent member of the kelp forest community. Sea urchins have been used for food by the indigenous peoples of California, who ate the yellow egg mass raw. The purple sea urchin also plays a key role in the disappearance of kelp forests that is currently occurring due to climate change.
In California, the peak gonad growth season (and therefore peak of edibility) is September–October. Early in the season, the gonads are still growing and the yield will be smaller. From November onwards the gonads are developed, however harvesting stress can induce spawning, decreasing quality.


The cap is initially ovoid in shape, but in maturity becomes convex and eventually flattened. Orange to bright yellow-orange in color, it reaches diameters of 3 to 9 cm (1.2 to 3.5 in). Young specimens are covered with chrome yellow warts that may be easily rubbed off or washed away with rain.
The cap surface is smooth and sticky (viscid) beneath the warts; the edge of the cap is striate, reflecting the arrangement of the gills underneath. The flesh is white. The gills are barely free from the stem, and packed close together. They are white or tinged yellow on the edges, and initially covered with a yellowish partial veil. The stem is typically 5.5 to 11.5 cm (2.2 to 4.5 in) long by 0.7 to 1.4 cm (0.3 to 0.6 in) thick, equal or slightly tapered upward from a small rounded bulb at the base. Its color may range from white to yellowish orange, and the surface may be smooth, or covered with small flakes. The base of the stem usually has chrome yellow flakes of universal veil material adhering loosely to the bulb, or in the soil around the base. The partial veil leaves a skirt-like ring, (annulus) on the upper stem. The spore print of A. flavoconia is white.
Campbell and Petersen published a detailed description of the characteristics of A. flavoconia grown in culture. In the era prior to the commonplace use of DNA analysis and phylogenetics, cultural characters were often used to help provide additional taxonomic information; they found considerable variability between different isolates.
Two variants have been reported from Colombia, collected from Quercus humboldtii forests: A. flavoconia var. sinapicolor and var. inquinata.
As the edibility of this species is unknown, it should not be consumed.


Amanita flavoconia, commonly known as yellow patches, yellow wart, orange amanita, yellow-dust amanita or the American yellow dust amanita, is a species of mushroom in the family Amanitaceae. It has an orangish-yellow cap with yellowish-orange patches or warts, a yellowish-orange annulus, and a white to orange stem. Common and widespread throughout eastern North America, Amanita flavoconia grows on the ground in broad-leaved and mixed forests, especially in mycorrhizal association with hemlock.


This species has often been confused with A. muscaria, some subspecies of which are also orange-colored. It also bears some resemblance to A. frostiana and A. flavorubescens. One 1982 study concluded that a "large majority" of herbarium specimens labeled as A. frostiana were actually A. flavoconia. The use of microscopic features is necessary to distinguish clearly among the species: A. flavoconia has elliptic, amyloid spores, while A. frostiana has round, non-amyloid spores; A. muscaria has nonamyloid, elliptic spores. In the field, A. flavorubescens can usually be distinguished by its yellow cap color.


Lichenomphalia umbellifera or the green-pea mushroom lichen is a species of basidiolichen in the family Hygrophoraceae. It is regarded as nonpoisonous.
The mushroom is yellowish-tan and hygrophanous, and occurs throughout most of the year on damp soil and rotting wood. It can be found in the Northern Hemisphere, particularly in the region of the Arctic. Its cap grows up to 3 cm wide. Its stalk is 1–3 cm tall and 1–3 mm wide. The spores are white or yellowish.


I. cibarium grows alone or clustered together near woody debris, in lawns, gardens, and cultivated soil.


As with other members of the genus Laccaria, this species is edible, though generally not considered a choice edible. While not inherently toxic, in soils that are polluted with arsenic, it can bioaccumulate a high concentration of that element.


Laccaria amethystina is a common species in most temperate zones of Europe, Asia, Central, South, and eastern North America. It grows solitary to scattered with a variety of deciduous and coniferous trees, with which it is mycorrhizally associated, though it most commonly occurs with trees in the Fagales. It appears in late summer to early winter, and often with beech; in Central and South America, it more commonly grows in association with oak. Research has shown that L. amethystina is a so-called "ammonia fungus", an ecological classification referring to those fungi that grow abundantly on soil after the addition of ammonia, or other nitrogen-containing material; the congeneric species Laccaria bicolor is also an ammonia fungus.


The cap is 1–6 cm in diameter, and is initially convex, later flattening, and often with a central depression (navel). When moist it is a deep purplish lilac, which fades upon drying out. It is sometimes slightly scurfy at the center, and has pale striations at the margin.
 The stem is the same colour as the cap, and has whitish fibrils at the base, which become mealy at the top. It is fibrous, hollow, fairly tough when rolled in the fingers, with dimensions of 0.6 to 7 centimetres (0.24 to 2.76 in) long by 0.1 to 0.7 centimetres (0.039 to 0.276 in) thick. The flesh is without a distinctive taste or smell, and is thin, with pale lilac coloration. The gills are colored as the cap, often quite distantly spaced, and are dusted by the white spores; their attachment to the stem is sinuate—having a concave indentation before attaching to the stem.


