The pipevine swallowtail larva has few natural predators but there have been observed cases of other butterfly larvae feeding on swallowtail larva. Parasites can also threaten larvae, with certain fly and wasp species being the most dangerous. Birds are the greatest threat to larvae, as many species will eat them whenever they can. As a result of bird predation, this butterfly has evolved a chemical defense using the aristolochic acids found in their host plants.


As a result of the pipevine swallowtails' natural defense through acid sequestering, many other species of butterflies, like the red-spotted purple butterfly, female eastern tiger swallowtail and eastern black swallowtail butterflies, promothea silkmoth males and the spicebush swallowtail use the pipevine swallowtail as a template for mimicry. Several other swallowtail subspecies have similar coloring to the pipevine swallowtail so that predators may also associate them with distaste. This is called Batesian mimicry. Pipevine swallowtails may also be involved with Müllerian mimicry, in which two distasteful species resemble each other, and thus act as a mimic and model; certain millipede species look like pipevine larvae and release hydrogen cyanide when in danger.


Bebbia, common name sweetbush, is a genus of aromatic shrubs in the family Asteraceae.
It is native to the southwestern United States (California, Nevada, Arizona, southwestern Utah, southwestern New Mexico, and extreme western Texas (El Paso County)) and northern Mexico (Sonora, Baja California, Baja California Sur). It bears plentiful yellow discoid flowers.
Species
Some authors combine the entire genus into one species, B. juncea. The Global Compositae Checklist  and The Plant List accept two species, with B. juncea divided into two varieties:
Bebbia atriplicifolia (A.Gray) Greene - Baja California Sur
Bebbia juncea (Benth.) Greene
Bebbia juncea var. juncea
Bebbia juncea var. aspera (Benth.) Greene


Creeping mahonia is cultivated as an ornamental plant for use in natural landscaping, and in water conserving, drought tolerant, traditional residential, native plant habitat, and wildlife gardens. It is a low water-needing ground cover for shade and brighter habitats, and in gardens under oaks to reduce or eliminate irrigation that can threaten mature Quercus trees. Berries and foliage are resistant to browsing by deer.
It is a year-round attractive, hardy plant, tolerant of drought, frost, and heat, so it is popular with landscape designers and gardeners. It can provide good ground cover in a cold situation. In garden conditions, and where their ranges overlap in nature, this species hybridizes readily with Oregon-grape (Mahonia aquifolium), and the hybrids are less prostrate in their habit than the pure stock.


B. thunbergii has deeply grooved, brown, spiny branches with a single (occasionally tridentine) spine (actually a highly modified leaf) at each shoot node. The leaves are green to blue-green (reddish or purple in some horticultural variants), very small, spatula to oval shaped, 12–24 millimetres (1⁄2–15⁄16 in) long and 3–15 millimetres (1⁄8–9⁄16 in) broad; they are produced in clusters of 2–6 on a dwarf shoot in the axil of each spine. The flowers are pale yellow, 5–8 millimetres (3⁄16–5⁄16 in) diameter, produced in drooping 1–1.5 centimetres (3⁄8–5⁄8 in) long umbrella-shaped clusters of 2–5; flowering is from mid spring to early summer. The edible fruit is a glossy bright red to orange-red, ovoid berry 7–10 millimetres (9⁄32–13⁄32 in) long and 4–7 millimetres (5⁄32–9⁄32 in) broad, containing a single seed. They mature during late summer and fall and persist through the winter.


Mahonia trifoliolata is a species of flowering plant in the family Berberidaceae, in southwestern North America. Common names include agarita, agrito, algerita, currant-of-Texas, wild currant, and chaparral berry.  The name Agarita comes from the Spanish verb agarrar, which means "to grab". The ending "-ita" is often added to little things, so agarita means "grabs a little". This was probably said because the bush is a bit scratchy but does not have significant spines. Typical characteristics are grey-green to blue-grey leaves, yellow flowers in February to April and the red berries appearing in May. The most important harvest organ are the berries, though the roots and seeds can also be used.


The plant is well adapted to hot temperatures and dry conditions. In areas where it occurs naturally, it is also liked by many wild animals. Birds like to eat the fruits, small mammals use the plant for cover. The shrub is also considered to be a good nectar source for honey bees and other insects. As the trifoliate leaves are tough and spiny, they aren't eaten by cattle or deer.
The bright red edible fruits of the agarita can be harvested around late April to early May. The fruits contain a slightly sweet and sour juice; when expelled, the juice can be used to produce an agarita wine or consumed as a fruit juice drink. The berries can also be used for jelly, pie or cobblers; the tart flavor is reported to be pleasant to eat when mixed with sugar. The fruits contain seeds and can be used to germinate new agarita plants, or be roasted as a coffee alternative. However, a high quantity of seeds makes raw consumption difficult.
Native Americans of the Apache, Chiricahua, and Mescalero tribes used the fresh and preserved fruit for food, and the wood shavings as a traditional eye medicine and a yellow dye for hides. During early pioneering years, the alkaloid berberine in the agarita roots was used to make a yellow dye. Agarita also has uses in medicine; its medicinal value is created mainly by the alkaloids in the roots, and throughout history, it was used to treat ailments ranging from fevers to stomach troubles and open wounds. It was also used as a laxative by the Ramah Navajo and other groups native to the Pacific Northwest. The roots are known to possess antiseptic qualities and are therefore used to treat wounds, skin or gum problems.


Mahonia trifoliolata is cultivated as an ornamental plant for use in desert-region gardens. Mahonia trifoliolata is exceptionally drought and heat tolerant. Thus, they also grow in dry periods without being watered. It usually grows best in full sun, but it can also be cultivated in light shade. Additionally, the plant is not very cold tolerant and is therefore especially grown in places where winters are short and mild.
The plant can be reproduced generatively with the seeds. The seeds need a cold stratification of two to three months. Therefore, it can be sown through summer or autumn and the seeds then germinate in spring. As it is a Perennial plant, it doesn't need to be sown yearly and has a very long lifespan.
Mahonia trifoliolata tolerates a variety of soil textures like Loam, Clay, clay-loam and Gravel. It usually grows very well in dry, well-drained soils. Usually, the plant occurs on soils derived from Limestone parent material and therefore tolerates Alkali soil.
There are not many known insect or disease problems in agarita. Sometimes leaf spots and rusts - especially black stem rust - may occur. Stem rust, caused by the fungus Puccinia graminis, is an agriculturally important disease in wheat, barley, oats, rye and triticale. Since Mahonia trifoliolata acts as an intermediate host, farmers usually remove the bushes to reduce the prevalence of disease. In the regions where Mahonia trifoliolata is grown nowadays,  the climate is too arid to allow for the cultivation of cereals; hence, there is no need to remove the agarita bushes.
As the roots contain large amount of the alkaloid berberine, they inhibit some root fungi and are therefore relatively resistant to pathogens.


Berchemia scandens, commonly called Alabama supplejack, is a species of climbing plant in the buckthorn family. It is native to the central and southern parts of the United States. It is found in a wide variety of habitats, including swamps, bottomlands, riparian banks, and upland calcareous areas.
It is a woody vine, with older stems reaching 18 cm in diameter. The strong stems of the plant are often used for wickerwork.  It produces flowers in the spring


This species is a shrub-like cactus, forming thickets of columnar to prostrate stems. The colonies have a velvety appearance when backlit by the sun. The stems are usually less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) long, covered in numerous, interlaced, yellow and needle-like spines. The stems are 3–6 cm (1.2–2.4 in) in diameter, cylindrical, and with 12 to 18 ribs. There are 30 to 45 spines per areole, and most are less than 2 mm (0.079 in) in diameter. There are 1 to 3 central spines, which are curved downward, the longest less than 6 cm (2.4 in). The radial spines are straight.
The flowers emerges either laterally or at the apex of the stem, at the distal margin of the spine cluster. The flower is 3.5–5 cm (1.4–2.0 in) long, and 2.5–4 cm (0.98–1.57 in) in diameter. The ovary is free of hair, and densely spiny. The outer perianth parts are yellow, with the tips more-or-less red, and the midveins green, with the all of the inner perianth colored yellow. After blooming, a reddish, globular fruit emerges, covered in dense spines, and extruding seeds and pulp at the tip. The seeds are 3 mm (0.12 in) large, shiny and black.


In the United States, the species is native to Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and Arkansas. In Mexico, it is native to Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí, Durango, Sonora, Zacatecas, Aguascalientes and Jalisco. It prefers the U.S. Department of Agriculture's hardiness zones of 4 to 9, and can be grown in elevations as high as 2,100 m (7,000 ft). It can usually be found in grassy areas and rocky soil.


B. lyrata is a hardy perennial, cultivated as an ornamental plant. It is grown in gardens for the chocolate-like scent of its flowers. The chocolate odor can also be produced by plucking the ray florets from the flower head. To ensure that it will continue to bloom as long as possible, spent flowers should be removed.
It grows best in full sun locations. It is native to soil types that are dry, shallow and rocky such as sandy loams and limestone soils. It is known to grow along roadsides and in grasslands in the southwest US. It is drought-tolerant. In heavy, wet soils, B. lyrata is subject to root rot. B. lyrata can be planted in areas that are mowed frequently and can be mowed itself.
The plant is propagated through seeds which can be collected from the plant itself and germinated outdoors from spring to fall.


