Striped bass has white meat with a mild flavor and a medium texture. It is extremely versatile in that it can be pan-seared, grilled, steamed, poached, roasted, broiled, sautéed, and deep fried (including batter-frying). The flesh can also be eaten raw or pickled.
The primary market forms for fresh bass include headed and gutted (with the head and organs removed) and filets; the primary market forms for frozen bass include headed and gutted and loins. It can also be found in steaks, chunks, or whole. Fresh striped bass is available year-round, and is typically sold in sizes from two to fifteen pounds, and can be sold up to fifty pounds.
Striped bass has firm and flavorful flesh with a large flake. The hybrid striped bass yields more meat, has a more fragile texture, and a blander flavor than wild striped bass. The fish has a mild and distinctive flavor. In recipes, it can be substituted for milder fish like cod, as well as for stronger fish like bluefish. Other fish can substitute it, including weakfish, tilefish, blackfish, small bluefish, catfish, salmon, swordfish, and shark. Striped bass is easily grilled in fillets, and is therefore popular in beach communities.


The striped bass is a typical member of the family Moronidae in shape, having a streamlined, silvery body marked with longitudinal dark stripes running from behind the gills to the base of the tail. Common mature size is 20 to 40 pounds (9–18 kg). The largest specimen recorded was 124 pounds (56 kg), netted in 1896. Striped bass are believed to live for up to 30 years.  The average size in length is 20 to 35 inches (50–90 cm) and approximately 5 to 20 pounds (2–9 kg).


The common duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), also known as the grey or bush duiker, is a small antelope found  everywhere in Africa south of the Sahara, excluding the Horn of Africa and the rainforests of the central and western parts of the continent. Generally, they are found in habitats with sufficient vegetation cover to allow them to hide—savanna and hilly areas, including the fringes of human settlements.


Breeding is year round and the female gives birth to one fawn after a gestation period of 6 to 7.5 months. The common duiker has a wide diet; beyond browsing for leaves, flowers, fruits and tubers, they will also eat insects, frogs, small birds and mammals, and even carrion. As long as they have vegetation to eat (from which they get some water), they can go without drinking for very long periods. In the rainy season, they will frequently not drink water at all, instead obtaining fluids from fruits. They will often scavenge for these fruits below trees in which monkeys are feeding. They are active both day and night, but become more nocturnal near human settlements, presumably due to the presence of feral dogs and humans.
Males are territorial and smear gland secretions on rocks and branches to mark their territories; their preferred resting places are generally on elevated ground, where they can observe their territory. Females, by contrast, prefer deeper cover. The overall success of this species stems from its ability to inhabit a wide variety of habitats, as well as from its adaptable, generalist diet.


Callinectes sapidus (from the Ancient Greek κάλλος,"beautiful" + nectes, "swimmer", and Latin sapidus, "savory"), the blue crab, Atlantic blue crab, or regionally as the Chesapeake blue crab, is a species of crab native to the waters of the western Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, and introduced internationally.
C. sapidus is of considerable culinary and economic importance in the United States, particularly in Louisiana, the Carolinas, the Chesapeake Bay, Delaware, and New Jersey. It is the Maryland state crustacean and the state's largest commercial fishery. Due to overfishing and environmental pressures some of the fisheries have seen declining yields, especially in the Chesapeake Bay fishery.
Unlike other fisheries affected by climate change, blue crab is expected to do well; warming causes better breeding conditions, more survivable winters, and a greater range of habitable areas in the Atlantic coast. Whether this will have negative effects on the surrounding ecosystems from an increased crab population is still unclear.


The natural predators of C. sapidus include eels, drum, striped bass, spot, trout, some sharks, humans, cownose rays, and whiptail stingrays. C. sapidus is an omnivore, eating both plants and animals. It typically consumes thin-shelled bivalves, annelids, small fish, plants, and nearly any other item it can find, including carrion, other C. sapidus individuals, and animal waste. In salt marshes, C. sapidus will eat marsh periwinkles, Littoraria irrorata during high tides. Although an aquatic predator, C. sapidus will remain in shallow pits in salt marshes at low tide and ambush intertidal prey such as fiddler crabs (e.g., Minuca pugnax) and purple marsh crabs (Sesarma reticulatum)  C. sapidus may be able to control populations of the invasive green crab, Carcinus maenas; numbers of the two species are negatively correlated, and C. maenas is not found in the Chesapeake Bay, where C. sapidus is most abundant.
C. sapidus is subject to a number of diseases and parasites. These include a number of viruses, bacteria, microsporidians, ciliates, and others. The nemertean worm Carcinonemertes carcinophila commonly parasitizes C. sapidus, especially females and older crabs, although it has little adverse effect on the crab. A trematode that parasitizes C. sapidus is itself targeted by the hyperparasite Urosporidium crescens. The most harmful parasites may be the microsporidian Ameson michaelis, the amoeba Paramoeba perniciosa and the dinoflagellate Hematodinium perezi, which causes "bitter crab disease".
In 2021, scientists from the University of Maryland completed DNA sequencing on C. sapidus's genome in Baltimore after six years of research to help better understand the species. This genetic map is expected to help scientists understand how the blue crabs will be affected by climate change and warmer water temperatures, along with which mutations cause disease, traits that influence meat production, and which females have the best reproductive ability.


The Chesapeake Bay has had the largest blue crab harvest for more than a century. Maryland and Virginia are usually the top two Atlantic coast states in annual landings, followed by North Carolina. In 2013, crab landings were valued at $18.7 million from Maryland waters and $16.1 million from Virginia waters. Although crab populations are currently declining, blue crab fishing in Maryland and Virginia remains a livelihood for thousands of coastal residents. As of 2001, Maryland and Virginia collectively had 4,816 commercial crab license holders. Three separate licenses are required for each of the three major jurisdictional areas: Maryland, the Potomac River, and Virginia waters. While the Bay’s commercial sector lands the majority of hard crab landings and nearly all peeler or soft crab landings, the recreational fishery is also significant. In 2013, an estimated 1.8 million kilograms (3.9 million pounds) of blue crab were harvested recreationally.


Eggs of C. sapidus hatch in high-salinity waters of inlets, coastal waters, and mouths of rivers, and are carried to the ocean by ebb tides. During seven planktonic (zoeal) stages, blue crab larvae float near the surface and feed on microorganisms they encounter. After the eighth zoeal stage, larvae molt into megalopae. This larval form has small claws called chelipeds for grasping prey items. Megalopae selectively migrate upward in the water column as tides travel landward toward estuaries. Eventually, blue crabs arrive in brackish water, where they spend the majority of their lives. Chemical cues in estuarine water prompt metamorphosis to the juvenile phase, after which blue crabs appear similar to the adult form.
A blue crab grows by shedding its exoskeleton, or molting, to expose a new, larger exoskeleton. After it hardens, the new shell fills with body tissue. Shell hardening occurs most quickly in low-salinity water where high osmotic pressure allows the shell to become rigid soon after molting. Molting reflects only incremental growth, making age estimation difficult. For blue crabs, the number of molts in a lifetime is fixed at about 25. Females typically exhibit 18 molts after the larval stages, while postlarval males molt about 20 times. Male blue crabs tend to grow broader and have more accentuated lateral spines than females. Growth and molting are profoundly influenced by temperature and food availability. Higher temperatures and greater food resources decrease the period of time between molts, as well as the change in size during molts (molt increment). Salinity and disease also have subtle impacts on molting and growth rate. Molting occurs more rapidly in low-salinity environments. The high osmotic pressure gradient causes water to quickly diffuse into a soft, recently molted blue crab's shell, allowing it to harden more quickly. The effects of diseases and parasites on growth and molting are less well understood, but in many cases have been observed to reduce growth between molts. For example, mature female blue crabs infected with the parasitic rhizocephalan barnacle Loxothylacus texanus appear extremely stunted in growth when compared to uninfected mature females. Blue crabs may reach maturity within one year of hatching in the Gulf of Mexico, while Chesapeake Bay crabs may take up to 18 months to mature. As a result of different growth rates, commercial and recreational crabbing occur year-round in the Gulf of Mexico, while crabbing seasons are closed for colder parts of the year in northern states.


The mud snake (Farancia abacura) is a species of nonvenomous, semiaquatic, colubrid snake endemic to the southeastern United States.


The mud snake is mostly aquatic and nocturnal. It preys mostly on giant aquatic salamanders in the genera Siren and Amphiuma, but it also eats other amphibians. They are known to use their sharply pointed tails to prod prey items, leading to the nickname "stinging snake", although their tail is not a stinger and cannot sting. Enlarged teeth occur at the rear of the upper jaw, which presumably help to hold slippery prey. Upon being disturbed, mud snakes will sometimes tuck their head beneath their coils and expose the red underside on the tail as a warning display.


The mud snake is found in the southeastern United States, in the states of Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia.


The mud snake usually grows to a total length (including tail) of 40 to 54 inches (1-1.4 m), with the record total length being slightly over 80 inches (2 m).
This species is sexually dimorphic in size. Female adults are larger than males in total length.
The upperside of the mud snake is glossy black. The underside is red and black, and the red extends up the sides to form bars of reddish-pink. Although, some have a completely black body with slightly lighter black spots instead of the common reddish colors.
The heavy body is cylindrical in cross section, and the short tail has a terminal spine.
The head scalation is distinctive in that there is only one internasal scale, no preocular scale, and one anterior temporal scale. The dorsal scales are smooth, and are arranged in 19 rows at midbody. There are 168–208 ventral scales and 31–55 subcaudal scales. The anal plate is divided.


F. abacura inhabits the edges of streams and cypress swamps, among dense vegetation or under ground debris, using wet conditions to burrow itself into the mud. It is almost fully aquatic and rarely leaves the water, except to lay eggs, hibernate, or during drought to escape drying wetlands. It occupies aquatic habitats with freshwater or brackish waters.


