Its thin, upright stems can grow to 6 feet (1.8 m) tall, with narrow, pointed, smooth-edged to serrated, furry to smooth green leaves, connected to their stems by petioles to 0.4 inches (1.0 cm) long. There are no basal leaves.
The blue flowers (rarely white), nearly 1⁄4 to 1⁄2 inch (6.4 to 12.7 mm) long, appear summer to autumn near the ends of their branched or unbranched spikes; their calyxes are tubular or bell-shaped and furry. Two varieties are known, Salvia azurea var. azurea (azure sage) and Salvia azurea var. grandiflora (Pitcher sage).
The stems of wild S. azurea tend to be long and unbranched, causing them to flop under the weight of their flowers. When grown in cultivation, the stems of S. azurea are sometimes cut back early in the growing season to encourage branching and slow the vertical growth of the plant to prevent lodging.


S. azurea is found from Utah east to Connecticut and from Minnesota south to Florida. S. azurea var. azurea tends to be found in the eastern and southeastern portion of this range, while S. azurea var. grandiflora is found in the west and northwest.  In some states within its native range, it has become especially rare, such as in Illinois, where it is listed as a threatened species.
Throughout its range, it is found growing wild on roadsides, glades, prairies, savannas, fields and pastures. S. azurea prefers dry, sunny conditions in a variety of soils, including clay, gravel, and loam. In wetter conditions, the plant will still grow and bloom, but tends to lodge.


Salvia azurea var. azurea - azure sage
Salvia azurea var. grandiflora - Pitcher sage
Salvia azurea var. grandiflora 'Nekan' - seed selection released in 1977 by Manhattan Plant Materials Center of Manhattan, Kansas, and Nebraska Agriculture Experiment Station in Lincoln, Nebraska. Selected for better performance and more uniform plant growth.


Salvia columbariae is an annual plant that is commonly called chia, chia sage, golden chia, or desert chia, because its seeds are used in the same way as those of Salvia hispanica (chia).  It grows in California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Sonora, and Baja California, and was an important food for Native Americans.  Some native names include pashiiy from Tongva and it'epeš from Ventureño.


Salvia columbariae grows 10 to 50 cm (3.9 to 19.7 in) tall. Its stem hairs are generally short and sparse in distribution. It has oblong-ovate basal leaves that are 2 to 10 cm (0.79 to 3.94 in) long. The leaves are pinnately dissected and the lobes are irregularly rounded. The inflorescence is more or less scapose, meaning it has a long peduncle that comes from the ground level that has bracts. The bracts are round and awn-tipped. There are usually 1–2 cluster of flowers within the inflorescence. The calyx is 8 to 10 mm (0.31 to 0.39 in) long and the upper lip is unlobed but has 2 (sometimes 3) awns. The lower lip is about twice the size of the upper lip. The flower color can be pale blue to blue and purple tipped. The stamens of the plant are slightly exserted. The fruit of S. columbariae is a nutlet that is tan to grey in color and 1.5 to 2 mm (0.059 to 0.079 in) long.


Salvia columbariae var. columbariae Benth. – California sage, chia
Salvia columbariae var. ziegleri Munz – Ziegler's sage


Salvia columbariae can be found in dry undisturbed sites, chaparral, and coastal sage scrub. It generally grows at elevations lower than 2,500 m (8,200 ft). In cultivation, it prefers good drainage, sun, and dry weather.


The Cahuilla used the columbariae Benth. variety as a disinfectant by grinding the seeds to mush and applying it to infections as a poultice. The Cahuilla, Ohlone, Kawaiisu, and Mahuna used the gelatinous seeds to cleanse out foreign matter in the eyes. The seeds were placed in the eyes for infections and inflammation, and during sleep, they were tucked underneath the eyelids to remove sand particles. The Ohlone also used it to reduce fevers by consuming the seeds, and the Diegueno chewed the seeds on journeys by foot to give strength.


The Cahuilla, Kawaiisu, Mohave, Tohono O'odham, Chumash and Akimel O'odham grind the seeds and mixed it into water to make a thick beverage. The Cahuillas removed the alkali salts in the water, improving the flavor. They also dry the seeds to make cakes or mush. The Ohlones, Mohave, and Pomo make pinole. The Diegueno added the seeds to wheat to improve flavor. The Mahuna, Paiute, and Akimel O'odham make it into a gelatinous material, then cook it into porridge. The Luiseno, Tubatulabal, and Yavapai used it extensively as a food source.


The Mahuna made it into a fiber and covered their dwellings.


Salvia dorrii, the purple sage, Dorr's sage, fleshy sage, mint sage, or tobacco sage, is a perennial spreading shrub in the family Lamiaceae. It is native to mountain areas in the western United States and northwestern Arizona, found mainly in the Great Basin and southward to the Mojave Desert, growing in dry, well draining soils.


Salvia dorrii is a woody subshrub reaching 10–70 cm (4–28 in) in height and width. The grey-green leaves are narrow and lanceolate, are tapered at the base and rounded at the tip generally without teeth or lobes. They are generally basal, and 1–3 cm (3⁄8–1+1⁄8 in) long. They have an intense but pleasant, mildly intoxicating minty aroma, with the scent released when the foliage is handled or crushed. The inflorescence is made up of spike-like clusters of numerous purple flowers that are bilaterally symmetric. Each cluster is 12–30 mm (1⁄2–1+1⁄8 in) across. Bracts are generally round 5–12 mm (1⁄4–1⁄2 in) long. Each calyx is usually 6–11 mm (1⁄4–3⁄8 in). The upper lip is most often round without teeth or lobes. The lower lip lobes are pointed without spines. The color is variable, blue to purple to rose. The corolla tube is 6–13 mm (1⁄4–1⁄2 in) or so, often blue but sometimes purple to pink to white. The stamens and style protrude from the flower. The latter is forked at the tip. The flowers remain on the plants after being pollinated, with the desiccated flowers remaining for some weeks or months after flowering.


It is a larval host plant to the elegant sphinx moth.


Some chemical components found in Salvia dorrii include salvidorol and two epimeric abietane diterpenes.


Salvia farinacea, the mealycup sage, or mealy sage, is a herbaceous perennial native to Nuevo León, Mexico and parts of the United States including Texas and Oklahoma. Violet-blue spikes rest on a compact plant of typically narrow salvia-like leaves; however, the shiny leaves are what set this species apart from most other Salvia, which bear velvety-dull leaves.


The mealycup sage reaches stature heights of 60 to 90 cm. The shape of the leaf blade varies from ovate-lanceolate to lanceolate. The inflorescence axis forms a blue, rarely a white hair. The truncated calyx has very short calyx teeth. They are dense blue or white hairy, so that the individual enamel teeth are barely recognisable. The bright blue-white flowers are slim and gleaming. The crown will be about 2.5 inches long. Inside the crown there is no ring-shaped hair strip.
The first description of S. farinacea was made in 1833 by George Bentham in Labiatarum Genera et Species, p. 274. Synonyms for S. farinacea Benth. include Salvia linearis Sessé & Moc. and S. virgata Ortega.


This plant requires full or partial sun and will grow to 18 inches or more with good soil and will attract butterflies and hummingbirds. The plant is hardy to USDA Hardiness Zones 8–10. The plant flowers from June to frost.  In the temperate latitudes, it is cultivated as an annual plant and used as an ornamental plant in parks and gardens, especially in summer discounts. It can also be used as a cut flower.
Several cultivars are cultivated, such as 'Blue Bedder', 'Victoria' with intense violet-blue flowers and 'Strata' with white and blue flowers. Crosses between S. farinacea and S. longispicata (S. longispicata × S. farinacea) are widely sold as ornamental plants, such as 'Indigo Spires' and 'Mystic Spires Blue'.


Salvia glutinosa, the glutinous sage, sticky sage, Jupiter's sage, or Jupiter's distaff, is a herbaceous perennial plant belonging to the family Lamiaceae.


Salvia glutinosa grows to approximately 40–60 centimetres (16–24 in) tall. The stems are erect, with bright green hairy leaves that are about 13 cm (5.1 in) long, with petioles of about 8–10 centimetres (3.1–3.9 in). The leaves are deciduous, toothed, pointed, tomentose and glandular. With the first frosts, foliage disappears and the plant is ready to overwinter in dormant buds.
All parts of the plant are covered with sticky glandular hairs, especially the lime-green calyces and the flowers, resulting in the name "glutinosa". These sticky hairs probably have a protective function against predators. Salvia glutinosa is the main host plant of the plant bug Macrotylus quadrilineatus, that feeds on the juices of the plant and on small insects entrapped on this sticky sage.
Flowers grow in whorls of two to six, with pale yellow flowers speckled with maroon. The flowers are supported by tiny persistent bracts and have a length of 3–5 centimetres (1.2–2.0 in), which is quite big for a sage. The flowers have two stamens and a bell-shaped calyx. The flowering period extends from June to September.
This species contains salvinorin A at 39 micrograms per gram of plant material.


This plant is native to Central and East Europe, and West Asia. It is grown in gardens.


Salvia glutinosa  is found in forested areas in deciduous and mixed woods especially in the shade and partial shade and in calcareous soils, at an altitude of 100–1,600 metres (330–5,250 ft) above sea level.


Salvia lyrata (lyre-leaf sage, lyreleaf sage, wild sage, cancerweed), is a herbaceous perennial in the family Lamiaceae that is native to the United States, from Connecticut west to Missouri, and in the south from Florida west to Texas. It was described and named by Carl Linnaeus in 1753.


Salvia lyrata forms a basal rosette of leaves that are up to 8 inches (20 cm) long, broadening toward the tip. The leaves have irregular margins and are typically pinnately lobed or cut, looking somewhat like a lyre. The center vein is sometimes dark wine-purple. A square-shaped hairy stem up to 2 feet (0.61 m) long grows from the rosette, with uneven whorls of two-lipped lavender to blue flowers. Flowering is heaviest between April and June, though sparse flowering can happen throughout the year. The leaves were once thought to be an external cure for cancer, thus one of the common names "Cancerweed". Salvia lyrata grows in full sun or light to medium shade, with native stands found on roadsides, fields, and open woodlands.


Salvia lyrata is sometimes grown in gardens for its attractive foliage and flowers, though it can prolifically seed, easily becoming a lawn weed. Several cultivars have been developed with purple leaves. 'Burgundy Bliss' and 'Purple Knockout' are two cultivars with burgundy leaves that are deeper in color than the species. Native Americans used the root as a salve for sores, and used the whole plant as a tea for colds and coughs.