The species description of Beta vulgaris was made in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus in Species Plantarum, at the same time creating the genus Beta. Linnaeus regarded sea beet, chard and red beet as varieties (at that time, sugar beet and mangelwurzel had not been selected yet). In the second edition of "Species Plantarum" (1762), Linnaeus separated the sea beet as its own species, Beta maritima, and left only the cultivated beets in Beta vulgaris. Today sea beet and cultivated beets are considered as belonging to the same species, because they may hybridize and form fertile offspring. The taxonomy of the various cultivated races has a long and complicated history, they were treated at the rank of either subspecies, or convarieties or varieties. Now rankless cultivar groups are used, according to the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants.
Beta vulgaris belongs to the subfamily Betoideae in family Amaranthaceae (s.l, including the Chenopodiaceae).
Beta vulgaris is classified into three subspecies:
Beta vulgaris subsp. adanensis (Pamukç. ex Aellen) Ford-Lloyd & J.T.Williams (Syn.: Beta adanensis Pamukç. ex Aellen): occurring in disturbed habitats and steppes of Southeast Europe (Greece) and Western Asia (Cyprus, Israel, western Syria and Turkey).
Beta vulgaris subsp. maritima, Sea beet, the wild ancestor of all cultivated beets. Its distribution area reaches from the coasts of Western Europe and the Mediterranean Sea to the Near and Middle East.
Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris (Syn.: Beta vulgaris subsp. cicla (L.) Arcang., Beta vulgaris subsp. rapacea (Koch) Döll).: all cultivated beets belong to this subspecies. With five Cultivar groups:
Altissima Group, sugar beet (Syn. B. v. subsp. v. convar. vulgaris var. altissima) - The sugar beet is a major commercial crop due to its high concentrations of sucrose, which is extracted to produce table sugar. It was developed in Germany in the late 18th century after the roots of beets were found to contain sugar in 1747.
Cicla Group, spinach beet or chard (Syn. B. v. subsp. vulgaris convar. cicla var. cicla) - The leaf beet group has a long history dating to the second millennium BC. The first cultivated forms were believed to have been domesticated in the Mediterranean, but were introduced to the Middle East, India, and finally China by 850 AD. These were used as medicinal plants in Ancient Greece and Medieval Europe. Their popularity declined in Europe following the introduction of spinach. This variety is widely cultivated for its leaves, which are usually cooked like spinach. It can be found in many grocery stores around the world.
Flavescens Group, swiss chard (Syn. B. v. subsp. v. convar. cicla. var. flavescens) - Chard leaves have thick and fleshy midribs. Both the midribs and the leaf blades are used as vegetables, often in separate dishes. Some cultivars are also grown ornamentally for their coloured midribs. The thickened midribs are thought to have arisen from the spinach beet by mutation.
Conditiva Group, beetroot or garden beet (Syn. B. v. subsp. v. convar. vulgaris var. vulgaris) - This is the red root vegetable that is most typically associated with the word 'beet'. It is especially popular in Eastern Europe where it is the main ingredient of borscht.
Crassa Group, mangelwurzel (Syn. B. v. subsp. v. convar. vulgaris var. crassa) - This variety was developed in the 18th century for its tubers for use as a fodder crop.


Betaine and betalain, two phytochemical compounds prevalent in Beta vulgaris, are under basic research for their potential biological properties.


The color of red/purple beetroot is due to a variety of betalain pigments, unlike most other red plants, such as red cabbage, which contain anthocyanin pigments. The composition of different betalain pigments can vary, resulting in strains of beetroot which are yellow or other colors in addition to the familiar deep red. Some of the betalains in beets are betanin, isobetanin, probetanin, and neobetanin (the red to violet ones are known collectively as betacyanin). Other pigments contained in beet are indicaxanthin and vulgaxanthins (yellow to orange pigments known as betaxanthins). Indicaxanthin has been shown as a powerful protective antioxidant for thalassemia and prevents the breakdown of alpha-tocopherol (Vitamin E).
Betacyanin in beetroot may cause red urine in people who are unable to break it down. This is called beeturia.
The pigments are contained in cell vacuoles. Beetroot cells are quite unstable and will 'leak' when cut, heated, or when in contact with air or sunlight. This is why red beetroots leave a purple stain. Leaving the skin on when cooking, however, will maintain the integrity of the cells and therefore minimize leakage.


Betonica officinalis is a rhizotomous, patch-forming, grassland herbaceous perennial growing to 30–60 cm (12–24 in) tall. Its leaves are stalked on upright stems, narrowly oval, with a heart-shaped base, with a somewhat wrinkled texture and toothed margins. The calyx is 5–7 mm long, with 5 teeth, edged with bristles. The corolla 1–1.5 cm long. Its upper lip flat, almost straight when seen from the side. The anthers stick straight out. It flowers in mid summer from July to September, and is found in dry grassland, meadows and open woods in most of Europe, western Asia and North Africa. In the British Isles it is common in England and Wales, but rare in Ireland and northern Scotland.
The aerial parts contain phenylethanoid glycosides, (betonyosides A-F) and  acetoside, acetoside isomer, campneosides II, forsythoside B and leucosceptoside B. The roots contain diterpene glycosides, betonicosides A-D and the diterpene, betonicolide.


Betula lenta is a medium-sized deciduous tree reaching 30 m (98 ft) tall, exceptionally to 35 metres (115 ft) with a trunk up to 60 cm (2.0 ft) diameter. Heights of 50 feet (15 m) to 80 feet (24 m) are more typical. In younger trees the bark is characteristic of most birches, with smooth bark and distinct horizontal lenticels. It is sometimes mistakenly identified as a cherry tree. In older tree specimens the bark (unlike the more commonly known birches) develops vertical cracks into irregular scaly plates revealing rough dark brown bark patterns. This, however, only occurs in mature, or ancient, trees and these specimens are not often identified by the public as B. lenta due to the difference between the tree's smooth young bark (which the public is most familiar with) and the tree's rough, cracked and plated mature bark.  The twigs, when scraped, have a strong scent of wintergreen due to methyl salicylate, which is produced in the bark. The leaves are alternate, ovate, 6–15 cm (2.4–5.9 in) long and 4 to 8 cm (1.6–3.1 in) broad, with a finely serrated margin. The flowers are wind-pollinated catkins 2.5–3 cm (0.98–1.2 in) long, the male catkins pendulous, the female catkins erect. The fruit, maturing in fall, is composed of numerous tiny winged seeds packed between the catkin bracts. Seed production mainly occurs in trees that are between 40 and 200 years old, although light crops may occur as early as 15 years and as long as the tree lives.


The silver birch grows naturally from western Europe eastwards to Kazakhstan, the Sakha Republic in Siberia, Mongolia, and the Xinjiang province in China, and southwards to the mountains of the Caucasus and northern Iran, Iraq, and Turkey. It is also native to northern Morocco and has become naturalised in some other parts of the world. In the southern parts of its range, it is mainly found in mountainous regions. Its light seeds are easily blown by the wind and it is a pioneer species, one of the first trees to sprout on bare land or after a forest fire. It needs plenty of light and does best on dry, acid soils and is found on heathland, mountainsides, and clinging to crags. Its tolerance to pollution make it suitable for planting in industrial areas and exposed sites. It has been introduced into North America, where it is known as the European white birch, and is considered invasive in the states of Kentucky, Maryland, Washington, and Wisconsin.  It is naturalised and locally invasive in parts of Canada.


Three subspecies of silver birch are accepted:
Betula pendula subsp. pendula – Europe and eastwards to central Asia
Betula pendula subsp. mandshurica (Regel) Ashburner & McAll. – eastern Asia and western North America; treated by some botanists as Betula platyphylla
Betula pendula subsp. szechuanica (C.K.Schneid.) Ashburner & McAll. – western China, from Qinghai and Gansu to Yunnan and southeast Xizang, treated by some botanists as Betula szechuanica
B. pendula is distinguished from the related B. pubescens, the other common European birch, in having hairless, warty shoots (hairy and without warts in downy birch), more triangular leaves with double serration on the margins (more ovoid and with single serrations in downy birch), and whiter bark often with scattered black fissures (greyer, less fissured, in downy birch). It is also distinguished cytologically, silver birch being diploid (with two sets of chromosomes), whereas downy birch is tetraploid (four sets of chromosomes). Hybrids between the two are known, but are very rare, and being triploid, are sterile. The two have differences in habitat requirements, with silver birch found mainly on dry, sandy soils, and downy birch more common on wet, poorly drained sites such as clay soils and peat bogs. Silver birch also demands slightly more summer warmth than does downy birch, which is significant in the cooler parts of Europe. Many North American texts treat the two species as conspecific (and cause confusion by combining the downy birch's alternative vernacular name 'white birch', with the scientific name B. pendula of the other species), but they are regarded as distinct species throughout Europe.
Several varieties of B. pendula are no longer accepted, including B. pendula var. carelica, fontqueri, laciniata, lapponica, meridionalis, microlepis, and parvibracteata, as well as forms Betula pendula f. bircalensis, crispa, and palmeri. Other synonyms include:
The rejected name Betula alba L. also applied in part to B. pendula, though also to B. pubescens
Betula brachylepis V.N.Vassil.
Betula cajanderi f. fruticans Kozhevn.
Betula carpatica var. sudetica Rchb.
Betula coriacea Pamp.
Betula cycoviensis Steud.
Betula ellipticifolia V.N.Vassil.
Betula etnensis Raf., sometimes spelled B. aetnensis
Betula ferganensis V.N.Vassil.
Betula fontqueri Rothm.
Betula gummifera Bertol.
Betula hybrida Blom
Betula insularis V.N.Vassil.
Betula kossogolica V.N.Vassil.
Betula laciniata (Wahlenb.) Rchb.
Betula lobulata Kit.
Betula ludmilae V.N.Vassil.
Betula microlepis I.V.Vassil.
Betula mongolica V.N.Vassil.
Betula montana V.N.Vassil.
Betula oycowiensis Besser, sometimes spelled B. oycoviensis
Betula palmata Borkh.
Betula parvibracteata Peinado, G.Moreno & A.Velasco
Betula platyphylloides V.N.Vassil.
Betula pseudopendula V.N.Vassil.
Betula szaferi Jent.-Szaf. ex Staszk.
Betula talassica Poljakov
Betula tiulinae V.N.Vassil.
Betula transbaicalensis V.N.Vassil.
Betula tristis Dippel
Betula verrucosa Ehrh.
Betula virgultosa Fr. ex Regel
Betula vladimirii V.N.Vassil.


The silver birch has an open canopy which allows plenty of light to reach the ground. This allows a variety of mosses, grasses, and flowering plants to grow beneath, which in turn attract insects. Flowering plants often found in birch woods include primrose (Primula vulgaris), violet (Viola riviniana), bluebell (Hyacinthoides non-scripta), wood anemone (Anemone nemorosa), and wood sorrel (Oxalis acetosella). Small shrubs that grow on the forest floor include blaeberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) and cowberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea).
Birds found in birch woodland include the chaffinch, tree pipit, willow warbler, nightingale, robin, woodcock, redpoll, and green woodpecker.
The branches of the silver birch often have tangled masses of twigs known as witch's brooms growing among them, caused by the fungus Taphrina betulina. Old trees are often killed by the decay fungus Fomitopsis betulina and fallen branches rot rapidly on the forest floor. This tree commonly grows with the mycorrhizal fungus Amanita muscaria in a mutualistic relationship. This applies particularly to acidic or nutrient-poor soils. Other mycorrhizal associates include Leccinum scabrum and Cantharellus cibarius. In addition to mycorrhiza, the presence of microfauna in the soil assists the growth of the tree, as it enhances the mobilization of nutrients.
The larvae of a large number of species of butterflies, moths, and other insects feed on the leaves and other parts of the silver birch. In Germany, almost 500 species of insects have been found on silver and downy birch including 106 beetles and 105 lepidopterans, with 133 insect species feeding almost exclusively on birch. Birch dieback disease can affect planted trees, while naturally regenerated trees seem less susceptible. This disease also affects B. pubescens and in 2000 was reported at many of the sites planted with birch in Scotland during the 1990s. In the United States, the wood is attacked by the bronze birch borer (Agrilus anxius), an insect pest to which it has no natural resistance.