Breeding of F. abacura takes place in the spring, mostly in the months of April and May. Eight weeks after mating, the female lays 4 to 111 eggs in a nest dug out of moist soil, sometimes in alligator nests. There is a positive correlation between body length and clutch size, with larger females having larger clutch sizes. She will remain with her eggs until they hatch, in the fall, usually September or October. Although unhatched eggs have not been found in the winter or spring, many juvenile mudsnakes are captured entering wetlands in the spring, most likely from clutches deposited and hatched in the preceding late summer or autumn. It is thought that mudsnake hatchlings either enter aquatic habitats in the autumn or delay entering them until the spring, but it is not known if they remain in a terrestrial nest or disperse into terrestrial habitats during this time.


The reindeer lichen is edible, but crunchy. It can be soaked with wood ashes to remove its bitterness, then added to milk or other dishes.
This lichen can be used in the making of aquavit, and is sometimes used as decoration in glass windows. The lichen is used as a traditional remedy for removal of kidney stones by the Monpa in the alpine regions of the West Kameng district of Eastern Himalaya. The Inland Dena'ina used reindeer lichen for food by crushing the dry lichen and then boiling it or soaking it in hot water until it becomes soft. They eat it plain or, preferably, mixed with berries, fish eggs, or lard. The Inland Dena'ina also boil reindeer lichen and drink the juice as a medicine for diarrhea. Acids present in lichens mean their consumption may cause an upset stomach, especially if not well cooked.
A study released in May 2011 claims that some species of lichens, including Cladonia rangiferina, are able to degrade the deadly prion implicated in transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) through the enzyme serine protease.
According to a study published in 2017, reindeer lichen was able to grow on burnt soil as soon as two years after a forest fire in Northern Sweden, indicating that artificial replanting of lichen could be a useful strategy for the restoration of reindeer pastures.


Thalli are fruticose, and extensively branched, with each branch usually dividing into three or four (sometimes two); the thicker branches are typically 1–1.5 millimetres (1⁄32–1⁄16 inch) in diameter. The color is grayish, whitish or brownish gray. C. rangiferina forms extensive mats up to 10 centimetres (4 in) tall. The branching is at a smaller angle than that of Cladonia portentosa. It lacks a well-defined cortex (a protective layer covering the thallus, analogous to the epidermis in plants), but rather, a loose layer of hyphae cover the photobionts. The photobiont associated with the reindeer lichen is Trebouxia irregularis.
It grows on humus, or on soil over rock. It is mainly found in the taiga and the tundra.
Reindeer lichen, like many lichens, is slow growing (3–11 millimetres or 1⁄8–3⁄8 inch per year) and may take decades to return once overgrazed, burned, trampled, or otherwise damaged.
A similar-looking but distinct species, also known by the common name "reindeer lichen", is Cladonia portentosa.


The common octopus (Octopus vulgaris) is a mollusc belonging to the class Cephalopoda. Octopus vulgaris is one of the most studied of all octopus species, and also one of the most intelligent. It is cosmopolitan, that is, a global species, which ranges from the eastern Atlantic, extends from the Mediterranean Sea and the southern coast of England, to the southern coast of South Africa. It also occurs off the Azores, Canary Islands, and Cape Verde Islands. The species is also common in the Western Atlantic. The common octopus hunts at dusk. Crabs, crayfish, and bivalve molluscs (two-shelled, such as cockles) are preferred, although the octopus eats almost anything it can catch. It is able to change colour to blend in with its surroundings, and is able to jump upon any unwary prey that strays across its path. Using its beak, it is able to break into the shells of shelled molluscs. Training experiments have shown the common octopus can distinguish the brightness, size, shape, and horizontal or vertical orientation of objects.


Octopus vulgaris grows to 25 cm (10 inches) in mantle length with arms up to 1 m (3.3 feet) long. It lives for 1–2 years and may weigh up to 9 kg (20 pounds). Mating may become cannibalistic. O. vulgaris is caught by bottom trawls on a huge scale off the northwestern coast of Africa. More than 20,000 tonnes (22,000 short tons) are harvested annually.
The common octopus hunts at dusk. Crabs, crayfish, and bivalve molluscs (such as cockles) are preferred, although the octopus eats almost anything it can catch. It is able to change colour to blend in with its surroundings, and is able to jump upon any unwary prey that strays across its path. Using its beak, it is able to break into the shells of shelled molluscs. It also possesses venom to subdue its prey.
They have evolved to have large nervous systems and brains. An individual has about 500 million neurons in its body, almost comparable to dogs. They are intelligent enough to distinguish brightness, navigate mazes, recognize individual people, learn how to unscrew a jar or raid lobster traps. They have also been observed keeping "gardens", in which they collect various marine plant life and algae, alongside collections of shells and rocks; this behavior may have inspired the 1969 Beatles title, "Octopus' Garden".  O. vulgaris was the first invertebrate animal protected by the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 in the UK.


The common octopus has world wide distribution in tropical, subtropical and temperate waters throughout the world. They prefer the floor of relatively shallow, rocky, coastal waters, often no deeper than 200 m (660 feet). Although they prefer around 36 grams per liter (0.0013 lb/cu in), salinity throughout their global habitat is found to be between roughly 30 and 45 grams per liter (0.0011 and 0.0016 lb/cu in). They are exposed to a wide variety of temperatures in their environments, but their preferred temperature ranges from about 15 to 16 °C (59 to 61 °F). In especially warm seasons, the octopus can often be found deeper than usual  to escape the warmer layers of water. In moving vertically throughout the water, the octopus is subjected to various pressures and temperatures, which affect the concentration of oxygen available in the water. This can be understood through Henry's law, which states that the concentration of a gas in a substance is proportional to pressure and solubility, which is influenced by temperature. These various discrepancies in oxygen availability introduce a requirement for regulation methods.
Primarily, the octopus situates itself in a shelter where a minimal amount of its body is presented to the external water. When it does move, most of the time it is along the ocean or sea floor, in which case the underside of the octopus is still obscured. This crawling increases metabolic demands greatly, requiring they increase their oxygen intake by roughly 2.4 times the amount required for a resting octopus. This increased demand is met by an increase in the stroke volume of the octopus' heart.
The octopus does sometimes swim throughout the water, exposing itself completely. In doing so, it uses a jet mechanism that involves creating a much higher pressure in its mantle cavity that allows it to propel itself through the water. As the common octopus' heart and gills are located within its mantle, this high pressure also constricts and puts constraints on the various vessels that are returning blood to the heart. Ultimately, this creates circulation issues and is not a sustainable form of transportation, as the octopus cannot attain an oxygen intake that can balance the metabolic demands of maximum exertion.


E. orbicularis eats a mixed diet of plants and animal matter that can increase the efficiency of its digestive process. It has been reported that an adult's diet starts from a carnivorous diet and progresses to a more herbivorous diet as it ages and grows in size. This is similar to other omnivore emydid turtles. As E. orbicularis grows in age and becomes an adult, the amount of plant material consumption increases during the post breeding period. E. orbicularis may prefer less energetic food after the breeding season, a period of time where most of its energy is spent to recover from reproduction.


E. orbicularis is found in southern and central Europe, West Asia and North Africa. In France, there are six large remaining populations, all deteriorating; it is the most endangered reptile of the country. In Switzerland, the European pond turtle was extinct at the beginning of the twentieth century and reintroduced since 2010.In the early post-glacial period, the European pond turtle had a much wider distribution, being found as far north as southern Sweden and the UK, where a reintroduction has been proposed by Celtic Reptile & Amphibian.
E. orbicularis prefers to live in wetlands surrounded by a large proportion of natural, wooded, landscape. It also feeds in upland environments. It is usually considered semi-aquatic, as its terrestrial movements can span 1 km (0.62 mi), and it is occasionally found travelling up to 4 km (2.5 mi), away from the water.


The European pond turtle is a medium-sized turtle, and its straight carapace length varies quite a bit across its geographic range, from 12 to 38 cm (4.7 to 15.0 in). The carapace is dark brown to blackish, with a hint of green. The head and legs are spotted with yellow. The plastron is yellowish.
An important factor that affects the development of E. orbicularis is temperature and thermal conditions. It has been reported that differential growth rates of the same species occur, including variation of body size and clutch size, because of varying temperatures in certain areas. Due to evident patterns of sexual dimorphism, E. orbicularis adult males are always found to be smaller than females. In males, smaller plastra offer them a wider mobility compared to females. In females, due to their differential diet and foraging habits, there may be a correlation to an adaptive effect on their skull and head morphology.


Climate has an effect on the survival of E. orbicularis hatchlings. Hatchlings are only able to survive under favorable weather conditions, but due to regular annual clutch sizes and long lifespan, E. orbicularis adults, along with many freshwater turtles, balance out loss of hatchlings due to climate.
The species E. orbicularis has become rare in most countries even though it is widely distributed in Europe. The building of roads and driving of cars through natural habitats is a possible factor that threatens the populations of the European pond turtle. Road networks and traffic often carry complex ecological effects to animal populations such as fragmenting natural habitats and creating barriers for animal movement. Mortality on the road is most likely due to females selecting nests near roads which places a potential danger for the hatchlings as well. Hatchlings that wander too closely to roads are more likely to be killed and put the future population in danger. Although the possibility of roads being a major causation for the mortality of E. orbicularis is a rare phenomenon, long-term monitoring is necessary.
Introduced exotic species such as Trachemys scripta scripta and T. s. elegans, known commonly as Florida turtles, also put in danger the native Emys species in many parts of Spain (and possibly in other parts of southern Europe), since these exotic turtles are bigger and heavier than the native pond turtles. The usual life span of E. orbicularis is 40–60 years. It can live over 100 years, but such longevity is rare.