Armitage, Allan M. (2006). Armitage's Native Plants for North American Gardens. Timber Press. pp. 335–336. ISBN 978-0-88192-760-3.
"Salvia lyrata". IPNI Database. International Plant Names Index. 2005. Retrieved 2009-03-12.
Duever, Linda Conway. "Salvia lyrata". Floridata. Retrieved 2009-03-11.
"Lyreleaf Sage" (PDF). USDA Plant Fact Sheet. United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 2009-03-12.
Anisko, Tomasz (2008). When Perennials Bloom. Timber Press. p. 402. ISBN 978-0-88192-887-7.
Choukas-Bradley, Melanie; Brown, Tina Thieme (2004). An Illustrated Guide to Eastern Woodland Wildflowers and Trees. University of Virginia Press. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-0-8139-2251-5.
Moerman, Daniel E. (1998). Native American Ethnobotany. 9780881924534. p. 510. ISBN 9780881924534.


Salvia mellifera (black sage, also known as seel by the Mahuna) is a small, highly aromatic, evergreen shrub of the genus Salvia (the sages) native to California, and Baja California, Mexico. It is common in the coastal sage scrub of Southern California and northern Baja California. Black sage has a dark appearance, especially during drought.


Black sage is a perennial shrub that grows approximately 1–2 meters (3.3–6.6 ft) tall. It is covered with simple hairs with some glandular hairs, which makes it highly aromatic. The leaves are oblong-elliptic to obovate in shape and are about 2.5–7 cm (0.98–2.76 in) long. The upper surface of the leaf is somewhat glabrous, while the lower surface of the leaf is hairy.
The inflorescence occurs in 1.6–4 cm (0.63–1.57 in) wide clusters. The flowers are usually a pale blue or lavender color, and rarely a pale rose color. The upper lip of the flower is 2-lobed. The style and stamens are slightly exserted. The fruit produced by the black sage is a schizocarp composed of four 2–3 mm (0.079–0.118 in) brown nutlets.


Black sage grows in the coastal sage scrub and lower chaparral plant communities. It occurs from sea level to 1,200 m (3,900 ft) elevation. Black sage is able to grow on a variety of different soils, including sandstone, shale, granite, serpentinite, and gabbro or basalt. It is semi-deciduous, depending on the location and severity of drought, shallow rooted, and drought tolerant by leaf curling rather than drought-avoiding through leaf drop.
Black sage readily hybridizes with three other coastal scrub Salvias: Salvia apiana (white sage), Salvia leucophylla, and Salvia clevelandii. It rarely hybridizes with the annuals Salvia columbariae and Salvia carduacea.


The Chumash people used a strong sun tea of the leaves and stems of the plant. This was rubbed on the painful area or used to soak one's feet. The plant contains diterpenoids, such as aethiopinone and ursolic acid, that are pain relievers.
The Black Sage also produces a nectar that Black Sage honey is made from. This honey is typically peppery and strong, and is prized as a rare honey due to the plant's dry climate. Black Sage honey can only be made when specific rain conditions are met and the plant produces enough nectar.


Salvia microphylla, the baby sage, Graham's sage, or blackcurrant sage, is an evergreen shrub found in the wild in southeastern Arizona and the mountains of eastern, western, and southern Mexico. It is a very complex species which easily hybridizes, resulting in numerous hybrids and cultivars brought into horticulture since the 1990s. The specific epithet microphylla, from the Greek, means "small leaved". In Mexico it is called mirto de montes, or "myrtle of the mountains".


Salvia microphylla grows to 1 to 1.3 m (3.3 to 4.3 ft) tall and wide, blooming in its first year and growing to full size in its second year. The leaves are ovate shaped, of varying sizes, and smooth or lightly covered with hairs. When crushed, the leaves have a strong fragrance, which has been described as pleasant and mint-like, but also as similar to that of blackcurrants, leading to the use of "blackcurrant sage” as an English name for this species. It sometimes spreads underground, producing dense patches.
Along with its cultivars and hybrids, S. microphylla blooms heavily in late spring and again in autumn, with sporadic flowering year-round in mild conditions. The flowers are arranged in whorls, with a wide range of color: magenta, red, pink, and rose.


Botanist Carl Epling considered Salvia microphylla to have three geographical races, though the wide variation still causes confusion today, and there are conceivably more than three races. Adding to the confusion, Salvia microphylla is often mistaken for Salvia greggii, with which it frequently hybridizes. Epling distinguishes between the two by the S. microphylla leaves, which have serrated edges, compared to the narrow, elliptic, and smooth-edged S. greggii leaves — and by a pair of papillae inside the S. microphylla corolla.
In the U.S. it is sometimes called "Graham's sage," as it was named Salvia grahamii by George Bentham. It was also named Salvia neurepia by Merritt Lyndon Fernald. Both these botanic names are considered invalid as they are later than microphylla.
There is also confusion between Salvia microphylla and Salvia lemmonii, which was named by Asa Gray. Later, Gray began calling it Salvia microphylla var. wislizeni, considering it to be a variety of S. microphylla, though most taxonomies still consider S. lemmonii to be a unique species. S. lemmonii has leaves that are 1.5 to 3 cm (0.59 to 1.18 in) long, which are furry and sharp-pointed, along with flowers that are often vermilion or magenta, with the inflorescence shorter than that of S. microphylla. var. neurepia.


Some cultivars are hybrids with Salvia greggii (known as Salvia × jamensis) and other Salvia species; collectively they may be called "Mexican salvias". Technically they are evergreen shrubs or sub-shrubs, though they are not reliably hardy and are also short-lived. However, they are easy to propagate from cuttings. Those marked AGM have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.
'Alba': White flowers
'Blush Pink': Rich pink flowers
'Cerro Potosi':AGM  Large vibrant magenta flowers
'Desert Blaze': Bright red flowers, variegated yellow and green leaves
'Forever Red': Shrublike, long-blooming, scarlet flowers
'Graham's Sage': Many red flowers blooming simultaneously
'Hoja Grande': Magenta-red flowers and dark green leaves
'Hot Lips':AGM Flowers with a white base and bright red top
'James Compton': Oval, serrated leaves; large, dark crimson flowers
'Kew Red': Vigorous grower with vivid red flowers
'La Foux': Deep crimson flowers with dark calyces
'La Trinidad Pink': Bright pink flowers
var. neurepia (Fern.) Epling: Flowers cherry red in autumn
'Newby Hall': 6 feet (2m), bright scarlet flowers
'Oxford': Dark pink flowers
'Pat Vlasto' (S. × jamensis): Leaves unserrated; peach-orange blossoms
'Pink Blush': Free flowering, rose-magenta flowers
'Pleasant View': Pink flowers
'Red Velvet': Lustrous red flowers
‘Ribambelle’:AGM a profusion of salmon pink flowers
'Rosita': Repeat bloomer with bright candy-pink flowers
'Royal Bumble':agm large deep crimson flowers on a bushy evergreen plant
'Ruth Stungo': Leaves variegated green and white
'San Carlos Festival: magenta-scarlet flowers, gray-green leaves
'Trebah': Upright, lilac white flowers
'Trelawney': Upright, rose-pink flowers
'Trelissick': Upright, creamy yellow flowers
'Trenance': Upright, lilac-pink flowers
'Trewithin': Upright, cerise flowers
'Wild Watermelon': large pink flowers with dark calyces


Salvia microphylla is grown in central Mexico as a medicinal plant, and used for making tea.


Salvia pratensis, the meadow clary or meadow sage, is a species of flowering plant in the family Lamiaceae, native to Europe, western Asia and northern Africa. The Latin specific epithet pratensis means "of meadows", referring to its preferred habitat. It also grows in scrub edges and woodland borders.


This herbaceous perennial forms a basal clump 1 to 1.5 m (3.3 to 4.9 ft) tall, with rich green rugose leaves that are slightly ruffled and toothed on the edges. The stems have four edges and are clad in glandular and soft hairs. The leaves are arranged in opposite pairs, with those on the lower part of the stem up to 15 cm (6 in) long, decreasing in size higher up the stem. The flower stalks are typically branched, with four to six flowers in each verticil forming a lax spike. The flowers may grow up to 2.5 cm (1 in) and open starting from the base of the inflorescence, which grows up to 30.5 cm (12 in) long. The small calyx is dark brown. The corolla is irregular, 20 to 30 mm (0.8 to 1.2 in) long, fused with two lips and long-tubed. The upper lip arches in a crescent shape and the lower lip is three-lobed with the central lobe larger than the lateral lobes. In the wild the corolla is usually bluish-violet. In cultivation, the flowers have a wide variety of colors, from rich violet and violet-blue to bluish white, and from pink to pure white. There are two long stamens protected by the upper corolla lip and the fruit is a four-chambered schizocarp.


Salvia pratensis is native to Europe, western Asia and northern Africa where it grows in meadows, fields, banks and rough places. It has become naturalized in many parts of the United States, and is considered a noxious weed in the state of Washington. At one time it was banned from California because it was thought to have naturalized in three locations.


Salvia pratensis is hardy in the severest European climates, down to −20 °C (−4 °F). It is widely grown in horticulture, especially Salvia pratensis subsp. haematodes, which is prized by flower arrangers as a cut flower. Some botanists consider it a separate species, S. haematodes.
Named cultivars include:-
'Atroviolacea', dark blue to violet
'Baumgartenii', blue to violet
'Lupinoides', to 60 cm (24 in), white-flecked blue to purple
'Mitsommer' ("Midsummer"), sky blue
'Rosea', rose-pink to purple
'Rubicunda', rose-red
'Tenorii', to about 60 cm (24 in) tall, blue flowers
'Variegata', blue and sometimes white-tipped flowers.


The cultivar group Haematodes, and the cultivar 'Indigo' with violet blue flowers, have both gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


The name of the plant 'clary' is derived from 'clear-eye' and the plant seeds were formerly used as a paste to remove particles from the eyes and to reduce inflammation or redness. It was also used as a gargle for sore throats, and to clean teeth. It has also been used as a flavouring for beers and wines.


Salvia texana, commonly called Texas sage, is a species of flowering plant in the mint family (Lamiaceae). It is native to North America, where it is found in northern Mexico, and in the U.S. states of Texas and New Mexico. Its natural habitat is dry areas on limestone soils, in prairies or over rock outcrops.
It is an herbaceous perennial that grows 1 to 1.5 ft (0.30 to 0.46 m) tall. It has with hairy lanceolate-oblanceolate leaves. The flowers are purple-blue. It resembles Salvia engelmannii in appearance, but has a longer bloom period, smaller and darker flowers, and unopened green buds at the top of the plant.


Salvinia minima is a species of aquatic, floating fern that grows on the surface of still waterways. It is usually referred to as common salvinia or water spangles. Salvinia minima is native to South America, Mesoamerica, and the West Indies and was introduced to the United States in the 1920s-1930s. It is classified as an invasive species internationally and can be detrimental to native ecosystems. This species is similar to but should not be confused with giant salvinia, Salvinia molesta.


