Despite Cologne's status as the largest city in the region, nearby Düsseldorf was chosen as the political capital of the federated state of North Rhine-Westphalia. With Bonn being chosen as the provisional federal capital (provisorische Bundeshauptstadt) and seat of the government of the Federal Republic of Germany (then informally West Germany), Cologne benefited by being sandwiched between two important political centres. The city became–and still is–home to a number of federal agencies and organizations. After reunification in 1990, Berlin was made the capital of Germany.
In 1945 architect and urban planner Rudolf Schwarz called Cologne the "world's greatest heap of rubble". Schwarz designed the master plan for reconstruction in 1947, which included the construction of several new thoroughfares through the city centre, especially the Nord-Süd-Fahrt ("North-South-Drive"). The master plan took into consideration the fact that even shortly after the war a large increase in automobile traffic could be anticipated. Plans for new roads had already, to a certain degree, evolved under the Nazi administration, but the actual construction became easier when most of the city centre was in ruins.
The destruction of 95% of the city centre, including the famous Twelve Romanesque churches such as St. Gereon, Great St. Martin, St. Maria im Kapitol and several other monuments in World War II, meant a tremendous loss of cultural treasures. The rebuilding of those churches and other landmarks such as the Gürzenich event hall was not undisputed among leading architects and art historians at that time, but in most cases, civil intention prevailed. The reconstruction lasted until the 1990s, when the Romanesque church of St. Kunibert was finished.
In 1959, the city's population reached pre-war numbers again. It then grew steadily, exceeding 1 million for about one year from 1975. It remained just below that until mid-2010, when it exceeded 1 million again.


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1935 (MCMXXXV) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar, the 1935th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 935th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 35th  year of the 20th century, and the  6th   year of the 1930s decade.


Members of the family have long, broad wings with 11 primary feathers and about 20 secondaries. They are strong fliers and, rather surprisingly, given their size and weight, very capable soarers. The body tends to be elongated, the neck more so, with rather long legs. The bill is also long, decurved in the case of the ibises, straight and distinctively flattened in the spoonbills. They are large birds, but mid-sized by the standards of their order, ranging from the dwarf olive ibis (Bostrychia bocagei), at 45 cm (18 in) and 450 g (0.99 lb), to the giant ibis (Thaumatibis gigantea), at 100 cm (39 in) and 4.2 kg (9.3 lb).


The family Threskiornithidae includes 34 species of large wading birds. The family has been traditionally classified into two subfamilies, the ibises and the spoonbills; however recent genetic studies are casting doubt on the arrangement, and revealing the spoonbills to be nested within the old world ibises, and the new world ibises as an early offshoot.


The family Threskiornithidae was formerly known as Plataleidae. The spoonbills and ibises were once thought to be related to other groups of long-legged wading birds in the order Ciconiiformes. A recent study found that they are members of the order Pelecaniformes. In response to these findings, the International Ornithological Congress (IOC) recently reclassified Threskiornithidae and their sister taxa Ardeidae under the order Pelecaniformes instead of the previous order of Ciconiiformes.  Whether the two subfamilies are reciprocally monophyletic is an open question. The South American Checklist Committee's entry for the Threskiornithidae includes the following comment "Two subfamilies are traditionally (e.g., Matheu & del Hoyo 1992) recognized: Threskiornithinae for ibises and Plataleinae for spoonbills; because the main distinction has to do with bill shape, additional information, especially genetic, is required to recognize a major, deep split in the family."
A study of mitochondrial DNA of the spoonbills plus the sacred and scarlet ibises found that the spoonbills formed a clade with old world genus Threskiornis, with Nipponia nippon and Eudocimus as progressively earlier offshoots and more distant relatives, and hence casts doubt on the arrangement of the family into ibis and spoonbill subfamilies. Subsequent studies have supported these findings, the spoonbills forming a monophyletic clade within the "widespread" clade of ibises, including Plegadis and Threskiornis, while the "new World Endemic" clade is formed by the genera restricted to the Americas such as Eudocimus and Theristicus.


The KwaZulu-Natal Province is divided into one metropolitan municipality and ten district municipalities. The district municipalities are in turn divided into 44 local municipalities. The local seat of each district municipality is given in parentheses:
In 2012, the Ingonyama Trust owns 32% of the land in KwaZulu-Natal, in many municipalities. This amounts to about three million hectares, occupied by over 4 million people. The Zulu king is the chairman of the Trust.


The interior of the province consists largely of rolling hills from the Valley of a Thousand Hills to the Midlands. Their beauty has inspired literature. Alan Paton, in the novel Cry, the Beloved Country, wrote:
 There is a lovely road that runs from Ixopo into the hills. These hills are grass-covered and rolling, and they are lovely beyond any singing of it. The road climbs seven miles (11 km) into them, to Carisbrooke; and from there, if there is no mist, you look down on one of the fairest valleys of Africa. About you there is grass and bracken and you may hear the forlorn crying of the titihoya, one of the birds of the veld. Below you is the valley of the Umzimkulu, on its journey from the Drakensberg to the sea; and beyond and behind the river, great hill after great hill; and beyond and behind them, the mountains of Ingeli and Griqualand East.


The genera Cleptornis (golden honeyeater) and Apalopteron (Bonin honeyeater), formerly treated in the Meliphagidae, have recently been transferred to the Zosteropidae on genetic evidence. The genus Notiomystis (New Zealand stitchbird), formerly classified in the Meliphagidae, has recently been removed to the newly erected Notiomystidae of which it is the only member. The "Macgregor's bird-of-paradise", historically considered a bird-of-paradise (Paradisaeidae), was recently found to be a honeyeater. It is now known as "MacGregor's honeyeater" and is classified in the Meliphagidae.
The wattled smoky honeyeater (Melipotes carolae), described in 2007, had been discovered in December 2005 in the Foja Mountains of Papua, Indonesia.
In 2008, a study that included molecular phylogenetic analysis of museum specimens in the genera Moho and Chaetoptila, both extinct genera endemic to the Hawaiian islands, argued that these five species were not members of the Meliphagidae and instead belong to their own distinct family, the Mohoidae.


April 4–12 – Froberg mutiny: The British suppress a mutiny at Fort Ricasoli, Malta, by men of the irregularly-recruited Frobert Regiment.
April 14 – African Institution holds its first meeting in London; it is intended to improve social conditions in Sierra Leone.
May 22 – A grand jury indicts former Vice President of the United States Aaron Burr for treason.
May 24 – Siege of Danzig ends after 6 weeks with Prussian and Russian defenders capitulating to French forces.
May 29 – Selim III, Ottoman Emperor since 1789, is deposed in favour of his nephew Mustafa IV.
May 31 – Primitive Methodism originates in an All Day of Prayer at Mow Cop, in the north midlands of England.
June 9 – The Duke of Portland wins the United Kingdom general election.
June 14 – Battle of Friedland: Napoleon decisively defeats Bennigsen's Russian army.
June 22 – Chesapeake–Leopard affair: British Royal Navy warship HMS Leopard attacks and boards United States Navy frigate USS Chesapeake off Norfolk, Virginia, seeking deserters. This act of British aggression played a role in the run-up to the War of 1812.


1807 (MDCCCVII) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar, the 1807th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 807th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 7th  year of the 19th century, and the  8th   year of the 1800s decade. As of the start of 1807, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


January 5 – The first regatta in Australia is held, taking place on Tasmania (called at the time Van Diemen's Land), on the River Derwent at Hobart.
January 15 – Furman University, founded in 1826, begins its first classes with 10 students, as the Furman Academy and Theological Institution, located at Edgefield, South Carolina. By the end of 2016, it will have 2,800 students at its main campus in Greenville, South Carolina.
January 27 – Author Johann Wolfgang von Goethe first elaborates on his vision of Weltliteratur (world literature), in a letter to Johann Peter Eckermann, declaring his belief that "poetry is the universal possession of mankind", and that "the epoch of world literature is at hand, and each must work to hasten its coming."
January 30 – The first public theatre in Norway, the Christiania Offentlige Theater, is inaugurated in Oslo.
February 20 – Battle of Ituzaingo (Passo do Rosário): A Brazilian Imperial Army force is tactically defeated by Argentine–Uruguayan troops.
February 28 – The Baltimore & Ohio Railroad is incorporated, becoming the first railroad in the United States offering commercial transportation of both people and freight.
March 7
Brazilian marines sail up the Rio Negro and attack the temporary naval base of Carmen de Patagones, Argentina; they are defeated by the local citizens.
Shrigley Abduction: Ellen Turner, a wealthy heiress in Cheshire, England, is abducted by Edward Gibbon Wakefield, the future politician in colonial New Zealand.
March 11 – The new state constitution for the Mexican state of Coahuila y Tejas is ratified, including a phasing-out of slavery in its Article 13, which declares that "From and after the promulgation of the constitution in the capital of each district, no one shall be born a slave in the state, and after six months the introduction of slaves under any pretext shall not be permitted." The prohibition of importing slaves from the United States was lifted when Texas declared independence in 1836, and the Republic of Texas Constitution provided specifically that Africans and "the descendants of Africans" will not be considered "citizens of the republic".
March 16 – Freedom's Journal, the first African-American owned and published newspaper in the United States, is founded in New York City by John Russwurm.
March 26 – German composer Ludwig van Beethoven dies in Vienna, after a prolonged illness. Thousands of citizens line the streets for the funeral procession 3 days later.


Fungal diseases such as laminated root rot and shoestring root-rot can cause significant damage, and in plantation settings dominated by Douglas-fir monocultures may cause extreme damage to vast swathes of trees. Interplanting with resistant or nonhost species such as western redcedar and beaked hazlenut can reduce this risk. Other threats to Douglas-fir include red ring rot and the Douglas-fir beetle.