Pycnopodia helianthoides, commonly known as the sunflower sea star, is a large sea star found in the northeast Pacific. The only species of its genus, it is among the largest sea stars in the world, with a maximum arm span of 1 m (3.3 ft). Adult sunflower sea stars usually have 16 to 24 limbs; their color can vary widely. They are predatory, feeding mostly on sea urchins, clams, snails, and other small invertebrates. Although the species had been widely distributed throughout the northeast Pacific, its population has rapidly declined since 2013.


Sunflower sea stars were once common in the northeast Pacific from Alaska to southern California, and were largest in Puget Sound, British Columbia, northern California, and southern Alaska. Between 2013–2015, the species underwent a rapid population decline due to sea star wasting disease, warmer water temperatures and abnormally high water temperatures caused by global climate change. The species disappeared from its habitats in the waters off the coast of California and Oregon, and saw its population reduced by 99.2% in the waters near Washington state. A team of ecologists using shallow water observations and deep offshore trawl surveys found declines of 80–100% from 2013 population levels across a 3,000 kilometer range. As of 2020, the species has been declared critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.
Sunflower sea stars generally inhabit low subtidal and intertidal areas rich in seaweed, kelp, sand, mud, shells, gravel, or rocky bottoms.They do not venture into high- and mid-tide areas because their body structure is heavy, and requires water to support it.


Sunflower sea stars are quick, efficient hunters, moving at a speed of 1 m/min (3.3 ft/min) using 15,000 tube feet which lie on the undersides of their bodies. They are commonly found around urchin barrens, as the sea urchin is a favorite food. They also eat clams, snails, abalone, sea cucumbers and other sea stars. In Monterey Bay, California, they will feed on dead or dying squid. Sea star appetites and favorite food can depend on environmental factors in their habitats, such as climate, amount of prey in the area, and latitude.
Although the sunflower sea star can greatly extend its mouth, for larger prey, the stomach can extend outside the mouth to digest prey, such as gastropods like abalone.
Easily stressed by predators such as large fish and other sea stars, they can shed arms to escape, which will grow back within a few weeks. They are preyed upon by the king crab.


Sunflower sea stars can grow to have an arm span of 1 m (3.3 ft) in diameter. They are the second-biggest sea star in the world, only second to the poorly known deep water Midgardia xandaros, whose arm span is 134 cm (53 in) and its body is 2.6 cm (roughly 1 inch) wide, although P. helianthoides is the largest known echinoderm by mass. Growth of the sea star begins rapidly, but slows as the animal ages. Researchers estimate a growth rate of 8 cm (3.1 in)/year in the first several years of life, and a rate of 2.5 cm (0.98 in)/year later.
Their color ranges from bright orange, yellow-red to brown, and sometimes purple, with soft, velvet-textured bodies and 5–24 arms with powerful suckers. Most sea star species have a mesh-like skeleton that protects their internal organs.


Since 2013, sunflower sea star populations have been in a rapid decline due to disease and changes in climate affecting sea star habitats. Efforts have been made to spread awareness of this issue. In 2020, the IUCN first assessed that the sunflower sea star was critically endangered. The Nature Conservancy and its partnered institutions, along with the University of Washington are working together to start the first captive breeding of sunflower sea stars in order to increase the population. Captive breeding efforts include seasonal reproduction of sea stars, the development of their larvae, and growth and feeding experiments for juvenile sea stars. On August 18, 2021, the Center for Biological Diversity created a petition asking that the sunflower sea star be protected under the Endangered Species Act.


The black rat originated in India and Southeast Asia, and spread to the Near East and Egypt, and then throughout the Roman Empire, reaching Great Britain as early as the 1st century AD. Europeans subsequently spread it throughout the world. The black rat is again largely confined to warmer areas, having been supplanted by the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) in cooler regions and urban areas. In addition to the brown rat being larger and more aggressive, the change from wooden structures and thatched roofs to bricked and tiled buildings favored the burrowing brown rats over the arboreal black rats. In addition, brown rats eat a wider variety of foods, and are more resistant to weather extremes.
Black rat populations can increase exponentially under certain circumstances, perhaps having to do with the timing of the fruiting of the bamboo plant, and cause devastation to the plantings of subsistence farmers; this phenomenon is known as mautam in parts of India.
Black rats are thought to have arrived in Australia with the First Fleet, and subsequently spread to many coastal regions in the country.
Black rats adapt to a wide range of habitats. In urban areas they are found around warehouses, residential buildings, and other human settlements. They are also found in agricultural areas, such as in barns and crop fields. In urban areas, they prefer to live in dry upper levels of buildings, so they are commonly found in wall cavities and false ceilings. In the wild, black rats live in cliffs, rocks, the ground, and trees. They are great climbers and prefer to live in palms and trees, such as pine trees. Their nests are typically spherical and made of shredded material, including sticks, leaves, other vegetation, and cloth. In the absence of palms or trees, they can burrow into the ground. Black rats are also found around fences, ponds, riverbanks, streams, and reservoirs.


Black rats are considered omnivores and eat a wide range of foods, including seeds, fruit, stems, leaves, fungi, and a variety of invertebrates and vertebrates. They are generalists, and thus not very specific in their food preferences, which is indicated by their tendency to feed on any meal provided for cows, swine, chickens, cats, and dogs. They are similar to the tree squirrel in their preference of fruits and nuts. They eat about 15 grams (0.53 oz) per day and drink about 15 millilitres (0.53 imp fl oz; 0.51 US fl oz) per day. Their diet is high in water content. They are a threat to many natural habitats because they feed on birds and insects. They are also a threat to many farmers, since they feed on a variety of agricultural-based crops, such as cereals, sugar cane, coconuts, cocoa, oranges, and coffee beans.


The black rat is prey to cats and owls in domestic settings. In less urban settings, rats are preyed on by weasels, foxes, and coyotes. These predators have little effect on the control of the black rat population because black rats are agile and fast climbers. In addition to agility, the black rat also uses its keen sense of hearing to detect danger and quickly evade mammalian and avian predators.


The black rat (Rattus rattus), also known as the roof rat, ship rat, or house rat, is a common long-tailed rodent of the stereotypical rat genus Rattus, in the subfamily Murinae. It likely originated in the Indian subcontinent, but is now found worldwide.
The black rat is black to light brown in colour with a lighter underside. It is a generalist omnivore and a serious pest to farmers because it feeds on a wide range of agricultural crops. It is sometimes kept as a pet. In parts of India, it is considered sacred and respected in the Karni Mata Temple in Deshnoke.


Anomia simplex is found throughout the year in shallow waters: typically estuaries, bays, or beaches, from the low tide water line all the way up to 30 feet deep.  Common jingle shells are found coexisting in oyster beds and mollusk shells as far north as the coast of Nova Scotia, and as far south as the coast of Brazil. Overall, Anomia simplex is densely populated on the Atlantic Coast of North America.
In terms of habitat, these bivalve mollusks attach themselves to hard objects in the water for structure, which can be other shells such as oyster beds and mollusk shells, or simply hard substrate such as a rock. The lower valve is responsible for anchoring the bivalve mollusk onto the substrate, in which it will spend the majority of its lifetime as a filter feeder.  Therefore, it is imperative for the bivalve mollusk to anchor itself to a prosperous and nutrient-rich environment in order to ensure the longevity of life.


Anomia simplex is a species of bivalve mollusk in which each valve is responsible for a set of specific tasks.  Moreover, the upper valve is convex and movable, often contributing to the filter-feeding quality of Anomia simplex which is achieved through their ciliated gills. On the other hand, the lower valve is concave and matches the curvature and irregularities of the hard substrate it has attached. Threads or finger-like projections, called byssus, are known for attaching themselves to an object, which protrude from the top of the lower valve through a extruded hole.
The process of anchoring to a hard substrate can be described as metamorphosis or settling, including a larval stage and ultimately leading to an anchored bivalve mollusk configuration.  Firstly, Anomia simplex larvae maturing and approaching metamorphosis drop to the bottom of shallow waters, and begin crawling through the use of a strong foot in order to find a hard substrate. Once the suitable substrate is found, the larvae bind to the structure through byssus filaments, which will then be calcified meaning a permanent bond is formed.  Lastly, anomia simplex will end metamorphosis by the development of well-structured gills, which aid in food absorption by the mollusk and will be the primary source of nutrients for the remainder of the lifetime of Anomia simplex.


Anomia simplex is a typical species of bivalve mollusk in the family of Anomiidae, similar to blue mussels, American oysters, and bay scallops. The family of Anomiidae ranges from saltwater clams to bivalve mollusks, which contains about 7 genera, including Anomia simplex. Anomiids are most closely recognized for their extremely thin, often translucent, paper-like shells, which can often be used to help manufacture glue, chalk, paints, and other materials. Despite the relatively thin and translucent shell, these shells are very strong and withstand many environmental pressures on hard substrates.
Anomia simplex have often been referred to as “common jingle shells,” “gold shells,” and even “Mermaid’s Toenails.” The origin of the nickname “common jingle shell” refers to the sound a collection or grouping of these shells will make when carried in a container and mixed around, producing a “jingle.”  Also, when several shells are strung together on a coast, they can produce their characteristic chime effect through wave action. Their relative abundance across various coastal regions suggests they are a common shell to come across, and therefore suggests the name of “common jingle shell.”
In terms of physical structure, Anomia simplex can reach up to 1-3 inches and are noted for the dissimilarity between the upper and lower valves of their bivalve conformation. The lower valve of Anomia simplex remains an off-white color, whereas the upper valve can range from shiny lemon yellow, golden, brown, silvery black, and pale buff. The characteristic iridescence of these common bivalve mollusks is retained even well after death.  Additionally, common jingle shells are very thin and their shells can range from roughly circular to broadly oval-shaped. Overall, the shell is often translucent, smooth, and displays various growth lines that can mirror the substrate on which they lived.