It ranges from southeastern Ontario east to Nova Scotia, and south to Pennsylvania and New Jersey, with disjunct populations in Indiana, Virginia, and North Carolina.  It prefers poor, dry upland soils, but is also found in moist mixed woodlands. Living only about 30 years, it is a common pioneer species on abandoned fields and burned areas. It is possibly extirpated in Delaware.


Gray birch grows quickly to 20 to 30 feet (6.9 to 9.1 m)  tall and 15 inch (38 cm) trunk diameter, with an irregular open crown of slender branches.  The tree often has multiple trunks branching off an old stump.  The leaves are 2 to 2.7 inches (5-7 cm) long by 1.6 to 2.4 inches (4-6 cm) wide, alternately arranged, ovate, and tapering to an elongated tip.  They are dark green and glabrous above and paler below, with a coarsely serrated margin. The bark is chalky to grayish white with black triangular patches where branch meets trunk. It is most easily confused for the paper birch (Betula papyrifera) by means of its bark; it is smooth and thin but does not readily exfoliate like paper birch does. The flowers are wind-pollinated catkins 5–8 cm long, the male catkins pendulous and the female catkins erect.  The fruit, maturing in autumn, is composed of many tiny winged seeds packed between the catkin bracts.
The wood is medium hard and is used for high grade plywood, furniture, drum shells, spools and firewood.
Like other North American birches, gray birch is highly resistant to the bronze birch borer (Agrilus anxius). The leaves of the gray birch serve as food for various Lepidoptera, such as the leaf miner moth Cameraria betulivora. Between about 1930 and 1950, many gray birch trees, along with paper birch and yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis), were affected and killed by  birch dieback disease.
Gray birch has been commonly planted as a landscaping tree in southern Pennsylvania and New Jersey as it tolerates heat and humidity better than paper birch and is more resistant to bronze birch borers and leaf miners.


The American bison (Bison bison) is a species of bison native to North America.  Sometimes colloquially referred to as buffalo (a distinct clade of bovine), it is one of two extant species of bison, alongside  the European bison. Its historical range, by 9000 BC, is described as the great bison belt, a tract of rich grassland that ran from Alaska to the Gulf of Mexico, east to the Atlantic Seaboard (nearly to the Atlantic tidewater in some areas) as far north as New York, south to Georgia and, according to some sources, further south to Florida, with sightings in North Carolina near Buffalo Ford on the Catawba River as late as 1750. Once roaming in vast herds, the species nearly became extinct by a combination of commercial hunting and slaughter in the 19th century and introduction of bovine diseases from domestic cattle.  With a population in excess of 60 million in the late 18th century, the species was culled down to just 541 animals by 1889. Recovery efforts expanded in the mid-20th century, with a resurgence to roughly 31,000 wild bison as of March 2019. For many years, the population was primarily found in a few national parks and reserves. Through multiple reintroductions, the species now freely roams wild in several regions in the United States, Canada, and Mexico, with it also being introduced to Yakutia in Russia.
Two subspecies or ecotypes have been described: the plains bison (B. b. bison), smaller in size and with a more rounded hump, and the wood bison (B. b. athabascae)—the larger of the two and having a taller, square hump. Furthermore, the plains bison has been suggested to consist of a northern plains (B. b. montanae) and a southern plains (B. b. bison) subspecies, bringing the total to three. However, this is generally not supported. The wood bison is one of the largest wild species of extant bovid in the world, surpassed only by the Asian gaur. Among extant land animals in North America, the bison is the heaviest and the longest, and the second tallest after the moose.
Spanning back many millennia, Native American tribes have had cultural and spiritual connections to the American bison. It is the national mammal of the United States of America.


American bison live in river valleys, and on prairies and plains.  Typical habitat is open or semiopen grasslands, as well as sagebrush, semiarid lands, and scrublands. Some lightly wooded areas are also known historically to have supported bison.  Bison also graze in hilly or mountainous areas where the slopes are not steep.  Though not particularly known as high-altitude animals, bison in the Yellowstone Park bison herd are frequently found at elevations above 2,400 m (8,000 ft) and the Henry Mountains bison herd is found on the plains around the Henry Mountains, Utah, as well as in mountain valleys of the Henry Mountains to an altitude of 3,000 m (10,000 ft).
Those in Yukon, Canada, typically summer in alpine plateaus above treeline. The first thoroughfares of North America, except for the time-obliterated paths of mastodon or muskox and the routes of the mound builders, were the traces made by bison and deer in seasonal migration and between feeding grounds and salt licks. Many of these routes, hammered by countless hoofs instinctively following watersheds and the crests of ridges in avoidance of lower places' summer muck and winter snowdrifts, were followed by the aboriginal North Americans as courses to hunting grounds and as warriors' paths. They were invaluable to explorers and were adopted by pioneers.
Bison traces were characteristically north and south, but several key east–west trails were used later as railways. Some of these include the Cumberland Gap through the Blue Ridge Mountains to upper Kentucky. A heavily used trace crossed the Ohio River at the Falls of the Ohio and ran west, crossing the Wabash River near Vincennes, Indiana. In Senator Thomas Hart Benton's phrase saluting these sagacious path-makers, the bison paved the way for the railroads to the Pacific.


The American bison is often used in North America in official seals, flags, and logos. In 2016, the American bison became the national mammal of the United States. The bison is a popular symbol in the Great Plains states: Kansas, Oklahoma, and Wyoming have adopted the animal as their official state mammal, and many sports teams have chosen the bison as their mascot. In Canada, the bison is the official animal of the province of Manitoba and appears on the Manitoba flag. It is also used in the official coat of arms of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police.
Several American coins feature the bison, most famously on the reverse side of the "buffalo nickel" from 1913 to 1938. In 2005, the United States Mint coined a nickel with a new depiction of the bison as part of its "Westward Journey" series. The Kansas and North Dakota state quarters, part of the "50 State Quarter" series, each feature bison. The Kansas state quarter has only the bison and does not feature any writing, while the North Dakota state quarter has two bison. The Montana state quarter prominently features a bison skull over a landscape. The Yellowstone National Park quarter also features a bison standing next to a geyser.
Other institutions which have adopted the bison as a symbol or mascot include:
U.S. Department of the Interior
Bethany College (West Virginia)
Bucknell University and its athletic program, the Bucknell Bison
Buffalo, New York
Buffalo Bills
Buffalo Bisons
Buffalo Gap High School
Buffalo Grove High School
Buffalo Sabres
University of Colorado and its athletic program, the Colorado Buffaloes
Gallaudet University
Harding University and its athletic program, the Harding Bisons
Howard University and its athletic program, the Howard Bison
Seal of the State of Indiana
Lipscomb University and its athletic program, the Lipscomb Bisons
Coat of arms of Manitoba
Flag of Manitoba
University of Manitoba and its athletic program, the Manitoba Bisons
Marshall University and its athletic program, the Marshall Thundering Herd
Milligan University
Independence Party of Minnesota
Ralph Nader (mascot for his 2008 campaign for president)
Nichols College
North Dakota State University and its athletic program, the North Dakota State Bison
Oklahoma Baptist University and its athletic program, the Oklahoma Baptist Bison
Point Park University
Royal Canadian Mounted Police
Rumble the Bison (the official mascot of the Oklahoma City Thunder)
Smoky Hill High School
Southwestern Law School
Utah Tech University and its athletic program, the Utah Tech Trailblazers
CFB Wainwright
West Texas A&M University and its athletic program, the West Texas A&M Buffaloes
Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo


Bistorta vivipara (synonym Persicaria vivipara) is a perennial herbaceous flowering plant in the knotweed and buckwheat family Polygonaceae, commonly known as alpine bistort. Scientific synonyms include Bistorta vivipara and Polygonum viviparum. It is common all over the high Arctic through Europe,  North America, and temperate and tropical Asia. Its range stretches further south in high mountainous areas such as the Alps, Carpathians, Pyrenees, Caucasus, and the Tibetan Plateau.


Alpine bistort grows in many different plant communities, very often in abundance. Typical habitats include moist short grassland, yards, the edges of tracks, and nutrient-rich fens.
As with many other alpine plants, Alpine bistort is slow-growing and produces embryonic buds one year that  grow and open a few years after their formation, with an individual leaf or inflorescence taking three to four years to reach maturity from the time the buds are formed.


Bixa orellana grows easily in subtropical to tropical climates, in frost-free regions sheltered from cool winds. It prefers year-round moisture, good drainage, and moderately fertile soil in full sun or partial shade. It can be propagated from seed and cuttings. Cutting-grown plants flower at a younger age than seedlings.
The main commercial producers of B. orellana are countries in Latin America (specifically Peru, Brazil and Mexico), which constitute 60% of total world production followed by Africa (27% of total world production) and Asia (12% of total world production). Production statistics are not usually available and would not provide a reliable guide to international trade, since many of the producing countries use significant quantities domestically (e.g., Brazil is a large producer and consumer, needing additional imports). Annual world production of dried annatto seed at the beginning of the 21st century was estimated at about 10,000 tons, of which 7,000 tons enter international trade. Peru is the largest exporter of annatto seed, annually about 4,000 tons; Brazil the largest producer, with about 5,000 tons. Kenya exports annually about 1,500 tons annatto seed and extracts and is the second-largest exporter, after Peru. Côte d'Ivoire and Angola are also exporters.


Both disturbed and undisturbed habitats are used by the northern short-tailed shrew, including grasslands, old fields, fencerows, marshy areas, deciduous and coniferous forests, and household gardens, though the preferred habitats are those which are moist with leaf litter or thick plant cover. Burned-over forests are not quickly recolonized by B. brevicauda, and shrews quickly depart clear-cuts.


Austroblechnum lanceolatum, synonym Blechnum chambersii, is a species of fern within the family Blechnaceae, found in Australia, New Zealand, Samoa and Fiji.
A. lanceolatum is commonly called lance water fern, and in New Zealand it is also referred to by its Māori names, nini and rereti.


The species' occurrence range extends from Arizona, Oklahoma, and Wisconsin in the west to Florida, New Hampshire, and Quebec in the east.