The Pistacia species are vicarious Anacardiaceae with few species outside the Old World, and are mostly more adapted to water shortage and alkaline soil.
Many plant species are adapted to desert or summer drought typical of Mediterranean climate, so have a high tolerance to saline soil. They grow well in water containing up to 3.0 to 4.0% of soluble salts. They are quite resilient in their ecological requirements, and can survive in temperatures ranging from −10 °C in winter to 45 °C in summer. They prefer places oriented toward the sun and well-drained soil, but grow well in the bottom of ravines. Though very hardy and drought resistant, Pistacia species grow slowly and only begin to bear fruit after about seven to 10 years from planting, obtaining full development only after 15 to 20 years. The fruit ripens in the Mediterranean from August; only female trees have fruit.
Although some species prefer moderate humidity, they do not grow well in high humidity conditions. They are susceptible to root rot, molds, and fungi, and parasites attack if they receive too much water and the soil has insufficient drainage. They require a period of drought each year for proper development.
Their leaves are intensely bright green and leathery, with three to 9 leaflets. The leaves are alternate, compound, and paripinnate.
The flowers are unisexual, apetalous, and grouped in clusters. The flowers range from purple to green. The fruit is a drupe, generally unpalatable to humans, the size of a pea, and red to brown in color, depending on the degree of maturation. The seeds do not have endosperm.
The seeds are eaten and dispersed by birds, for which they are a valuable resource because of the scarcity of food in some important times of year, as the time of breeding, migration, or the dry season. The commercial species of pistachio has larger fruits and is edible.
The plants emit a bitter, resinous or medicative smell, which in some species is very intense and aromatic. Some species develop "galls" that occur in the leaves and leaflets after the bite of insects. Although marred by the presence of galls, they are very vigorous and resistant plants that survive in degraded areas where other species have been eliminated. They multiply by seeds, stolons, and root shoots. Various species hybridize easily between them, and hybrid plants are difficult to identify.
Some tree species (e.g. Pistacia aethiopica, Pistacia atlantica) can exist as small bushes and shrubs due to the extremes of their habitat, adverse conditions, or the excessive consumption by wildlife or livestock that hinders growth.
Pistacia lentiscus is a very common plant related to P. terebinthus with which it hybridizes. P. terebinthus is more abundant in the mountains and inland in the Iberian Peninsula, and mastic is usually found more frequently in areas where the Mediterranean influence of the sea prevents or moderates frost. There are species with very small ranges that cover only one or a group of islands in the Mediterranean. P. terebinthus is also found on the east coast of the Mediterranean, Syria, Lebanon, and Israel, filling the same ecological niche of these species. On the west coast of the Mediterranean, the Canary Islands, and the Middle East, it can be confused with Pistacia atlantica.
Pistacia species are used as food plants by the larvae (caterpillars) of some species of Lepidoptera including the emperor moth.


Outside Asia, the Awadhi language (an Eastern Hindi dialect) with influence from Bhojpuri, Bihari languages, Fijian and English is spoken in Fiji. It is an official language in Fiji as per the 1997 Constitution of Fiji, where it referred to it as "Hindustani", however in the 2013 Constitution of Fiji, it is simply called "Fiji Hindi". It is spoken by 380,000 people in Fiji.


Part XVII of the Indian Constitution deals with the official language of the Indian Commonwealth. Under Article 343, the official languages of the Union have been prescribed, which includes Hindi in Devanagari script and English:
(1) The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script. The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals.

(2) Notwithstanding anything in clause (1), for a period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, the English language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement: Provided that the President may, during the said period, by order authorise the use of the Hindi language in addition to the English language and of the Devanagari form of numerals in addition to the international form of Indian numerals for any of the official purposes of the Union.
Article 351 of the Indian constitution states
It shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language, to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India and to secure its enrichment by assimilating without interfering with its genius, the forms, style and expressions used in Hindustani and in the other languages of India specified in the Eighth Schedule, and by drawing, wherever necessary or desirable, for its vocabulary, primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages.
It was envisioned that Hindi would become the sole working language of the Union Government by 1965 (per directives in Article 344 (2) and Article 351), with state governments being free to function in the language of their own choice. However, widespread resistance to the imposition of Hindi on non-native speakers, especially in South India (such as those in Tamil Nadu) led to the passage of the Official Languages Act of 1963, which provided for the continued use of English indefinitely for all official purposes, although the constitutional directive for the Union Government to encourage the spread of Hindi was retained and has strongly influenced its policies.
Article 344 (2b)  stipulates that the official language commission shall be constituted every ten years to recommend steps for progressive use of Hindi language and imposing restrictions on the use of the English language by the union government. In practice, the official language commissions are constantly endeavouring to promote Hindi but not imposing restrictions on English in official use by the union government.
At the state level, Hindi is the official language of the following Indian states: Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Mizoram, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand. Hindi is an official language of Gujarat, along with Gujarati.  It acts as an additional official language of West Bengal in blocks and sub-divisions with more than 10% of the population speaking Hindi. Each may also designate a "co-official language"; in Uttar Pradesh, for instance, depending on the political formation in power, this language is generally Urdu. Similarly, Hindi is accorded the status of official language in the following Union Territories:  Delhi, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu.
Although there is no specification of a national language in the constitution, it is a widely held belief that Hindi is the national language of India. This is often a source of friction and contentious debate. In 2010, the Gujarat High Court clarified that Hindi is not the national language of India because the constitution does not mention it as such. In 2021, in a Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act case involving Gangam Sudhir Kumar Reddy, the Bombay High Court claimed Hindi is the national language while refusing Reddy bail, after he argued against his statutory rights being read in Hindi, despite being a native Telugu speaker. Reddy has filed a Special Leave Petition before the Supreme Court, challenging the Bombay High Court’s observation, and contended that it failed to appreciate that Hindi is not the national language in India.  In 2021, Indian food delivery company Zomato landed in controversy when a customer care executive told an app user from Tamil Nadu, “For your kind information Hindi is our national language.” Zomato responded by firing the employee, after which she was reprimanded and shortly reinstated.


Gruffydd ap Llywelyn was the only ruler to be able to unite Wales under his rule. In 1055 Gruffydd ap Llywelyn killed his rival Gruffydd ap Rhydderch in battle and recaptured Deheubarth. Originally king of Gwynedd, by 1057 he was ruler of Wales and had annexed parts of England around the border. He ruled Wales with no internal battles His territories were again divided into the traditional kingdoms. John Davies states that Gruffydd was "the only Welsh king ever to rule over the entire territory of Wales... Thus, from about 1057 until his death in 1063, the whole of Wales recognised the kingship of Gruffydd ap Llywelyn. For about seven brief years, Wales was one, under one ruler, a feat with neither precedent nor successor." Owain Gwynedd (1100–70) of the Aberffraw line was the first Welsh ruler to use the title princeps Wallensium (prince of the Welsh), a title of substance given his victory on the Berwyn Mountains, according to John Davies. During this time, between 1053 and 1063, Wales lacked any internal strife and was at peace.
Within four years of the Battle of Hastings (1066), England had been completely subjugated by the Normans. William I of England established a series of lordships, allocated to his most powerful warriors, along the Welsh border, their boundaries fixed only to the east (where they met other feudal properties inside England). Starting in the 1070s, these lords began conquering land in southern and eastern Wales, west of the River Wye.  The frontier region, and any English-held lordships in Wales, became known as Marchia Wallie, the Welsh Marches, in which the Marcher Lords were subject to neither English nor Welsh law. The extent of the March varied as the fortunes of the Marcher Lords and the Welsh princes ebbed and flowed.
Owain Gwynedd's grandson Llywelyn Fawr (the Great, 1173–1240), received the fealty of other Welsh lords in 1216 at the council at Aberdyfi, becoming in effect the first Prince of Wales. His grandson Llywelyn ap Gruffudd secured the recognition of the title Prince of Wales from Henry III with the Treaty of Montgomery in 1267. Subsequent disputes, including the imprisonment of Llywelyn's wife Eleanor, culminated in the first invasion by King Edward I of England. As a result of military defeat, the Treaty of Aberconwy exacted Llywelyn's fealty to England in 1277. Peace was short-lived, and, with the 1282 Edwardian conquest, the rule of the Welsh princes permanently ended. With Llywelyn's death and his brother prince Dafydd's execution, the few remaining Welsh lords did homage to Edward I. The Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284 provided the constitutional basis for a post-conquest government of the Principality of North Wales from 1284 until 1535/36. It defined Wales as "annexed and united" to the English Crown, separate from England but under the same monarch. The king ruled directly in two areas: the Statute divided the north and delegated administrative duties to the Justice of Chester and Justiciar of North Wales, and further south in western Wales the King's authority was delegated to the Justiciar of South Wales.  The existing royal lordships of Montgomery and Builth remained unchanged. To maintain his dominance, Edward constructed a series of castles: Beaumaris, Caernarfon, Harlech and Conwy. His son, the future Edward II, was born at Caernarfon in 1284. He became the first English Prince of Wales in 1301, which at the time provided an income from northwest Wales known as the Principality of Wales.
After the failed revolt in 1294–95 of Madog ap Llywelyn – who styled himself Prince of Wales in the Penmachno Document – and the rising of Llywelyn Bren (1316), the last uprising was led by Owain Glyndŵr, against Henry IV of England. In 1404, Owain was reputedly crowned Prince of Wales in the presence of emissaries from France, Spain and Scotland. Glyndŵr went on to hold parliamentary assemblies at several Welsh towns, including Machynlleth. The rebellion failed, Owain went into hiding, and nothing was known of him after 1413.
Henry Tudor (born in Wales in 1457) seized the throne of England from Richard III in 1485, uniting England and Wales under one royal house. The last remnants of Celtic-tradition Welsh law were abolished and replaced by English law by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542 during the reign of Henry VII's son, Henry VIII. In the legal jurisdiction of England and Wales, Wales became unified with the kingdom of England; the "Principality of Wales" began to refer to the whole country, though it remained a "principality" only in a ceremonial sense. The Marcher Lordships were abolished, and Wales began electing members of the Westminster parliament.