The common shiner can be found in cool clear creeks and small to medium rivers, usually in the faster pools near riffles and in the shallow littoral of ponds and lakes. They usually concentrate on pools. Its preferred water temperature is 21.9 °C.
The common shiner reaches sexual maturity by 1–2 years of age, and produces between 400 and 4000 eggs per year. Common shiners spawn in spring between May and June, at temperatures of 16-26 °C. Common shiners often spawn over the nest of a creek chub, river chub, or fallfish, although some males will make their own small nests. Gravel in riffles is also possible. Spawning males are territorial and will often engage in fights with other males. Once the eggs are ready the male guards the nesting site.
Common shiners are known to hybridize with other shiner species.
Common shiners live for about 4-6 years.


The common shiner (Luxilus cornutus) is a freshwater fish of the family Cyprinidae, found in North America. It ranges in length between 4 and 6 inches, although they can reach lengths of up to 8 inches.


The common shiner eats "terrestrial and aquatic insects, vegetation, and other fishes."


Predators of the common shiner include fish (such as the smallmouth bass and chain pickerel) and birds (i.e. mergansers and kingfishers).


Though native to East Asia from the tropics of Indochina to northern China, this species has established itself in North America.
The native range is from Southeast Asia to Japan and eastern Russia. This species is widely distributed in China including the Chinese Loess Plateau.


Species of the genus Cipangopaludina can be identified by their relatively large globose shells and concentrically marked opercula. The shell is conical and thin but solid, with a sharp apex and relatively higher spire and distant body whorl. This species has a small and round umbilicus and the spire is produced at an angle of 65–80°. Cipangopaludina chinensis exhibits light coloration as a juvenile and olive green, greenish brown, brown or reddish brown pigmentation as an adult. The inner coloration is white to pale blue.
The surface of the shell is smooth with clear growth lines. The shell has 6.0–7.0 whorls.
Bellamya chinensis is a large gastropod species generally 40 millimetres (1.6 in) in shell height and 30 millimetres (1.2 in) in shell width, the largest being 60 millimetres (2.4 in) in height and 40 millimetres (1.6 in) wide. The shell height can reach up to 65 millimetres (2.6 in). Cipangopaludina chinensis has a width to height ratio of 0.74–0.82.
The aperture is ovoid with a simple outer lip and inner lip.
In juveniles, the last shell whorl displays a distinct carina, and the shell contains grooves with 20 striae/mm between each groove. Juveniles also have a detailed pattern on their periostracum consisting of two apical and three body whorl rows of hairs with long hooks on the ends, distinct ridges and many other hairs with short hooks.
The shell of Cipangopaludina chinensis grows allometrically (the height increasing faster than the width) and does so at a decreased rate in comparison with Cipangopaludina japonica, such that the adult shell is less elongate than that of its congener. The radula also may differ between Cipangopaludina japonica and Cipangopaludina chinensis, but there is so much variation even within one species that it is not a good diagnostic characteristic. However, as a general guide, in one North American population, the radula of Cipangopaludina chinensis had seven small cusps on the marginal tooth and a large central cusp with four small cusps on either side.
Mystery snails (unlike apple snails) do not possess a siphon. They give live birth, and like all aquatic snails they only have one set of tentacles.


Freshwater drum are the only North American member of their family to exclusively inhabit freshwater (freshwater family members in genera Pachypops, Pachyurus, Petilipinnis and Plagioscion are from South America, while Boesemania is Asian). Their great distribution range goes as far north as the Hudson Bay, and reaches as far south as Guatemala. Their longitudinal distribution goes as far east as the eastern Appalachians and stretches as far west into Texas, Kansas, and Oklahoma. Freshwater drum are considered to be one of the most wide-ranging species in North America.


During the summer, freshwater drums move into warm, shallow water that is less than 33 ft (10 m) deep. The freshwater drum then spawn during a six to seven-week period from June through July when the water reaches a temperature of about 65 °F (18 °C). During the spawn, females release their eggs into the water column and males release their sperm. Fertilization is random. Males generally reach sexual maturity at four years, whereas females reach maturity at five or six years. Females from six to nine years old have a clutch size of 34,000 to 66,500 eggs and they spawn in open water giving no parental care to their larvae. The eggs then float to the top of the water column and hatch between two and four days. Due to the broadcasting of eggs in open water and lack of parental care, many eggs and larvae fall victim to predation upon hatching, the pro-larvae average 3.2 mm (0.13 in) long. The post-larval stage begins about 45 hours after hatching and a length of 4.4 mm (0.17 in) is attained.
Females grow at a faster rate than the males and adult characteristics start to form at a length of 15 mm (0.59 in). Females continue to outgrow the male throughout their lives reaching a length of 12 to 30 in (30 to 76 cm). Usually the freshwater drum weighs 2–10 lb (0.91–4.54 kg), but they can reach well over 36 lb (16 kg). Freshwater drums are long-lived and have attained maximum ages of 72 years old in Red Lakes, Minnesota and 32 years old in the Cahaba River, Alabama. Though they can reach very old age, the average age of a freshwater drum is between 6 and 13 years. In some cases, otoliths provide such a long record of growth that they can be studied using the same techniques as those used by dendochronologists.


The freshwater drum, Aplodinotus grunniens, is a fish endemic to North and Central America. It is the only species in the genus Aplodinotus, and is a member of the family Sciaenidae. It is the only North American member of the group that inhabits freshwater for its entire life. Its generic name, Aplodinotus, comes from Greek meaning "single back", and the specific epithet, grunniens, comes from a Latin word meaning "grunting". It is given to it because of the grunting noise that mature males make. This noise comes from a special set of muscles within the body cavity that vibrate against the swim bladder. The purpose of the grunting is unknown, but due to it being present in only mature males and during the spawning season, it is assumed to be linked to spawning.
The drum typically weighs  5–15 lb (2.3–6.8 kg). The world record was caught on Nickajack Lake in Tennessee, and weighed in at 54 lb 8 oz (24.7 kg). The freshwater drum is gray or silvery in turbid waters and more bronze or brown colored in clearer waters. It is a deep bodied fish with a divided dorsal fin consisting of 10 spines and 29–32 rays.
The freshwater drum is also called Russell fish, shepherd's pie, gray bass, Gasper goo, Gaspergou, gou, grunt, grunter, grinder, gooble gobble, and croaker. It is commonly known as sheephead and sunfish in parts of Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States.


The freshwater drum prefers clear water, but it is tolerant of turbid and murky water. They prefer the bottom to be clean sand and gravel substrates.
The diet of the freshwater drum is generally benthic and composed of macroinvertebrates (mainly aquatic insect larvae and bivalve mussels), as well as small fish in certain ecosystems.  Freshwater drum show distinct seasonal differences in their diet. In April and May, the drum feeds on dipterans. During these months, dipterans make up about 50 percent of the freshwater drum's diet.  In August through November, they tend to eat fish (which are primarily young-of-the-year gizzard shad). The percentage of fish in their diet at this time ranges from 52 to 94 percent. Other items in the drum's diet are mollusks and crayfish.
The freshwater drum competes with several organisms. During its early stages in Lake Erie, it has been shown to compete with yellow perch, the trout-perch, and the emerald shiner. During its adult lifetime, it competes with yellow perch and silver chub in deep water, and competes with black bass in the shoal areas.
Predators on drum include humans and other fish. During its first year, the freshwater drum serves as a forage fish for many species of predatory fish. These include smallmouth bass, walleye, and many other piscivores. After its first year, the primary predators on freshwater drum are humans. The drum is an important commercial crop on the Mississippi River, but in other areas it constitutes only a small portion of the commercial catch. Consistent with other sciaenids, freshwater drum are strongly nocturnal with the bulk of most catches being derived from night angling/sampling.  Commercial fisheries are present for this species, although market price tends to be quite low.  Thus, many freshwater drum are harvested as bycatch from targeted higher-value species.
There has been some research on the freshwater drum's impact on the invasive zebra mussel in northern lakes and rivers. Zebra mussels are consumed by freshwater drum once they reach a length of 25 cm (9.8 in), but drum under 35 cm (14 in) in length only eat small mussels and reject the larger ones. The fish larger than 35 cm (14 in) exhibit less selectivity and consume mussels relative to their availability in lakes. These larger fish are not restricted by their ability to crush zebra mussels, but they are restricted by the size of the clumps that they can remove. The drums' eating of zebra mussels contributes to a high mussel mortality, but not enough to have an impact on their spread, or control the population.


The fruit bodies of Dacryopinax spathularia are spatula-shaped, usually 1–1.5 cm (0.4–0.6 in) tall and between 0.5–3 mm wide. The color is orange when fresh, but it darkens to orangish-red when dry.  The spore deposit is white. Its spores are ellipsoid, smooth-surfaced, hyaline (translucent), and measure 7–10 by 3–4 μm. It has forked, four-spored basidia that are 25–35 by 3–5 μm.


The northern red-legged frog (Rana aurora) is a species of amphibian, whose range is the coastal region stretching from southwest British Columbia to southern Mendocino County in Northern California, and is protected in Oregon and California.  As a member of the genus Rana, this species is considered a true frog, with characteristic smooth skin and a narrow waist.  This frog requires still waters for breeding, and is rarely found at any great distance from its breeding ponds or marshes.
Northern red-legged frog adults may attain a length of 8 cm (3.1 in); they have dark facial masks and single characteristic light stripes along their jawlines.  The northern red-legged frog has long, powerful legs well adapted to jumping.  It is one of two amphibian species classified as red-legged frog, the other species being the California red-legged frog (Rana draytonii); however, the latter species is found from southern Mendocino County southerly to Baja California.