Lysurus mokusin, commonly known as the lantern stinkhorn, the small lizard's claw, or the ribbed lizard claw, is a saprobic species of fungus in the family Phallaceae. The fruit body consists of a reddish, cylindrical fluted stipe that is capped with several "arms". The arms can approach or even close in on each other to form a spire. The gleba—an olive-green slimy spore mass—is carried on the outer surface of the arms. The fruit body, which has an odor comparable to "fresh dog feces", "rotting flesh", or "sewage" when mature, is edible in its immature "egg" stage. The fungus is native to Asia, and is also found in Australia, Europe and North America, where it is probably an introduced species. It has been used medicinally in China as an ulcer remedy.


This species is considered to be edible when still in the immature "egg" stage, and is thought to be a delicacy in China. When mature, its foul odor would deter most individuals from attempting consumption. The fungus has been used medicinally in China as a remedy for ulcers.


Lysurus mokusin is saprobic, and grows solitarily or in small groups in forest litter, and wood chip mulch used in landscaping, and compost. Documented sightings of L. mokusin include Australasia, the Canary Islands, Korea, Japan, China (Fujian Province), and the Bonin Islands. The species was unknown in Europe until it was reported in Italy in 1979; it is considered an alien species in that continent. In the United States, it has been collected from the states of California, Texas, Northeast Oklahoma and Washington, D.C.


Immature fruit bodies of L. mokusin are white, gelatinous "eggs" measuring 1–3 cm (0.4–1.2 in) in diameter, and are attached to the ground by thickened strands of mycelium called rhizomorphs. As the fungus matures, the egg ruptures as the fruit body rapidly expands, leaving volval remnants behind at the base. The stipe of the hollow, spongy mature fruiting body has dimensions of 10–15 cm (3.9–5.9 in) by 1.5–2.5 cm (0.6–1.0 in), and ranges in color from white to pink to red, with 4–6 distinct deeply grooved sides divided lengthwise by ribs. The basis of distinction between L. mokusin and other species of Lysurus is the angular form of its stipe. The sides branch out into 4–6 arms that are fused together at the tip to form a pointed apex, resembling a spire. As the mushroom matures, the arms may spread apart. The outer surface of the arms is coated by a brownish, slimy, foul-smelling spore mass called the gleba; its fetid odor helps it attract flies and other insects to assist in spore dispersal. The odor has been compared to "fresh dog feces", "rotting flesh" or sewage.
The spores are cylindrical in shape, smooth, thin-walled, and hyaline (translucent), with dimensions of 4–6 by 2–2.5 µm. Scanning electron microscopy reveals that one end of the spores has a hilar scar—an indentation in the spore wall that results during its separation from the sterigma of the basidium. The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are usually eight-spored, and the gleba composed of chains of roughly spherical, fusiform, ellipsoid to broadly club-shaped cells that are either 6.5–7.4 by 2.8–5.6 µm or 37.1–46.3 by 18–28 µm and also mixed with filamentous cells 2.3–4.5 µm wide. The hyphae of L. mokusin have clamp connections.


Lysurus cruciatus is similar is appearance to L. mokusin, but has a cylindrical stem without any flutings at the tip. Lysurus borealis is also similar, but its stipe is not fluted, and without the angles present in L. mokusin.


These snakes are venomous, but possess a weaker venom than many other rattlesnakes. This, together with the smaller size of their venom glands, makes them less dangerous than their larger relatives. Regardless, any rattlesnake bite can be fatal and should be taken seriously and medical attention sought immediately.
Norris (2004) lists these venom yields: 33 mg average and 63 mg maximum (Klauber, 1956), and 30 mg average and 80 mg maximum (Glenn & Straight, 1982). Brown (1973) gives a venom yield of 33 mg (Klauber, 1956) and LD₅₀ values for mice of 2.6 mg/kg IV, 3.0, 4.0, 2.3 mg/kg IP and 5.5 mg/kg SC for toxicity. With these figures, Brown calculated that the LD₅₀ for an adult human being weighing 70 kg would be 385 mg (SC).
Envenomation can cause pain, swelling, hemorrhagic bleb formation, and ecchymosis (i.e., bruising). Swelling, while not particularly severe, occasionally may involve entire limbs and the trunk. Envenomation's systemic symptoms include nausea, dizziness, chills, coagulopathy (blood disorders), and shock. Klauber (1997) includes an account of a man who had been bitten on the first joint of the index finger of the right hand, with only a single fang penetrating. Although the bite was described as no more painful than a pin prick, a doctor was seen within about 25 minutes, and 10 cm³ of antivenin were administered. Within 2.5 hours, his entire arm was swollen and the pain was severe, "as if the arm were soaked in a bucket of boiling oil."
Ovine-derived antivenom, CroFab, for North American pit viper envenomation, has been widely available since 2001. Consultation with a local expert or regional poison control center should be obtained before administering antivenom. The previous antivenin (ACP) is no longer manufactured.