Historian Kenneth Morgan described Wales on the eve of the First World War as a "relatively placid, self-confident and successful nation". The output from the coalfields continued to increase, with the Rhondda Valley recording a peak of 9.6 million tons of coal extracted in 1913. The First World War (1914–1918) saw a total of 272,924 Welshmen under arms, representing 21.5 per cent of the male population. Of these, roughly 35,000 were killed, with particularly heavy losses of Welsh forces at Mametz Wood on the Somme and the Battle of Passchendaele. The first quarter of the 20th century also saw a shift in the political landscape of Wales. Since 1865, the Liberal Party had held a parliamentary majority in Wales and, following the general election of 1906, only one non-Liberal Member of Parliament, Keir Hardie of Merthyr Tydfil, represented a Welsh constituency at Westminster. Yet by 1906, industrial dissension and political militancy had begun to undermine Liberal consensus in the southern coalfields. In 1916, David Lloyd George became the first Welshman to become Prime Minister of Britain. In December 1918, Lloyd George was re-elected at the head of a Conservative-dominated coalition government, and his poor handling of the 1919 coal miners' strike was a key factor in destroying support for the Liberal party in south Wales. The industrial workers of Wales began shifting towards the Labour Party. When in 1908 the Miners' Federation of Great Britain became affiliated to the Labour Party, the four Labour candidates sponsored by miners were all elected as MPs. By 1922, half the Welsh seats at Westminster were held by Labour politicians—the start of a Labour dominance of Welsh politics that continued into the 21st century.
After economic growth in the first two decades of the 20th century, Wales' staple industries endured a prolonged slump from the early 1920s to the late 1930s, leading to widespread unemployment and poverty. For the first time in centuries, the population of Wales went into decline; unemployment reduced only with the production demands of the Second World War. The war saw Welsh servicemen and women fight in all major theatres, with some 15,000 of them killed. Bombing raids brought high loss of life as the German Air Force targeted the docks at Swansea, Cardiff and Pembroke. After 1943, 10 per cent of Welsh conscripts aged 18 were sent to work in the coal mines, where there were labour shortages; they became known as Bevin Boys. Pacifist numbers during both World Wars were fairly low, especially in the Second World War, which was seen as a fight against fascism.
Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925, seeking greater autonomy or independence from the rest of the UK. The term "England and Wales" became common for describing the area to which English law applied, and in 1955 Cardiff was proclaimed as Wales' capital. Cymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg (The Welsh Language Society) was formed in 1962, in response to fears that the language might soon die out. Nationalist sentiment grew following the flooding of the Tryweryn valley in 1965 to create a reservoir to supply water to the English city of Liverpool. Although 35 of the 36 Welsh MPs voted against the bill (one abstained), Parliament passed the bill and the village of Capel Celyn was submerged, highlighting Wales' powerlessness in her own affairs in the face of the numerical superiority of English MPs in Parliament. Separatist groupings, such as the Free Wales Army and Mudiad Amddiffyn Cymru were formed, conducting campaigns from 1963. Prior to the investiture of Charles in 1969, these groups were responsible for a number of bomb attacks on infrastructure. At a by-election in 1966, Gwynfor Evans won the parliamentary seat of Carmarthen, Plaid Cymru's first Parliamentary seat.
By the end of the 1960s, the policy of bringing businesses into disadvantaged areas of Wales through financial incentives had proven very successful in diversifying the industrial economy. This policy, begun in 1934, was enhanced by the construction of industrial estates and improvements in transport communications, most notably the M4 motorway linking south Wales directly to London. It was believed that the foundations for stable economic growth had been firmly established in Wales during this period, but this was shown to be optimistic after the recession of the early 1980s saw the collapse of much of the manufacturing base that had been built over the preceding forty years.


January 1
Frank Langella, American actor
Fuad Masum, 9th President of Iraq
January 2
Goh Kun, Korean politician, Mayor of Seoul and 31st Prime Minister of the Republic of Korea (South Korea)
Bohumil Nemecek, Czechoslovakian Olympic boxer (d. 2010)
January 4 – Mohamed Rahmat ("Tok Mat"), Malaysian politician (d. 2010)
January 5
King Juan Carlos I of Spain
Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o, Kenyan writer
January 7 – Roland Topor, French illustrator (d. 1997)
January 10 – Donald Knuth, American mathematician and computer scientist
January 13 – Shivkumar Sharma, Indian musician
January 14
Morihiro Hosokawa, Japanese politician, 50th Prime Minister of Japan
Jack Jones, American singer
Allen Toussaint, American musician, composer (d. 2015)
January 23 – Georg Baselitz, German painter, sculptor
January 25
Etta James, African-American singer (d. 2012)
Shotaro Ishinomori, Japanese manga artist, father of "Henshin Heroes" (d. 1998)
Vladimir Vysotsky, Russian singer-songwriter, poet and actor (d. 1980)
January 28 – Tomas Lindahl, Swedish biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
January 29 – Shuji Tsurumi, Japanese men's artistic gymnast
January 30 – Islam Karimov, President of Uzbekistan (d. 2016)
January 31 – Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands
February 1 – Sherman Hemsley, African-American comedian and actor (d. 2012)
February 2 – Pilar Pellicer, Mexican actress (d. 2020)
February 3 – Emile Griffith, American welterweight boxer (d. 2013)
February 11 – Mohammed Gammoudi, Tunisian Olympic athlete
February 12 – Judy Blume, American author
February 13 – Oliver Reed, English actor (d. 1999)
February 18 – István Szabó, Hungarian film director
February 24
James Farentino, American actor (d. 2012)
Phil Knight, American sportswear entrepreneur
February 25 – Herb Elliott, Australian runner
February 27 – Pascale Petit, French actress


The genus was first described scientifically by Carl Linnaeus in 1753. The name Vaccinium was used in classical Latin for a plant, possibly the bilberry or a hyacinth, and may be derived from the Latin bacca, berry, although its ultimate derivation is obscure. It is not the same word as Vaccinum "of or pertaining to cows".
The taxonomy of the genus is complex, and still under investigation. Genetic analysis indicates that the genus Vaccinium is not monophyletic. A number of the Asian species are more closely related to Agapetes than to other Vaccinium species. A second group includes most of Orthaea and Notopora, at least some of Gaylussacia (huckleberry), and a number of species from Vaccinium, such as Vaccinium crassifolium. Other parts of Vaccinium form other groups, sometimes together with species of other genera. The taxonomy of Vaccinium can either be resolved by enlarging the genus to include the entirety of the tribe Vaccinieae, or by breaking the genus up into several different genera.


Two fossil seeds of †Vaccinium minutulum have been extracted from borehole samples of the Middle Miocene fresh water deposits in Nowy Sacz Basin, West Carpathians, Poland.


Ray Tomlinson sends the first ARPANET e-mail between host computers, in late 1971
Crude oil production peaks in the continental United States at approximately 4.5 million barrels per day (720,000 m³/d).
The Center for Science in the Public Interest is established in the United States.
Bulanti motorcar built in Australia.


1971
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1971 (MCMLXXI) was a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar, the 1971st year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 971st  year of the 2nd millennium, the 71st  year of the 20th century, and the  2nd   year of the 1970s decade.
  The year 1971 had three partial solar eclipses (February 25, July 22 and August 20) and two total lunar eclipses (February 10, and August 6).
The world population increased by 2.1% this year, the highest increase in history.


1954
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1954 (MCMLIV) was a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar, the 1954th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 954th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 54th  year of the 20th century, and the  5th   year of the 1950s decade.


The Polistinae is a subfamily of eusocial wasps belonging to the family Vespidae. They are closely related to the more familiar  wasps (“yellowjackets” as they are called in North America) and true hornets of the subfamily Vespinae, containing four tribes. With about 1,100 species total, it is the second-most diverse subfamily within the Vespidae, and while most species are tropical or subtropical, they include some of the most frequently encountered large wasps in temperate regions.
The Polistinae are also known as paper wasps, which is a misleading term, since other wasps (including the wasps in the subfamily Vespinae) also build nests out of paper, and because some epiponine wasps (e.g., Polybia emaciata) build theirs out of mud, nonetheless, the name "paper wasp" seems to apply mostly, but not exclusively, to the Polistinae, especially the Polistini.
Many polistines, such as Polistes fuscatus, Polistes annularis, and Polistes exclamans, make their nests out of paper. Polistes annularis suspends its paper nests from cliff overhangs via a pedicel, whose free fatty acids induce the necrophobic response in ants and causes them to avoid the pedicel rather than cross and prey on the nest’s inhabitants. Polistes metricus foragers take off from their nests as if they already know how long their trip is. For short flights, they exit the nest flying horizontally, while for long flights they exit the nest flying straight up into a high altitude before pursuing their direction. Polistine brood cells are arranged in a hexagonal array, similar to the comb structure in a honey bee nest. Some species of the epiponine genera Polybia and Brachygastra store honey in the comb, among the few insects other than bees to store honey (also some ants store honey in their bodies).


Tribe Polistini
Genus Polistes
P. adelphus
P. annularis
P. atrimandibularis
P. bellicosus
P. biglumis
P. bischoffi
P. carolina - red paper wasp
P. chinensis - Chinese paper wasp
P. dominula - European paper wasp
P. fuscatus - northern paper wasp
P. humilis - common paper wasp
P. instabilis
P. japonicus
P. metricus - Metric paper wasp
P. semenowi
P. sulcifer
P. tepidus
Tribe Mischocyttarini
Genus Mischocyttarus
M. collarellus
M. flavitarsis
M. labiatus
Mischocyttarus drewseni
Tribe Epiponini
Genus Agelaia
A. multipicta
Genus Apoica
A. pallens
A. pallida
Genus Brachygastra
B. lecheguana
B. mellifica
Genus Leipomeles
L. dorsata
Genus Parachartergus
P. colobopterus
Genus Polybia
P. dimidiata
P. emaciata
P. occidentalis
P. scutellaris
P. sericea
Genus Synoeca
S. chalibea (often misspelled as chalybea)
S. cyanea
S. septentrionalis
S. surinama
S. virginea
Tribe Ropalidiini
Genus Ropalidia
R. marginata
R. revolutionalis
R. romandi


Characteristics of the Polistinae are:
The queens (reproductive females) are morphologically similar to workers, though sometimes slightly larger or differently colored.
The abdomen is spindle-shaped, often petiolate.
The antennae of males are curled.
The nest is sometimes open (the nests of vespines are always enclosed in several layers of paper).


The Sistema de Transporte Público Cablebús, simply branded as Cablebús, is an aerial lift transport system that runs in the Gustavo A. Madero and Iztapalapa areas of Mexico City. It is operated by Servicio de Transportes Eléctricos, the agency responsible for the operation of all trolleybus and light rail services in Mexico City. Line 1 was officially inaugurated on 11 July 2021, going from the Indios Verdes station of the STC Metro to the northern neighborhoods of Gustavo A. Madero. Line 2 runs from the Constitución de 1917 to the Santa Marta STC Metro stations in the southeast of the city.


Line 1 is located in the northernmost borough of Gustavo A. Madero. It runs 9.2 kilometers (5.7 mi) from the area serving the Indios Verdes STC Metro station to the Campos Revolución STC Metro station, where the line divides into two cables for transfer, one toward Cuautepec station and the other toward Tlalpexco station, in the Cerro del Chiquihuite. The ropeway installation for Line 1 was built by Doppelmayr Mexico. The cabins are the OMEGA V cabins by CWA Constructions, which have even won a Red Dot Award for their outstanding design.


1942
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
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September
October
November
December
1942 (MCMXLII) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar, the 1942nd year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 942nd  year of the 2nd millennium, the 42nd  year of the 20th century, and the  3rd   year of the 1940s decade.