The still waters of ponds, marshes or stream pools are essential for northern red-legged frog breeding habitat; moreover, this species of frog is considered unusually highly oriented to its aquatic habitat, with a clear preference for thickly vegetated shoreline.  R. aurora requires cover, since it is subject to predation by various fishes, snakes, birds, mammals, and even certain other amphibians.  When this frog senses danger, it will quickly plunge to depths of one meter or more to seek safety in the benthic zone of a pond.
Adults leave the breeding pond soon after the breeding activity is concluded, and may migrate about one half kilometer to their summer locations, which are likely to be riparian zones.  In the northern part of their range, adults may hibernate.  Juveniles are slower to leave the breeding ponds, but also tend to find cover in riparian areas, and may readily migrate about one half kilometer by summertime.  Mature R. aurora specimens prey upon terrestrial insects, but will also take small snails and crustaceans; also, they will consume worms, tadpoles, small fish. and even small frogs of other species.  The tadpoles are herbivorous.


The northern red-legged frog is found in the Pacific Northwest, in western Oregon, western Washington and southwestern British Columbia, including Vancouver Island.  In California, its range includes every coastal county from southern Mendocino County northward. While it occurs primarily in the Northern California coastal mountain ranges, it is not found above an elevation of 1200 m.  It also occurs somewhat less commonly in the southern Cascade Range.


Males and females begin to move to the breeding sites as early as October, and sometimes as late as January, depending on latitude, cumulative rainfall for the season, and average temperature.  Typically, stable minimum temperatures of 42 to 44 °F (5.5 to 6.5 °C) are required to induce breeding. Observations of adult migration are best made on moonlit nights with light rains.  The male is thought to defend his territory, once he is in the breeding pond area, using nocturnal displays.  In fact, most activity is at night, especially enhanced by periods of light rain.  The actual courtship behaviors commence in January in the California part of the range, and as late as March in northerly regions.  In any case, the breeding season terminates in July at the latest, and earlier in the drier locales.
Each female produces 200 to 1100 eggs per season, and attaches the egg cluster to submerged vegetation or rotting logs, characteristically seven to 15 cm below the pond surface.  Egg clusters are typically about 10 cm in diameter, and may disperse into an irregular form underwater.  Eggs hatch in 39 to 45 days, and tadpoles require about 80 days to attain metamorphosis.
Oviposition generally takes place in densely vegetated, shallow portions of wetlands with little current, and in unusual cases, egg masses have been observed in water up to 500 cm in depth. Breeding sites can be either permanent or temporary, with inundation usually necessary into June for successful metamorphosis.  The June date is based on Oregon conditions; in Northern California, metamorphosis occurs in late May or early June.  Breeding is initiated when water temperatures exceed about 6°C (usually in January), but can be as late as March in the extreme northern part of the range.


Satellite tracking revealed the seals spend very little time on the surface, usually a few minutes for breathing. They dive repeatedly, each time for more than 20 minutes, to hunt their prey—squid and fish—at depths of 400 to 1,000 m (1,300 to 3,300 ft). They are the deepest diving air-breathing non-cetaceans and have been recorded at a maximum of 2,388 m (7,835 ft) in depth.
As for the duration, depth and sequence of dives, the southern elephant seal is the best performing seal. In many regards, they exceed even most cetaceans. These capabilities result from nonstandard physiological adaptations, common to marine mammals, but particularly developed in elephant seals. The coping strategy is based on increased oxygen storage and reduced oxygen consumption.
In the ocean, the seals apparently live alone. Most females dive in pelagic zones for foraging, while males dive in both pelagic and benthic zones. Individuals will return annually to the same hunting areas. Due to the inaccessibility of their deep-water foraging areas, no comprehensive information has been obtained about their dietary preferences, although some observation of hunting behavior and prey selection has occurred.
While hunting in the dark depths, elephant seals seem to locate their prey, at least in part, using vision; the bioluminescence of some prey animals can facilitate their capture. Elephant seals do not have a developed system of echolocation in the manner of cetaceans, but their vibrissae (facial whiskers), which are sensitive to vibrations, are assumed to play a role in search of food. When at the subantarctic or Antarctic coasts, the seals forage largely on deep-sea cephalopod species such as Psychroteuthis glacialis, Alluroteuthis antarcticus, Histeoteuthis eltaninae, Onykia ingens, Gonatus antarcticus. Martialia hyadesi and other molluscs, various fish species, including lanternfish (i.e. Electrona spp. and Gymnoscopelus spp.), nothothens (i.e. Genera Lepidonotothen, Pleuragramma, Trematomus, Pagothenia,), Channichthyidsae spp., Bathylagidae spp., krill (mostly Euphausia spp.) and other crustaceans, and even algae.


Weaned pups and juveniles may fall prey to orcas. Cases where weaned pups have been attacked and killed by leopard seals (Hydrurga leptonyx) and New Zealand sea lions (Phocarctos hookeri), exclusively small pups in the latter case, have been recorded. Great white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) have hunted elephant seals near Campbell Island, while bite marks from a southern sleeper shark (Somniosus antarcticus) have been found on surviving elephant seals in the Macquarie Islands.


The world population was estimated at 650,000 animals in the mid-1990s, and was estimated in 2005 at between 664,000 and 740,000 animals.
Studies have shown the existence of three geographic subpopulations, one in each of the three oceans.
Tracking studies have indicated the routes traveled by elephant seals, demonstrating their main feeding area is at the edge of the Antarctic continent. While elephant seals may come ashore in Antarctica occasionally to rest or to mate, they gather to breed in subantarctic locations.
The largest subpopulation is in the South Atlantic, with more than 400,000 individuals, including about 113,000 breeding females on South Georgia;
the other breeding colonies of the Atlantic subpopulation are located on the Falkland Islands and Valdes Peninsula in Argentina (the only continental breeding population).
The second subpopulation, in the south Indian Ocean, consists of up to 200,000 individuals, three-quarters of which breed in the Kerguelen Islands and the rest in the Crozet Islands, Marion and Prince Edward Islands, and Heard Island. Some individuals also breed on Amsterdam Island.
The third subpopulation of about 75,000 seals is found in the subantarctic islands of the Pacific Ocean south of Tasmania and New Zealand, mainly Macquarie Island.
Colonies once existed in Tasmania, Saint Helena, and the Juan Fernández Islands off the coast of Chile. Some individuals at the time of moulting have been found in South Africa, Australia or Uruguay. Lost animals have also been reported from time to time on the shores of Mauritius, with two reports from the Río Guayas estuary area in Ecuador and a beach in Lima, Peru. Reality of the creature so called Manatee of Helena had been pointed out as possible misidentification of elephant seals historically present on Saint Helena.
After the end of large-scale seal hunting in the 19th century, the southern elephant seal recovered to a sizable population in the 1950s; since then, an unexplained decline in the subpopulations of the Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean has occurred. The population now seems to be stable; the reasons for the fluctuation are unknown. Suggested explanations include a phenomenon of depression following a rapid demographic rebound that depletes vital resources, a change in climate, competition with other species whose numbers also varied, or even an adverse influence of scientific monitoring techniques.


The California kingsnake (Lampropeltis californiae) is a nonvenomous colubrid snake endemic to the western United States and northern Mexico, and is found in a variety of habitats. Due to ease of care and a wide range of color variations, the California kingsnake is one of the most popular snakes in captivity.


California kingsnakes are opportunistic feeders and common food items include rodents, birds, other reptiles and amphibians. The "king" in their name refers to their propensity to hunt and eat other snakes, including venomous rattlesnakes; California kingsnakes are naturally resistant to the venom of rattlesnakes. California kingsnakes are non-venomous and kill prey by constriction; they are the strongest constrictors proportionate to body size of any snakes. This adaptation may have evolved in response to the kingsnake's preferred reptilian prey, which needs less oxygen to survive an attack by constriction than mammalian prey items.


The California kingsnake is on average 2.5 to 3.5 feet long (76 – 107 cm) though they can grow larger; California kingsnakes on Islas Angel de la Guarda, Baja California, Mexico, have been documented growing to 78 inches (2 m). A wide range of color morphs exist in the wild; they are usually found with alternating dark and light bands ranging in color from black and white to brown and cream. Some populations may have longitudinal stripes instead of bands.


The California kingsnake is widespread along the West Coast of North America to elevations of approximately 6,100 ft (1,900 m) in the Tehachapi Mountains and to over 7,000 ft (2,100 m) in the southeastern Sierra Nevada Mountains. This species lives in a wide variety of habitats, including woodland chaparral, grassland, deserts, marshes, and even suburban areas. These snakes live in Oregon, California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, southwestern Colorado, northwestern New Mexico, and northwestern Mexico. In Arizona, they intergrade with the desert kingsnake (Lampropeltis splendida) and the Mexican black kingsnake (Lampropeltis getula nigrita). The species has also become invasive on the Spanish island of Gran Canaria.


The California kingsnake is an oviparous internal fertilization animal, meaning it lays eggs, as opposed to giving live birth like some other snakes.  Courtship for this kingsnake begins in the spring usually sometime after their hibernation or first shedding and involves the males competing for available females. In order to assert dominance when fighting another male, the California Kingsnake will get onto the other male and proceed biting the other snake. Their mating ritual begins by the male snake vibrating uncontrollably. Eggs are laid between May and August, which is generally 42–63 days after mating; in preparation the female will have chosen a suitable location. The typical clutch size is five to 12 eggs with an average of nine, though clutches of 20 or more eggs are known. The hatchlings usually emerge another 40–65 days later and are approximately eight to 13 inches in length. Adult California kingsnakes are most commonly 2.5–3.5 feet in length, and rarely exceed four feet.


The common cuttlefish or European common cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) is one of the largest and best-known cuttlefish species. They are a migratory species that spend the summer and spring inshore for spawning and then move to depths of 100 to 200m during autumn and winter. They grow to 49 cm in mantle length (ML) and 4 kg in weight. Animals from subtropical seas are smaller and rarely exceed 30 cm in ML.
The common cuttlefish is native to at least the Mediterranean Sea, North Sea, and Baltic Sea, although subspecies have been proposed as far south as South Africa. It lives on sand and mud seabeds and it can tolerate brackish water conditions.