The common name sidewinder alludes to its unusual form of locomotion, which is thought to give it traction on windblown desert sand, but this peculiar locomotor specialization is used on any substrate over which the sidewinder can move rapidly. As its body progresses over loose sand, it forms a letter J-shaped impression, with the tip of the hook pointing in the direction of travel. Sidewinding is also the primary mode of locomotion in other desert sand dwellers, such as the horned adder (Bitis caudalis) and Peringuey's adder (Bitis peringueyi), but many other snakes can assume this form of locomotion when on slick substrates (e.g., mud flats). Sidewinder rattlesnakes can use sidewinding to ascend sandy slopes by increasing the portion of the body in contact with the sand to match the reduced yielding force of the inclined sand, allowing them to ascend up to the maximum possible sand slope without slip.  In cybernetics, incorporating this control scheme into a snakebot can enable the robot to replicate sidewinding movement.
The species is nocturnal during hot months and diurnal during the cooler months of its activity period, which is roughly from November to March (probably longer in the southern part of its range).
Juveniles use their tails to attract lizard prey, a behavior termed "caudal luring". Adults lose this behavior as they make the transition from lizard prey to their primary diet of desert rodents. Sidewinder juveniles appear to mimic both life stages of lepidopterans in their luring motions. Their fast luring motions resemble the fluttering of a moth, and their slower tail movements resemble a caterpillar. Both movements have been observed to attract prey lizards.
Neonatal sidewinders engage in a remarkable behavioral homeothermy that has not been observed in any other type of snake. Following birth, the neonates mass together in their natal burrow. Most often, gravid females select an east-facing, small-diameter rodent burrow for giving birth. For the first week or so of their lives, neonatal sidewinders plug the entrance to this burrow during daylight hours, forming a dynamic multiple-individual mass that takes advantage of the hot exterior environment and the cool interior of the burrow to maintain an average aggregate temperature of 32°C (the optimal temperature for shedding). The dynamic mass of neonates modifies the thermal environment at the burrow entrance such that the young can occupy a location that would ordinarily become lethally hot for an individual neonate (or even an adult). Because of the constant movements of the neonates, the aggregate assumes stable temperature properties reminiscent of a homeothermic organism (i.e., maintains tight temperature tolerance ± 2°C).


In the Southwestern United States, this species is found in the desert region of southeastern California, southern Nevada, southwestern Utah, and western Arizona. In northwestern Mexico, it is found in western Sonora and eastern Baja California.


A small species, adult specimens measure between 43 and 76 cm (17 and 30 in) in length. Most adults are 50–80 cm (19.5–31.5 in) in length. The females are larger than the males, which is unusual for this group of snakes.
Usually, 21 rows of keeled dorsal scales occur midbody. Males have 141 or fewer ventral scales; females have 144 or fewer. It is sometimes referred to as the horned rattlesnake because of the raised supraocular scales above its eyes. This adaptation may help shade the eyes or prevent sand drifting over them as the snake lies almost buried in it.
The color pattern consists of a ground color that may be cream, buff, yellowish-brown, pink, or ash gray, overlaid with 28-47 dorsal blotches subrhombic or subelliptical in shape. In the nominate subspecies, the belly is white and the proximal lobe of the rattle is brown in adults. Klauber and Neill describe the ability of this species to display different coloration depending on the temperature—a process known as metachrosis.