April 2 – Édouard Estaunié, French novelist (b. 1862)
April 4
James Bede, American politician (b. 1856)
Jan Daszewski, Polish fighter pilot (b. 1916)
April 6 – Isidro Michel López, Mexican military officer, leader of the Mexican Revolution (b. 1870)
April 7 – Anandshankar Dhruv, Indian scholar, writer, educationist and editor (b. 1869)
April 11 – Frederick Hobbs, New Zealand-born singer and actor (b. 1874)
April 12 – Arnold Keppel, 8th Earl of Albemarle, British soldier and politician (b. 1858)
April 13
Julia Danzas, Soviet and Russian Roman Catholic religious leader and blessed (b. 1879)
Sir James Fergusson, British admiral (b. 1881)
April 15
Robert Musil, Austrian novelist (b. 1880)
Joshua Pim, Irish tennis player (b. 1869)
April 16 – Princess Alexandra of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, granddaughter of Queen Victoria (b. 1878)
April 17
Renward Brandstetter, Swiss philologist and linguist (b. 1860)
Adolph Daniel Edward Elmer, American botanist (b. 1870)
Jean Baptiste Perrin, French physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1870)
April 18
Grażyna Chrostowska, Polish poet and activist (b. 1921)
Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney, American heiress, socialite and sculptor (b. 1875)
April 21 – Gustav Stickley, American furniture designer and architect (b. 1858)
April 23 – Olga Benário Prestes, German-born Brazilian militant (b. 1908)
April 24
Camille du Gast, French pioneer (b. 1868)
Deenanath Mangeshkar, Indian singer and composer (b. 1900)
Lucy Maud Montgomery, Canadian writer (b. 1874)
April 25 – Zygmunt Kisielewski, Polish writer (b. 1882)
April 27 – Arthur L. Bristol, American admiral (b. 1886)
April 30 – Lilian Whiting, American writer and editor (b. 1847)


DDT is first used as a pesticide.
circa June – The 1942 FIFA World Cup competition in Association football, which Nazi Germany sought to host, is not held, due to World War II.


February 2
Ado Birk, Estonian politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Estonia (b. 1883)
Leonetto Cappiello, Italian poster designer and painter (b. 1875)
February 7 – Dorando Pietri, Italian Olympic athlete (b. 1885)
February 8 – Fritz Todt, Nazi German engineer (b. 1891)
February 9 – Lauri Kristian Relander, 2nd President of Finland (b. 1883)
February 11
Jamnalal Bajaj, Indian industrialist and philanthropist (b. 1889)
Ugo Pasquale Mifsud, 3rd Prime Minister of Malta (b. 1889)
February 12 – Grant Wood, American painter (b. 1891)
February 13
Otakar Batlička, Czechoslovakian adventurer and journalist (b. 1895)
Epitácio Pessoa, Brazil jurist and politician, 11th President of Brazil (b. 1865)
February 14 – Mirosław Ferić, Polish pilot of the No. 303 Squadron in Northolt (b. 1915)
February 16 – Ettore Arrigoni degli Oddi, Italian ornithologist (b. 1867)
February 19 – Frank Abbandando, American gangster (b. 1910)
February 20 – Hamad ibn Isa Al Khalifa, Ruler of Bahrain (b. 1872)
February 22 – Stefan Zweig, Austrian writer (b. 1881)
February 27
Robert William Chapman, Australian engineer and mathematician (b. 1866)
Joseph Emile Harley, American army officer and politician (b. 1880)
February 28 – Karel Doorman, Dutch admiral (b. 1889)


The genus Populus has traditionally been divided into six sections on the basis of leaf and flower characters; this classification is followed below. Recent genetic studies have largely supported this, confirming some previously suspected reticulate evolution due to past hybridisation and introgression events between the groups. Some species (noted below) had differing relationships indicated by their nuclear DNA (paternally inherited) and chloroplast DNA sequences (maternally inherited), a clear indication of likely hybrid origin. Hybridisation continues to be common in the genus, with several hybrids between species in different sections known. There are currently 57 accepted species in the genus.


The fynbos is home to many unique and endemic animals, with 7 species of endemic bird and an unknown number of endemic reptiles, amphibians, and arthropods. The 7 avian endemics include the Cape rockjumper, Cape sugarbird, Victorin's warbler, Orange-breasted sunbird, Protea canary, Cape siskin, and Fynbos buttonquail.


Fynbos (/ˈfeɪnbɒs/; [ˈfɛinbos] meaning fine plants) is a small belt of natural shrubland or heathland vegetation located in the Western Cape and Eastern Cape provinces of South Africa. This area is predominantly coastal and mountainous, with a Mediterranean climate and rainy winters. The fynbos ecoregion is within the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome. In fields related to biogeography, fynbos is known for its exceptional degree of biodiversity and endemism, consisting about 80% (8,500 fynbos) species of the Cape floral kingdom where nearly 6,000 of them are endemic. This land continues to face severe human-caused threats, but due to the many economic uses of the fynbos, conservation efforts are being made to help restore it.


The most conspicuous components of the flora are evergreen sclerophyllous plants, many with ericoid leaves and gracile habit, as opposed to timber forest. Several plant families are conspicuous in fynbos; the Proteaceae are prominent, with genera such as Protea, Leucospermum (the "pincushions"), and Leucadendron (the silver tree and "cone bushes"). Proteas are represented by many species and are prominent in the landscape, generally with large striking flowers, many of which are pollinated by birds, and others by small mammals. Most of these do not have anything like ericoid leaves, and nor do most Rhamnaceae, Fabaceae, or Geraniaceae. Fynbos Ericaceae include more species of Erica than all other regions combined. They are popularly called heaths and are generally smaller plants bearing many small, tubular or globular flowers and ericoid leaves. Restionaceae also occur in greater variety in fynbos than anywhere else; their species are superficially grass-like. Many of them grow in wet areas such as seasonal marshes and spongy basins in the sources of mountain streams, but others grow in decidedly arid conditions.
Depending on the locality and the aspects under discussion, several other families have equal claim to being characteristic, including Asteraceae, Rutaceae, and Iridaceae. More than 1400 bulb species occur among the fynbos, of which 96 are Gladiolus and 54 Lachenalia. Areas that are dominated by "renosterbos", Elytropappus rhinocerotis, (Asteraceae) are known as Renosterveld (Afrikaans for "rhinoceros veld").


In 2013, Eva Verena Bärmann (of the University of Cambridge) and colleagues undertook a revision of the phylogeny of the tribe Antilopini on the basis of nuclear and mitochondrial data. They showed that the springbok and the gerenuk (Litocranius walleri) form a clade with saiga (Saiga tatarica) as sister taxon. The study pointed out that the saiga and the springbok could be considerably different from the rest of the antilopines; a 2007 phylogenetic study even suggested that the two form a clade sister to the gerenuk. The cladogram below is based on the 2013 study.


April 3 – Old West outlaw Jesse James is shot in the back of the head and killed by Robert Ford in St. Joseph, Missouri.
April 29 – The Elektromote, the world's first trolleybus, begins operation in Berlin.
May – Burnley F.C. in the north of England changes codes, from Rugby union to Association football.
May 1 – The Berlin Philharmonic orchestra is founded in Germany, as Frühere Bilsesche Kapelle.
May 2 – The Kilmainham Treaty, an agreement between the British government and Irish nationalist leader Charles Stewart Parnell to abate tenant rent arrears, is announced; Parnell is released from Kilmainham Gaol in Dublin.
May 6 – Phoenix Park Murders in Ireland: Lord Frederick Cavendish, the newly appointed Chief Secretary for Ireland, and Thomas Henry Burke, his Permanent Undersecretary, are fatally stabbed in Phoenix Park, Dublin, by members of the Irish National Invincibles (militant Irish republicans).
May 8 – The Chinese Exclusion Act is the first important law which restricts immigration into the United States.
May 20 – The Triple Alliance is formed between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.
June
Ferdinand von Lindemann publishes his proof of the transcendentality of pi.
St Andrew's Ambulance Association is founded in Glasgow, Scotland; St. John Ambulance Canada is also founded this year.
June 6
Supposedly, the Bombay Cyclone of 1882 in the Arabian Sea causes flooding in Bombay harbor, leaving about 100,000 dead; this alleged event has, however, been proved a hoax.
Battle of Embabo: The Shewan forces of Menelik II defeat the Gojjame army.
June 11 – The 'Urabi revolt breaks out in Egypt against Khedive Tewfik Pasha and European influence in that country.
June 28 – The Anglo-French Convention of 1882 is signed, marking territorial boundaries between Guinea and Sierra Leone.
June 30 – U.S. presidential assassin Charles J. Guiteau is hanged in Washington, D.C.


1882 (MDCCCLXXXII) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar, the 1882nd year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 882nd  year of the 2nd millennium, the 82nd  year of the 19th century, and the  3rd   year of the 1880s decade. As of the start of 1882, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


January 2
The Standard Oil Trust is secretly created in the United States, to control multiple corporations set up by John D. Rockefeller and his associates.
Irish-born author Oscar Wilde arrives in the United States for an extended lecture tour; when asked by a customs official if he has anything to declare, he replies "I have nothing to declare but my genius" according to later tradition.
January 5 – Charles J. Guiteau is found guilty of the assassination of James A. Garfield (President of the United States) and sentenced to death, despite an insanity defense raised by his lawyer.
January 12 – Holborn Viaduct power station in the City of London, the world's first coal-fired public electricity generating station, begins operation.
February 3 – American showman P. T. Barnum acquires the elephant Jumbo, from the London Zoo.
March 2 – Roderick Maclean fails in an attempt to assassinate Queen Victoria, at Windsor.
March 18 (March 6 Old Style) – The Principality of Serbia becomes the Kingdom of Serbia following a proclamation.
March 20 – British gunboats enter Monrovia, with Arthur Havelock demanding that Liberia cede disputed territory to the British colony of Sierra Leone, of which he is Governor.
March 22 – Polygamy is made a felony by the Edmunds Act, passed by the United States Congress.
March 24 – Robert Koch announces the discovery of the bacterium responsible for tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis).
March 28
Republican Jules Ferry makes primary education in France free, non-clerical (laique) and obligatory.
German medical products company Beiersdorf is founded.
March 29 – The Knights of Columbus, a Catholic fraternal service organization, is founded in New Haven, Connecticut.


Benzaldehyde can be oxidized to benzoic acid; in fact "[B]enzaldehyde readily undergoes autoxidation to form benzoic acid on exposure to air at room temperature" causing a common impurity in laboratory samples. Since the boiling point of benzoic acid is much higher than that of benzaldehyde, it may be purified by distillation. Benzyl alcohol can be formed from benzaldehyde by means of hydrogenation.  Reaction of benzaldehyde with anhydrous sodium acetate and acetic anhydride yields cinnamic acid, while alcoholic potassium cyanide can be used to catalyze the condensation of benzaldehyde to benzoin. Benzaldehyde undergoes disproportionation upon treatment with concentrated alkali (Cannizzaro reaction): one molecule of the aldehyde is reduced to the benzyl alcohol and another molecule is simultaneously oxidized to benzoic acid.
With diols, including many sugars, benzaldehyde condenses to form benzylidene acetals.