During the day, most cuttlefish can be found buried below the substrate and fairly inactive. At night however, they are actively searching for prey and can ambush them from under the substrate. Cuttlefish are carnivorous and eat a variety of organisms including crustaceans (crabs and shrimp), small fish, molluscs (clams and snails), and sometimes other cuttlefish which is more commonly seen when the abundance of other prey is low.


Cuttlefish only have a lifespan of 1–2 years (captive and wild) and have many predators including sharks, dolphins, seals, fish, and cephalopods which includes other cuttlefish. They have many defensive mechanisms to help protect them from predators including a siphon which they can use to shoot water out of to propel them away from danger, ink which can distract and disorient a predator as the cuttlefish escapes, and their camouflage abilities which can help them avoid predators altogether.
A 2008 study on S. officinalis revealed that cuttlefish embryos, if visually exposed to a certain species of prey (e.g. crabs), will hunt primarily for that prey in later life. S. officinalis usually prefer shrimp to crabs, but when the embryos were exposed to crabs and the embryos had hatched, the young cuttlefish switched preferences and proceeded to hunt the crabs more often than the shrimp.


The silk produced by L. hesperus is strongly adhesive. The silk has a fiber at the center covered by some droplets of liquid adhesive protein. When rubbing against one's fingers, it feels like the texture of rubber. The droplets are about twenty times larger than the center fiber's diameter and are visible to the naked eye.
The ultimate strength and other physical properties of L. hesperus silk were found to be similar to the properties of silk from orb-weaving spiders. The ultimate strength for the three kinds of silk measured in the study was about 1000 MPa (145,000 psi). The ultimate strength reported in a previous study for Trichonephila edulis was 1290±160 MPa (188,00 psi). The ultimate strength of mild steel is about 800 MPa (116,000 psi).
L. hesperus produces three different types of silk: dragline silk, inner egg case silk, and scaffolding silk. Analysis of the amino acid composition of the various silks produced by L. hesperus show that both dragline silk and scaffolding silk are primarily composed of alanine and glycine, in fact neither cysteine nor methionine were detected at all in these silks. In the inner egg case silk, although alanine remained an abundant amino acid, its abundance was less so in this silk than the others.
L. hesperus' silk contains sexual pheromones which are perceived by the opposite sex upon contact with the web. The males are able to locate the female and begin courting behavior in response to female pheromones. The female curtails her predatory reflexes against the male in response to male pheromones.


Latrodectus hesperus can be found in western regions of North America. In Canada it can be found from British Columbia to Manitoba. They are most commonly found near the Canada-US border, as well less commonly throughout prairies regions of the Canadian Prairies in Western Canada.


L. hesperus frequently hangs upside down near center of the web and waits for any insects to enter the web to attack. It bites its victim then wraps it in silk. There are multiple aspects of this spider's web that serve the purpose of capturing prey. The web incorporates hanging gum-footed threads that have liquid glue on them. When prey come into contact with these threads, they get stuck to them, causing the thread to break and the prey to be propelled up by the web to an easy point of access for the spider. The web of L. hesperus also allows for locomotive action by the spider when attacking prey through a sheet of silk. In the months of May through October, there is a significant increase in the amount of prey caught by L. hesperus, presumably because these are the months in which the female produces her egg sacs, and in which the offspring are born and their survival is dependent on their mother's ability to feed them.


Latrodectus hesperus, the western black widow spider or western widow, is a venomous spider species found in western regions of North America. The female's body is 14–16 mm (1/2 in) in length and is black, often with an hourglass-shaped red mark on the lower abdomen. This "hourglass" mark can be yellow, and on rare occasions, white. The male of the species is around half this length and generally a tan color with lighter striping on the abdomen. The population was previously described as a subspecies of Latrodectus mactans and it is closely related to the northern species Latrodectus variolus. The species, as with others of the genus, build irregular or "messy" webs: unlike the spiral webs or the tunnel-shaped webs of other spiders, the strands of a Latrodectus web have no apparent organization.
Female black widows have potent venom containing a neurotoxin active against a range of mammals (see latrodectism). In humans, symptoms of this venom include pain, nausea, goosebumps, and localized sweating. In historical literature, fatalities were reported at anywhere between 0.5% and 12%, but studies within the past several decades have been unable to confirm any fatalities from this or any of the other U.S. species of Latrodectus (e.g. zero fatalities among 23,409 documented Latrodectus bites from 2000 through 2008). The female's consumption of the male after courtship, a cannibalistic and suicidal behavior observed in Latrodectus hasseltii (Australia's redback),
is rare in this species. Male western widows may breed several times during their relatively short lifespans. Males are known to show preference for mating with well-fed females over starved ones, taking cues from the females' webs.


Like other web-building spiders, L. hesperus  are polyphagous and feed on prey from eight different arthropod orders. In one study in British Columbia, the orders Coleoptera and Hymenoptera accounted for the majority of the spiders' prey; the majority of prey within Coleoptera were darkling beetles, weevils, and ground beetles, and the most common Hymenoptera were ants, wasps, and bumblebees. The peak activity of hymenopterans in this study was May through September in British Columbia, paralleling a spike in consumption by L. hesperus during these months.
L. hesperus is an “opportunistic cannibal.” There are three circumstances under which L. hesperus may feed on conspecifics: when alternative prey options are scarce; when a spider is starving; in self-defense during antagonistic bouts.


Amanita citrina (synonym Amanita mappa), commonly known as the false death cap or citron amanita, is a basidiomycotic mushroom, one of many in the genus Amanita. It grows in silicate soil in the summer and autumn months. It bears a pale yellow or sometimes white cap, with white stem, ring and volva. Though not deadly, it is inedible and often confused for the lethal death cap (Amanita phalloides).


This mushroom has a fleshy pale yellow, or sometimes white, cap from 4–10 cm (1.5–4 in) across, covered in irregular patches. The gills and flesh are white. There is a large volva at the base of the 6–8 cm (2.5–3 in) tall stem, which has a clear ring. It is often confused with the related death cap mushroom (Amanita phalloides), hence the name.


The stripey (Microcanthus strigatus), also known as the footballer or convict fish, is a species of ray-finned fish, a sea chub from the subfamily Microcanthinae which is part of the family Kyphosidae. It is native to the Pacific Ocean where it has a wide range. This species may be found in the aquarium trade.  It is the only known member of its genus.


The stripey occurs in coastal and lagoon reefs where during the day it forms dense schools which hide under ledges and in caves. It feeds on small crustaceans and algae. Juvenile stripets are often seen in tidal pools while the adults may be seen around man-made structures such as jetties and harbour walls. They may enter brackish water.


The stripey has a deep, compressed body which has a rounded back, it has a distinctive pattern of oblique black and yellow, sometimes white, stripes. The stripes extend onto the dorsal and anal fins, and there is a black stripe which runs from the forehead to just to the rear of the eye. The maximum total length is 16 centimetres (6.3 in).


If kept in a garden, these tortoises need a sizable warm, sunny, dry, well-drained area, with a diverse range of possible plant foods.
They naturally eat a wide variety of indigenous South African plants and, if kept in a garden, they require a similarly wide range of edible plants available, on which to feed. They will not stay healthy if fed only one food type, such as lettuce.
Plants marked with * are most important to diet.
Hibiscus (leaves and flowers)*
Mulberry (leaves)
Mackaya bella (flowers)*
White and blue Mazus*
Gazania krebsiana*
Barleria* (flowers)
Gerbera jamesonii (Barbeton daisy)
Dimorphotheca pluvialis (Cape daisy)
Dimorphotheca sinuata (Namaqualand daisy)
Arctotis (African daisy)
Portulaca*
Aeonium arboreum
Aeonium haworthii
Malvaviscus arboreus (fire-dart bush - flowers)*
Tradescantia (wandering Jew - all types)*
Aloe vera
Diascia
Mimulus
Cotyledon (most types)*
Painted lady*
Echeveria fimbriata*
Echeveria coccinea*
Echeveria elegans*
Lippia
Kalanchoe
Viola odorata (English violets not African)
Petunia*
Alyssum
Watercress
Endive
Russelia equisetiformis (flowers coral plant)*
Mesembryanthemum (ice plant)
Ledebouria*
Aeonium undulatum*
Indigenous hen and chicken
Callisia repens (golliwog)*
Albucalilly* (flowers)
Dichondra repens (wonderlawn)*
Grasses as for leopard tortoises:

Couch grass (Cynodon dactylon)
Eastern Province vlei grass (Eragrostis lehmanniana)
Dew grass (Eragrostis pseudo-obtusa)
Bushman grass (Schmidtia kalahariensis)
Carrot grass (Tragus racemosus)
Beesgras (Urochloa pantcoides)
Veld grass (Ehrhartacalycina)
Darnel rye grass (Lolium temulentum)
Barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli)
Mouse barley grass (Hordeum murinum)
Crab finger grass (Digitaria sanguinalis)
Dallas grass (Paspalum dilatatum)
Wintergrass (Poa annua)
Dropseed grass (Sporobolus africanus)
Kikiyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum)
Buffalo grass (Stenotaphrum secondatum)
Swazi grass (Digitaria swazilandensis)
Alfalfa (Lucerne)
Weeds: (* are most important)

Plantago major (Broad leafed plantain)*
Plantago lanceolata ( Buckhorn, narrow leafed plantain)*
Taraxacum officinale (Dandelion most important)*
Cnicus benedictus (Thistle)
Galinsoga parviflora (Small flowered quickweed)
Opuntia (most types)*
Rubus cuneifolius (Sand bramble)
Paperthorn
Tribulis terrestris (common dubbeltjie)*
Arctotheca calebdula (Cape marigold)
Trifolium repens (white clover) Note: becomes toxic when dry.
Cerastium capensi (Cape chickweed)*
Silybum marianum (Blessed milk thistle)
Commelina benghalensis (indigenous wandering Jew)*
Clover*
Unsuitable plants high in oxalates:

Sedum morganianum
Sedum frutescens
Aracea (arum lily)
Amaranthus (pigweed)
Begonia spp
Oxalis spp
Rheum rhabarbarum (rhubarb)
Crassulae spp
The Chenopodiacea family which includes beet greens, spinach and chard should be avoided as they contain oxalates.