Females produce up to 18 young, with an average of about 10 per litter. Like most other viperids, the young are born enveloped in thin embryonic membranes, from which they emerge shortly after being expelled from the mother. The young stay with their mother in a burrow for 7-10 days, shed for the first time, then leave their natal burrow. During this time, the mother is thought to guard and protect them from predators.
Sidewinders mature at 2-3 years of age, are capable of reproducing annually, and give birth to live young. Some females skip reproductive opportunities. Some might even skip two years if the food supply is scarce. Sidewinders mate in April through May and sometimes in fall. When the male and female mate, the male snake crawls along the female's back, rubbing her with his chin to stimulate or arouse her. The male then will wrap his tail around her tail, and then will try to bring their cloacae together. The cloaca is the posterior body opening through which snakes both excrete waste and reproduce. If the female wants to mate, she lifts her tail and allows him to mate with her. The snakes can mate for several hours, and if one of the snakes decides to move, the other is dragged along. Females might mate with several males in a season. Females give birth to five to 18 young in late summer to early fall. The young are born 6-8 inches long. The birth takes only 2-3 hours altogether. Within a few minutes of being born, the newborn sidewinder escapes from a thin, transparent membrane. The young stay at their natal burrow for 7-10 days until they shed, and then they disappear and have no future contact with their mother or their littermates. While the density of sidewinders can be up to one individual per hectare, they rarely encounter each other except during mating season.
Sidewinders have an extraordinarily accelerated lifecycle, with natural life expectancies of females of about 5 years. Males may live quite a bit longer (maximum known natural lifespan of 13 years). Sidewinders can live more than 20 years when well fed in captivity (even females). Thus, energetics apparently factor heavily into natural female mortality, whereas predation might be the primary pressure on males. In the wild, females often die of exhaustion after giving birth, but the lives of sidewinders are also cut short by predation, diseases, and vehicle encounters.


Houtman Abrolhos, Western Australia, across South Australia and Victoria to Cape Byron, New South Wales, and around Tasmania.


The species feeds on Euryspongia spp. sponges.


This firm-bodied species grows to a maximum recorded length of 15 centimetres. Within South Australian waters, dark coloured individuals are more common in the west and paler colours more so in the east. An orange form is considered typical in SA.


Flavoparmelia caperata, the common greenshield lichen, is a foliose lichen that grows on the bark of trees, and occasionally on rock.


The snakelocks anemone (Anemonia viridis) is a sea anemone found in the eastern Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. The latter population is however sometimes considered a separate species, the Mediterranean snakelocks anemone (Anemonia sulcata).
The tentacles are usually a deep green colour with purple tips, the green colour is often attributed to the presence of symbiotic algae within the tentacles but is actually the result of the presence of Green Fluorescent Protein which is present in corals, sea anemones, and some other cnidarians. The anemone tissue contains a symbiotic algae called zooxanthellae, which is necessary for the long-term survival of the sea anemone. When the numbers of algae diminish the anemone may appear dull grey in colour. The algae need light to flourish, so Snakelocks Anemones will be found in the sunniest pools. On average the snakelock anemone is 8 cm wide.


This species is widely consumed in southwestern Spain, in the Gulf of Cádiz region, as ortiguillas de mar (literally, "little sea nettles", because it has urticant properties before it is cooked), or simply ortiguillas. The whole animal is marinated in vinegar, coated in a tempura-like batter, and deep-fried in olive oil. Ortiguillas are offered in some coastal Andalusian restaurants as a delicacy. They are similar in appearance and texture to croquettes, but have a strong seafood taste. This anemone is also consumed in Sardinia, where it is deep fried in olive oil and known as orziadas.
It is becoming a popular aquarium pet, especially in Europe and readily adapts to aquaria.


The false map turtle lives in large streams of the Missouri and Mississippi River systems, ranging from Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, through the Dakotas southward to southwestern Alabama, southern and western Mississippi, and Louisiana. The false map turtle also lives in several other river systems of Southwest Louisiana and East Texas.


The false map turtle is a strong swimmer and prefers rivers and large creeks with moderate currents, containing aquatic vegetation, as well as snags or floating logs. They are also comfortable in deep and swift water. The turtles are present in oxbow lakes and sloughs, but are absent from lakes, ponds, or small streams. Basking is important to these turtles, and they may even be found on steep, slippery snags.


Ramalina farinacea is an epiphytic bushy shaped (fruticose) lichen common to areas with Mediterranean, subtropical, or temperate climates. It is in the genus Ramalina of the family Ramalinaceae. The coexistence of two different species of the Trebouxia genus of green algae at the same time were found to be in each specimen collected in widely distributed populations. The algae thrive in different temperature and light environments. It is thought this demonstrates an ability of the lichen with two simultaneous green algae partners to proliferate in a wider range of habitats and geographic areas.
This lichen species is characterized by its long, narrow branches (less than 2 to 3 millimeters wide) and clearly defined marginal soralia. It is most often found at low elevations on trees and shrubs.


The desert kingsnake (Lampropeltis splendida) is a species of kingsnake native to Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico, United States. It is not venomous, colored yellow and black. The desert kingsnake's diet consists of rodents, lizards, and smaller snakes, including rattlesnakes. They normally grow 3–4 ft long, but have been known to grow up to 6.8 ft.  They are docile creatures when confronted by humans.  If they do not try to escape, often they "play dead" by flipping over onto their backs and lying motionless. Some who domesticate kingsnakes, such as ranchers, do so in the hopes that the kingsnakes will feed on other snakes, which might present more of a threat. It was previously considered a subspecies of the common kingsnake. The Desert Kingsnake belongs to the Colubridae family, which is the largest family of snakes in the world.