The leaves of Salvinia minima are small and oval, ranging from 0.4 to 2 centimeters in length. Each rhizome of the fern floats close to the surface and has a joined set of leaves that branch off horizontally. The leaves grow in joined sets of three, with two leaves floating on the surface and one leaf dissected, hanging underneath. This species is rootless but the dissected leaves that hang down act as root-like structures and are longer than the floating leaves. Fine white hairs grow uniformly on the leaf surface and serve to repel water. The hairs grow in groups of four but do not touch at the tips. There are longer brown hairs present on the underside of leaves as well. Leaves range from bright green to brown in color, often browning with age and in sunlight.


Salvinia minima undergoes three unique stages of growth. In the primary (initial) stage, a single bud or a small number of buds of the fern are introduced to an environment. In this stage, the leaves will lie flat on the surface of the water. In the secondary stage, the ferns have been growing and multiplying and the leaves will begin to curl upward. In the tertiary (final) stage, the individual ferns will become much more dense and appear as mats on top of the water. The leaves may be almost vertical in this stage because of crowding.


Reproduction in Salvinia minima occurs asexually through fragmentation. Though sporocarps, spore-producing sacs, may be present on the leaves of this species, Salvinia minima is thought to be sterile and can only reproduce asexually. Any part of a rhizome that buds or breaks off can form another daughter plant. Since fragmentation can occur continuously, Salvinia minima often shows exponential growth. Buds and rhizome fragments can also remain dormant for periods of time when growth is less favorable.


Salvinia minima commonly grows on the surface of still or slow-moving freshwater areas, such as lakes, ponds, and canals. It can tolerate water salinity of up to 4 to 7 parts per thousand (ppt) (or 1.003-1.005 SG) and also inhabits brackish water, including swamps, marshes, and wetlands. This species can also be found in backyard ponds and private lakes and can be purchased in states where it is not prohibited as a noxious plant.


Though Salvinia minima is native to Latin America and the West Indies, it has been introduced to parts of the United States, where it is considered an invasive alien species. It was first noted in the U.S. in St. John's river in eastern Florida. It is thought to have been transported there by shipping boats in the late 1920s or early 1930s. S. minima quickly expanded its range throughout Florida and then expanded westward and northward in the United States. It spreads to new ecosystems on the bottoms of boats, in ship ballast tanks, through flooding waterways, or can be carried by birds or other animals. S. minima currently has a range that spreads across the southeast from Florida to New Mexico as well as some northern states, including New York, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Maryland. It is also present in Puerto Rico. S. minima is listed as a noxious plant in Texas, where it is prohibited from being owned and transported.


When introduced to a new environment, Salvinia minima can quickly reproduce and form expansive mats on the top of waterways. Its presence and speedy reproduction can out-compete and inhibit the growth of native water plants. Mats of S. minima can block sunlight from entering the water, which suppresses the growth of underwater plants that photosynthesize, resulting in less dissolved oxygen in the water. This can lead to fish kills. Waterfowl species that feed on either fish or native aquatic plants can also be affected by a lack of food. In bayou and swamp areas specifically, S. minima is known to out-compete the floating aquatic plant duckweed (Lemnoideae). Duckweed is a relatively benign plant that is rich in protein and serves as a common source of food for many fish and bird species in its ecosystem. S. minima, however, has questionable nutritional value, although the Salvinia genus has been studied for use as a supplement in livestock feeds.  The result of an invasion of S. minima on native ecosystems can be a serious threat to native species and overall biodiversity. As such, S. minima is considered an invasive species and is described on the Global Invasive Species Database. ]
Salvinia minima can be a nuisance to recreational watercraft, especially kayaks and canoes, in areas where it grows densely. It can also have adverse effects on crawfish farming, rice farming, and other commercial activities that occur in waterways where it is present.


In order to protect native environments, efforts to eradicate or contain the spread of Salvinia minima have been attempted. Management tactics include various methods and research studies that have shown a range of effectiveness.


Mechanical methods include the physical removal of S. minima from areas where it is established. This can include raking the surface of the water or seining the plants off with large nets. Mechanical methods have proven mostly ineffective because it can be difficult to maneuver equipment in small waterways, and any fragments left behind will regrow.


Chemical herbicides that have been used with the best success on S. minima include the ingredients fluridone, imazamox, and penoxsulam. Some of these herbicides kill S. minima more successfully when a surfactant is added to make the chemicals stick to the surface of the leaves. Though herbicides are effective in controlling S. minima, they can have adverse effects. Herbicides can kill or cause harm to native organisms that are not the intended target. Also, if a large area of S. minima is sprayed with an herbicide all at once, the dead plant matter will sink into the water and decompose, which can deplete oxygen in the water and result in fish kills. Smaller sections can be sprayed at a time to combat this side effect.
It is impractical to treat very large bodies of water with herbicides as any fragments that do not die will regrow quickly. The cost of herbicides is high, from $198 to $297 per hectare. Chemical means are overall a less desirable method of control because of the side effects and cost.


Biological control methods involve the introduction of another species in order to contain the spread of an invasive species. This method aims to bring more balance back to an ecosystem that has been invaded by weakening the invasive organism so it has fewer competitive advantages, as well as decreasing or containing the invasive species' population.
Biological control efforts for S. minima have been centered around the tiny salvinia weevil, Cyrtobagous salviniae. This weevil is native to South America. It was introduced accidentally in Florida, a state in which salvinia is widespread but considered manageable. The manageable level of salvinia species, both S. minima and Salvinia molesta (giant salvinia), is thought to be caused by the presence of these weevils, which live and feed on the salvinia leaves.
Since the discovery of the weevils, research has been conducted on the effects of weevils in different ecosystems of S. minima. In 2005-2006, a research group from Louisiana State University (LSU) introduced salvinia weevils into Gramercy, LA, where S. minima is present. The salvinia weevils were collected from Florida and kept in greenhouses on the LSU campus in Baton Rouge. In the study, the effects of the weevils on S. minima were compared to the effects of the salvinia stem-borer moth, Samea multiplicalis. The stem-borer moth is a species native to the southern United States and is known to feed on other salvinia species in the same genus. Both the moth and the weevil feed on salvinia plants and control its spread. The study had four treatments: the weevil alone, the moth larvae alone, the weevil and moth larvae combined, and a control group. Each group was placed in a 1-m² poyvinylchloride (PVC) pipe frame that was placed over a section of S. minima in a waterway in Gramercy. There were four replicates of each treatment. Each month during the research, S. minima plant mass was collected from each treatment square and then measured to find the dry weight of the plant. Data were compiled into bar charts to compare the effects of the four treatments over time. The results of this study found that the three treatments all had a significant effect in decreasing the amount of S. minima in an area when compared to the control group, though none of the three experimental treatments were statistically better than the other two. From June to October 2006, the average biomass of S. minima in the treatment groups was 100-375 grams, whereas the average biomass of S. minima in the control frames was 450-600 grams. The salvinia stem-borer moth is native to the United States and presents no threat to the environment. There are also no known negative impacts of introducing the non-indigenous salvinia weevils to the environment, as they feed exclusively on S. minima and S. molesta. Further research from the group documented establishment of weevil populations of Salvinia minima in southern Louisiana. Research continues to try to identify cold tolerant populations that may be more suited to the region.
The lack of detrimental effects makes biological control methods the most promising in the long-term management of S. minima. Research studies and control efforts are ongoing.


Sambucus cerulea or Sambucus nigra ssp. cerulea, with the common names blue elderberry and blue elder, is a coarse textured shrub species of elder in the family Adoxaceae.


This plant is classified by several different botanical names besides Sambucus cerulea. Both the current USDA database and The Jepson Manual of California flora (2013) classify the plant as Sambucus nigra subsp. cerulea.
The Sunset Western Garden Book identifies the plant as Sambucus mexicana, and note use of Sambucus caerulea also.
The botanist Victor King Chesnut (1867-1938) had classified it as Sambucus glauca in 1902, when studying the plants used by the Indigenous peoples of California in Mendocino County.


Sambucus cerulea is native to the Western United States, northwestern Mexico, and British Columbia. It is found from the Pacific coasts, through California and the Great Basin, to Montana, Wyoming, Texas and Oklahoma.
This species grows at elevations below 3,000 metres (9,800 ft), in diverse habitats of mountains and hills, valleys, riparian zones, open places in woodlands and forests, and exposed slopes where moisture is reachable.


Sambucus cerulea is a large, deciduous shrub, which can grow to be 9 metres (30 ft) in height and 6 metres (20 ft) in width. It is distinguishable from other elderberries by the glaucous powder coating on its bluish-black berries. It normally grows rather wildly from several stems, which can be heavily pruned (or even cut to the ground) during winter dormancy.
The leaves are hairless, strongly pointed and sharp-toothed. They are elliptical to lanceolate, and the blade extends unequally on the stalk at the base. The leaves are commonly 3–15 cm (1–6 in) long and 2–6 cm (1–2.5 in) wide.
The white or creamy coloured flowers, occurring May to June, are numerous and form a flat-topped cluster usually about 5–20 cm (2–8 in) wide. They are umbel-shaped, normally with 4 to 5 rays extending from the base. The flowers have a strong, unpleasant odor. Individual flowers are 4–7 mm wide.
The fruits given are berry-like drupes. They are juicy, round, and approximately 4–6 mm in diameter. They are bluish-black
appearing as a pale powdery blue colour. Each fruit contains 3 to 5 small seed-like stones, each enclosing a single seed.


The flower blossoms can be used to make tea. The fruits can be eaten raw, dried, or as jelly. The raw berries contain a toxin which, if eaten raw, may induce nausea in some people.


The indigenous peoples of North America, with the plant in their homelands, use the leaves, blossoms, bark, roots, and wood for preparing traditional medicinal remedies, taken internally or applied externally. The fresh, dried, and cooked berries are used for food.
Some tribes used the wood to make musical instruments, such as flutes, clappers, and small whistles; and smoking implements. Soft wood was used as a spindle "twirling stick" to make fire by friction. The bark was used to produce a remedy for fever. Stems and berries were used as a dye for basket weaving materials.
The Concow tribe of the Mendocino region calls the plant nō-kōm-hē-i′-nē in the Konkow language.


Sambucus nigra ssp. cerulea is cultivated as an ornamental plant by plant nurseries, for planting in traditional, native plant, and habitat gardens. It is also used for natural landscaping and habitat restoration projects. It can become a multi-trunk tree when trained from youth with only several dominant trunks.
The plant is beneficial in wildlife gardens, its flowers attract pollinators, butterflies and hummingbirds, and its berries feed other bird species and chipmunks.


The genus name comes from the Greek word sambuce, an ancient wind instrument, in reference to the removal of pith from the twigs to make whistles.


Sambucus ebulus, also known as danewort, dane weed, danesblood, dwarf elder or European dwarf elder, walewort, dwarf elderberry, elderwort and blood hilder, is a herbaceous species of elder, native to southern and central Europe and southwest Asia. The species is a well-established archaeophyte in much of the UK, and is also reportedly naturalized in parts of North America (New York, New Jersey and Québec).