Bleptina caradrinalis, the bent-winged owlet or variable snout moth, is a species of moth of the family Erebidae. It was described by Achille Guenée in 1852. It is found in North America, from Nova Scotia west to British Columbia, south to Arizona. Furthermore, it is found from southern North America south to Brazil and on the Antilles.
The wingspan is 22–32 millimetres (0.87–1.26 in). Adults are on wing from June to August depending on the location.
The larvae feed on the leaves of barberry, clover and hickory.


Several subspecies of Boa constrictor have been described, but many of these are poorly differentiated, and further research may redefine many of them. Some appear to be based more on location, rather than biological differences. Boa imperator, Boa nebulosa and Boa sigma have been elevated to full species status.
Several other subspecies have been described at different times, but currently, these are no longer considered to be subspecies by many herpetologists and taxonomists. They include:
B. c. amarali Stull, 1932
B. c. melanogaster Langhammer, 1983: a nomen dubium.


Boa constrictors are viviparous, giving birth to live young. They generally breed in the dry season—between April and August—and are polygynous; thus, males may mate with multiple females. Half of all females breed in a given year, and a larger percentage of males actively attempt to locate a mate. Due to their polygynous nature, many of these males will be unsuccessful. As such, female boas in inadequate physical condition are unlikely to attempt to mate, or to produce viable young if they do mate. Reproduction in boas is almost exclusively sexual. In 2010, a boa constrictor was shown to have reproduced asexually via parthenogenesis. The Colombian rainbow boa (Epicrates maurus) was found to reproduce by facultative parthenogenesis resulting in production of WW female progeny. The WW females were likely produced by terminal automixis (see Figure), a type of parthenogenesis in which two terminal haploid products of meiosis fuse to form a zygote, which then develops into a daughter progeny. This is only the third genetically confirmed case of consecutive virgin births of viable offspring from a single female within any vertebrate lineage. In 2017, boa constrictors, along with Boa imperators and Burmese pythons, were found to contain a new set of sex determining chromosomes. Males were discovered to contain a pair of XY sex determining chromosomes, while females have a XX pair. This is the first time snakes were thought to contain male heterogamety, and since then has been found in ball pythons (Python regius) as well.
During the breeding season, the female boa emits pheromones from her cloaca to attract males, which may then wrestle to select one to breed with her. During breeding, the male curls his tail around the female's and the hemipenes (or male reproductive organs) are inserted. Copulation can last from a few minutes to several hours and may occur several times over a period of a few weeks. After this period, ovulation may not occur immediately, but the female can hold the sperm inside her for up to one year. When the female ovulates, a midbody swell can be noticed that appears similar to the snake having eaten a large meal. The female then sheds two to three weeks after ovulation, in what is known as a post-ovulation shed which lasts another 2–3 weeks, which is longer than a normal shed. The gestation period, which is counted from the postovulation shed, is around 100–120 days. The female then gives birth to young that average 15–20 in (38–51 cm) in length. The litter size varies between females but can be between 10 and 65 young, with an average of 25, although some of the young may be stillborn or unfertilized eggs known as "slugs". The young are independent at birth and grow rapidly for the first few years, shedding regularly (once every one to two months). At 3–4 years, boa constrictors become sexually mature and reach the adult size of 6–10 feet (1.8–3.0 m), although they continue to grow at a slow rate for the rest of their lives. At this point, they shed less frequently, about every 2–4 months.


The Mexican hogfish, Bodianus diplotaenia, is a species of wrasse native to the eastern Pacific Ocean.
Adults inhabit rocky or coral areas at depths of 5–75 m. Sometimes, they are also found on sandy bottoms and where marine plants abound. They are solitary or form aggregations of only a few individuals. Mexican hogfish feed on crabs, brittle stars, mollusks, and sea urchins. At night, they gather in cracks and crevices of rocks and caves to sleep. The Mexican hogfish starts life as a female, and later becomes a functional male. Males defend temporary reproductive territories called leks. The sex change may be due to local social conditions, but it may also have a genetic component, since the reversal occurs over a limited size range. They are oviparous, with distinct pairing during breeding.


The buff-tailed coronet (Boissonneaua flavescens) is a species of hummingbird in the "brilliants", tribe Heliantheini in subfamily Lesbiinae. It is found in Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela.


The buff-tailed coronet is highly territorial, though it may share feeding at a flowering tree with other hummingbirds. It typically forages in the mid-story but also feeds in the canopy. Its main nectar sources are in genera Cavendishia, Palicourea, Disterigma, and Huilaea. It feeds by clinging to the flower, holding its wings open for a second or two after landing. In addition to nectar it captures small insects by hawking from a perch.


Several similar brownish-coloured species are sometimes considered subspecies or forms of this mushroom. In Europe, in addition to B. edulis (or cèpe de Bordeaux), the most popular are:
Cèpe bronzé ("dark cep"; Boletus aereus), much rarer than B. edulis, is more highly regarded by gourmets, and consequently more expensive. Usually smaller than B. edulis, it is also distinctively darker in colour. It is especially suited to drying.
Cèpe des pins ("pine tree cep"; Boletus pinophilus or Boletus pinicola) grows among pine trees. Rarer than B. edulis, it is less appreciated by gourmets than the two other kinds of porcini, but remains a mushroom rated above most others.
Cèpe d'été ("summer cep"; Boletus reticulatus), also less common and found earlier.
Molecular phylogenetic analyses have proven these three are all distinctive and separate species; other taxa formerly believed to be unique species or subspecies, such as B. betulicola, B. chippewaensis, B. persoonii, B. quercicola and B. venturii, are now known to be part of a B. edulis species complex with a wide morphological, ecological and geographic range, and that the genetic variability in this complex is low. Similar molecular technology has been developed to rapidly and accurately identify B. edulis and other commercially important fungi.
Three divergent lineages found in Yunnan province in China that are commonly marketed and sold as B. edulis (and are actually more closely related to B. aereus) were described in 2013 as B. bainiugan, B. meiweiniuganjun and B. shiyong. The classification has since been updated and expanded. All lineages are still members of Boletus sect. Boletus, the sensu sticto "porcini clade" of the genus.
Western North America has several species closely related to B. edulis. The white king bolete (Boletus barrowsii), found in parts of Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, and California (and possibly elsewhere), is named after its discoverer Chuck Barrows. It is lighter in colour than B. edulis, having a cream-coloured cap with pink tones; often mycorrhizal with Ponderosa pine, it tends to grow in areas where there is less rainfall. Some find its flavour as good as if not better than B. edulis. The California king bolete (Boletus edulis var. grandedulis) can reach massive proportions, and is distinguished from B. edulis by a mature pore surface that is brown to slightly reddish. The cap colour appears to be affected by the amount of light received during its development, and may range from white in young specimens grown under thick canopy, to dark-brown, red-brown or yellow brown in those specimens receiving more light. The queen bolete (Boletus regineus), formerly considered a variety of B. aereus, is also a choice edible. It is generally smaller than B. edulis, and unlike that species, is typically found in mixed forests. The spring king bolete (Boletus rex-veris), formerly considered a variety of B. edulis or B. pinophilus, is found throughout western North America. In contrast to B. edulis, B. rex-veris tends to fruit in clusters, and, as its common name suggests, appears in the spring. B. fibrillosus is edible but considered inferior in taste.


Boletus edulis grows in some areas where it is not believed to be indigenous. It is often found underneath oak and silver birch in Hagley Park in central Christchurch, New Zealand, where it is likely to have been introduced, probably on the roots of container-grown beech, birch, and oak in the mid-19th century—around the time exotic trees began to be planted in the Christchurch area. Similarly, it has been collected in Adelaide Hills region of Australia in association with three species of introduced trees. It has been growing plentifully in association with pine forests in the southern KwaZulu-Natal Midlands in South Africa for more than 50 years and is believed to have been introduced with the import of pine trees. It also grows in pine plantations in neighboring Zimbabwe.


Boletus edulis, as the species epithet edulis (Latin: 'edible') directly implies, is an edible mushroom. Italian chef and restaurateur Antonio Carluccio has described it as representing "the wild mushroom par excellence", and hails it as the most rewarding of all fungi in the kitchen for its taste and versatility. Considered a choice edible, particularly in France, Germany, Poland and Italy, it was widely written about by the Roman writers Pliny the Elder and Martial, although ranked below the esteemed Amanita caesarea. When served suilli instead of boleti, the disgruntled Martial wrote:
sunt tibi boleti; fungos ego sumo suillos (Ep. iii. 60)
("You eat the choice boletus, I have mushrooms that swine grub up.")
The flavour has been described as nutty and slightly meaty, with a smooth, creamy texture, and a distinctive aroma reminiscent of sourdough. Young, small porcini are most appreciated by gourmets, as the large ones often harbour maggots (insect larvae), and become slimy, soft and less tasty with age. Fruit bodies are collected by holding the stipe near the base and twisting gently. Cutting the stipe with a knife may risk the part left behind rotting and the mycelium being destroyed. Peeling and washing are not recommended. The fruit bodies are highly perishable, due largely to the high water content (around 90%), the high level of enzyme activity, and the presence of a flora of microorganisms. Caution should be exercised when collecting specimens from potentially polluted or contaminated sites, as several studies have shown that the fruit bodies can bioaccumulate toxic heavy metals like mercury, cadmium, caesium and polonium. Bioaccumulated metals or radioactive fission decay products are like chemical signatures: chemical and radiochemical analysis can be used to identify the origin of imported specimens, and for long-term radioecological monitoring of polluted areas.
Porcini are sold fresh in markets in summer and autumn in Europe and Russia, and dried or canned at other times of the year, and distributed worldwide to countries where they are not otherwise found. They are eaten and enjoyed raw, sautéed with butter, ground into pasta, in soups, and in many other dishes. In France, they are used in recipes such as cèpes à la Bordelaise, cèpe frits and cèpe aux tomates. Porcini risotto is a traditional Italian autumn dish. Porcini are a feature of many cuisines, including Provençal, and Viennese. They are used in soups and consumed blanched in salads in Thailand. Porcini can also be frozen—either raw or first cooked in butter. The colour, aroma, and taste of frozen porcini deteriorate noticeably if frozen longer than four months. Blanching or soaking and blanching as a processing step before freezing can extend the freezer life up to 12 months. They are also one of the few mushroom species pickled and sold commercially.