This snake is known to be a powerful constrictor; its diet consists of mostly mice if domestic, and other rodents if wild. It also can feed on reptile eggs detected beneath the surface via smell. In part because of its resistance to pitviper venom, the desert kingsnake is able to consume young diamondback rattlesnakes that are common within its range, and at the scent of L. getula even adult western diamondbacks edge hastily backward, shielding their heads with defensive loops.


The desert kingsnake may occur in any rural habitat within its range. Despite its common name, it is most likely to be found in mesic areas, especially near water tanks or within riparian corridors.


As with most reptiles, L. splendida lays eggs. Courtship and copulation occur between March and June, with clutches of 5 to 12 adhesive-surfaced eggs deposited in late June or July, sometimes buried as deeply as a foot to prevent drying through their moisture-permeable shells. After about 60 days of incubation, the 8- to 10-inch-long hatchlings, weighing about a fifth of an ounce, emerge. Brightly yellow-speckled in vertebral cross-lines, they also exhibit a lateral row of large, dark brown spots, which as they mature, are gradually fragmented by encroaching yellow flecks.


Marasmius oreades is a choice edible mushroom. Its sweet taste lends it to baked goods such as cookies. It is also used in foods such as soups, stews, etc.  Traditionally, the stems (which tend to be fibrous and unappetizing) are cut off and the caps are threaded and dried in strings.  A possible reason why this mushroom is so sweet-tasting is due to the presence of trehalose, a type of sugar that allows M. oreades to resist death by desiccation. When exposed to water after being completely dried out, the trehalose is digested as the cells completely revive, causing cellular processes, including the creation of new spores, to begin again.


Marasmius oreades grows extensively throughout North America, especially the east where they are also more diverse, and Europe in the summer and autumn (fall) (June–November in the UK), or year-round in warmer climates. It appears in grassy areas such as lawns, meadows, and even dunes in coastal areas.


Marasmius oreades grows gregariously in troops, arcs, or rings (type II, which causes the grass to grow and become greener). The cap is 1–5 centimetres (1⁄2–2 inches) across; bell-shaped with a somewhat inrolled margin at first, becoming broadly convex with an even or uplifted margin, but usually retaining a slight central bump- an "umbo"; dry; smooth; pale tan or buff, occasionally white, or reddish tan; usually changing color markedly as it dries out; the margin sometimes faintly lined.
The bare, pallid, and tough stem grows up to about 2–6 cm (1–2+1⁄2 in) tall and 2–6 mm (1⁄16–1⁄4 in) in diameter.
The gills are attached to the stem or free from it, fairly thick and spaced apart, and white or pale tan, with a cyanide-like odor and dropping a white spore print. The spores measure 7–10 μm × 4–6 μm; they are smooth, elliptical, and inamyloid.  Cystidia absent. Pileipellis without broom cells.


Marasmius oreades, also known as the fairy ring mushroom or fairy ring champignon, is a mushroom native to North America and Europe. Its common names can cause some confusion, as many other mushrooms grow in fairy rings, such as the edible Agaricus campestris and the poisonous Chlorophyllum molybdites.


Oulactis muscosa, also known as the sand anemone and speckled anemone, is a species of sea anemone in the family Actiniidae.


This anemone is found in New Zealand, and in the Australian waters of southern Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia.


Oulactis muscosa feeds on small mussels.


This is a large, greenish-grey to off-white species, growing to 60–80 mm. It has up to one hundred short, conical tentacles that are transparent to pale greenish to greyish-white, to pale brown, grouped into three rows. On the column, there are vertical rows of adhesive bumps (verrucae) that are relatively darker than the rest of the body. The tentacles also have horizontal black bands.
The oral disk varies in colouration, and is sometimes red, green, black or white, and may have streaks of darker colour radiating outward from its mouth.
This species can be recognized by gravel, bits of shell or coarse sand that it attaches between its tentacles.
Oulactis muscosa is closely related to Oulactis mcmurrichi (the southern sand anemone), which shares the same distribution and habitat.  Oulactis muscosa can be distinguished by the difference in colouration. The column of Oulactis macmurrichi is more reddish-brown, or green to light purple, and has light green tentacles. It is possible that the two are variants of the same species.


Chaga is traditionally grated into a fine powder and used to brew a beverage resembling coffee or tea. However, caution is warranted with chronic use due to the extremely high concentrations of oxalates in chaga. Three extraction processes may be used.
Hot water extraction is one of the most common preparations. A decoction is created by simmering pieces of the chaga in numerous quarts of water until the water is reduced and the remaining liquid contains a portion of the chaga's concentrated water-soluble compounds. Such preparations, produced in China and Japan, are exported worldwide. The ß-D-glucans may have a content of approximately 35% in a pure extract. If chaga tea is prepared at home, the chaga chunks can be reused multiple times.
Ethanol or methanol extraction isolates the water-insoluble components, betulinic acid, betulin and the phytosterols. This extraction process is in general used as a second step after hot-water extraction, since ethanol alone will not break down chitin effectively—heat is essential.
Fermentation is the most time-consuming and most expensive. Because fermentation methods are not standardized (many types of bacteria and fungi can be used in the process), the outcome is also not standardized.