There is considerable regional variation in this species of tortoise. Angulates from the west coast of southern Africa tend to have a reddish colour, especially on the underside of their shell (from where their Afrikaans name of rooipens or "red-belly" comes). Inland specimens from the Karoo region are often darker, and some are known to be uniformly black. To the east of their range, individuals are typically smaller and have a lighter colour. Such tendencies can be diluted by admixture however, and in all populations individuals tend to assume a uniform brown colour in old age.


Their natural habitat is the fynbos, karoo, albany thickets and coastal scrub (strandveld) vegetation of the south-western part of South Africa. This is an area of semi-arid and Mediterranean climate, with winter rainfall. Within this climatic range however, the angulate tortoise is a tough and very adaptable species.
Geographically, this natural range extends across the Cape Floristic Region, as far north as the southern part of Namibia. In addition, small colonies have been introduced by tourists to domestic gardens in Swakopmund and Walvis Bay, even further north, in central Namibia. To the east, its range extends along the Cape's southern coast as far as East London.
There is also an especially dense colony on Dassen Island, off the South African coast.
Throughout its range, this tortoise usually occurs in the greatest numbers near the coast. Inland it occurs at lesser densities, though smaller populations are even found in parts of the Karoo.
Within its natural range, the natural predators of the species include mongoose, jackals, badgers, baboons and predatory birds which attack the infants. Perhaps the largest killers of this species in its natural habitat are the periodic wildfires, which can kill hundreds of thousands at a time.
Due to human activity, it is also increasingly threatened by habitat destruction from agriculture and other development, as well as illegal collecting for the pet trade and deaths from tortoises crossing busy roads.
Human introduced species such as the pied crow kill thousands of infants every year, especially along the West Coast where this invasive species is rapidly spreading.


The Italian stream frog (Rana italica), also called the Italian frog, is a species of frog in the family Ranidae. The species is endemic to Italy and San Marino.


The natural habitats of R. italica are rivers, intermittent rivers, swamps, freshwater marshes, and intermittent freshwater marshes.


Adults of R. italica have a head-body length of 7–7.5 cm (2.8–3.0 in). The hind legs are long, but not extremely so. If the hind leg is pressed forward along the body, the "heel" (tibio-tarsal articulation) does not extend beyond the snout. There are pearly granules on the ventral surfaces of the hind legs.


Foothill yellow-legged frogs occur in the Coast Ranges from the Santiam River in Marion County, Oregon south to the San Gabriel River in Los Angeles County and along the west slopes of the Sierra/Cascade mountain ranges in most of central and northern California. Other isolated populations have been reported in the Baja California Norte, in southern California, and at Sutter Buttes in Butte County, California. The species is found at elevations ranging from sea level to 6,700 feet (2,000 m) in Baja California Norte. In California, foothill yellow-legged frog have been recorded in the Sierra as high as 6,000 feet (1,800 m) near McKesick Peak, Plumas National Forest and 6,365 feet (1,940 m) at Snow Mountain at the boundary of Lake and Colusa Counties. They are found in flowing streams and rivers with either rocky substrate or sunny banks.


The mating "ceremonies" begin in spring, when adult frogs congregate on sandy and/or rocky bars to mate. Previously believed to mate from March to May, recent experiments have shown the time to be closer to April to late June. High stream velocities, however, may dislodge R. boylii egg masses from oviposition substrates. Thus, R. boylii avoids rapid waters to protect the egg masses from being swept away. This technique is why the species has a long breeding season. If the conditions do not meet their standards, they refuse to mate and wait until the water velocities go back down to ideal.
For the foothill yellow-legged frog, oviposition, or the depositing of eggs, is somewhat sporadic because delays such as rains could cause problems such as unwanted removal of eggs. The males also perform mating calls mostly underwater, and those above the water are faint and hard to hear over 50 m. After the frogs have successfully mated, the egg masses are laid about 0.5 m attached to rocks underwater in streams and rivers with flow velocities ranging from 0.1 to 0.6 m³/second.
These egg masses can contain 100 to 1000 eggs in one batch, contained in a bluish gel that disappears once the eggs take on water, and the dark ovum, the center of egg, is covered by three jelly envelopes about 5.4 mm in diameter. Eggs hatch in about five to over thirty days depending on the temperature that the mass is at and the surrounding water. The tadpoles continue to stay associated with the egg mass for several days, and continue to need higher temperatures to grow quickly. By the time the tadpoles reach about 40 mm, roughly 1.5 in, they are adults and their reproductive organs are mostly functional. The frogs are usually fully developed by the summer after their first metamorphosis, though some begin breeding after six months.


The slender glass lizard (Ophisaurus attenuatus) is a legless lizard in the Glass Lizard subfamily (Anguinae) The species is endemic to the United States. Two subspecies are recognized. The lizard was originally believed to be a subspecies of the eastern glass lizard (Ophisaurus ventralis). Their name comes from their easily broken tail which they can break off themselves without ever being touched. It is difficult to find a specimen with an undamaged tail. The lizard eats a variety of insects and small animals, including smaller lizards. Snakes and other animals are known to prey on the species. Humans have a part in destroying their environment and killing their food supply with insecticides. The lizard is considered to be a least-concern species according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), though it is vulnerable in Iowa and endangered in Wisconsin. It is important to note that the streamlined, legless species is often confused with snakes. Glass Lizards, however, differ from snakes as they possess a moveable eyelid, which is absent in snakes. Another way to distinguish glass lizards from snakes is the presence of an external ear opening, which are absent in snakes.


Western slender glass lizard, O. a. attenuatus Baird in Cope, 1880
The western slender glass lizard reaches an average of 0.66 m (26 in). It can be found in woods or dry rocky hillsides, in grass or the burrows of small mammals. The species can easily camouflage itself in tall grass because of its color.
Eastern slender glass lizard, O. a. longicaudus McConkey, 1952
The males are larger than females with a longer head and tail. Males have more scales above their lateral fold and along the center of their back than females. Larger males have waxy white crossbars on their dorsum's anterior, which have an outline of black and are not present in smaller males and females.


Mating typically occurs biannually in May and they lay 5 to 15 oval eggs in late June or July. Eggs hatch 50–60 days after being laid and the mother then stays beside them throughout the incubation period. The eggs are laid under objects that can cover them including a log or a board. The eggs hatch after 53 days during August to October. Hatchlings are 10–13 cm (3.9–5.1 in) long and are difficult to find. Sexual maturity is attained at three or four years of age.


The mole snake can be "quite ferocious". Though not venomous, they can cause severe bite wounds. Despite this, they are said to make good pets when sufficiently settled.


The primary food source of P. cana is golden moles (hence the common name), rodents, and other small mammals. For this reason, it is considered useful for the natural control of problem rodents.
Its diet may also include the eggs of seafowl. At Robben Island, mole snakes were observed eating the eggs of Spheniscus demersus (African penguin), Larus hartlaubii (Harlaub's gull), and Numida meleagris (helmeted guinea-fowl). Juveniles were observed eating Strongylopus grayii (clicking stream frogs).
The mole snake is a nest predator of the Karoo prinia (Prinia maculosa). P. cana is one of at least six snake species which cause reproductive loss and decrease of nest success in P. maculosa.


The mole snake (Pseudaspis cana) is a species of snake. It has been placed in the family Lamprophiidae, and more recently in the family Pseudaspididae, along with the genus Pythonodipsas. It is native to much of southern Africa, and is the only member of the genus Pseudaspis. A study showed that P. cana is caught and consumed by the honey badger, among other species. Remains of the mole snake were found in the faeces, and suggest the consumed individuals were larger specimens.


The mole snake can grow to a total length (including tail) of 2 m (6 ft 7 in). A small head and pointed snout are characteristics of the species. It has a firm, tubular body. Like the majority of the Lamprophiidae, P. cana is not venomous.
In mature individuals, the body is mostly one colour, and may vary from yellow to brown to grey, and in some cases, solid black. The young have dark markings and spots that are gradually lost as the individual ages. Colour may be related to geography; in the south, most specimens are black, whereas specimens found in the northern part of their range are brown, reddish-brown, grey, or yellow.


The range of the mole snake encompasses most of southern Africa. P. cana is common in Kalahari Gemsbok National Park. It is widely distributed, with a range stretching from Angola in the north to Kenya in the east to South Africa.
The mole snake lives in the abandoned burrows of other animals. It can be found in a variety of habitats, such as the scrublands of the South African Cape and the Highveld plateaux and grasslands. It has also been found in mountainous and desert areas.


The mole snake is viviparous, mating takes place in late spring (October), and the female gives birth to usually between 25 and 50 young, with as many as 95 possible. The young snakes are 20 to 30 cm in length at birth.


The yellowtail snapper (Ocyurus chrysurus) is an abundant species of snapper native to the western Atlantic Ocean including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. Although they have been found as far north as Massachusetts, their normal range is along Florida south to the West Indies and Brazil. This species is mostly found around coral reefs, but may be found in other habitats. They occur at depths of from near the surface to 180 meters (590 ft), though mostly between 10 and 70 m (33 and 230 ft). This species can reach a length of 86.3 cm (34.0 in), though most do not exceed 40 cm (16 in). The greatest weight recorded for this species is 4.98 kg (11.0 lb). Yellowtail snapper is a commercially important species and has been farmed. It is sought as a game fish by recreational anglers and is a popular species for display in public aquaria. This species is the only known member of its genus.
In certain reefs, most notably in the Florida Keys, this beautifully colored fish is commonly spotted among divers and snorkelers.