Boletus edulis mushrooms are 9% carbohydrates, 3% fat, and 7% protein (table). Fresh mushrooms consist of over 80% moisture, although reported values tend to differ somewhat as moisture content can be affected by environmental temperature and relative humidity during growth and storage. The carbohydrate component contains the monosaccharides glucose, mannitol and α,α-trehalose, the polysaccharide glycogen, and the water-insoluble structural polysaccharide chitin, which accounts for up to 80–90% of dry matter in mushroom cell walls. Chitin, hemicellulose, and pectin-like carbohydrates—all indigestible by humans—contribute to high proportion of insoluble fibre in B. edulis.
The total lipid, or crude fat, content makes up 3% of the dry matter of the mushroom. The proportion of fatty acids (expressed as a % of total fatty acids) are: palmitic acid, 10%; stearic acid, 3%; oleic acid, 36%; and linoleic acid, 42%.
A comparative study of the amino acid composition of eleven Portuguese wild edible mushroom species showed Boletus edulis to have the highest total amino acid content.
B. edulis mushrooms are rich in the dietary minerals, sodium, iron, calcium, and magnesium, with amounts varying according to the mushroom component and to soil composition in the geographic region of China where they were sampled. They also have high content of B vitamins and tocopherols. B. edulis contains appreciable amounts of selenium, a trace mineral, although the bioavailability of mushroom-derived selenium is low.


Boletus edulis fruit bodies contain diverse phytochemicals, including 500 mg of ergosterol per 100 g of dried mushroom, and ergothioneine. The fruit bodies contain numerous polyphenols, especially a high content of rosmarinic acid, and organic acids (such as oxalic, citric, malic, succinic and fumaric acids), and alkaloids.


Aroma compounds giving B. edulis mushrooms their characteristic fragrance include some 100 components, such as esters and fatty acids. In a study of aroma compounds, 1-octen-3-one was the most prevalent chemical detected in raw mushrooms, with pyrazines having increased aroma effect and elevated content after drying.


The upperside of the wings is yellow orange with dark spots, lines, and zigzagged bands. The forewing is squared off just below the apex. A dark border on the hindwing margin is lacking on most individuals. It has long palps. The underside of the wings are mottled with orange and purplish-brown. There is a yellowish band that runs across the center of the hindwing. It lacks the silver spots most lesser fritillaries have. The forewing is smudged with orange and brown near the apex. The wingspan of the meadow fritillary is 3.5 - 5.1 cm (1+3⁄8 - 2 inches).


The meadow fritillary is frequently encountered in wet, open places, including pastures, fields, and streamsides.


The female is the active flight partner. Females deposit greenish-yellow eggs near the host plant on twigs or leaves. Mature larvae are gray and black with small, light colored spines. The chrysalis is yellow brown. The meadow fritillary overwinters as a larva. It has one or two broods per year.


Boloria epithore, the Pacific fritillary, is a butterfly of the family Nymphalidae. It is found in western North America from California to British Columbia and Alberta.
The wingspan is 34–44 millimetres (1.3–1.7 in). The butterfly flies from June to July.
The larvae feed on Viola ocellata.


The pearl-bordered fritillary is widespread throughout Europe, ranging from Scandinavia to northern Spain and from Ireland eastwards across the Palearctic to Russia and to the north of Kazakhstan. In England and Wales (plus another 10 countries) it has declined rapidly in number and is a highly threatened species.


A network of paths running through bracken to open the canopy, allows sunlight through to help germinate any violet food plants.  This can be achieved through grazing especially during winter and early spring.  Cattle are better than sheep as their extra weight helps to trample and break up any dense standing dead stems.  Also there is a risk that sheep tend to eat plants, (for example Ajuga reptans/bugle), that provide nectar for the adult pearl-bordered fritillary. Another way of achieving this is by cutting and bruising the bracken, a proportion of the site at a time, during May and early June.
Burning can be useful for reducing the litter of bracken, although follow up management is required as extra bracken growth will be stimulated as a result.  This will kill a proportion of invertebrates, and therefore only burning a proportion of the site, e.g., 20% is suggested.
Spraying can be useful for reducing high densities of bracken litter, but care should be taken to not severely reduce the density and allow the grass to develop, as this will harm the breeding habitat.
Woodlands create sunny clearings and rides, but avoid using clearings that are dominated by other plants such as dog's mercury (Mercurialis perennis), common bluebell, and vigorous grasses.


Boloria selene, known in Europe as the small pearl-bordered fritillary and in North America as the silver-bordered fritillary, is a species of butterfly of the family Nymphalidae. It is found across Europe, Asia and North America, and feeds exclusively on violets in its larval stages. This species prefers wet grassland habitats, where its larval food source, violets, are found. It overwinters in its larval stage, and eggs hatch in the late summer to early autumn. Members of this species are prey for multiple types of birds and other insects.
Due to modern agriculture, most of the grassland habitats that sustain Boloria selene are fragmented or lost all together in favor of farmland. Because of this, the small pearl-bordered fritillary has seen a serious drop in population across Europe, in some places as much as 80%. Factors including limited habitat range, low dispersal rate, and strong food specialization also contribute to population loss. Despite modern conservation efforts, the number of small pearl-bordered fritillaries is still declining. The North American populations appear to be affected in the same way, at least in the continental United States.


The species is widespread across central and northern Europe, North America, and through Asia to Korea. Specifically, it can be found in places like Germany, the United Kingdom, and Sweden and in the Midwestern United States in places like Iowa and the Dakotas. In the United Kingdom, Boloria selene is widespread across upland and western Britain, but is not found in central, eastern England or Ireland. Its range appears to be stable through much of Europe but declines have been reported in at least nine countries, such as England.
This species is found across Europe and North America in grassland environments where native violets grow. It occurs in damp, grassy habitats, woodland clearings and moorland, but has also been found in dune slacks and coastal cliffs.


The Oriental fire-bellied toad (Bombina orientalis) is a small semiaquatic frog species found in northeastern Asia, where they primarily dwell in slow-moving bodies of water and temperate forests. Quite common throughout much of their range, these frogs have mild toxins that can be excreted through their skin, with their vibrant underbellies serving as a warning of this. While not a true toad, their green and black skin is covered in small tubercles, giving them a toadlike appearance. Their sounds, mainly produced by males during the mating season, are very unlike those of other frogs. While their population is in decline, their numbers are still high overall, with the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) rating them as a least-concern species. They are commonly kept as pets in land and water vivaria, as a relatively easy-to-care for species. They are also frequently used in scientific research, with their behavior, vocalizations, and learning skills all moderately studied.


Oriental fire-bellied toads can be bright, grayish, or brownish green, with black mottling on their dorsal regions. Like other Bombina species, B. orientalis has a brightly colored ventral region, which can be yellow, red, or orange-red, mottled with dark spots. The finger and toe tips are usually red. The skin on its upper side is covered in small tubercles, the most pronounced of the genus Bombina. Although it is typically referred to as a toad, the fire-bellied toad is not a true toad. They can reach a length of about 3.8–5.1 centimetres (1.5–2.0 in), weighing about 28–57 grams (0.99–2.01 oz). Males and females can be told apart by the males' nuptial pads on their first and second fingers.
Besides having more noticeable tubercles on their skin, B. orientalis can also be distinguished from other members of Bombina by their lack of gular sacs (like B. pachypus and unlike B. bombina) and nuptial pads (like B. bombina and unlike B. pachypus, although later research has shown that males do in fact have a few, as previously mentioned). Subtler differences include their belly coloration, which is typically more red than yellow (unlike B. pachypus) and bright finger tips (unlike B. bombina).


As larvae, Oriental fire-bellied toads consume algae, fungi, detritus, plants and protozoans. As adults, their diet consists of terrestrial invertebrates, including worms, molluscs and insects. Their diet in the wild contributes to their toxicity, and for that reason, wild specimens have more potent toxins. Oriental fire-bellied toads are incapable of extending their tongues to catch prey, but must instead leap at their target.


Oriental fire-bellied toads can discourage most predators with their poisonous skin, with the bright colors of their undersides warning predators of their toxicity. The toxin is secreted through the skin mostly from the hind legs, and sometimes the belly, in a milky substance when the frog is disturbed or frightened. When producing this substance, the frogs may also lie on their backs to show the color of their bellies, indicating their potential danger, holding up their limbs and arching their heads. This does not always work, and in addition to predation by birds and mammals, grass snakes and other water dwelling snakes are known to the consume the toads without any ill effect.


As common amphibians, B. orientalis make excellent model organisms for studying the effects of pollution and toxic chemicals on local environments. Studies involving them having demonstrated the harmful effects of carbaryl (which include bent trunks, thicker-set bodies, bent tails, and ventral blistering) and nonylphenol (which significantly decreased overall survival rates) on amphibian embryonic development.


Bombina orientalis are relatively easy to care for in captivity, requiring little in the way of specialized lighting or heating and readily consuming feeder insects or small feeder fish. Handling can require caution, as although harmless to the skin, the mucus can cause discomfort to the mouth and eyes, however captive individuals generally are less toxic. The toxin does not pose a significant threat to human health. In captivity, Oriental fire-bellied toads often live for around 12 years, but in some cases can live up to 30.


The oriental fire-bellied toad was listed as least concern species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature with little threat of extinction, although the population is declining, but not at a significant rate. They occur in many protected areas in China and the Koreas, as well as six Russian nature reserves. The population in the Russian part of their range may be more threatened than others. Dangers include pollution, urbanization, and use in traditional Chinese medicine.


The yellow-bellied toad is an amphibian closely bound to areas of water. Originally, the species typically lived along brooks and rivers. It settled there dependent on the flood dynamic of temporary and continuously shifting small bodies of water. In its replacement habitats in human civilization, it is still dependent on temporary small bodies of water on loamy ground, such as tractor trails, puddles, and small ditches. Mostly, these areas are bereft of vegetation and free of competing species and predators. Through the quick heating of small bodies of water, a rapid development of spawn and larvae is guaranteed. These pioneer species can be found mainly in quarries, clay and gravel pits, and on marching grounds.
The superior mobility of the young of the species allows spontaneous settlement of newly discovered living spaces. On land, the creatures look for hiding places under stones or dead wood and in the furrows and crevices of rocks. The yellow-bellied toad dwells in mountainous and hilly countries in middle and southern Europe. It is widely spread across the high hill area of middle and southern Germany and the Upper Rhine River Plains, but in few places.