Generally found growing on birch (Betula spp.) trees, it has also been found on alder (Alnus spp.), beech (Fagus spp.) and poplar (Populus spp.). In species other than birch, the fungus often appears as buried stem canker, instead of the charcoal-like mass found on birch trees.
Attempts at cultivating this fungus on potato dextrose agar and other simulated mediums resulted in a reduced and markedly different production of metabolites. Cultivated chaga developed a reduced number of phytosterols, particularly lanosterol, an intermediate in the synthesis of ergosterol and lanostane-type triterpenes.


These spiders are most often found in moist areas, especially near water.  The web is built between grass or in low shrubbery. They hide during the day in a silken retreat that opens at the bottom, masked with plant and animal matter and leave it during the night. The web is remade in the evening. Unlike many other species of animal and spider, the cornutus does not hibernate in winter, and instead has an annual cycle of seasonal resistance. While their supercooling point in summer is -8 °C, in winter it drops to -20 °C.


North American sources list A. hygrometricus as inedible, in some cases because of its toughness.
However, they are regularly consumed in Nepal and South Bengal, where "local people consume them as delicious food". They are collected from the wild and sold in the markets of India.
A study of a closely related southeast Asian Astraeus species concluded that the fungus contained an abundance of volatile eight-carbon compounds (including 1-octanol, 1-octen-3-ol, and 1-octen-3-one) that imparted a "mushroom-like, earthy, and pungent odor that was evident as an oily and moss-like smell upon opening the caps". The study's authors further noted that the fruit bodies after cooking have a "roasted, maillard, herbal, and oily flavor". Volatile compounds detected after cooking the mushroom samples included furfural, benzaldehyde, cyclohexenone, and furanyl compounds. The regional differences in opinions on edibility are from sources published before it was known that North American and Asian versions of A. hygrometricus were not always the same; in some cases Asian specimens have been identified as new species, such as A. asiaticus and A. odoratus.


This earthstar has been used in traditional Chinese medicine as a hemostatic agent; the spore dust is applied externally to stop wound bleeding and reduce chilblains. Two Indian forest tribes, the Baiga and the Bharia of Madhya Pradesh, have been reported to use the fruit bodies medicinally. The spore mass is blended with mustard seed oil, and used as a salve against burns. The Blackfoot of North America called the fungus "fallen stars", considering them to be stars fallen to the earth during supernatural events.


Astraeus hygrometricus, commonly known as the hygroscopic earthstar, the barometer earthstar, or the false earthstar, is a species of fungus in the family Diplocystaceae. Young specimens resemble a puffball when unopened. In maturity, the mushroom displays the characteristic earthstar shape that is a result of the outer layer of fruit body tissue splitting open in a star-like manner. The false earthstar is an ectomycorrhizal species that grows in association with various trees, especially in sandy soils. A. hygrometricus was previously thought to have a cosmopolitan distribution, though it is now thought to be restricted to Southern Europe, and Astraeus are common in temperate and tropical regions. Its common names refer to the fact that it is hygroscopic (water-absorbing), and can open up its rays to expose the spore sac in response to increased humidity, and close them up again in drier conditions. The rays have an irregularly cracked surface, while the spore case is pale brown and smooth with an irregular slit or tear at the top. The gleba is white initially, but turns brown and powdery when the spores mature. The spores are reddish-brown, roughly spherical with minute warts, measuring 7.5–11 micrometers in diameter.
Despite a similar overall appearance, A. hygrometricus is not related to the true earthstars of genus Geastrum, although historically, they have been taxonomically confused. The species was first described by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon in 1801 as Geastrum hygrometricus. In 1885, Andrew P. Morgan proposed that differences in microscopic characteristics warranted the creation of a new genus Astraeus distinct from Geastrum; this opinion was not universally accepted by later authorities. Several Asian populations formerly thought to be A. hygrometricus were renamed in the 2000s once phylogenetic analyses revealed they were unique Astraeus species, including A. asiaticus and A. odoratus. Similarly, in 2013, North American populations were divided into A. pteridis, A. morganii, and A. smithii on the basis of molecular phylogentics. This research suggests that the type specimen of Astraeus hygrometricus originates in a population restricted to Europe between Southern France and Turkey, with A. telleriae found nearby in Spain and Greece. Research has revealed the presence of several bioactive chemical compounds in Astraeus fruit bodies. North American field guides typically rate A. hygrometricus as inedible.