Sambucus ebulus grows to a height of 1–2 m and has erect, usually unbranched stems growing in large groups from an extensive perennial underground stem rhizome. The leaves are opposite, pinnate, 15–30 cm long, with 5-9 leaflets with a foetid smell. The stems terminate in a corymb 10–15 cm diameter with numerous white (occasionally pink) flat-topped hermaphrodite flowers. The fruit is a small glossy black berry 5–6 mm diameter. The ripe fruit give out a purple juice.
The name danewort comes from the belief that it only grows on the sites of battles that involved the Danes. The term 'walewort' or 'walwort' meant 'foreigner plant.' The plant's stems and leaves turn red in autumn and this may explain the link with blood. The word Dane may link to an old term for diarrhoea.


"Dwarf elder (Sambucus ebulus L) is one of the best known medicinal herbs since ancient times. In view of its benefits as a widely applicable phytomedicine, it is still used in folk medicine of different parts of the world. In addition to its nutritional values, dwarf elder contains different phytochemicals among which flavonoids and lectins are responsible for most of its therapeutic effects. Dwarf elder has been used for different ailments including: joint pains, cold, wounds, and infections."


Sambucus javanica, the Chinese elder, is a species of elderberry in the family Adoxaceae native to subtropical and tropical Asia. It is found naturally in Bhutan, Burma, Cambodia, China (except in the north), India, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Malaysia (in Sabah), the Philippines, southern Thailand, and Vietnam. It is a perennial herb or a small shrub 1–2 m (3 ft 3 in–6 ft 7 in) tall.
Parts of the plant are used locally, variously as analgesics, blood purifiers, bowel and bladder stimulants, or even for poison. It is also believed to be an aid against numbness, rheumatism, spasms, swelling, and trauma, as well as for general bone and circulatory health.


Sambucus nigra is a species complex of flowering plants in the family Adoxaceae native to most of Europe. Common names include elder, elderberry, black elder, European elder,  European elderberry, European black elderberry and tramman (Isle of Man). It grows in a variety of conditions including both wet and dry fertile soils, primarily in sunny locations. The plant is widely grown as an ornamental shrub or small tree. Both the flowers and the berries have a long tradition of culinary use, primarily for cordial and wine.
Although elderberry is commonly used in dietary supplements and traditional medicine, there is no scientific evidence that it provides any benefit for maintaining health or treating diseases.


Elderberry is a deciduous shrub or small tree growing to 6 metres (20 ft) tall and wide, rarely reaching 10 m (33 ft) tall. The bark, light gray when young, changes to a coarse gray outer bark with lengthwise furrowing, lenticels prominent. The leaves are arranged in opposite pairs, 10–30 centimetres (4–12 inches) long, pinnate with five to seven (rarely nine) leaflets, the leaflets 5–12 cm (2–4+3⁄4 in) long and 3–5 cm (1+1⁄4–2 in) broad, with a serrated margin. The young stems are hollow.
The hermaphroditic flowers have five stamens, which are borne in large, flat corymbs 10–25 cm in diameter in late spring to mid-summer. The individual flowers are ivory white, 5–6 millimetres (3⁄16–1⁄4 in) in diameter, with five petals, and are pollinated by flies.
The fruit is a glossy, dark purple to black berry 3–5 mm diameter, produced in drooping clusters in late autumn. The dark color of elderberry fruit occurs from its rich phenolic content, particularly from anthocyanins.


There are several other closely related species, native to Asia and North America, which are similar, and sometimes treated as subspecies of Sambucus nigra, including S. nigra subsp. canadensis and S. nigra subsp. cerulea.


Sambucus nigra is native to Europe as far east as Turkey. It is native in, and common throughout, the British Isles. It has been introduced to parts of most other continents of the world.
Hedges, waste-ground roadsides, and woods are the typical habitats for the species.S. nigra is recorded as very common in Ireland in hedges as scrub in woods.


Like other elderberries, Sambucus nigra is subject to elder whitewash fungus and jelly ear fungus.


Elder rates as fair to good forage for animals such as mule deer, elk, sheep, and small birds. The fruit are an important food for many fruit-eating birds, notably blackcaps. Ripe elderberries are a favorite food for migrating band-tailed pigeons in northern California, which may sometimes strip an entire bush in a short time. The species provides good habitat for large and small mammals, as well as nesting habitat for many birds, including hummingbirds, warblers, and vireos. It is also a larval host to the spring azure.
Except for the flowers and ripe berries (but including the ripe seeds), all parts of the plant are poisonous to mammals, containing the cyanogenic glycoside sambunigrin (C₁₄H₁₇NO₆, CAS number 99-19-4). The bark contains calcium oxalate crystals.


It is a very common feature of hedgerows and scrubland in Britain and northern Europe.
Some selections and cultivars have variegated or coloured leaves and other distinctive qualities, and are grown as ornamental plants. S. nigra f. porphyrophylla has dark maroon or black leaves, and pale pink flowers.
The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:
S. nigra f. laciniata (cut-leaved alder)
S. nigra f. porphyrophylla 'Eva'
S. nigra f. porphyrophylla 'Gerda'


The dark blue or purple berries are mildly poisonous in their raw state, but are edible after cooking. They can be used to make jam, jelly, chutney, and Pontack sauce. In Scandinavia and Germany, soup made from the elderberry (e.g. the German Fliederbeersuppe) is a traditional meal.
Commonly, the flowerheads are used in infusions, giving a drink in Northern Europe and the Balkans. These drinks are sold commercially as elderflower cordial or elderflower pressé . In Europe, the flowers are made into a syrup or cordial (in Romanian: Socată, in Swedish: fläder(blom)saft, in Danish: hyldeblomstsaft / hyldedrik), which is diluted with water before drinking. The popularity of this traditional drink recently has encouraged some commercial soft drink producers to introduce elderflower-flavoured drinks (Fanta Shokata, Freaky Fläder). The flowers also may be dipped into a light batter and then fried to make elderflower fritters.
The berries may be made into elderberry wine. In Hungary, an elderberry brandy is made that requires 50 kilograms of fruit to produce 1 litre of brandy. In south-western Sweden, it is traditional to make a snaps liqueur flavoured with elderflower. Elderflowers are used in liqueurs such as St-Germain, and in a mildly alcoholic sparkling elderflower 'champagne', although a more alcoholic home-made version can be made. In Beerse, Belgium, a variety of jenever called beers vlierke is made from the berries.


This plant is used in traditional medicine by native peoples and herbalists. Extracts of the flowers and fruits are used for cold and flu symptoms, although there is no high-quality clinical evidence that it is effective for treating any disease.


Sambucus racemosa is a species of elderberry known by the common names red elderberry and red-berried elder.


It is native to Europe, northern temperate Asia, and North America across Canada and the United States. It grows in riparian environments, woodlands, and other habitats, generally in moist areas.


Sambucus racemosa is often a treelike shrub growing 2–6 m (7–20 ft) tall. The stems are soft with a pithy center.
Each individual leaf is composed of 5 to 7 leaflike leaflets, each of which is up to 16 cm (6+1⁄4 in) long, lance-shaped to narrowly oval, and irregularly serrated along the edges. The leaflets have a strong disagreeable odor when crushed.
The inflorescence is a vaguely cone-shaped panicle of several cymes of flowers blooming from the ends of stem branches. The flower buds are pink when closed, and the open flowers are white, cream, or yellowish. Each flower has small, recurved petals and a star-shaped axis of five white stamens tipped in yellow anthers. The flowers are fragrant and visited by hummingbirds and butterflies.
The fruit is a bright red or sometimes purple drupe containing 3 to 5 seeds.


Sambucus racemosa subsp. kamtschatica — red elder, native to Northeastern Asia.
Sambucus racemosa var. melanocarpa — Rocky Mountain elder, native to the Western United States and Western Canada, including the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada.
Sambucus racemosa subsp. pubens — American red elder, native to Eastern North America
Sambucus racemosa subsp. racemosa — European red elder.
Sambucus racemosa  var. racemosa — Pacific red elderberry.
Sambucus racemosa subsp. sibirica — red elder, native to Siberia.
Sambucus racemosa subsp. sieboldiana — Japanese red elder


The stems, roots and foliage are poisonous, and the berries can be toxic or cause nausea if eaten raw.


It has been used as a traditional medicinal plant by Native Americans, including the Bella Coola, Carrier, Gitksan, Hesquiaht, Menominee, Northern Paiute, Ojibwa, Paiute, Potawatomi, Tlingit, and Haida peoples. The uses included as an emetic, antidiarrheal, cold and cough remedy, dermatological and gynecological aid, and a hemostat.


The fruits are reportedly safe to eat when cooked, but are potentially poisonous when raw. They were cooked in a variety of recipes by indigenous peoples, including by the Apache, Bella Coola, Gitxsan, Gosiute, Makah, Ojibwa, Quileute, Skokomish, Yurok peoples.
The fruits are popular with birds, who also distribute the seeds. The flowers attract butterflies and hummingbirds.


Sambucus racemosa is cultivated as an ornamental plant, for use as a shrub or small tree in traditional and wildlife gardens, and natural landscape design projects.


Cultivars in the nursery trade include:
Sambucus racemosa 'Black Lace' — burgundy foliage
Sambucus racemosa 'Lemon Lace' — golden yellow and green foliage
Sambucus racemosa 'Lemony Lace' — golden green foliage, with red new growth
Sambucus racemosa 'Sutherland Gold' — green foliage, with bronze new growth: it has received the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


Sanguinaria canadensis, bloodroot, is a perennial, herbaceous flowering plant native to eastern North America. It is the only species in the genus Sanguinaria, included in the poppy family Papaveraceae, and is most closely related to Eomecon of eastern Asia.
Sanguinaria canadensis is sometimes known as Canada puccoon, bloodwort, redroot, red puccoon, and black paste. Plants are variable in leaf and flower shape, and have been separated as a different subspecies due to these variable shapes, indicating a highly variable species.
In bloodroot, the juice is red and poisonous. Products made from sanguinaria extracts, such as black salve, are escharotic and can cause permanent disfiguring scarring. Although preliminary studies have suggested that sanguinaria may have potential applications in cancer therapy, clinical studies are lacking, and its use is not recommended.


Bloodroot is native to eastern North America from Nova Scotia to Florida, and west to the Great Lakes and down the Mississippi embayment.
Sanguinaria canadensis grows in moist to dry woods and thickets, often on floodplains and near shores or streams on slopes. They grow less frequently in clearings and meadows or on dunes, and are rarely found in disturbed sites.


Sanguinaria canadensis is cultivated as an ornamental plant. The double-flowered forms are prized by gardeners for their large showy white flowers, which are produced very early in the gardening season. Bloodroot flower petals are shed within a day or two of pollination, so the flower display is short-lived, but the double forms bloom much longer than the normal forms. The double flowers are made up of stamens that have been changed into petal-like parts, making pollination more difficult.
The double-flowered cultivar S. canadensis f. multiplex 'Plena' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


Commercial uses of sanguinarine and bloodroot extract include dental hygiene products. Some animal food additives sold and distributed in Europe contain sanguinarine and chelerythrine.