Benzaldehyde is commonly employed to confer almond flavor to foods and scented products.  It is sometimes used in cosmetics products.
In industrial settings, benzaldehyde is used chiefly as a precursor to other organic compounds, ranging from pharmaceuticals to plastic additives. The aniline dye malachite green is prepared from benzaldehyde and dimethylaniline.  Benzaldehyde is also a precursor to certain acridine dyes. Via aldol condensations, benzaldehyde is converted into derivatives of cinnamaldehyde and styrene. The synthesis of mandelic acid starts with the addition of hydrocyanic acid to benzaldehyde:
The resulting cyanohydrin is hydrolysed to mandelic acid. (The scheme above depicts only one of the two formed enantiomers).


The defeat of the military rebellion against the Republican government in Barcelona placed Catalonia firmly in the Republican side of the Spanish Civil War. During the war, there were two rival powers in Catalonia: the de jure power of the Generalitat and the de facto power of the armed popular militias. Violent confrontations between the workers' parties (CNT-FAI and POUM against the PSUC) culminated in the defeat of the first ones in 1937. The situation resolved itself progressively in favor of the Generalitat, but at the same time the Generalitat was partially losing its autonomous power within Republican Spain. In 1938 Franco's troops broke the Republican territory in two, isolating Catalonia from the rest of the Republic. The defeat of the Republican army in the Battle of the Ebro led in 1938 and 1939 to the occupation of Catalonia by Franco's forces.

The defeat of the Spanish Republic in the Spanish Civil War brought to power the dictatorship of Francisco Franco, whose first ten-year rule was particularly violent, autocratic, and repressive both in a political, cultural, social, and economical sense. In Catalonia, any kind of public activities associated with Catalan nationalism, republicanism, anarchism, socialism, liberalism, democracy or communism, including the publication of books on those subjects or simply discussion of them in open meetings, was banned.
 Franco's regime banned the use of Catalan in government-run institutions and during public events, and also the Catalan institutions of self-government were abolished. The pro-Republic of Spain president of Catalonia, Lluís Companys, was taken to Spain from his exile in the German-occupied France, and was tortured and executed in the Montjuïc Castle of Barcelona for the crime of 'military rebellion'.
During later stages of Francoist Spain, certain folkloric and religious celebrations in Catalan resumed and were tolerated. Use of Catalan in the mass media had been forbidden, but was permitted from the early 1950s in the theatre. Despite the ban during the first years and the difficulties of the next period, publishing in Catalan continued throughout his rule.
The years after the war were extremely hard. Catalonia, like many other parts of Spain, had been devastated by the war. Recovery from the war damage was slow and made more difficult by the international trade embargo and the autarkic politics of Franco's regime. By the late 1950s the region had recovered its pre-war economic levels and in the 1960s was the second fastest growing economy in the world in what became known as the Spanish miracle. During this period there was a spectacular growth of industry and tourism in Catalonia that drew large numbers of workers to the region from across Spain and made the area around Barcelona into one of Europe's largest industrial metropolitan areas.


During the Edo period, Japan largely pursued an isolationist foreign policy.  In 1853, United States Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry threatened the Japanese capital Edo with gunships, demanding that they agree to open trade.  This led to the opening of trade relations between Japan and foreign countries, with the policy of Sakoku formally ended in 1854.
By 1872, the Japanese government under Emperor Meiji had eliminated the daimyō system and established a strong central government.  Further reforms included the abolishment of the samurai class, rapid industrialization and modernization of government, closely following European models.


Mexico and the majority of the countries in Central America and South America obtained independence from colonial overlords during the 19th century.  In 1804, Haiti gained independence from France.  In Mexico, the Mexican War of Independence was a decade-long conflict that ended in Mexican independence in 1821.
Due to the Napoleonic Wars, the royal family of Portugal relocated to Brazil from 1808 to 1821, leading to Brazil having a separate monarchy from Portugal.
The Federal Republic of Central America gained independence from Spain in 1821 and from Mexico in 1823.  After several rebellions, by 1841 the federation had dissolved into the independent countries of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.
In 1830, the post-colonial nation of Gran Colombia dissolved and the nations of Colombia (including modern-day Panama), Ecuador, and Venezuela took its place.


The Taiping Rebellion was the bloodiest conflict of the 19th century, leading to the deaths of around 20-30 million people.  Its leader, Hong Xiuquan, declared himself the younger brother of Jesus Christ and developed a new Chinese religion known as the God Worshipping Society.  After proclaiming the establishment of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom in 1851, the Taiping army conquered a large part of China, capturing Nanjing in 1853. In 1864, after the death of Hong Xiuquan, Qing forces recaptured Nanjing and ended the rebellion.


The numerous species of Prunus subg. Prunus are classified into many sections, but not all of them are called plums. Plums include species of sect. Prunus and sect. Prunocerasus, as well as P. mume of sect. Armeniaca. Only two plum species, the hexaploid European plum (Prunus domestica) and the diploid Japanese plum (Prunus salicina and hybrids), are of worldwide commercial significance. The origin of P. domestica is uncertain but may have involved P. cerasifera and possibly P. spinosa as ancestors. Other species of plum variously originated in Europe, Asia and America.
Sect. Prunus (Old World plums) – leaves in bud rolled inwards; flowers 1–3 together; fruit smooth, often wax-bloomed
Sect. Prunocerasus (New World plums) – leaves in bud folded inwards; flowers 3–5 together; fruit smooth, often wax-bloomed
Sect. Armeniaca (apricots) – leaves in bud rolled inwards; flowers very short-stalked; fruit velvety; treated as a distinct subgenus by some authors
In certain parts of the world, some fruits are called plums and are quite different from fruits known as plums in Europe or the Americas. For example, marian plums are popular in Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia, otherwise also known as gandaria, plum mango, ma-praang, ma-yong, ramania, kundang, rembunia or setar. Another example is the loquat, also known as Japanese plum and Japanese medlar, as well as nispero, bibassier and wollmispel elsewhere. In South Asia and Southeast Asia, Jambul, a fruit from tropical tree in family Myrtaceae, is similarly sometimes referred to 'damson plums', and it is different from damson plums found in Europe and Americas. Jambul is also called as Java plum, Malabar plum, Jaman, Jamun, Jamblang, Jiwat, Salam, Duhat, Koeli, Jambuláo or Koriang.


An extensive phylogenetic study based on different chloroplast and nuclear sequences divides Prunus into three subgenera:
Subg. Padus: In addition to species of Padus (bird cherries), this subgenus also includes species of Maddenia (false bird cherries), Laurocerasus (cherry laurels) and Pygeum.
Subg. Cerasus: This subgenus includes true cherries such as sweet cherry, sour cherry, mahaleb cherry and Japanese flowering cherry.
Subg. Prunus: This subgenus includes the following sections:
Sect. Prunus: Old World plums
Sect. Prunocerasus: New World plums
Sect. Armeniaca: apricots
Sect. Microcerasus: bush cherries
Sect. Amygdalus: almonds
Sect. Persica: peaches
Sect. Emplectocladus: desert almonds


Members of the genus can be deciduous or evergreen. A few species have spiny stems. The leaves are simple, alternate, usually lanceolate, unlobed, and often with nectaries on the leaf stalk along with stipules. The flowers are usually white to pink, sometimes red, with five petals and five sepals. Numerous stamens are present. Flowers are borne singly, or in umbels of two to six or sometimes more on racemes. The fruit is a fleshy drupe (a "prune") with a single relatively large, hard-coated seed (a "stone").
Within the rose family Rosaceae, it was traditionally placed as a subfamily, the Amygdaloideae (incorrectly "Prunoideae"), but was sometimes placed in its own family, the Prunaceae (or Amygdalaceae). More recently, Prunus is thought to have evolved from within a much larger clade now called subfamily Amygdaloideae (incorrectly "Spiraeoideae").


Unlike the Akkadians and Assyrians, whose Anatolian trading posts were peripheral to their core lands in Mesopotamia, the Hittites were centered at Hattusa (modern Boğazkale) in north-central Anatolia by the 17th century BCE. They were speakers of an Indo-European language, the Hittite language, or nesili (the language of Nesa) in Hittite. The Hittites originated from local ancient cultures that grew in Anatolia, in addition to the arrival of Indo-European languages. Attested for the first time in the Assyrian tablets of Nesa around 2000 BCE, they conquered Hattusa in the 18th century BCE, imposing themselves over Hattian- and Hurrian-speaking populations. According to the widely accepted Kurgan theory on the Proto-Indo-European homeland, however, the Hittites (along with the other Indo-European ancient Anatolians) were themselves relatively recent immigrants to Anatolia from the north. However, they did not necessarily displace the population genetically; they assimilated into the former peoples' culture, preserving the Hittite language.
The Hittites adopted the Mesopotamian cuneiform script. In the Late Bronze Age, Hittite New Kingdom (c. 1650 BCE) was founded, becoming an empire in the 14th century BCE after the conquest of Kizzuwatna in the south-east and the defeat of the Assuwa league in western Anatolia. The empire reached its height in the 13th century BCE, controlling much of Asia Minor, northwestern Syria, and northwest upper Mesopotamia. However, the Hittite advance toward the Black Sea coast was halted by the semi-nomadic pastoralist and tribal Kaskians, a non-Indo-European people who had earlier displaced the Palaic-speaking Indo-Europeans. Much of the history of the Hittite Empire concerned war with the rival empires of Egypt, Assyria and the Mitanni.
The Egyptians eventually withdrew from the region after failing to gain the upper hand over the Hittites and becoming wary of the power of Assyria, which had destroyed the Mitanni Empire. The Assyrians and Hittites were then left to battle over control of eastern and southern Anatolia and colonial territories in Syria. The Assyrians had better success than the Egyptians, annexing much Hittite (and Hurrian) territory in these regions.


Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to an indefinite line running from the Gulf of Alexandretta to the Black Sea, coterminous with the Anatolian Plateau. This traditional geographical definition is used, for example, in the latest edition of Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary. Under this definition, Anatolia is bounded to the east by the Armenian Highlands, and the Euphrates before that river bends to the southeast to enter Mesopotamia. To the southeast, it is bounded by the ranges that separate it from the Orontes valley in Syria and the Mesopotamian plain.
Following the Armenian genocide, Western Armenia was renamed the Eastern Anatolia Region by the newly established Turkish government. In 1941, with the First Geography Congress which divided Turkey into seven geographical regions based on differences in climate and landscape, the eastern provinces of Turkey were placed into the Eastern Anatolia Region, which largely corresponds to the historical region of Western Armenia (named as such after the division of Greater Armenia between the Roman/Byzantine Empire (Western Armenia) and Sassanid Persia (Eastern Armenia) in 387 AD). Vazken Davidian terms the expanded use of "Anatolia" to apply to territory in eastern Turkey that was formerly referred to as Armenia (which had a sizeable Armenian population before the Armenian genocide) an "ahistorical imposition" and notes that a growing body of literature is uncomfortable with referring to the Ottoman East as "Eastern Anatolia."
The highest mountain in the Eastern Anatolia Region (also the highest peak in the Armenian Highlands) is Mount Ararat (5123 m). The Euphrates, Araxes, Karasu and Murat rivers connect the Armenian Highlands to the South Caucasus and the Upper Euphrates Valley. Along with the Çoruh, these rivers are the longest in the Eastern Anatolia Region.