Although A. hygrometricus bears a superficial resemblance to members of the "true earthstars"  Geastrum, it may be readily differentiated from most by the hygroscopic nature of its rays. Hygroscopic earthstars include G. arenarium, G. corollinum, G. floriforme, G. recolligens, and G. kotlabae. Unlike Geastrum, the young fruit bodies of A. hygrometricus do not have a columella (sterile tissue in the gleba, at the base of the spore sac). Geastrum tends to have its spore sac opening surrounded by a peristome or a disc, in contrast with the single lacerate slit of A. hygrometricus. There are also several microscopic differences: in A. hygrometricus, the basidia are not arranged in parallel columns, the spores are larger, and the threads of the capillitia are branched and continuous with the hyphae of the peridium. Despite these differences, older specimens can be difficult to distinguish from Geastrum in the field. One species of Geastrum, G. mammosum, does have thick and brittle rays that are moderately hygroscopic, and could be confused with A. hygrometricus; however, its spores are smaller than A. hygrometricus, typically about 4 µm in diameter.
Astraeus pteridis is larger, 5 to 15 cm (2 to 6 in) or more when expanded, and often has a more pronounced areolate pattern on the inner surface of the rays. It is found in North America and the Canary Islands. A. asiaticus and A. odoratus are two similar species known from throughout Asia and Southeast Asia, respectively. A. odoratus is distinguished from A. hygrometricus by a smooth outer mycelial layer with few adhering soil particles, 3–9 broad rays, and a fresh odor similar to moist soil. The spore ornamentation of A. odoratus is also distinct from A. hygrometricus, with longer and narrower spines that often joined. A. asiaticus has an outer peridial surface covered with small granules, and a gleba that is purplish-chestnut in color, compared to the smooth peridial surface and brownish gleba of A. hygrometricus. The upper limit of the spore size of A. asiaticus is larger than that of its more common relative, ranging from 8.75 to 15.2 μm. A. koreanus (sometimes named as the variety A. hygrometricus var. koreanus; see Taxonomy) differs from the more common form in its smaller size, paler fruit body, and greater number of rays; microscopically, it has smaller spores (between 6.8 and 9 μm in diameter), and the spines on the spores differ in length and morphology. It is known from Korea and Japan.


Because apples are an economically important crop, control is usually focused there.  Interruption of the disease cycle is the only effective method for control of the cedar apple rust.  The recommended method of control is to “remove cedars located within a 1 mile (1.6 km) radius” of the apples to interrupt the disease cycle, though this method is seldom practical.  For those doing bonsai, it is common to have the trees within feet of each other and on the central eastern seaboard of the United States, Eastern Red Cedar is a common first-growth conifer along roadsides.
There are differences in the susceptibility of various apple varieties.  'Jonathan', 'Rome Beauty', 'Wealthy', 'Stayman', 'Jonafree' and 'York Imperial' are susceptible.  'Grimes Golden', 'Red Delicious', 'Winesap', 'Redfree', 'McIntosh', 'Liberty', and 'Priscilla' are resistant.  Crabapples are generally more susceptible than apples.  Resistant crabapples include 'Adams', 'Beverly', 'Candied Apple', 'Dolgo', 'Donald Wyman', 'Eleyi', 'Inglis', 'Indian Summer', 'Liset', 'Mt. Arbor', M. persicifolia, 'Red Jewel', 'Robinson', 'Robusta', 'Royalty', M. sargentii, 'Tina', 'Snowdrift', and 'Special Radiant'.  Resistant Crataegus (Hawthorn) include C. crus-galli, series Intricatae, C. laevigata, 'Autumn Glory', C. phaenopyrum, C. pruinosa, C. viridis, and 'Winter King'.  The resistant varieties are less susceptible to attack, but that does not mean that they are free from an aggressive attack.
Fungicide sprays applied in a timely manner are highly effective against the rust diseases during the apple cycle.  Most protective fungicide sprays are applied four times at 7- to 10-day intervals, starting with pink bud on crabapples.  These applications are to protect the apples from spores being released from the cedar host in mid-spring.  If cedar apple rust disease is diagnosed on apple fruits and leaves it is far too late to spray. Although curative fungicides also exist for cedar apple rust, they must still be applied before trees begin to develop symptoms.  Systemic fungicides are available as well, which require fewer sprays during the season. However, there are no fungicides available to home gardeners that can be used on trees that produce fruit which will be eaten by people.
Fungicides listed for use on apples can be used in July and August on the cedars to reduce infection.  Application of fungicides to the junipers before and while they are in the infectious orange gelatinous state seems to reduce the severity of the outbreak.