Sanguisorba minor, the salad burnet, garden burnet, small burnet, burnet (also used for Sanguisorba generally), pimpernelle, Toper's plant, and burnet-bloodwort, is an edible perennial herbaceous plant in the family Rosaceae. It has ferny, toothed-leaf foliage; the unusual crimson, spherical flower clusters rise well above the leaves on thin stems. It generally grows to 25–55 cm tall (moisture-dependent; as short as 2 cm in dry areas). The large, long (sometimes 1m/3-foot), taproots store water, making it drought-tolerant.
It is evergreen to semi-evergreen; in warmer climates grows all year around, and in cold climates it stays green until heavy snow cover occurs. Plants may live over 20 years, though 7-12 is more usual; it lives longer if sometimes permitted to set seed. Burnet flowers in early summer.
Subspecies include muricata, minor, and mongolii (the last from the Mediterranean).


Salad burnet is native to western, central and southern Europe; northwest Africa, southwest Western Asia and Siberia. In Britain, it is not native, but has been naturalized since the 16th century. It has also naturalized in most of North America, in South America, Australia, and New Zealand. It is not generally invasive, co-existing with other plants and increasing species diversity. As of 2008 it had been reported as invasive in just one place, a pasture in Wyoming. The variables controlling salad burnet spread in North America are poorly studied.
In Europe it is found only in calcerous soils (see limestone), and is most common on chalk soils (see chalk) in England. In France, it grows on alluvial meadows, and in the south of France, on Kermes oak maquis (a Quercus coccifera shrubland ecosystem with siliceous soil) and garrigue (a shrubland ecosystem with calcareous soil). In Spain, it grows on silaceous soils.
In North America the species is probably much less diverse, due to founder effects and heavy selective breeding for forage value, including selection for cold-tolerance. It grows in a variety of soil types, generally infertile, well-drained soils, including weakly saline and weakly alkaline or acidic soils. In North America, it grows at a broad range of elevations. It is cold- and frost-tolerant, growing in USDA hardiness zones 4a-8a, but does not grow well in shade.  It grows well on slopes and disturbed soil, and is sometimes used to stabilize soil. The delar cultivar widely grown in North America does not grow in damp or flooding areas, and needs over 14 inches (36 cm) of precipitation per year.


It is grown in containers, wildflower meadows, ornamental gardens, and kitchen gardens, usually in sunny or very slightly shady spaces with an equator-facing or west-facing aspect. In North America, it is grown on dry rangelands. It is used for grazing, erosion control, post-fire weed control, firebreaks, and landscape rehabilitation. Because it tends to stay green, it is considered fire-resistant.


Salad burnet can carry both male and female flowers on the same plant; that is, it is monoecious.
Salad burnet generally does not flower or seed in its first year of life. Grazing can prevent flowering, and hooved animals, rabbits, hares, rodents, and grasshoppers may eat almost all of the seed in some areas, but plants can also sprout from rodents' seed caches. The seeds are surrounded by a winged hypanthium until they germinate; the reason for the wings is unknown. Apart from being carried by animals, they might be dispersed by wind and water, which might account for the wings. In the wild, seeds survive in soil for decades, and despite the soil moisture, which tends to rot them, about half will still sprout; this is the natural gemination rate in Europe. Salad burnet can spread fairly quickly by self-seeding. It can also be spread by division, and it can spread through rhizomes, but young plants are easy to pull up, thought they develop taproots fairly rapidly.
Seed is mature when hard and dark; commercially, it is harvested with a high combine harvester to selectively take the seed while leaving the herbage. Yield is 500–550 pounds per acre (560–620 kg/ha) when irrigated, about a third that in drier conditions. commercial seed remains viable for several years if stored cool at 12 to 15 percent moisture, and seed in a warehouse has shown no appreciable drop in viability after 25 years of storage. Germination rates actually increase over three years of storage, and commercial seed usually has over 90% field germination rates, but both seed yields and germination rates are probably elevated in domestic species due to artificial selection. North American wild rates are not known. Salad burnet establishes slowly, and so it is not grazed (nor expected to flower much) for the first year.
In the wild, seed is buried an average of 10 cm or 4 inches deep. In a greenhouse experiment, germination peaked when seeds were set 6 cm (0.25 inch) deep.


Young burnet leaves are used as an ingredient in salads, dressings, sauces, summer drinks, and in claret. It is also used to flavour vinegar, butter, and cream cheese.
It has a flavor described as "mildly cucumber, a bit tart, a little hot" and is considered interchangeable with mint leaves in some recipes, depending on the intended effect. Typically, the youngest leaves are used, as they tend to become bitter as they age; old leaves are cut back to encourage new growth.
Salad burnet was called a favorite herb by Francis Bacon, was brought to the New World with the first English colonists, and was given special mention by Thomas Jefferson. It declined in popularity as a kitchen herb, but As of 2022, is becoming more popular again, for food and as an ornamental.


The unusual crimson, ball-shaped blooms are carried aloft on tall, thin stems, well above the ferny, toothed-leaf foliage. The leaves are often considered more ornamental than the flowers, which are often removed to encourage more foliage growth. However, the cut flowers are used in floral arrangements.


The flowers provide nectar and pollen, and attract bees, butterflies, moths, and other pollinators and beneficial insects. It is classified as a moderate honeybee food in New Zealand, and as a good nectar producer in the United States.
Salad burnet is good forage for wildlife and livestock, partly because it stays green for so long. Elk, deer, antelope and birds forage on the leaves and seeds. It provides cover for small birds, and it is used by the greater sage-grouse. It is planted on rangelands in western North America, including in pinyon-juniper woodlands, ponderosa pine forests, dry quaking aspen parklands, mountain grasslands, chaparral, desert and mountain shrublands, and sagebrush steppe. After the first year, it is grazed roughly every 35 days, or whenever it is 12 inches (30 cm) tall, until it is half that height.


Salad burnet has in the past been used medicinally in Europe to control bleeding.
Salad burnet has the same medicinal qualities as medicinal burnet (Sanguisorba officinalis). It was used as a tea to relieve diarrhea in the past.


Sanguisorba officinalis, commonly known as great burnet, is a plant in the family Rosaceae, subfamily Rosoideae. It is native throughout the cooler regions of the Northern Hemisphere in Europe, northern Asia, and northern North America.
It is a herbaceous perennial plant growing to 1 m tall, which occurs in grasslands, growing well on grassy banks. It flowers June or July.
Sanguisorba officinalis is an important food plant for the European large blue butterflies Phengaris nausithous and P. teleius.


Use is made of its extensive root system for erosion control, as well as a bioremediator, used to reclaim derelict sites such as landfills.


Sanguisorba officinalis is one of several Sanguisorba species cultivated as ornamental plants. The cultivar 'Tanna' is widely available, and has won the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. The synonym Sanguisorba menziesii is also listed as having gained the Award.


It has been used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) where it is known by the name Di Yu. It is said to cool the blood, stop bleeding, clear heat, and heal wounds  (Chinese Herbal Materia Medica by Dan Bensky).
Specifically, the root is used to stop bloody dysentery, nosebleeds, and is applied topically to treat burns and insect bites.


Sanguiin H-6 is a dimeric ellagitannin that can be found in S. officinalis.
Ziyuglycoside II is a triterpenoid saponin that can be found in S. officinalis.


Sanicula arctopoides is a species of sanicle known commonly as footsteps of spring, bear's foot sanicle or yellow mats. It is a perennial herb found on the west coast of the United States and Canada, especially near the ocean. The branches are short and thick and may be prostrate or slightly erect. The leaves are yellowish-green and carrot-like or maple-shaped, and the tiny yellow flowers are borne in umbels with prominent bracts. The plants grow in low matted patches along the ground, resembling "footsteps" of yellow against the background.
This is a protected species in some areas.


Sanicula canadensis, the Canadian blacksnakeroot, is a native plant of North America and a member of family  Apiaceae. It is biennial or perennial, and spreads primarily by seed. It grows from 1 to 4.5 feet tall, and is found in mesic deciduous woodlands. The whitish-green flowers with sepals longer than petals, appearing late spring or early summer and lasting for approximately three weeks, are green and bur-like. The bur-like fruit each split into 2 seeds. The species ranges throughout the eastern United States (excluding Maine), extending north into Quebec and Ontario, and west into Texas and Wyoming.


Sanicula europaea, the sanicle or wood sanicle, is a perennial plant of the family Apiaceae.
It has traditionally been a favoured ingredient of many herbal remedies, and of it was said "he who has sanicle and self-heal needs neither physician nor surgeon".


Sanicula europea L. grows to 60 cm high and is glabrous with coarsely toothed leaves.
The pinkish flowers are borne in tight spherical umbels and are followed by bristly fruits which easily attach to clothing or animal fur and are thus easily distributed. The leaves are lobed and glossy, dark green.


It is widespread in shady places in woodland across Europe.


Sanicula comes from sanus, Latin for "healthy", reflecting its use in traditional remedies.


Sanicula europaea was used in Europe for healing wounds and cleaning. Filtered leaf extracts of sanicula europaea have shown some antiviral properties, inhibiting the replication of type 2 Human parainfluenza viruses (HPIV-2).
Infusions of sanicle, made with water or wine, were commonly used in France to cure dysentery, ulcers and kidney injuries. To this list Culpeper added that sanicle heals tumours in any part of the body, and alleviates gonorrhoea, bowel pain and more.
The roots have been used in the traditional Austrian medicine internally (as tea) or externally (as ointment) for treatment of disorders of the skin, respiratory tract, locomotor system, gastrointestinal tract, and infections.


Sanicula odorata, commonly called the clustered blacksnakeroot, is a flowering plant in the family Apiaceae. It is native and widespread in eastern North America.  It grows in nutrient-rich woods, often in mesic forests and bottomlands. It is able to tolerate somewhat degraded habitats, and is not considered a particularly conservative species.
It flowers in the late spring and early summer.


Identification of this species from other Sanicula in eastern North America can be difficult. The following combination of features separate it: leaves are divided into 5 (usually) to 7 (occasionally) leaflets; styles are much longer than the calyx; there are up to 12-25 stamens per umbellet; flowers and anthers are yellowish-green, with petals much longer than sepals.


Saponaria ocymoides, the rock soapwort or tumbling Ted, is a species of semi-evergreen perennial flowering plant belonging to the family Caryophyllaceae, native to south western and southern central Europe.


The Latin specific epithet ocymoides means “resembling basil” (Ocimum). However the resemblance is superficial, as the two plants are not closely related. In fact Saponaria ocymoides belongs to the same family as pinks and carnations.