B. bimaculatus is mainly found in eastern temperate forest regions throughout the United States and the southeastern part of Canada. It can also live in the coastal plains of the southeastern United States, the eastern Boreal forest, and the eastern Great Plains.
This bee lives in underground nests, preferably in or around wooden areas and gardens. Nests can be anywhere from 6 inches to a foot below the surface. Tunnels traveling to the nest range from 9 inches to 4 feet long. B. bimaculatus can also nest above ground or in cavities. Bees do not build nests and instead rely on finding abandoned rodent dens, hollow logs, suitable man-made structures, or tussocks. Queens will hibernate in loose dirt or rotting logs.
This bumble bee is very common and has been experiencing steady growth unlike many other bumble bees that are in decline.


B. bimaculatus queens forage on Aquilegia flowers. The queens hang upside down on stamens, clutch the filament with their forelegs, and scrape off pollen using their middle and hind legs. Workers enter the Aquilegia spurs by pushing their head and part of their thorax into the spur's mouth. They then extend the maxillae and tongue into the spur to drink nectar, repeating this process on multiple spurs of the same plant before visiting the next one.
B. bimaculatus queens' probosces range from 10.53 to 12.19 mm in length, which has little overlap with other Bombus species. This may potentially be the reason why B. bimaculatus are such abundant pollinators.
Research comparing B. bimaculatus to Xylocopa virginica, a carpenter bee, found that the former learned faster and had more flexible foraging patterns. It was hypothesized that B. bimaculatus being a social bee could have individuals specialize in either foraging for nectar or pollen, instead of having to worry about both in overall food collection as the nonsocial carpenter bees needed to do.


Bumble bees eat nectar and pollen from plants. B. bimaculatus is known to pollinate a wide variety of plants, but they seem to have favorites. Queens can be found on willow and plum. Workers are found on red clover and mint. Males are found on mint and sweet clover.
As a species they have been found foraging at the following plants:
Zenobia pulverulenta
Gelsemium sempervirens
Lyonia lucida
Solanum dulcamara
Aquilegia species
Dicentra species
Mertensia species
Pedicularis species
Aesculus glabra
Camassia scilloides
Delphinium tricorne
Hydrophyllum appendiculatum


The gut bacteria of B. bimaculatus was isolated and include Snodgrassella alvi and Gilliamella apicola strains. B. bimaculatus had more gut bacteria from environmental sources, and less core bacteria compared to other bumble bee species. B. bimaculatus had more core bacteria when collected from farms as opposed to collection from semi-natural habitats.


Bombus borealis is a species of bumblebee known commonly as the northern amber bumblebee. It is native to northern North America, where it occurs across Canada and Alaska and the northern and eastern contiguous United States.
The queen is 1.8 to 2.2 centimeters long. It has yellow hairs on the body and pale to white hairs on the head. The worker is similar in coloration and measures 1.3 centimeters in length. The male is 1.4 to 1.7 centimeters long.
This species is generally found in woodland habitat. It usually nests underground, and males congregate nearby to seek mates. This species feeds on several plant taxa, including milkvetches, thistles, wild blackberries, goldenrods, comfrey, clovers, and vetches.


Bombus californicus, the California bumble bee, is a species of bumble bee in the family Apidae. Bombus californicus is in the subgenus Thoracobombus. It is found in Central America and the western half of North America.Bombus californicus is classified as Vulnerable by the IUCN.
In a 2015 study, Bombus californicus was found to be endangered in 62% of surveyed areas.
Bombus californicus can exhibit multiple possible color patterns of yellow and black, as in its sister species Bombus fervidus, and in many areas of geographic overlap, at least a small percentage of individuals of the two species cannot be recognized except by genetic analysis, as each species can sometimes display the color pattern typical of the other. The "typical" color pattern of female californicus is black with only a single strong yellow band anteriorly on the thorax, and another single yellow band near the apex of the abdomen; males exhibit considerably more variation.
Bombus californicus nests in the ground, in wooded areas, and in urban areas. Queens emerge from April through the middle of July. Workers are present from April to September. Males (drones) are present late May through September. This type of bumblebee pollinates sage, blueberry bushes, red clover, california poppies, and many other species of flowers.


Found in parts of the Northeastern area of North America. Their distribution includes eastern to central parts of Canada, Northeastern U.S states and parts of the mid-western and southeast regions of the U.S.


Bombus citrinus  is an obligate social parasite of the species Bombus impatiens and Bombus vagans . The cuckoo bee locates a host nest by trailing chemical signatures left by host workers. After locating a host nest the cuckoo will revisit to further observe the nest and will proceed to infiltrate if she determines the nest to be suitable for a successful usurping. The female Bombus citrinus  may be noticed and attacked at nest entrance by host workers or sneak past by having blended in with the hosts chemical signatures. The Bombus citrinus will then kill the host species' queen, eggs, and larvae. To assert its dominance over the host workers the cuckoo will engage in aggressive mauling behavior. Only a few parasitic bees maul and they do so by rubbing their body against the host workers, grabbing at the hosts dorsal and lateral sides with their mandibles and first pair of legs, and making motions as if to sting. By doing this she further shares chemical signatures with the host and suppresses their ovarian development. Eggs laid by the female Bombus citrinus will be laid and then cared for by the host workers.


Red-tailed bumblebee males utilise sexual pheromones to attract females. Males will fly around and mark spots with the pheromone compounds (Z)-9-hexadecenol and hexadecanal via their labial gland. These secretions are highly species specific, thus likely greatly reduce inter-species mating. B. lapidarius typically fly and secrete above the treetops, which are more affected by the effects of the wind and the sun. Therefore, this species typically has to secrete more pheromone than other species to be effective. Further, these compounds were found in trace amounts in the air around the areas that individuals had scent marked. Different populations differing in location (specifically Southern Italy, the Balkans, and Centre-Eastern Europe) have experienced genetic differentiation in pheromone composition.


Bombus mixtus is a species of bumblebee. It is native to western North America, where it occurs in western Canada and the United States. It is also disjunct in the Great Lakes region. It is known commonly as the fuzzy-horned bumblebee, tricoloured bumblebee, orange-belted bumblebee, and mixed bumblebee.
This bee lives in mountain habitat, and taiga and tundra habitat in northern areas. It lives in open, grassy habitat, chaparral, shrublands, and meadows. It feeds at the flowers of ceanothus, fireweed, coyote mints, penstemons, phacelias, rhododendrons, and groundsels. It nests underground or on the surface.


Queens appear between early April and mid-May, and workers appear at the end of April/early May to mid-October. Young queens and drones can be found from mid-August to late October. When queens search for suitable places to nest, they fly just above the vegetation, for example on forest edges, investigating cavities such as holes in the ground or niches in dead wood and grass. The nests can be constructed above or under ground, preferably in old mouse nests, but also in bird nests, barns, and sheds.
Nest-building proceeds as follows. The queen collects moss and grass to form a small, hollow sphere whose walls are partly bonded with wax and sealed off. Within this is formed a large bowl of brown wax of about 5 mm in diameter, which is filled with pollen. Thereafter, five to 15 eggs are deposited, and the cell closed. Another 20-mm-high cup is then filled with nectar, thus serving as its own food reserve for bad weather days. After three to five days, the larvae hatch to feed on the pollen. After about a week, the larvae are mature.
The adult worker bees, owing to the initially poor supply situation, are relatively small, reaching only about half the body length of the queen and lacking functioning ovaries. Later-hatching bees are much larger. The additional nesting and brood care is dedicated solely to the queen, which no longer leaves the nest. From August, rarely before, the first fully developed females, together with drones, are ready. Drones hatch from unfertilized eggs.
In August the B. pascuorum nest, with a diameter of up to 15–20 cm (5.9–7.9 in), reaches a maximum population size from 60 to 150 individuals. Shortly after this peak, the population quickly decreases. With the queen the entire nest dies, usually in September. Occasionally, individuals survive until October/November. Only the last-hatched females survive, to mate with males. Then they fly in search of a safe place for hibernation.


The early bumblebee or early-nesting bumblebee (Bombus pratorum) is a small bumblebee with a wide distribution in most of Europe and parts of Asia. It is very commonly found in the UK and emerges to begin its colony cycle as soon as February which is earlier than most other species, hence its common name. There is even some evidence that the early bumblebee may be able to go through two colony cycles in a year. Like other bumblebees, Bombus pratorum lives in colonies with queen and worker castes. Bombus pratorum queens use aggressive behavior rather than pheromones to maintain dominance over the workers!


B. pratorum is found in most of Europe, from the Arctic to the Mediterranean. It is, however, uncommon in the south of the Iberian Peninsula, Italy, and the Balkans. On the steppes of southern Russia and Ukraine, it is totally absent. In Asia, it is found in the mountains of northern Turkey, northern Iran, and uncommonly in Siberia west of the Yenisei River.
It is common in most of the mainland United Kingdom, but less so in north-west of Scotland. It is absent from most Scottish islands, Orkney, and Shetland.
Its preferred habitat is very wide-ranging, including fields, parks, scrubland, and sparse forest. B. pratorum build nests above ground, and especially in the UK, are known to utilize bird nests or abandoned rodent nests for their own nesting sites.


Bombus terricola, the yellow-banded bumblebee, is a species of bee in the genus Bombus. It is native to southern Canada and the east and midwest of the United States. It possesses complex behavioral traits, such as the ability to adapt to a queenless nest, choose which flower to visit, and regulate its temperature to fly during cold weather. It was at one time a common species, but has declined in numbers since the late 1990s, likely due to urban development and parasite infection. It is a good pollinator of wild flowers and crops such as alfalfa, potatoes, raspberries, and cranberries.


Like several other North American species in its subgenus Bombus, the yellow-banded bumblebee has suffered sharp declines in numbers since the mid-1990s.The Xerces Society for Insect Conservation has placed Bombus terricola on their "Red List" of endangered bees. The yellow-banded bumblebee has disappeared over large parts of its range, but is still present in Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine, where the population appears to be stabilizing and in the Great Smoky Mountains, where the population seems to be expanding. It is not clear whether this is because it has developed some resistance to the parasite, Nosema bombi, or whether the parasite has not yet spread into these parts. The rusty-patched bumblebee (Bombus affinis) has suffered an even steeper decline. It will become clearer over time whether populations of these bees will remain viable or whether the species will become extinct.


The overwintering queen first appears during spring and establishes underground colonies. She will then find an underground nest, typically some sort of rodent burrow or some other naturally available hole in wood or dirt. Upon discovering a nestable area, the queen will lay an egg brood and begin incubation. The fuel for their thermoregulation during incubation is derived from nectar, pollen, and honey between foraging trips. After about one month, the first worker generation will hatch. They will assist the queen in foraging and incubating the brood. The colony will grow for a year, as workers and male drones are reared. Soon afterwards, a new clutch of queens will be born. Upon maturation, they will  leave the nest to mate, and then will hibernate for the winter until it is their turn in the spring to begin a colony.