On the apple tree, the infections occur on leaves, fruit and young twigs.  The brightly colored spots produced on the leaves make it easy to identify.  Small, yellow-orange spots appear on the upper surfaces of the leaves, through April and June.  These spots gradually enlarge and turn orange or red and may show concentric rings of color.  Drops of orange liquid may be visible on the spots.  Later in the season, black dots appear on the orange spots on the upper leaf surface.  In late summer, tube-like structures develop on the undersurface of the apple leaf. Infected leaves sometimes drop prematurely, particularly during drought conditions or when the tree is under additional stress. Infections on fruit are usually near the blossom end and are somewhat similar to the leaf lesions.
On the eastern red cedar host, the fungus produces reddish-brown galls from 1⁄4–1 inch (6.4–25.4 mm) in diameter. These galls  grow quickly, and by fall, may reach diameters of 3-5 cm.  This can lead to them being mistaken for cone structures by the uninitiated.  After reaching a diameter of about 1⁄2 inch (13 mm), the galls show many small circular depressions. In the center of each depression is a small, pimple-like structure.  In the spring these structures elongate into orange gelatinous protrusions or horns.  The spore-bearing horns swell during rainy periods in April and May. The wind carries the microscopic spores to infect apple leaves, fruit and young twigs on trees within a radius of several miles of the infected tree.
On other species of juniper more common in landscaping and bonsai, the sizes of the infections are reduced.  Early in the infection, the galls are small bumps on the woody portions of the plant.  They maintain the orange gelatinous form after the first warm rains of spring but generally on a greatly reduced scale.


The diet of S. carinatus consists primarily of aquatic invertebrates, including freshwater clams, crayfish, snails, and various insects. It also feeds on fish and carrion.


S. carinatus is found in the states of Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Oklahoma, Florida, and Texas.


The razor-backed musk turtle grows to a straight carapace length of about 15 cm (5.9 in). It has a brown-colored carapace, with black markings at the edges of each scute. The carapace has a distinct, sharp keel down the center of its length, giving the species its common name.
The body is typically grey-brown in color, with black spotting, as is the head, which tends to have a bulbous shape to it. It has a long neck, short legs, and a sharp beak. Males can usually be distinguished from females by their longer tails.
The plastron is small, with only one hinge which is located anteriorly. There is no gular scute. Barbels are present on the chin only.


The razor-backed musk turtle is frequently kept in captivity, and is regularly captive bred. Its relatively small size, hardiness and ease of care makes it a more attractive choice as a pet turtle for many keepers, than the more commonly available red-eared slider (Trachemys scripta elegans). There is disagreement in sources how old musk turtles can get in captivity with estimates ranging between 20 and 50 years.


Courting begins after female fence lizards encounter a male within his territory. Males express sexually dimorphic ventral abdominal coloration during courting. This coloration is used to attract mates, as more and brighter colors have been recorded to increase the likelihood of courtship.
In 60% of instances where a female and male encountered each other, males displayed courting behaviors. Older and larger males tend to win contests with other males, and therefore gain access to any nearby females. Any contest victories or defeats did not affect a lizard's future location. Larger bodied males are more likely to mate with multiple females. Contests with other males and courtship towards females elevates plasma levels of corticosterone, an indicator of stress, in adult males.
Feeding Behaviors
Fence Lizards are ambush, sit-and-wait, predators. They are insectivores that typically eat arthropods such as ants and grasshoppers.  Studies have shown that Eastern Fence Lizards display an ontogenetic shift in consumption of native and invasive prey. Although Eastern Fence Lizards are an ant specialist, invasive imported red fire ants can pose a risk to young, smaller-bodied juveniles if they consume them. It was found there was an increased consumption of fire adults in the adult life stage compared to earlier life stages.


The eastern fence lizard is found in Florida, Alabama, Louisiana, Arkansas, Colorado, Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, West Virginia, Virginia, Indiana, Kentucky, Southern Illinois, Southern Indiana, Tennessee, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Missouri, Mississippi, Delaware, northern Florida, southern Wyoming, northeastern Pennsylvania, southern New Jersey, and southeastern New York. It prefers open woodland and the edges of forests.
There are some introduced populations of eastern fence lizards, the most well known in Staten Island, New York. In 1942, Carl Kauffeld released 29 of the lizards near Rossville where they still persist today in post oak-blackjack oak barrens. This introduction was done so Kauffeld could have an easy source of food for the lizard-eating snakes at the Staten Island Zoo, as he would otherwise have to drive to the Pine Barrens to collect the lizards for the snakes. There have also been sightings of the fence lizards in northern Pennsylvania and southern New York (in the Hudson Valley and Long Island), suggesting that their range may be expanding north.
Despite its broad geographic distribution, these lizards tend to prefer temperatures that optimize their digestive performance. Their locomotive performance is optimal at ranges of 28–38 °C and 25–36 °C.