Reaching a height of 10–40 centimetres (3.9–15.7 in), the stem is prostrate to ascending, woody, reddish, quite hairy and very branched. The leaves are ovate to lanceolate, sessile and hairy, 1–3 cm long. The five-petalled flowers are arranged in groups at the ends of branches.  They have red or pink (rarely white) petals and blue anthers. The sepals are  fused in a tube about an 8 to 10 millimeters long. The flowering period extends from May to August in the Northern Hemisphere. The fruit is an ovoid capsule, up to 9 mm long.


This species ranges from the mountains of Spain to Corsica, Sardinia and Slovenia, from the Apennines to the Alps. It grows in rocky and stony places, dry slopes and forests (especially pine forests). It prefers calcareous (alkaline) soils, at an altitude of up to 1,500 metres (4,900 ft), rarely up to 2,400 metres (7,900 ft).


Saponaria ocymoides is cultivated as an ornamental plant for rock gardens and dry stone walls, in well-drained alkaline or neutral soil in full sun. Like most alpine plants it dislikes winter wetness around its roots. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


Saponaria officinalis is a common perennial plant from the family Caryophyllaceae. This plant has many common names, including common soapwort, bouncing-bet, crow soap, wild sweet William, and soapweed. There are about 20 species of soapworts altogether.
The scientific name Saponaria is derived from the Latin sapo (stem sapon-) meaning "soap", which, like its common name, refers to its utility in cleaning. From this same Latin word is derived the name of the toxic substance saponin, contained in the roots at levels up to 20 percent when the plant is flowering (Indian soapnuts contain only 15 percent). It produces a lather when in contact with water. The epithet officinalis indicates its medicinal functions. It is a common host plant for some moth species, including the white-lined sphinx.
Saponaria officinalis' native range extends throughout Europe, and in Asia to western Siberia. It grows in cool places at low or moderate elevations under hedgerows and along the shoulders of roadways. It can be found as a horticultural escape and noxious invasive in much of North America.


The plant possesses leafy, unbranched stems (often tinged with red). It grows in patches, attaining a height of 70 cm (28 in). The broad, lanceolate, sessile leaves are opposite and between 4 and 12 cm long. Its sweetly scented flowers are radially symmetrical and pink, or sometimes white. Each of the five flat petals have two small scales in the throat of the corolla. They are about 2.5 cm (1 in) wide. They are arranged in dense, terminal clusters on the main stem and its branches. The long tubular calyx has five pointed red teeth.
The individual flowers open in the evening, and stay open for about three days. They produce a stronger scent at night and supplement nectar production during the night. The flowers are protandrous: on the second night of blooming, the pollen is released, and the stigma develops to its final position by the third night. Much of the seed production comes from self-pollination. The flowers are visited by various insects including Noctuidae, Sphingidae, bumblebees, and hoverflies.
In the Northern Hemisphere Saponaria officinalis blooms from May to September, and in the Southern Hemisphere October to March.


As its common name implies, it can be used as a very gentle soap, usually in dilute solution. It has historically been used to clean delicate or unique textiles, especially woollen fabrics; it has been hypothesized that the plant was used to treat the Shroud of Turin.
A lathery liquid that has the ability to dissolve fats or grease can be procured by boiling the leaves or roots in water.  Leaves are chopped, boiled, and strained; the liquid can then be used as soap.
In the Romanian village of Șieu-Odorhei, natives call the plant săpunele. It is traditionally used by the villagers as a soap replacement for dry skin.


An overdose can cause nausea, diarrhea, and vomiting.
Despite its toxic potential, Saponaria officinalis finds culinary use as an emulsifier in the commercial preparation of tahini and in brewing to create beer with a good head. In the Middle East, the root is often used as an additive in the process of making halva. The plant is used to stabilize the oils in the mixture and to create the distinctive texture of halvah.


Saponaria officinalis contains the flavone saponarin.
References
"Saponaria officinalis L.". World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (WCSP). Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew – via The Plant List.
"Saponaria officinalis". Plant Selector. Royal Horticultural Society. 2002.
"Saponaria officinalis". Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Agricultural Research Service (ARS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Retrieved 22 December 2017.
Slichter, Paul. "The Pink Family in the Columbia River Gorge: Caryophyllaceae".
Hiltunen, Raimo; Holm, Yvonne. Farmakognosia (in Finnish). Helsinki University Press.
"White-lined Sphinx Hyles lineata (Fabricius, 1775)". Butterflies and Moths of North America. Retrieved 2017-11-14.
Chayka, Katy; Dziuk, Peter (2016). "Saponaria officinalis (Bouncing Bet)". Minnesota Wildflowers. Retrieved 2017-12-29.
Wolff, D.; Witt, T.; Jurgens, A.; Gottsberger, G. (2006). "Nectar dynamics and reproductive success in Saponaria officinalis (Caryophyllaceae) in southern Germany". Flora. Morphologie, Geobotanik, Oekophysiologie. 201 (5): 353–364. doi:10.1016/j.flora.2005.07.010.
Dioscorides, The Herbal of Dioscorides the Greek, Book 2:193, s.v. Strouthion
"Shroud of Turin" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-06-03.
Mabey, Richard (1977). Plants with a Purpose: A guide to the everyday use of wild plants. William Collins.
"Saponaria officinalis (Bouncing-bet, Soapwort) | North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox".
Arndt, Alice (10 August 1999). Seasoning Savvy: How to Cook With Herbs, Spices, and Other Flavorings. Psychology Press. pp. 215–. ISBN 978-1-56022-031-2. Retrieved 3 June 2012.


Sarracenia alata, also known as yellow trumpets, pale pitcher plant or pale trumpet, is a carnivorous plant in the genus Sarracenia. It is native to North America.


Like all Sarracenia species, Sarracenia alata is native to the New World and grows in permanently wet and open wetlands typically classified as longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) savannas. The Pale pitcher plant's habitat is split into two geographically separate areas: an eastern range from eastern Louisiana across southern Mississippi and into western Alabama and a western range from eastern Texas into western Louisiana. In Mississippi, stands of Sarracenia alata rival in size those of any other Sarracenia species.


Among members of Sarracenia the floral coloring of Sarracenia alata is remarkably varied. Flowers may be cream to white, greenish, yellow or reddish. As the floral color variations exist within populations hundreds of miles from any other Sarracenia species, these variations cannot be attributed to hybridization.
Other than the range of floral colors, Sarracenia alata differs little from Sarracenia rubra. The veining of Sarracenia rubra pitchers tends to be more reticulated whereas that of Sarracenia alata often exhibits more of a pinstripe pattern and grows taller pitchers.


Sarracenia flava, the yellow pitcherplant, is a carnivorous plant in the family Sarraceniaceae. Like all the Sarraceniaceae, it is native to the New World. Its range extends from southern Alabama, through Florida and Georgia, to the coastal plains of southern Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina. Populations also exist in the Piedmont and mountains of North Carolina.
Like other members of the genus Sarracenia, the yellow pitcher plant traps insects using a rolled leaf, which in this species is a vibrant yellow in color, and up to over a meter (3 ft) in height (although 50 cm, 20" is more typical). The uppermost part of the leaf is flared into a lid (the operculum), which prevents excess rain from entering the pitcher and diluting the digestive secretions within. The upper regions of the pitcher are covered in short, stiff, downwards-pointing hairs, which serve to guide insects alighting on the upper portions of the leaf towards the opening of the pitcher tube. The upper regions are also brightly patterned with flower-like anthocyanin markings, particularly in the varieties S. flava var. rugelii and S. flava var. ornata: these markings also serve to attract insect prey. The opening of the pitcher tube is retroflexed into a 'nectar roll' or peristome, whose surface is studded with nectar-secreting glands. The nectar contains not only sugars, but also the alkaloid coniine (a toxin also found in hemlock), which probably intoxicates the prey. Prey entering the tube find that their footing is made extremely uncertain by the smooth, waxy secretions found on the surfaces of the upper portion of the tube. Insects losing their footing on this surface plummet to the bottom of the tube, where a combination of digestive fluid, wetting agents and inward-pointing hairs prevent their escape. Some large insects (such as wasps) have been reported to escape from the pitchers on occasion, by chewing their way out through the wall of the tube.
In spring, the plant produces large flowers with 5-fold symmetry. The yellow petals are long and strap-like, and dangle over the umbrella-like style of the flower, which is held upside down at the end of a 50 cm, 20" long scape. The stigma of the flower are found at the tips of the 'spokes' of this umbrella. Pollinating insects generally enter the flower from above, forcing their way into the cavity between the petals and umbrella, and depositing any pollen they are carrying on the stigmata as they enter. The pollinators generally exit the flower, having been dusted with the plant's own pollen, by lifting a petal. This one-way system helps to ensure cross pollination.
In late summer and autumn, the plant stops producing carnivorous leaves, and instead produces flat, non-carnivorous phyllodia. This is probably an adaptation to low light levels and insect scarcity during the winter months, and shows clearly the cost of carnivory.
The yellow pitcher plant is easy to cultivate, and is one of the most popular carnivorous plants in horticulture. The yellow pitcher plant readily hybridises with other members of the genus Sarracenia: the hybrids S. x catesbaei (S. flava × S. purpurea) and S. moorei (S. flava × S. leucophylla) are found in the wild, and are also popular amongst collectors.


Sarracenia leucophylla, also known as the crimson pitcherplant, purple trumpet-leaf or white pitcherplant, is a carnivorous plant in the genus Sarracenia.


Like all the sarracenias, it is native to North America. The species is endemic to the Southeastern United States.
It inhabits moist and low-nutrient longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) savannas, primarily along the United States Gulf Coast, and generally west of the Apalachicola River on the Florida Panhandle.  It is also found in Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and North Carolina.
In North Carolina it has apparently been introduced by humans to areas outside its native range.


Sarracenia leucophylla has nodding, brownish-red flowers and clusters of erect, hollow, pitcher-like leaves. Each leaf is colored at top with reddish-purple veins on a white background and topped by an erect, roundish, wavy-edged hood.
It is highly variable with respect to its height, with plants in some localities reaching almost 1 metre (3.3 ft) in height, while in others, plants can be diminutive. A seldom seen 30 centimetres (12 in) tall dwarf form is endemic to Garcon Point in Santa Rosa County, Florida.


The plant is a listed vulnerable species on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The greatest threat to S. leucophylla, as is the case with most Sarracenia species, is loss of its unique wetland habitat to development along the Gulf Coast, as well as forest succession that was historically kept in check by natural  wildfires.
It is also endangered from being one of the largest and showiest Sarracenia species, and is vulnerable to poachers of living plants and to the cut-floral trade for use in flower arrangements.