The earliest historically attested populations of Anatolia were the Hattians in central Anatolia, and Hurrians further to the east. The Hattians were an indigenous people, whose main center was the city of Hattush. Affiliation of Hattian language remains unclear, while Hurrian language belongs to a distinctive family of Hurro-Urartian languages. All of those languages are extinct; relationships with indigenous languages of the Caucasus have been proposed, but are not generally accepted. The region became famous for exporting raw materials. Organized trade between Anatolia and Mesopotamia started to emerge during the period of the Akkadian Empire, and was continued and intensified during the period of the Old Assyrian Empire, between the 21st and the 18th centuries BCE. Assyrian traders were bringing tin and textiles in exchange for copper, silver or gold. Cuneiform records, dated circa 20th century BCE, found in Anatolia at the Assyrian colony of Kanesh, use an advanced system of trading computations and credit lines.


March – Restrictions on the cereal trade in Sweden are lifted.
March 2–3 – American Revolutionary War:
Battle of Nassau: The American Continental Navy and  Marines make a successful assault on Nassau, Bahamas.
Battle of the Rice Boats: American Patriots resist the Royal Navy on the Savannah River; British control over the Province of Georgia is lost.
March 4 – American Revolutionary War – American Patriots capture Dorchester Heights, dominating the port of Boston.
March 9 – Scottish economist Adam Smith publishes The Wealth of Nations in London.
March 17 – American Revolutionary War – Threatened by Patriot cannons on Dorchester Heights, the British evacuate Boston, ending the 11‑month Siege of Boston.
March 28
Juan Bautista de Anza finds the site for the Presidio of San Francisco.
Bolshoi Ballet, as known well for ballet group in worldwide, founded in Teatralnaxa, Moscow, Russia.
April 12 – American Revolution – The Royal Colony of North Carolina produces the Halifax Resolves, making it the first British colony to officially authorize its Continental Congress delegates, to vote for independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain.
April 27 – Jeongjo becomes the King of Joseon following the death of his grandfather Yeongjo.


Windward lowlands – Below 2,000 ft (610 m) on north-to-northeast sides of an island. Roughly perpendicular to direction of prevailing trade winds. Moderately rainy; frequent trade wind-induced showers. Skies are often cloudy to partly cloudy. Air temperatures are more uniform (and mild) than those of other regions.
Leeward lowlands – Daytime temperatures are a little higher and nighttime temperatures are lower than in windward locations. Dry weather is prevalent, with the exception of sporadic showers that drift over the mountains to windward and during short-duration storms.
Interior lowlands – Intermediate conditions, often sharing characteristics of other lowland sub-regions. Occasionally experience intense local afternoon showers from well-developed clouds that formed due to local daytime heating.
Leeward side high-altitude mountain slopes with high rainfall – Extensive cloud cover and rainfall all year long. Mild temperatures are prevalent, but humidity is higher than any other sub-region.
Leeward side lower mountain slopes – Rainfall is higher than on the adjacent leeward lowlands but much less than at similar altitudes on the windward side; however, maximum rainfall usually occurs leeward of the crests of lower mountains. Temperatures are higher than on the rainy slopes of the windward sides of mountains; cloud cover is almost as extensive.
High mountains – Above about 5,000 ft (1,500 m) on Haleakalā, rainfall decreases rapidly with elevation. Relative humidity may be ten percent or less. The lowest temperatures in the state are experienced in this region: air temperatures below freezing are common.


Maui is a leading whale-watching center in the Hawaiian Islands due to humpback whales wintering in the sheltered ʻAuʻau Channel between the islands of Maui county. The whales migrate approximately 3,500 mi (5,600 km) from Alaskan waters each autumn and spend the winter months mating and birthing in the warm waters off Maui, with most leaving by the end of April. The whales are typically sighted in pods: small groups of several adults, or groups of a mother, her calf, and a few suitors. Humpbacks are an endangered species protected by U.S. federal and Hawaiʻi state law. There are estimated to be about 22,000 humpbacks in the North Pacific. Although Maui's Humpback face many dangers, due to pollution, high-speed commercial vessels, and military sonar testing, their numbers have increased rapidly in recent years, estimated at 7% growth per year.
Maui is home to a large rainforest on the northeastern flanks of Haleakalā, which serves as the drainage basin for the rest of the island. The extremely difficult terrain has prevented exploitation of much of the forest.
Agricultural and coastal industrial land use has had an adverse effect on much of Maui's coastal regions. Many of Maui's extraordinary coral reefs have been damaged by pollution, run-off, and tourism, although finding sea turtles, dolphins, and Hawaii's celebrated tropical fish, is still common. Leeward Maui used to boast a vibrant dry 'cloud forest' as well but this was destroyed by human activities over the last three hundred years.


January 1
Gaafar Nimeiry, 4th President of Sudan (d. 2009)
Ty Hardin, American actor (d. 2017)
Frederick Wiseman, American director and producer
January 3
Robert Loggia, American actor (d. 2015)
Ahmed Osman, Prime Minister of Morocco
January 4 – Don Shula, American football coach (d. 2020)
January 5 – M. R. Srinivasan, Indian nuclear scientist
January 6
"Professor Tanaka" (Charles Kalani, Jr.), American wrestler and actor (d. 2000)
Oscar Camilión, Argentine lawyer and diplomat (d. 2016)
Vic Tayback, American actor (d. 1990)
January 9 – Pavel Kolchin, Soviet Olympic cross-country skier (d. 2010)
January 10 – Roy E. Disney, Disney executive (d. 2009)
January 11 – Rod Taylor, Australian actor (d. 2015)
January 12
Tim Horton, Canadian hockey player, co-founder of Tim Hortons fast food chain (d. 1974)
Jennifer Johnston, Irish novelist
Glenn Yarbrough, American singer (d. 2016)
January 15 – Hédi Baccouche, Prime Minister of Tunisia (d. 2020)
January 16 – Mary Ann McMorrow, American judge (d. 2013)
January 19 – Tippi Hedren, American actress
January 20 – Buzz Aldrin, American pilot, astronaut (Apollo 11), second person to set foot on the Moon
January 21 – Mainza Chona, Zambian politician and diplomat (d. 2001)
January 23
Derek Walcott, West Indian writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2017)
Roderick Walcott, West Indian playwright (d. 2000)
William R. Pogue, American astronaut (d. 2014)
January 24 – Terence Bayler, New Zealand actor (d. 2016)
January 25 – Ruth Kligman, American artist (d. 2010)
January 26 – Napoleon Abueva, Filipino artist (d. 2018)
January 27 – Bobby Bland, African-American R&B musician (d. 2013)
January 30
Gene Hackman, American actor and novelist
Magnus Malan, South African soldier, Minister of Defence in the 1980s (d. 2011)


June 1 – Edward Woodward, English actor and singer (d. 2009)
June 2 – Pete Conrad, American astronaut, moonwalker and commander of Apollo 12 (d. 1999)
June 3
Marion Zimmer Bradley, American writer (d. 1999)
George Fernandes, Indian politician (d. 2019)
June 4
Morgana King, American jazz singer, actress (d. 2018)
Viktor Tikhonov, Soviet ice hockey player and coach (d. 2014)
June 6 – Frank Tyson, English cricketer (d. 2015)
June 8 – Robert Aumann, German-born mathematician, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences
June 9
Barbara, French singer (d. 1997)
Jordi Pujol, 126th President of the Government of Catalonia
June 10 – Grace Mirabella, American journalist, editor of Vogue 1971-88 (d. 2021)
June 11
Neale Lavis, Australian equestrian (d. 2019)
Charles Rangel, African-American politician
June 12
Jim Nabors, American actor, musician and comedian (d. 2017)
Son Sen, Cambodian politician and war criminal (d. 1997)
June 14 – Charles McCarry, American spy and novelist (d. 2019)
June 16 – Vilmos Zsigmond, Hungarian-American cinematographer (d. 2016)
June 19 – Gena Rowlands, American actress
June 20
Magdalena Abakanowicz, Polish sculptor (d. 2017)
Juan Alberto Melgar Castro, Honduran military ruler (d. 1987)
June 21 – Gerald Kaufman, British Labour politician (d. 2017)
June 22
Yury Artyukhin, Russian cosmonaut (d. 1998)
Sa'dun Hammadi, 33rd prime minister of Iraq (d. 2007)
June 23
John Elliott, British historian (d. 2022)
Anthony Thwaite, English poet, critic, and academic (d. 2021)
June 24
Claude Chabrol, French film director (d. 2010)
Herb Klein, American businessman, attorney and politician
June 26
Wolfgang Schwanitz, German Leader of the Office for National Security, Head of the Stasi (d. 2022)
Moeenuddin Ahmad Qureshi, Pakistani economist and caretaker prime minister (d. 2016)
Jackie Fargo, American wrestler, trainer (d. 2013)
June 27 – Ross Perot, American computer billionaire, politician (d. 2019)
June 28
William C. Campbell, Irish-American biologist, parasitologist, Nobel Prize laureate
Itamar Franco, President of Brazil (d. 2011)
Horacio Gómez Bolaños, Mexican actor (d. 1999)
June 29
Robert Evans, American producer (d. 2019)
Viola Léger, American-Canadian actress and politician
June 30
Ignatius Peter VIII Abdalahad, Syrian bishop (d. 2018)
Thomas Sowell, American economist and social theorist
Ahmed Zaki Yamani, Saudi Arabian politician (d. 2021)


February 1
Shahabuddin Ahmed, 12th president of Bangladesh (d. 2022)
Hussain Muhammad Ershad, 10th president of Bangladesh (d. 2019)
February 2 – Ruth M. Kirk, American politician (d. 2011)
February 3 – Mani Krishnaswami, Carnatic music vocalist from Tamil Nadu, India (d. 2002)
February 4 – Jim Loscutoff, American basketball player (d. 2015)
February 7 – Ikutaro Kakehashi, Japanese engineer and entrepreneur (d. 2017)
February 8 – Alejandro Rey, Argentine-American actor (d. 1987)
February 10 – Robert Wagner, American actor
February 13
Ernst Fuchs, Austrian painter (d. 2015)
Israel Kirzner, English-born American economist, author and academic
February 15 – Bruce Dawe, Australian poet (d. 2020)
February 17 – Ruth Rendell, British author (d. 2015)
February 19
John Frankenheimer, American film director (d. 2002)
K. Viswanath, Indian actor, director and screenwriter
February 22 – Marni Nixon, American vocalist (d. 2016)
February 23 – Goro Shimura, Japanese mathematician (d. 2019)
February 27 – Joanne Woodward, American actress
February 28 – Leon Cooper, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate


Crete (Greek: Κρήτη, Modern: Kríti [ˈkɾiti], Ancient: Krḗtē [krɛ̌ːtεː]) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the 88th largest island in the world and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, Sardinia, Cyprus, and Corsica. Crete rests about 160 km (99 mi) south of the Greek mainland, and about 100 km (62 mi) southwest of Anatolia. Crete has an area of 8,336 km² (3,219 sq mi) and a coastline of 1,046 km (650 mi).  It bounds the southern border of the Aegean Sea, with the Sea of Crete (or North Cretan Sea) to the north and the Libyan Sea (or South Cretan Sea) to the south.
Crete and a number of islands and islets that surround it constitute the Region of Crete (Greek: Περιφέρεια Κρήτης), which is the southernmost of the 13 top-level administrative units of Greece, and the fifth most populous of Greece's regions. Its capital and largest city is Heraklion, on the north shore of the island. As of 2020, the region had a population of 636,504. The Dodecanese are located to the northeast of Crete, while the Cyclades are situated to the north, separated by the Sea of Crete. The Peloponnese is to the region's northwest.
Humans have inhabited the island since at least 130,000 years ago, during the Paleolithic age. Crete was the centre of Europe's first advanced civilization, the Minoans, from 2700 to 1420 BC. The Minoan civilization was overrun by the Mycenaean civilization from mainland Greece. Crete was later ruled by Rome, then successively by the Byzantine Empire, Andalusian Arabs, the Venetian Republic, and the Ottoman Empire. In 1898 Crete, whose people had for some time wanted to join the Greek state, achieved independence from the Ottomans, formally becoming the Cretan State. Crete became part of Greece in December 1913.
The island is mostly mountainous, and its character is defined by a high mountain range crossing from west to east. It includes Crete's highest point, Mount Ida, and the range of the White Mountains (Lefka Ori) with 30 summits above 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) in altitude and the Samaria Gorge, a World Biosphere Reserve. Crete forms a significant part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece, while retaining its own local cultural traits (such as its own poetry and music). The Nikos Kazantzakis airport at Heraklion and the Daskalogiannis airport at Chania serve international travelers. The palace of Knossos, a Bronze Age settlement and ancient Minoan city, is also located in Heraklion.


The island has an elongated shape: it spans 260 km (160 mi) from east to west, is 60 km (37 mi) at its widest point, and narrows to as little as 12 km (7.5 mi) (close to Ierapetra). Crete covers an area of 8,336 km² (3,219 sq mi), with a coastline of 1,046 km (650 mi); to the north, it broaches the Sea of Crete (Greek: Κρητικό Πέλαγος); to the south, the Libyan Sea (Greek: Λιβυκό Πέλαγος); in the west, the Myrtoan Sea, and toward the east the Carpathian Sea. It lies approximately 160 km (99 mi) south of the Greek mainland.


Crete is mountainous, and its character is defined by a high mountain range crossing from west to east, formed by six different groups of mountains:
The White Mountains or Lefka Ori 2,454 m (8,051 ft)
The Idi Range (Psiloritis) 35.18°N 24.82°E 2,456 m (8,058 ft)
Asterousia Mountains 1,231 m (4,039 ft)
Kedros 1,777 m (5,830 ft)
The Dikti Mountains 2,148 m (7,047 ft)
Thripti 1,489 m (4,885 ft)
These mountains lavish Crete with valleys, such as Amari valley, fertile plateaus, such as Lasithi plateau, Omalos and Nidha; caves, such as Gourgouthakas, Diktaion, and Idaion (the birthplace of the ancient Greek god Zeus); and a number of gorges.
Mountains in Crete are the object of tremendous fascination both for locals and tourists. The mountains have been seen as a key feature of the island's distinctiveness, especially since the time of Romantic travellers' writing. Contemporary Cretans distinguish between highlanders and lowlanders; the former often claim to reside in places affording a higher/better climatic but also moral environment. In keeping with the legacy of Romantic authors, the mountains are seen as having determined their residents' 'resistance' to past invaders which relates to the oft-encountered idea that highlanders are 'purer' in terms of less intermarriages with occupiers. For residents of mountainous areas, such as Sfakia in western Crete, the aridness and rockiness of the mountains is emphasised as an element of pride and is often compared to the alleged soft-soiled mountains of others parts of Greece or the world.


During the first decades of the 20th century, Atlanta enjoyed a period of unprecedented growth. In three decades' time, Atlanta's population tripled as the city limits expanded to include nearby streetcar suburbs. The city's skyline grew taller with the construction of the Equitable, Flatiron, Empire, and Candler buildings. Sweet Auburn emerged as a center of black commerce. The period was also marked by strife and tragedy. Increased racial tensions led to the Atlanta Race Riot of 1906, when whites attacked blacks, leaving at least 27 people dead and over 70 injured, with extensive damage in black neighborhoods. In 1913, Leo Frank, a Jewish-American factory superintendent, was convicted of the murder of a 13-year-old girl in a highly publicized trial. He was sentenced to death but the governor commuted his sentence to life. An enraged and organized lynch mob took him from jail in 1915 and hanged him in Marietta. The Jewish community in Atlanta and across the country were horrified. On May 21, 1917, the Great Atlanta Fire destroyed 1,938 buildings in what is now the Old Fourth Ward, resulting in one fatality and the displacement of 10,000 people.
On December 15, 1939, Atlanta hosted the premiere of Gone with the Wind, the epic film based on the best-selling novel by Atlanta's Margaret Mitchell. The gala event at Loew's Grand Theatre was attended by the film's legendary producer, David O. Selznick, and the film's stars Clark Gable, Vivien Leigh, and Olivia de Havilland, but Oscar winner Hattie McDaniel, an African-American actress, was barred from the event due to racial segregation laws.


The Province of Prince Edward Island is completely dependent on groundwater for its source of drinking water, with approximately 305 high capacity wells in use as of December 2018. As groundwater flows through an aquifer, it is naturally filtered. The water for the city of Charlottetown is extracted from thirteen wells in three wellfields and distributed to customers. The water removed is replenished by precipitation.
Infrastructure in Charlottetown that was installed in 1888 is still in existence. With the age of the system in the older part of Charlottetown, concern has been raised regarding lead pipes. The Utility has been working with its residents on a lead-replacement program. A plebiscite in 1967 was held in Charlottetown over fluoridation, and residents voted in favour. Under provincial legislation, the Utility is required to report to its residents on an annual basis. It is also required to do regular sampling of the water and an overview is included in each annual report. The Winter River watershed provides about 92 per cent of the 18-million-litre (4.8-million-US-gallon) water supply for the city of Charlottetown, which had difficulty in each of 2011, 2012 and 2013 with its supply, until water meters were installed.
Government tabled a discussion paper on the proposed Water Act for the province on July 8, 2015.  The use of groundwater came under scrutiny as the potato industry, which accounts for $1 billion every year and 50% of farm receipts, has pressed the government to lift a moratorium on high-capacity water wells for irrigation. The release of the discussion paper was to set off a consultation process in the autumn of 2015.
Detailed information about the quality of drinking water in PEI communities and watersheds can be found on the provincial government's official website. It provides a summary of the ongoing testing of drinking water done by the Prince Edward Island Analytical Laboratories. Average drinking-water quality results are available, and information on the following parameters are provided: alkalinity; cadmium; calcium; chloride; chromium; iron; magnesium; manganese; nickel; nitrate; pH; phosphorus; potassium; sodium; and sulfate, as well as the presence of pesticides. Water-testing services are provided for a variety of clients through the PEI Analytical Laboratories which assesses according to the recommendations of the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality published by Health Canada.


Prince Edward Island is located in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, west of Cape Breton Island, north of the Nova Scotia peninsula, and east of New Brunswick. Its southern shore bounds the Northumberland Strait. The island has two urban areas, and in total, is the most densely populated province in Canada.
The larger urban area surrounds Charlottetown Harbour, situated centrally on the island's southern shore. It consists of the capital city Charlottetown, and suburban towns Cornwall and Stratford and a developing urban fringe. A much smaller urban area developed around Summerside Harbour, situated on the southern shore 40 km (25 mi) west of Charlottetown Harbour. This consists primarily of the city of Summerside. As with all natural harbours on the island, Charlottetown and Summerside harbours are created by rias.
The coastline has a combination of long beaches, dunes, red sandstone cliffs, salt water marshes, and numerous bays and harbours. The beaches, dunes and sandstone cliffs consist of sedimentary rock and other material with a high iron concentration, which oxidises upon exposure to the air. The geological properties of a white silica sand found at Basin Head are unique in the province; the sand grains cause a scrubbing noise as they rub against each other when walked on, and have been called the "singing sands". Large dune fields on the north shore can be found on barrier islands at the entrances to various bays and harbours. The sand dunes at Greenwich are of particular significance. The shifting, parabolic dune system is home to a variety of birds and rare plants; it is also a site of significant archeological interest.


The island has been inhabited since the 17th century, when people from France and Madagascar settled there. Slavery was abolished on 20 December 1848 (a date celebrated yearly on the island), when the Second Republic abolished slavery in the French colonies. However, indentured workers continued to be brought to Réunion from South India, among other places. The island became an overseas department of France in 1946.
Not much is known of Réunion's history prior to the arrival of the Portuguese in the early 16th century. Arab traders were familiar with it by the name Dina Morgabin, "Western Island". The island is possibly featured on a map from 1153 AD by Al Sharif el-Edrisi. The island might also have been visited by Swahili or Austronesian (Ancient Indonesian–Malaysian) sailors on their journey to the west from the Malay Archipelago to Madagascar.
The first European discovery of the area was made around 1507 by Portuguese explorer Diogo Fernandes Pereira, but the specifics are unclear. The uninhabited island might have been first sighted by the expedition led by Dom Pedro Mascarenhas, who gave his name to the island group around Réunion, the Mascarenes. Réunion itself was dubbed Santa Apolónia after a favourite saint, which suggests that the date of the Portuguese discovery could have been 9 February, her feast day. Diogo Lopes de Sequeira is said to have landed on the islands of Réunion and Rodrigues in 1509.
By the early 1600s, nominal Portuguese rule had left Santa Apolónia virtually untouched. The island was then occupied by France and administered from Port Louis, Mauritius. Although the first French claims date from 1638, when François Cauche and Salomon Goubert visited in June 1638, the island was officially claimed by Jacques Pronis of France in 1642, when he deported a dozen French mutineers to the island from Madagascar. The convicts were returned to France several years later, and in 1649, the island was named Île Bourbon after the French royal House of Bourbon. Colonisation started in 1665, when the French East India Company sent the first settlers.