The cedar waxwing (Bombycilla cedrorum) is a member of the family Bombycillidae or waxwing family of passerine birds. It is a medium-sized, mostly brown, gray, and yellow. This bird is named for its wax-like wing tips. It is a native of North and Central America, breeding in open wooded areas in southern Canada and wintering in the southern half of the United States, Central America, and the far northwest of South America. Its diet includes cedar cones, fruit, holly berries, and insects. The cedar waxwing is listed as least concern on the IUCN Red List.
The genus name Bombycilla comes from the Ancient Greek bombux, "silk" and the Modern Latin cilla, "tail"; this is a direct translation of the German Seidenschwanz, "silk-tail", and refers to the silky-soft plumage of these birds. The specific cedrorum is Latin for "of the cedars".


Cedar waxwings are medium-sized birds approximately 6–7 in (15–18 cm) long and weighing roughly 30 g (1.1 oz). Wingspan ranges from 8.7-11.8 in (22-30 cm). They are smaller and browner than their close relative, the Bohemian waxwing (which breeds farther to the north and west). Their markings are a "silky, shiny collection of brown, gray, and lemon-yellow, accented with a subdued crest, rakish black mask, and brilliant-red wax droplets on the wing feathers." These droplets may be the same color as the madrone berries they are known to eat. These birds' most prominent feature is this small cluster of red wax-like droplets on tips of secondary flight feathers on the wings, a feature they share with the Bohemian waxwing (but not the Japanese waxwing). These wax-like droplets are attributed to the pigmented and medullary layers of the secondary tip being surrounded by a transparent cuticle.  The wings are "broad and pointed, like a starling's." The tail is typically yellow or orange depending on diet. Birds that have fed on berries of introduced Eurasian honeysuckles while growing tail feathers will have darker orange-tipped tail-feathers. The tail is somewhat short, and square-tipped. Adults have a pale yellow belly. The waxwing's crest often "lies flat and droops over the back of the head." It has a short and wide bill. The waxwing's black mask has a thin white border. Immature birds are streaked on the throat and flanks, and often do not have the black mask of the adults. Males and females look alike.
The flight of waxwings is strong and direct, and the movement of the flock in flight resembles that of a flock of small pale European starlings. Cedar waxwings fly at 40 km/h (25 mph) and fly at an altitude of 610 m (2,000 ft).
Cedar waxwings are also known as the southern waxwing, Canada robin, cedar bird, cherry bird, or recellet.
The oldest observed cedar waxwing was eight years and two months old.


The Bohemian waxwing (Bombycilla garrulus) is a starling-sized passerine bird that breeds in the northern forests of the Palearctic and North America. It has mainly buff-grey plumage, black face markings and a pointed crest. Its wings are patterned with white and bright yellow, and some feather tips have the red waxy appearance that give this species its English name. The three subspecies show only minor differences in appearance. Females are similar to males, although young birds are less well-marked and have few or no waxy wingtips. Although the Bohemian waxwing's range overlaps those of the cedar and Japanese waxwings, it is easily distinguished from them by size and plumage differences.
The breeding habitat is coniferous forests, usually near water. The pair build a lined cup-shaped nest in a tree or bush, often close to the trunk. The clutch of 3–7 eggs is incubated by the female alone for 13–14 days to hatching. The chicks are altricial and naked, and are fed by both parents, initially mostly with insects, but thereafter mainly fruit. They fledge about 14–16 days after leaving the egg. Many birds desert their nesting range in winter and migrate farther south. In some years, large numbers of Bohemian waxwings irrupt well beyond their normal winter range in search of the fruit that makes up most of their diet.
Waxwings can be very tame in winter, entering towns and gardens in search of food, rowan berries being a particular favourite. They can metabolise alcohol produced in fermenting fruit, but can still become intoxicated, sometimes fatally. Other hazards include predation by birds of prey, infestation by parasites and collisions with cars or windows. The Bohemian waxwing's high numbers and very large breeding area mean that it is classified as being of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.


The Bohemian waxwing has a circumpolar distribution, breeding in northern regions of Eurasia and North America. In Eurasia, its northern nesting limit is just short of the treeline, roughly at the 10 °C July isotherm, and it breeds south locally to about 51°N. Most birds breed between 60–67°N, reaching 70°N in Scandinavia. The North American subspecies breeds in the northwestern and north central areas of the continent, its range extending southwards beyond the US border in the Rocky Mountains.
This waxwing is migratory with much of the breeding range abandoned as the birds move south for the winter. Migration starts in September in the north of the range, a month or so later farther south. Eurasian birds normally winter from eastern Britain through northern parts of western and central Europe, Ukraine, Kazakhstan and northern China to Japan. North American breeders have a more southeasterly trend, many birds wintering in southeast Canada, with smaller numbers in the north central and northeastern US states. Birds do not usually return to the same wintering sites in successive years. One bird wintering in the Ukraine was found 6,000 km (3,700 mi) to the east in Siberia in the following year.
In some years, this waxwing irrupts south of its normal wintering areas, sometimes in huge numbers. The fruit on which the birds depend in winter varies in abundance from year to year, and in poor years, particularly those following a good crop the previous year, the flocks move farther south until they reach adequate supplies. They will stay until the food runs out and move on again. In what may be the largest ever irruption in Europe, in the winter of 2004–2005, more than half a million waxwings were recorded in Germany alone. This invasion followed an unusually warm, dry breeding season. In 1908, an American flock 60–90 m (200–300 ft) wide was noted as taking two to three minutes to fly over.
The breeding habitat is mature conifers, often spruce although other conifers and broadleaf trees may also be present. More open, wet areas such as lakes and peat swamps with dead and drowned trees are used for feeding on insects. Lowlands, valleys and uplands are used in Eurasia, although mountains tend to be avoided. However, the North American subspecies nests in Canada at altitudes between 900–1,550 m (2,950–5,090 ft). Outside the breeding season, the waxwing will occupy a wide range of habitats as long as suitable fruits such as rowan are available. It may be found by roads, in parks and gardens or along hedges or woodlands edges. It shows little fear of humans at this time. In winter, waxwings roost communally in dense trees or hedges, sometimes with American robins, fieldfares or other wintering species.


White larvae gradually turn into a yellowish brown pupa, with distinct mouthparts, wings, antennae, and legs.


There is continued research on the behavior of B. major in respect to environmental factors, mating, and human interaction.


The ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus) is a medium-sized grouse occurring in forests from the Appalachian Mountains across Canada to Alaska. It is the most widely distributed game bird in North America. It is non-migratory. It is the only species in the genus Bonasa.
The ruffed grouse is sometimes incorrectly referred to as a "partridge", an unrelated phasianid, and occasionally confused with the grey partridge, a bird of open areas rather than woodlands.
The ruffed grouse is the state bird of Pennsylvania, United States.


Bonasa umbellus was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1766 12th edition of Systema Naturae. He classified it as Tetrao umbellus, placing it in a subfamily with Eurasian grouse. The genus Bonasa was applied by British naturalist John Francis Stephens in 1819. Ruffed grouse is the preferred common name because it applies only to this species. Misleading vernacular names abound, however, and it is often called partridge (sometimes rendered pa'tridge, or shortened to pat), pheasant, or prairie chicken, all of which are properly applied to other birds. Other nicknames for ruffed grouse include drummer or thunder-chicken.
There are 14 recognized subspecies of ruffed grouse:
B. u. yukonensis Grinnell, 1916
B. u. umbelloides (Douglas, 1829)
B. u. labradorensis Ouellet, 1991
B. u. castanea Aldrich & Friedmann, 1943
B. u. affinis Aldrich & Friedmann, 1943
B. u. obscura Todd, 1947
B. u. sabini (Douglas, 1829)
B. u. brunnescens Conover, 1935
B. u. togata (Linnaeus, 1766)
B. u. mediana Todd, 1940
B. u. phaios Aldrich & Friedmann, 1943
B. u. incana Aldrich & Friedmann, 1943
B. u. monticola Todd, 1940
B. u. umbellus (Linnaeus, 1766)


Ruffed grouse are chunky, medium-sized birds that weigh from 450–750 g (0.99–1.65 lb), measure from 40 to 50 cm (16 to 20 in) in length and span 50–64 cm (20–25 in) across their short, strong wings. They have two distinct morphs: grey and brown. In the grey morph, the head, neck, and back are grey-brown; the breast is light with barring. There is much white on the underside and flanks. Overall, the birds have a variegated appearance; the throat is often distinctly lighter. The tail is essentially the same brownish grey, with regular barring and a broad black band near the end ("subterminal"). Brown-morph birds have tails of the same color and pattern. However, the rest of the plumage is much more brown, giving the appearance of a more uniform bird with less light plumage below and a conspicuously grey tail. There are all sorts of intergrades between the most typical morphs; warmer and more humid conditions favor browner birds in general.
The ruffs are on the sides of the neck in both sexes. They also have a crest on top of their head, which sometimes lies flat. Both sexes are similarly marked and sized, making them difficult to tell apart, even in hand. The female often has a broken subterminal tail band. At the same time, males tend to have unbroken tail bands, though the opposite of either can occur. Females may also do a display similar to the male. Another fairly accurate sign is that rump feathers with a single white dot indicate a female; rump feathers with more than one white dot indicate a male.
The average life span of a ruffed grouse is one year, although some birds are thought to live for as long as eleven years. Ruffed grouse are polygynous, and males may mate with several females during the breeding season.


Like most grouse, they spend most of their time on the ground; mixed woodland rich in aspen seems to be particularly well-liked. These birds forage on the ground or in trees. They are omnivores, eating buds, leaves, berries, seeds, and insects. According to nature writer Don L. Johnson:
More than any other characteristic, it is the ruffed grouse's ability to thrive on a wide range of foods that has allowed it to adapt to such a wide and varied range of habitat on this continent. A complete menu of grouse fare might itself fill a book. One grouse crop yielded a live salamander in a salad of watercress. Another contained a small snake.