Sarracenia leucophylla is cultivated as an ornamental plant.  Despite its native range in the Southeastern U.S., it is remarkably hardy and can be grown outside even in USDA zones 6 and colder with careful winter protection. In cultivation it is generally less tolerant of stagnant water conditions and requires adequate soil drainage while still retaining requisite moisture levels to prevent root rot.
Several clones are recognized:
'Schnell's Ghost', a yellow-flowered clone with little red in the pitchers (though not anthocyanin free)
'Hurricane Creek White', a group of predominantly white plants from Hurricane Creek, AL
'Tarnok', a mutant form which produces a showy, although sterile, double flower
'Titan', an especially tall and robust form that may produce fall pitchers greater than 38 inches (97 cm) in height.


Sarracenia purpurea, the purple pitcher plant, northern pitcher plant, turtle socks, or side-saddle flower, is a carnivorous plant in the family Sarraceniaceae.


Like other species of Sarracenia, S. purpurea obtains most of its nutrients through prey capture. However, prey acquisition is said to be inefficient, with less than 1% of the visiting prey captured within the pitcher. Even so, anecdotal evidence by growers often shows that pitchers quickly fill up with prey during the warm summer months. Prey fall into the pitcher and drown in the rainwater that collects in the base of each leaf.
Prey items, such as flies, ants, spiders, and even moths or hornets, are then digested by an invertebrate community, made up mostly by the mosquito Wyeomyia smithii and the midge Metriocnemus knabi. The relationship between W. smithii and S. purpurea is an example of commensalism.
S. purpurea also traps juvenile spotted salamanders with enough regularity that nearly 20% of surveyed plants were found to contain one or more salamanders in a 2019 study. The salamanders were observed to die within three to nineteen days, and may be killed as the small pools of water in the plant are heated by the sun. A single salamander could provide hundreds to thousands of times the nutrients of invertebrate prey, but it is not known how efficiently S. purpurea is able to digest them.
Protists, rotifers (including Habrotrocha rosa), and bacteria form the base of inquiline food web that shreds and mineralizes available prey, making nutrients available to the plant. New pitcher leaves do produce digestive enzymes such as hydrolases and proteases, but as the individual leaves get older into their second year, digestion of prey material is aided by the community of bacteria that live within the pitchers.


Species of Sarracenia grow in nutrient-poor, acid bogs. Its range includes the Eastern seaboard, the Great Lakes region, all of Canada (except Nunavut and Yukon), Washington state, and Alaska. That makes it the most common and broadly distributed pitcher plant, as well as the only member of the genus that inhabits cold temperate climates. How the Sarracenia traveled so far is still a mystery. From what is known so far the Sarracenia has a median seed dispersal distance of 5cm, which is not far enough to explain the plant’s widespread occurrence throughout North America. It is endangered or vulnerable over much of the southern part of its range. The species is the floral emblem of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. Most varieties along the Gulf Coast of the United States that were once identified as Sarracenia purpurea have since been reclassified as Sarracenia rosea.
It is an introduced and naturalized species in Europe and the northwestern US. It is found in habitats of the native carnivorous species Darlingtonia californica, in the Klamath Mountains and northern Sierra Nevada. The plant has also been recorded in Washington state, Austria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. In Britain and Ireland purple pitcher plant have invaded heather-rich peatbogs in Britain and Ireland and with the mild climate can grow in large numbers at the expense of local flora. Peatbogs are also under threat as the Sphagnum mosses do not grow near the pitcher plant.


The species is further divided into two subspecies, S. purpurea subsp. purpurea and S. purpurea subsp. venosa. The former is found from New Jersey north, while the latter is found from New Jersey south and tolerates warmer temperatures.
In 1999, Sarracenia purpurea subsp. venosa var. burkii was described as a species of its own: Sarracenia rosea. This re-ranking has been debated among carnivorous plant enthusiasts since then, but further morphological evidence has supported the split. The following species and infraspecific taxa are usually recognized:
Sarracenia purpurea subsp. purpurea
Sarracenia purpurea subsp. purpurea f. heterophylla
Sarracenia purpurea subsp. purpurea f. ruplicola (invalid)
Sarracenia purpurea subsp. venosa
Sarracenia purpurea subsp. venosa var. burkii [=S. rosea]
Sarracenia purpurea subsp. venosa var. burkii f. luteola
Sarracenia purpurea subsp. venosa var. montana


Sarracenia purpurea is cultivated as an ornamental plant. It is fairly hardy, but requires a reliably damp soil in a sheltered position, with full or partial sunlight. The subspecies S. purpurea ssp. purpurea has received the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


It was used as a medicinal plant by Native American and First Nation tribes in its northeastern and Great Lakes distribution ranges, including the Algonquin, Cree, Iroquois, Mi'kmaq (Micmac) peoples, primarily for use in treating smallpox by means of a root infusion. A 2012 study suggests Sarracenia purpurea is effective as a treatment for viruses in the Orthopoxvirus family, including the smallpox virus, through inhibition of early virus transcription.


Sarracenia purpurea pitchers have been investigated as a biocontrol for the Asian Hornet Vespa velutina in Europe, as they act as natural bottle traps in which hornets have been observed to be trapped in. The hybrids used in the study, S. juthatipsoper and S. evendine, were deemed too unselective, but the researchers proposed trying other pitcher plant species which may be more effective.


Sassacus vitis is a species of jumping spider. It is native to North America, with a range spanning from Canada to Panama. These spiders are normally no larger than five millimetres, with females being much larger than males, and duller in color. Because of their small size, these spiders feed primarily on small insects such as flies.


Saturnia pyri, the giant peacock moth, great peacock moth, giant emperor moth or Viennese emperor, is a Saturniid moth which is native to Europe. The species was first described by Michael Denis and Ignaz Schiffermüller in 1775. It is the largest European moth, with a wingspan reaching 15–20 cm (6–8 in).
The giant peacock moth has a range that includes the Iberian Peninsula, southern France, northern Hungary, central and southern Serbia, Croatia, Montenegro, southern and eastern Bulgaria, southern Greece southern Turkey, south Kyrgyzstan, western Syria, Lebanon, north Israel, southern Romania, Russia, Ukraine, Czech Republic, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, North Macedonia and Italy and extends into Siberia and north Africa. It is absent from the UK, though a small handful of individuals have been recorded, likely of captive origin.


Satyrium acadica, the Acadian hairstreak, is a butterfly of the family Lycaenidae. It is found in North America from British Columbia east to Nova Scotia and south to Idaho, Colorado, the northern Midwest, Maryland, and New Jersey.
The wingspan is 29–38 mm. Like other hairstreaks, each hindwing has two tails near the tip. The shorter, upper tail is very short and often does not look at all like a tail. The upperside is brown grey, while the underside of the hindwings is grey. Adults are on wing from June to August in one generation per year. They feed on flower nectar of various flowers such as butterflyweed, milkweeds, and thistles.
The larvae feed on the leaves of Salix species, including S. nigra and S. sericea. The species overwinters as an egg.


Satyrium behrii, the Behr's hairstreak, is a butterfly of the family Lycaenidae. It is found in western North America from western Texas north and west through New Mexico, Arizona, and southern California to British Columbia.
The wingspan is 24–32 mm. The upperside is orange with wide brown borders on the forewings. The underside of the males is brown, while females are brownish white. Both have postmarginal and submarginal lines of irregular small black spots. Adults are on wing from June to July in one generation per year. Its habitats include dry slopes and canyons. Adults feed on flower nectar.
The larvae feed on Purshia tridentata,Purshia glandulosa and Cercocarpus montanus.


Satyrium californica, the California hairstreak,  is a butterfly of the family Lycaenidae. It is found from British Columbia south to southern California and east to Colorado.
The wingspan is 25–32 mm. The upperside is brown with an orange spot on the hindwings. The outer edge of the forewings usually has row of orange spots. The underside is brown-grey with orange crescents and a postmedian band of black spots. Each hindwing has two tails. Adults feed on the nectar of various flowers, including Eriogonum and Asclepias species.
In Canada, the larvae feed on Cercocarpus, Salix species, buckbrush (Ceanothus spp.), antelope-brush (Purshia tridentata), oaks (Quercus spp.), cherry (Prunus spp.), and saskatoon (Amelanchier alnifolia). In California, they are noted to feed on oaks, Apocynum cannabinum, Marrubium species, Ceanothus velutinus, California buckeye, milkweed, and other plants.
Adults are active April to September, depending on region. They overwinter as eggs.


Listed alphabetically.
S. c. brashor Kondla & Scott, 2006
S. c. californica
S. c. cygnus (Edwards, 1871)
S. c. obscurafacies (Austin, 1998)
S. c. wapiti Fisher, 2006


Satyrium edwardsii, the Edwards' hairstreak, is a species of butterfly in the family Lycaenidae. It is found in the eastern parts of the United States and in the southern parts of the Canadian provinces from Saskatchewan to Quebec.
Larvae feed on Quercus species, including Q. ilicifolia
The Edward's hairstreak is an endangered species, and one of the places to find them is at Adams Lake, Ohio, in the prairie area.


Satyrium liparops, the striped hairstreak, is a butterfly of the family Lycaenidae described by John Eatton Le Conte in 1833. It is found in North America, from the Rocky Mountains south from southern Canada to Colorado, east to Maine and south to Florida.
The wingspan is 25–39 mm. The hindwings have one long and one short tail. The upperside is dark brown. The males have a long, oval spot along the forewing costa. The underside of both wings has rows of widely separated white stripes and a blue spot near the tails, which is topped with orange. The outer margin of the hindwings is indented above the short tail. Adults are on wing from July to August in the north and in May in the south. There is one generation per year. Adults feed on nectar from various flowers, including chinquapin, common milkweed, dogbane, goldenrod, meadowsweet, New Jersey tea, staghorn sumac, viburnum, and white sweet clover.
The larvae feed on the plum and cherry (Prunus species) and hawthorns (Crataegus species). They feed on the buds, leaves, flowers, and young fruit of their host plant.


S. l. aliparops (Michener & dos Passos, 1942) – (Colorado, southern Alberta to Manitoba)
S. l. fletcheri (Michener & dos Passos, 1942) – (Manitoba, northern Ontario to Alberta)
S. l. floridensis Gatrelle, 2001 – (Florida)
S. l. liparops – (Georgia)
S. l. strigosa (Harris, 1862) – (Massachusetts, New England, eastern Canada)


Satyrium saepium, the hedgerow hairstreak, is a butterfly of the family Lycaenidae. It is found in western North America, from British Columbia south through California into Baja California and east through northern Arizona to northern New Mexico, Colorado and Montana.
The wingspan is 26–30 mm. The upperside is metallic copper brown. The forewings of the males have a black (although sometimes pale) oval spot along the leading edge. The underside is brown with a blue spot near the tail. Adults are on wing from April to September. They feed on the nectar of various flowers, including yerba santa and wild buckwheats.
The larvae feed on the buckbrush (Ceanothus species, Rhamnaceae). They feed on the buds and uppersides of the leaves of their host plant.