Detritus occurs in a variety of terrestrial habitats including forest, chaparral and grassland. In forests the detritus is typically dominated by leaf, twig, and bacteria litter as measured by biomass dominance. This plant litter provides important cover for seedling protection as well as cover for a variety of arthropods, reptiles and amphibians. Some insect larvae feed on the detritus. Fungi and bacteria continue the decomposition process after grazers have consumed larger elements of the organic materials, and animal trampling has assisted in mechanically breaking down organic matter. At the later stages of decomposition, mesophilic micro-organisms decompose residual detritus, generating heat from exothermic processes; such heat generation is associated with the well known phenomenon of the elevated temperature of composting.


In addition to being renowned for its beauty, the azalea is also highly toxic—it contains andromedotoxins in both its leaves and nectar, including honey from the nectar. Bees are deliberately fed on Azalea/Rhododendron nectar in some parts of Turkey, producing a mind-altering, potentially medicinal, and occasionally lethal honey known as "mad honey".


Azalea leafy gall can be particularly destructive to azalea leaves during the early spring. Hand picking infected leaves is the recommended method of control.
They can also be subject to Phytophthora root rot in moist, hot conditions.
Azaleas share the economically important disease Phytophthora cinnamomi with more than 3000 other plants.


Year 234 (CCXXXIV) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Pupienus and Sulla (or, less frequently, year 987 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 234 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.


July 1 – Lexell's Comet (D/1770 L1) passes the Earth at a distance of 2184129 km, the closest approach by a comet in recorded history.
July 5 – Battle of Chesma and Battle of Larga: The Russian Empire defeats the Ottoman Empire in both battles. When the news of the defeat reaches the Ottoman city of Smyrna (July 8), the crowd attacks the Greek community of the city (perceived as favourable to the Russian cause) and kills an estimated 200 Greeks and three Western Europeans (although some reports estimate the number of victims at 3,000 or even 5,000 including "3 or 4 thousands who die due to the fright").
August 1 (July 21 O.S.) – Russo-Turkish War (1768–74) – Battle of Kagul: Russian commander Pyotr Rumyantsev routs 150,000 Turks.
August 22 (August 23 by Cook's log) – First voyage of James Cook: Captain Cook determines that New Holland (Australia) is not contiguous with New Guinea, and claims the whole of its eastern coast for Great Britain, later naming it all New South Wales.
c. September – Johann Gottfried Herder meets Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in Strasbourg.
September 24 – In Hillsborough, North Carolina, the Regulator Movement riots against local authorities.


February 21 – Georges Mouton, Marshal of France (d. 1838)
March 2 – Louis-Gabriel Suchet, Marshal of France (d. 1826)
March 20 – Friedrich Hölderlin, German writer (d. 1843)
April 3 – Theodoros Kolokotronis, Greek general (d. 1843)
April 7 – William Wordsworth, English poet (d. 1850)
April 8 – John Campbell, Australian public servant, politician (d. 1830)
April 11 – George Canning, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1827)
April 25 – Georg Sverdrup, Norwegian philologist (d. 1850)
April 30 – David Thompson, English-Canadian explorer (d. 1857)
May 10 – Louis-Nicolas Davout, Marshal of France (d. 1823)
May 15 – Ezekiel Hart, Canadian entrepreneur, politician (d. 1843)
May 27 – Ignaz Döllinger, German anatomist, physiologist (d. 1841)
May 29 – Charles Adams, second son of President John Adams (1735–1826) (d. 1800)
June 1 – Friedrich Laun, German author (d. 1849)
June 3 – Manuel Belgrano, Argentine politician, general in the Independence War (d. 1820)
June 4 – Eleonora Charlotta d'Albedyhll, Swedish countess, poet and salon holder (d. 1835)
June 7 – Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1828)
June 20 – Moses Waddel, American educator/minister and bestselling author (d. 1840)
August 1 – William Clark, American explorer, Governor of Missouri Territory, and Superintendent of Indian Affairs (d. 1838)
August 3 – King Frederick William III of Prussia (d. 1840)
August 18 – Dorothea von Rodde-Schlözer, German scholar (d. 1825)
August 27 – Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, German philosopher (d. 1831)
October 10 – Adam Johann von Krusenstern, Baltic German explorer who led the First Russian circumnavigation (d. 1846)
October 18 – Thomas Phillips, English painter (d. 1845)
November 5 – Sarah Guppy, English inventor (d. 1852)
November 19 – Bertel Thorvaldsen, Danish-Icelandic sculptor (d. 1844)
December 17 (bapt.) – Ludwig van Beethoven, German classical composer (d. 1827)
December 18 – Nicolas Joseph Maison, Marshal of France, Minister of War (d. 1840)


January 7 – Carl Gustaf Tessin, Swedish politician (b. 1695)
January 8 – John Michael Rysbrack, Flemish sculptor (b. 1694)
January 20 – Charles Yorke, Lord Chancellor of Great Britain (b. 1722)
January 27 – Johann Karl Philipp von Cobenzl, 18th-century politician (b. 1712)
January 30 – Giovanni Pietro Francesco Agius de Soldanis, Maltese linguist, historian and cleric (b. 1712)
January 27 – Philippe Macquer, French historian (b. 1720)
February 26 – Giuseppe Tartini, Italian composer, violinist (b. 1692)
March 5 – Crispus Attucks, African-American dockworker, first to die in the Boston Massacre (b. 1723)
March 27 – Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Venetian artist (b. 1696)
April 27 – José Solís Folch de Cardona, Spanish colonial governor (b. 1716)
April 25 – Jean-Antoine Nollet, French abbot, physicist (b. 1700)
May 30 – François Boucher, French painter (b. 1703)
June 22 – Philip Carteret Webb, English barrister (b. 1702)
June 23 – Mark Akenside, English poet, physician (b. 1721)
July 17 – Joseph Paris Duverney, French banker (b. 1684)
July 21 – Charlotta Frölich, Swedish agronomist (b. 1698)
July 27 – Robert Dinwiddie, British colonial Governor of Virginia (b. 1693)
August 15 – Edward Antill (colonial politician), American winemaker (b. 1701)
August 24 – Thomas Chatterton, English poet (b. 1752)
September 2 – Hongzhou, Manchu prince of the Qing Dynasty (b. 1712)
September 9 – Bernhard Siegfried Albinus, German anatomist (b. 1697)
September 22 – Ignatius of Santhià, Italian Catholic priest (b. 1686)
September 30
George Whitefield, English-born Methodist leader (b. 1714)
Thomas Robinson, 1st Baron Grantham, English politician and diplomat
October 14 – Benning Wentworth, colonial governor of New Hampshire (b. 1696)
October 18 – John Manners, Marquess of Granby, British soldier (b. 1721)
November 9 – John Campbell, 4th Duke of Argyll, Scottish politician
November 13 – George Grenville, Prime Minister of Great Britain (b. 1712)
November 24 – Charles-Jean-François Hénault, French historian (b. 1685)
December 4 – John Perceval, 2nd Earl of Egmont, Irish politician (b. 1711)
December 5 – James Stirling, Scottish mathematician (b. 1692)
December 6 – Neri Maria Corsini, Italian Catholic priest and cardinal (b. 1685)


Paris grew in population from about 400,000 in 1640 to 650,000 in 1780. A new boulevard, the Champs-Élysées, extended the city west to Étoile, while the working-class neighbourhood of the Faubourg Saint-Antoine on the eastern site of the city grew more and more crowded with poor migrant workers from other regions of France.
Paris was the centre of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity known as the Age of Enlightenment. Diderot and d'Alembert published their Encyclopédie in 1751, and the Montgolfier Brothers launched the first manned flight in a hot-air balloon on 21 November 1783, from the gardens of the Château de la Muette. Paris was the financial capital of continental Europe, the primary European centre of book publishing and fashion and the manufacture of fine furniture and luxury goods.
In the summer of 1789, Paris became the centre stage for the French Revolution. On 14 July, a mob seized the arsenal at the Invalides, acquiring thousands of guns, and stormed the Bastille, a symbol of royal authority. The first independent Paris Commune, or city council, met in the Hôtel de Ville and, on 15 July, elected a Mayor, the astronomer Jean Sylvain Bailly.
Louis XVI and the royal family were brought to Paris and made prisoners within the Tuileries Palace. In 1793, as the revolution turned more and more radical, the king, queen, and the mayor were guillotined (executed) in the Reign of Terror, along with more than 16,000 others throughout France. The property of the aristocracy and the church was nationalised, and the city's churches were closed, sold or demolished. A succession of revolutionary factions ruled Paris until 9 November 1799 (coup d'état du 18 brumaire), when Napoléon Bonaparte seized power as First Consul.
The population of Paris had dropped by 100,000 during the Revolution, but between 1799 and 1815, it surged with 160,000 new residents, reaching 660,000. Napoleon Bonaparte replaced the elected government of Paris with a prefect reporting only to him. He began erecting monuments to military glory, including the Arc de Triomphe, and improved the neglected infrastructure of the city with new fountains, the Canal de l'Ourcq, Père Lachaise Cemetery and the city's first metal bridge, the Pont des Arts.
During the Restoration, the bridges and squares of Paris were returned to their pre-Revolution names; the July Revolution in 1830 (commemorated by the July Column on the Place de la Bastille) brought a constitutional monarch, Louis Philippe I, to power. The first railway line to Paris opened in 1837, beginning a new period of massive migration from the provinces to the city. Louis-Philippe was overthrown by a popular uprising in the streets of Paris in 1848. His successor, Napoleon III, alongside the newly appointed prefect of the Seine, Georges-Eugène Haussmann, launched a gigantic public works project to build wide new boulevards, a new opera house, a central market, new aqueducts, sewers and parks, including the Bois de Boulogne and Bois de Vincennes. In 1860, Napoleon III also annexed the surrounding towns and created eight new arrondissements, expanding Paris to its current limits.
During the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), Paris was besieged by the Prussian Army. After months of blockade, hunger, and then bombardment by the Prussians, the city was forced to surrender on 28 January 1871. On 28 March, a revolutionary government called the Paris Commune seized power in Paris. The Commune held power for two months, until it was harshly suppressed by the French army during the "Bloody Week" at the end of May 1871.
Late in the 19th century, Paris hosted two major international expositions: the 1889 Universal Exposition, was held to mark the centennial of the French Revolution and featured the new Eiffel Tower; and the 1900 Universal Exposition, which gave Paris the Pont Alexandre III, the Grand Palais, the Petit Palais and the first Paris Métro line. Paris became the laboratory of Naturalism (Émile Zola) and Symbolism (Charles Baudelaire and Paul Verlaine), and of Impressionism in art (Courbet, Manet, Monet, Renoir).