Hunting of the ruffed grouse is common in the northern and far western United States as well as Canada, often with shotguns. Dogs may also be used. Hunting of the ruffed grouse can be challenging. This is because the grouse spends most of its time in thick brush, aspen stands, and second growth pines. It is also very hard to detect a foraging grouse bobbing about in the thicket due to their camouflage. With adequate snow cover, they will burrow under the snow. The ruffed grouse will maintain trails through the underbrush and pines like other forest creatures. These can often be found by looking for the bird's feathers on the ground and twigs at the edges of its trail. Hunting of the ruffed grouse requires a good ear and lots of stamina as one will be constantly walking and listening for them in the leaves.
— Joseph B. Barney
Ruffed grouse frequently seek gravel and clover along road beds during early morning and late afternoon. These are good areas to walk during this time to flush birds. Also, grouse use sandy roadbeds to dust their feathers to rid themselves of skin pests. Dusting sites are visible as areas of disturbed soils with some signs of feathers. Birds will return to these spots during the late afternoon to bathe in dust and socialize and mate.
Minnesota is the top ruffed grouse–producing state in the U.S.


Boophone disticha is a bulbous tropical and subtropical flowering plant, endemic to Africa. Commonly called the century plant or tumbleweed, Boophone disticha was first collected in 1781 from South Africa by Swedish botanist Carl Peter Thunberg and described by Carl Linnaeus as Amaryllis disticha. Since that time it has been placed in the genera Brunsvigia and Haemanthus, finally coming to rest as Boophone. The genus itself was written in three ways (Boophone, Boophane and Buphane) by the author William Herbert, straining the procedures of the rules of nomenclature. The etymology of the genus is from the Greek bous = ox, and phontes= killer of, a clear warning that eating the plant can be fatal to livestock.
The genus as currently understood includes two or possibly three species. B. disticha is one of the most widely distributed bulbous species in South Africa, readily identified by its fan-like appearance and its bulb half-protruding from the ground. The Khoi, Bushmen and Bantu were aware of its poisonous nature and used parts of the plant medicinally and as an arrow poison. The principal compounds are eugenol - an aromatic, volatile oil smelling of cloves and having analgesic properties, and the toxic alkaloids buphandrin, crinamidine and buphanine, the latter having an effect akin to that of scopolamine and if taken in quantity may lead to agitation, stupor, strong hallucinations and (if over-ingested) coma or death.
This species produces a single inflorescence before the arrival of the season's new leaves. While maturing the fruiting head's pedicels undergo a stiffening process and remarkable elongation to some 300mm. When the fruiting head separates at its junction with the stalk, it is easily moved by light breezes, scattering seeds as it rolls.


Boophone disticha is native to Angola, Botswana, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Eswatini, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, South Africa (in the provinces of Eastern Cape, Free State, Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal, Limpopo, Mpumalanga, Western Cape), Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. It grows wild in dry savannas, grasslands, and glades in forests.


Boophone disticha has been used locally to make poison for arrow's tips, and in the treatment of equine piroplasmosis.
The bulb has a wide range of uses in traditional African medicine. It contains alkaloids such as lycorine, buphanine, buphanitine and buphanidrine which have analgesic and hallucinogenic properties.
Material from this species' bulb was associated with preservation of the Khoi Kouga mummy found in the Langkloof.


Traditionally, Borago officinalis has been used in hyperactive gastrointestinal, respiratory and cardiovascular disorders, such as gastrointestinal (colic, cramps, diarrhea), airways (asthma, bronchitis), cardiovascular, (cardiotonic, antihypertensive and blood purifier), urinary (diuretic and kidney/bladder disorders).
One case of status epilepticus has been reported that was associated with borage oil ingestion.
A methanol extract of borage has shown strong amoebicidal activity in vitro. The 50% inhibitory concentration (LD₅₀) of the extract against Entamoeba histolytica was 33 µg/mLl.


The nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus) (/ˈnilˌɡaɪ/, literally meaning "blue cow") is the largest Asian antelope and is ubiquitous across the northern Indian subcontinent. It is the sole member of the genus Boselaphus and was described by Peter Simon Pallas in 1766. The nilgai stands 1–1.5 m (3.3–4.9 ft) at the shoulder; males weigh 109–288 kg (240–635 lb), and the lighter females 100–213 kg (220–470 lb). A sturdy thin-legged antelope, the nilgai is characterised by a sloping back, a deep neck with a white patch on the throat, a short crest of hair along the neck terminating in a tuft, and white facial spots. A column of pendant coarse hair hangs from the dewlap ridge below the white patch. Sexual dimorphism is prominent – while females and juveniles are orange to tawny, adult males have a bluish-grey coat. Only males possess horns, 15–24 cm (5.9–9.4 in) long.
The nilgai is diurnal (active mainly during the day). The animals band together in three distinct kinds of groups: one or two females with young calves, three to six adult and yearling females with calves, and all-male groups with two to 18 members. Typically tame, the nilgai may appear timid and cautious if harassed or alarmed; it flees up to 300 m (980 ft), or even 700 m (2,300 ft), galloping away from the source of danger. Herbivores, nilgai prefer grasses and herbs, though they commonly eat woody plants in the dry tropical forests of India. Females become sexually mature by two years, while males do not become sexually active until four or five years old. The time of the year when mating takes place varies geographically, but a peak breeding season lasting three to four months can be observed at most places. Gestation lasts eight to nine months, following which a single calf (sometimes twins or even triplets) is born. As typical of several bovid species, nilgai calves stay hidden for the first few weeks of their lives. The lifespan of the nilgai is around ten years.
The nilgai prefers areas with short bushes and scattered trees in scrub forests and grassy plains. It is common in agricultural land, but rarely in dense forest. Major populations occur in the Indian and Nepal Terai. It was thought to be extinct in Bangladesh. The nilgai was introduced to Texas in the 1920s to 1930s. As of 2008, the feral population in Texas is nearly 37,000. The nilgai is categorised as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. The nilgai has been associated with Indian culture since the Vedic period (1500–500 BCE). They were hunted in the Mughal era (16th to 19th centuries) and are depicted in numerous miniatures. Nilgai have been considered a pest in several north Indian states, as they ravage crop fields and cause considerable damage. In Bihar, authorities have classified the nilgai as vermin.


The vernacular name "nilgai" /ˈnɪlˌɡaɪ/ comes from the fusion of the Hindi words nil ("blue") and gai ("cow"). The word was first recorded in use in 1882. Alternative origins could be from the Persian gaw ("cow"). The nilgai has been referred to by a variety of names: neelghae, nilgau, nilgo, nylghau, and nylghai, constructions referring to other "blue" animals. They are also known as white-footed antelope. During Mughal emperor Aurangzeb's reign (1658–1707) of India, the nilgai was known by the name nilghor ("nil" for "blue" and "ghor" for "horse").


A sturdy thin-legged antelope, the nilgai is characterised by a sloping back, a deep neck with a white patch on the throat, a short mane of hair behind and along the back ending behind the shoulder, and around two white spots each on its face, ears, cheeks, lips and chin. The ears, tipped with black, are 15–18 cm (5.9–7.1 in) long. A column of coarse hair, known as the "pendant" and around 13 cm (5.1 in) long in males, can be observed along the dewlap ridge below the white throat patch. The tufted tail,  up to 54 cm (21 in), has a few white spots and is tipped with black. The forelegs are generally longer, and the legs are often marked with white "socks".
While females and juveniles are orange to tawny, males are much darker – their coat is typically bluish grey. The ventral parts, the insides of the thighs and the tail are all white. A white stripe extends from the underbelly and broadens as it approaches the rump, forming a patch lined with dark hair. Almost white, though not albino, individuals have been observed in the Sariska National Park. while individuals with white patches have been recorded at zoos. The hairs, typically 23–28 cm (9.1–11.0 in) long, are fragile and brittle. Males have thicker skin on their head and neck that protect them in fights. The coat is not well-insulated with fat during winter, and consequently severe cold might be fatal for the nilgai.
Males are horned, and the occasional female. The horns are 15–24 cm (5.9–9.4 in) long but generally shorter than 30 cm (12 in). Smooth and straight, these may point backward or forward. The horns of the nilgai lack the ringed structure typical of those of other bovids.
The nilgai is the largest antelope in Asia. It stands 1–1.5 m (3 ft 3 in – 4 ft 11 in) at the shoulder; the head-and-body length is typically between 1.7–2.1 m (5 ft 7 in – 6 ft 11 in). Males weigh 109–288 kg (240–635 lb); the maximum weight recorded is 308 kg (679 lb). Females are lighter, weighing 100–213 kg (220–470 lb). Sexual dimorphism is prominent; the males are larger than females and differ in colouration.
The maximum recorded length of the skull is 376 mm (14.8 in). The dental formula is . The milk teeth are totally lost and the permanent dentition completed by three years of age. The permanent teeth get degraded with age, showing prominent signs of wear at six years of age. The nilgai has sharp ears and eyes, though its sense of smell is not as acute.


The nilgai is endemic to the Indian subcontinent: major populations occur in India, Nepal and Pakistan. It was thought to be extinct in Bangladesh but recent reports suggest otherwise. Significant numbers occur in the Terai lowlands in the foothills of the Himalayas; the antelope is abundant across northern India.
It prefers areas with short bushes and scattered trees in scrub forests and grassy plains. They are common in agricultural lands, but hardly occur in dense woods. In southern Texas, it roams in the prairies, scrub forests and oak forests. It is a generalist animal—it can adapt to a variety of habitats. Though sedentary and less dependent on water, nilgai may desert their territories if all water sources in and around it dry up. Territories in Texas are 0.6 to 8.1 square kilometres (0.23 to 3.13 sq mi) large.
The Indian population was estimated at one million in 2001. The nilgai were first introduced to Texas in the 1920s and the 1930s in a 6,000 acres (2,400 ha) large ranch near the Norias Division of the King Ranch, one of the largest ranches in the world. The feral population saw a spurt toward the latter part of the 1940s, and gradually spread out to adjoining ranches.
Population densities show great geographical variation across India. Density can be as low as 0.23 to 0.34 individuals per km² in Indravati National Park. and 0.4 individuals per km² in the Pench Tiger Reserve, or as high as 6.6 to 11.36 individuals per km² in Ranthambhore National Park, and seven individuals per km² in Keoladeo National Park. Seasonal variations were noted in Bardiya National Park in a 1980 study; the density 3.2 individuals per km² during the dry season and 5 per km² in April, the start of the dry season. In southern Texas, densities were found to be nearly 3–5 individuals per km² in 1976.
Historic notes mention nilgai in southern India, but these may have been feral:
I believe that the Coimbatore and Salem collectorates are almost the only places in Southern India, in which nil-gai are to be found. It is difficult to account for the animals being thus so widely divided from their usual haunts unless as has been generally supposed, these Southern specimens are the progeny of a semi-domesticated herd, which, at some by-gone period, had escaped from the preserve of a native potentate.
— Andrew Cooke McMaster (Notes on Jerdon's Mammals of India, 1871)