S. s. caliginosum Emmel, Emmel & Mattoon, 1998 (California)
S. s. chalcis (Edwards, 1869) (California)
S. s. chlorophora (Watson & Comstock, 1920) (California)
S. s. fulvescens (H. Edwards, 1877) (California)
S. s. latalinea Austin & Savage, 1998 (Utah)
S. s. obscurofuscum Austin, 1998 (Nevada)
S. s. provo (Watson & Comstock, 1920) (Utah)
S. s. rubrotenebrosum Emmel, Emmel & Mattoon, 1998 (California)
S. s. subaridum Emmel, Emmel & Mattoon, 1998 (California)
S. s. saepium (California to British Columbia)


Satyrium titus, the coral hairstreak, is a North American butterfly in the family Lycaenidae.


This tailless hairstreak is brownish gray on the upper side of the wings.  The underside of the hindwing has a distinct row of red-orange spots along the outer margin, but lacks the blue spot found in most hairstreaks.


This butterfly favors brushy places, thickets, overgrown fields, open woodlands, and streamsides.


The coral hairstreak is frequently seen visiting butterfly weed, but also uses New Jersey tea, dogbane and sulphur flower as nectar plants.


Caterpillars have often been reported on feeding on the fruits of wild plums and cherries (Prunus), and have also been observed on serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia) and oaks (Quercus).


Saururus cernuus (lizard's tail, water-dragon, dragon's tail, swamp root) is a medicinal and ornamental plant native to eastern North America.  It grows in wet areas or shallow water, and can be up to about a meter tall. The native range covers much of the eastern United States, as far west as eastern Texas and Kansas, south to Florida, and north to Michigan and New York state. Saururus cernuus also occurs in Ontario Canada. It is an obligate wetland plant and able to grow in saturated soils.
Saururus cernuus is a herbaceous perennial that gets its most frequent common name, lizard's tail, from its white flowers that bloom in the summer months. The inflorescence is usually 6 to 8 in long. After floral maturity the white flowers turn brown, giving the plant its namesake, lizard's tail. The leaves are usually heart-shaped, arrow-shaped, or lance-shaped, and are arranged alternately on the stem. When the leaves are crushed they release a citrus or sassafras aroma.
As an aquatic plant, S. cernuus is an important food source for many wetland animals, including beavers. In an exclusion study beavers reduced the prevalence of S. cernuus by 45%.
Its medicinal properties have been used to treat swelling in the body. Cherokee and Chocktaw native Americans mashed up S. cernuus roots as a poultice, and applied the plant to soothe inflammation of the breasts and back. The Seminoles used the plant as an antirheumatic, as well as a way to soothe fevers and body aches.


Saururus cernuus is a wetland plan that are commonly 2 to 3 ft in height. It is herbaceous and can be distinctively identified during the flowering season. Flowering occurs during the summer months, May to early August, blossoming with small white flowers composing a spike inflorescence 3-6 in long. Flowers are simple, and have 6 or less stamens and 3 or less carpels. Due to formation of dense rhizomes, lizard's tail can be very competitive for below ground resources. Leaves are heart-shaped (cordate) and alternate along the stem of the plant.
Synonyms include Saururus cernuus f. submersus Glück.


Saururus cernuus L. is distributed throughout Southeastern United States, normally within marshes, along the edges of streams or lakes. The  Range includes the mid-Atlantic states to Florida. Lizards tails are found in freshwater wetlands, normally submerged in shallow water. Saururus cernuus can thrive in saturated soil, and can also tolerate shading by larger trees. Rhizomes are abundantly present within this species, reaching lengths up to 3 meters. Their rhizomes spread laterally below the soil. These rhizomes are characterized with a linear series of nodes that follow along the tip of the rhizomes. Seeds are dispersed in autumn, and are light green, then turn brown.


Saururus cernuus have been used to restore and create wetlands. Native plant nurseries sell rhizomes for wetland restoration. Native Americans and early settlers used lizards tail for their medicinal properties. Lizard's tail rhizomes were ground and used as a sedative, to treat swelling and inflammation, and to lower fevers.


Herbivores such as the North American beaver (Castor canadensis) have had a strong impact on aquatic plants. Beavers often chose this lizard's tail plant rather than other plants that may thrive within the area. Studies show that in areas where beavers are present, lizard's tail are less likely to be observed.


The pied bush chat (Saxicola caprata) is a small passerine bird found ranging from West Asia and Central Asia to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. About sixteen subspecies are recognized through its wide range with many island forms. It is a familiar bird of countryside and open scrub or grassland where it is found perched at the top of short thorn trees or other shrubs, looking out for insect prey. They pick up insects mainly from the ground, and were, like other chats, placed in the thrush family Turdidae, but are now considered as Old World flycatchers.
They nest in cavities in stone walls or in holes in an embankment, lining the nest with grass and animal hair. The males are black with white shoulder and vent patches whose extent varies among populations. Females are predominantly brownish while juveniles are speckled.


Among the Toda people in the Nilgiris, the pied bushchat or kāŗpiłc, is a bird of omen and the origin of its white wing patches is described in a story of a dairy priest Piu.f who in the ritual of churning milk forgot to remove the churning stick before fetching water from a stream. The bird attempted to obstruct him by blocking his path but he disregarded it and flicked off butter from his hands. The white spots remained but Piu.f met his death. The Kotas of the Nilgiris have an origin story to explain the sexual dimorphism of the pied bushchat but they consider the "karyvaky" bird to be one that foretells good omen. The Kalam people of Papua New Guinea consider the birds as messengers.


The whinchat (Saxicola rubetra) is a small migratory passerine bird breeding in Europe and western Asia and wintering in central Africa. At one time considered to be in the thrush family, Turdidae, it is now placed in the Old World flycatcher family, Muscicapidae. Both sexes have a strong supercilium, brownish upper parts mottled darker, a pale throat and breast, a pale buff to whitish belly, and a blackish tail with white bases to the outer tail feathers, but in the breeding season, the male has an orange-buff throat and breast.
The whinchat is a solitary species, favouring open grassy country with rough vegetation and scattered small shrubs. It perches in elevated locations ready to pounce on the insects and other small invertebrates that form its diet. The nest is built by the female on the ground in coarse vegetation, with a clutch of four to seven eggs being laid. The hen incubates the eggs for about thirteen days and then both parents feed the nestlings. Fledging takes place about eighteen days after hatching and the parents continue to feed the young for another fortnight. Moulting takes place in late summer before the migration southwards, and again on the wintering grounds in Africa before the migration northwards in spring. The whinchat is a common species with a wide range and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has classified it as being of "least concern".


This species represents a fairly basal divergence of the genus Saxicola. It retains the supercilium found in many Muscicapidae but lost in the more derived Saxicola species such as the European stonechat or African stonechat (S. torquatus).
As with other species of Saxicola, it was formerly considered a member of the thrush family (Turdidae), but is now placed in the Old World flycatcher family Muscicapidae. It, and similar thrush-like Muscicapidae species, are often called chats.
The English name is derived from whin, the common gorse and chat referring to the nature of its calls. Its scientific name means "small rock-dweller", in reference to its habitat. Saxicola derives from Latin saxum ("rock") + incola ("dwelling"); rubetra is a Latin term for a small bird. No subspecies are recognised.
Very rarely, hybridisation occurs between the whinchat and the Siberian stonechat (Saxicola maurus), with a case being reported in Finland in 1997. It has also been reported to hybridise with the European stonechat in western and southern Europe.


The whinchat is a short-tailed bird, moving on the ground with small, rapid hops and frequently bobbing and flicking its wings and tail. It is similar in size to its relative the European robin (Erithacus rubecula), being 12 to 14 cm (4.7 to 5.5 in) long and weighing 13 to 26 g (0.46 to 0.92 oz). Both sexes have brownish upperparts mottled darker, a buff throat and breast, a pale buff to whitish belly, and a blackish tail with white bases to the outer tail feathers.
The male in breeding plumage has a blackish face mask almost encircled by a strong white supercilium and malar stripe, a bright orange-buff throat and breast, and small white wing patches on the greater coverts and inner median coverts. The female is duller overall, in particular having browner face mask, pale buffy-brown breast, and a buff supercilium and malar stripe, and smaller or no white wing patches. Males in immature and winter plumage are similar to females, except that adult males retain the white wing patches all year round.
Though fairly similar to females and immatures of the European stonechat (S. rubicola), the whinchat can readily be distinguished by its conspicuous supercilium and whiter belly, and also in western Europe, by being paler overall than the western European stonechat subspecies S. rubicola hibernans. It also differs structurally in being slightly slimmer and less 'dumpy', and having longer wingtips (an adaptation to its long-distance migration). It is more easily confused with female or immature Siberian stonechat (S. maura), which (also being a long-distance migrant) shares the longer wingtips; however, Siberian stonechat can be distinguished by its conspicuous unmarked pale orange-buff rump (in whinchat, the rump is the same mottled brown colour as the back).
Its main call is described as a hue-tac-tac, the 'tac' softer and less grating than that of the European stonechat; the call is used both for contact between birds and predator alarms. The male has a whistling, crackly but soft song used during the breeding season, consisting of a mixture of soft whistles, tacs and more grating sounds; it is often mimetic, including phrases from the songs of at least 12 other assorted bird species. It sings from a fence, bush, tree or wire, or occasionally from the ground or in flight, between about April and July. On the wintering grounds, it often gives alarm calls but only occasionally sings, being most likely to do so at the end of winter, when starting spring migration.


The whinchat is a migratory species breeding in Europe and western Asia from Ireland and northern Portugal east to the Ob River basin near Novosibirsk, and from northern Norway south to central Spain, central Italy, northern Greece, and the Caucasus Mountains.
Birds arrive on the breeding grounds between the end of April and mid May, and depart between mid August and mid September (odd birds lingering to October). They winter primarily in tropical sub-Saharan Africa from Senegal east to Kenya and south to Zambia, arriving in western Africa at the start of the dry season in late September to November, and leaving between February and March. Small numbers also winter in northwestern Africa in Morocco, northern Algeria and Tunisia. Available stopover sites are important for the successful migration of whinchat  between Africa and Europe, where they face the barriers of the Sahara and Mediterranean Sea. Vagrants have reached northwest of the breeding range to Iceland, west on migration to the Canary Islands and Cape Verde, and south of the wintering range to northern South Africa.
During the breeding season in the UK, at the landscape-scale, whinchats favour habitats with high plant species richness and steeper slopes.  However, at the territory scale, low-elevation areas with a heterogeneous vegetation structure and high density of perches and tussocks are preferred.
Whinchats wintering in Nigeria have a large breeding range that spreads across continental Europe indicating low connectivity, arising from wide migratory dispersal, with high mixing of breeding populations during the non-breeding season. A lone vagrant was sighted for the first time in India by birder R. Mohammed Saleem during their Great Indian Bird Expedition SEEK2019 at Chambal National Park.