Yellowtail snapper are native to the Western Atlantic Ocean. Though their range extends as far north as Massachusetts and as far south as southeastern Brazil, the species is most common in the Bahamas, off the coast of south Florida and throughout the Caribbean.
Natural predators of adult yellowtail snapper include large fishes such as barracuda, mackerel, grouper, sharks, and even other snapper species. Yellowtails feed on shrimp, crabs, worms, and smaller fish. They spawn in groups off the edges of reefs from spring to fall, but heavily in midsummer.


This species is endemic to the eastern North Pacific Ocean, from Humboldt Bay in northern California south to Panama. It is most common around southern California and the Baja Peninsula. They inhabit tropical to warm-temperate waters close to shore, usually less than 15 m deep, although they have been reported to a depth of at least 91 m. This species favors soft-bottomed habitats such as mud or sand, often with abundant eelgrass, which they use for camouflage. They also occur around rocky reefs.
Round stingrays prefer temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F); the adults are more tolerant of temperature changes than juveniles. They are most abundant in the coastal and bay waters of southern California from spring to fall. In winter, they move to deeper water where the temperature is more stable. Round stingrays have been observed congregating near the warm seawater effluent released by coastal electric generators, which may replicate the conditions of estuary environments.


Round stingrays frequently make their way into the aquarium trade and are well suited for captive life given their relatively small size and hardiness (if provided with a proper environment). An aquarium with very little aquascaping (rocks, decorations, etc.), a bed of fine substrate (fine sand as opposed to coarse sand and gravel), adequate filtration (given the messy feeding habits of rays), a secure lid or cover, much swimming area (long, wide tanks as opposed to tall, skinny ones), dim lighting, linear flow (aka. constant not chaotic flow), a total flow rate of 10+ the tank's volume per hour moving in a fashion similar to that of a whirl pool (with no areas of low flow in the tank), and a water temperature of in between 12 °C (53.6 °F) and 22 °C (71.6 °F) is suitable for this ray. Additionally, any protruding equipment in the aquarium like overflows should be surrounded by polyurethane foam barriers to prevent injury towards the ray and dissolved oxygen levels should be maintained at 7-8ppm (slightly more if ozone is used). Stray electrical currents and concentrations of metal in the tank water should be avoided meaning that copper should not be used as medicine on this ray. Feeding should be done with a feeding stick or long forceps seven times a week (preferably with food that does not contain thiaminase) to ensure the ray eats what is intended for it. Small individuals should be fed non fibrous foods like frozen Mysid shrimp, live Brine shrimp and Blackworms, and finely chopped Shrimp. Iodine should also be administered through water changes and/or Elasmobranch vitamins. If it is not administered, this ray can develop Goitre.
Unhealthy individuals will lose weight and have a seemingly hollow abdomen, become lethargic, have faded markings, and they will take on a light shade of gray. These individuals should not be purchased. When first introduced to a tank, Round stingrays may fast for a period of time. A good food source to get them eating is live food including Grass shrimp. After living within aquarium confines for a period of time, they will become relatively tame. Tankmates that should be avoided are Scorpionfish, Butterflyfish, large Angelfish (Pygoplites/Pomacanthus/Holacanthus), Filefish, Triggerfish, Pufferfish, Porcupinefish, certain Sharks (Ginglymostomatidae/Orectolobidae), large Crabs, Hermit crabs, and Sea anemones. These can all irritate or lead to the demise of a Round stingray in an aquarium. Round stingrays may also rest on top of/ knock over Corals which may sting the ray or get damaged so it is a poor choice for a Reef aquarium even though they do not consume corals. As a juvenile, the ray is also vulnerable to being consumed by Frogfish and large Groupers.
The Round stingray is most often collected from California's southern coast and this is probably how the Round stingray has earned the name California stingray in the aquarium trade. It also goes by several other names in the hobby including the Spotted stingray, Cortez ray, and Dwarf cortez ray. When it is sold under the last two names, it is often misidentified with the very similar Cortez round stingray (Urobatis maculatus). The two can be told apart because the Round stingray lacks the black spots the Cortez round stingray has on either side of its disk.
Round stingrays are also kept in some Public aquariums including the Aquarium of the Pacific in Long Beach, California where their tail spines are clipped off periodically so they are safe to touch until they grow back.


The round stingray has a nearly round pectoral fin disc usually colored brown or grayish brown above, with pale yellow spots or reticulations. Some individuals are plain or black. The underside is white to yellowish. The tail is short and stout, with a long, thick, serrated stinging spine. The teeth are small and diamond-shaped, and sexually dimorphic in that the central teeth of males are erect, sharply pointed, and curved inward. They attain a maximum pectoral fin disc width of 25 cm in males and 31 cm in females.
The tail spine is periodically shed and replaced; for most of the year round stingrays have only one spine, but at the beginning of July small secondary spines begin to appear. The number of rays with secondary spines increases to a peak around September and October, then declines as the primary spines fall off and are replaced. The replacement process is complete by December.


In nature, round stingrays strongly segregate by age and sex, with the females staying in water deeper than 14 m and males and juveniles in shallower habitat. The juveniles feed on polychaete worms and small benthic crabs until they are 14 cm across. As they mature, their diet shifts towards bivalve molluscs. Round stingrays are daytime foragers that are most active in the warm temperatures of summer and fall. Using their pectoral disc and mouths, they dig large pits to uncover buried prey. The digging of these pits plays an ecologically important role, as they also uncover prey for smaller fish.
In the northern part of its range, round stingrays are preyed upon by the northern elephant seal and the giant sea bass. Other predators include large sharks. Numerous parasites are known for the round stingray, comprising 40 species in approximately 19 families. External parasites include copepods and leeches, while 16 species of tapeworms are known from its digestive system, including Phyllobothrium hallericola n. sp. and Acanthobothrium olseni. Additional parasites that may be found in this ray's spiral valve intestine include Eimeria chollaensis sp. nov. and Rhinebothrium spp.
As with other stingrays, the round stingray reproduces through aplacental viviparity, bearing litters of 1-6 young with an average of 2-3. The litter size increases with female size. The gestation period is three months, with the young measuring 6–8 cm across at birth. The females are able to store sperm year-round. In southern California, the females move inshore to mate from April to June, with the young being born between June and October. Further south in the Gulf of California, females mate and give birth earlier, from late winter to spring. A portion of the population mate and give birth in winter, allowing for a second breeding season later that same year. After giving birth, the adult females move back into deeper water while the young remain in the shallows. Female round stingrays emit a localized positive electric field from near the spiracles behind each eye, which serves to attract males. The males will bite at the area, with successful contact necessary for copulation. Round stingrays grow at 3 cm per year until they reach maturity at around 31 months, at which time their growth rate slows.


The fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra) is a common species of salamander found in Europe.
It is black with yellow spots or stripes to a varying degree; some specimens can be nearly completely black while on others the yellow is dominant. Shades of red and orange may sometimes appear, either replacing or mixing with the yellow according to subspecies. This bright coloration is highly conspicuous and acts to deter predators by honest signalling of its toxicity (aposematism) Fire salamanders can have a very long lifespan; one specimen lived for more than 50 years in Museum Koenig, a German natural history museum.


Fire salamanders live in the forests of central Europe and are more common in hilly areas. They prefer deciduous forests since they like to hide in fallen leaves and around mossy tree trunks. They need small brooks or ponds with clean water in their habitat for the development of the larvae. Whether on land or in water, fire salamanders are inconspicuous. They spend much of their time hidden under wood or other objects. They are active in the evening and the night, but on rainy days they are active in the daytime as well.
The diet of the fire salamander consists of various insects, spiders, earthworms and slugs, but they also occasionally eat newts and young frogs. In captivity, they eat crickets, mealworms, waxworms and silkworm larvae. Small prey will be caught within the range of the vomerine teeth or by the posterior half of the tongue, to which the prey adheres. It weighs about 40 grams. The fire salamander is one of Europe's largest salamanders and  can grow to be 15–25 centimetres (5.9–9.8 in) long.


Yellow mud turtles are omnivorous. Their diet includes worms, crayfish, frogs, snails, fish, fairy shrimp, slugs,  leeches, tadpoles, and other aquatic insects and invertebrates. They also eat vegetation and dead and decaying matter.
Yellow mud turtles forage on land and water for food. In early spring their main diet is fairy shrimp they find in the shallows of their ponds. While they are burrowing, they will eat earthworms or grubs they encounter. Some studies show these turtles will eat earthworms that pass in front of them while hibernating. They also consume fish and other aquatic organisms.


Northeastern Mexico: Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas.
Midwestern and Southwestern United States: Arizona, Colorado, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas.
Its current presence is uncertain in Veracruz (Mexico) and Arkansas (United States).


Most female aquatic turtles excavate a nest in the soil near a water source, deposit their eggs and leave, but yellow mud turtles exhibit a pattern of parental care. They are the only turtle that has been observed that stays with the eggs for any period of time. The female lays a clutch of 1-9 eggs and stays with the eggs for a period of time of a few hours up to 38 days. It is believed that the female stays to keep the predators away from the eggs. It was also observed that the females would urinate on their nests in dry years. This is believed to aid in the hatch success rate of the eggs in dry years.
It is believed that in their natural habitat that spring rains induce the turtles to begin nesting. The eggs hatch in the fall and some hatchlings leave the nest and spend the winter in aquatic habitats, but most of the hatchlings burrow below the nest and wait until spring to emerge and then move to the water. This is believed to aid in survival rates of the hatchlings, because some water bodies freeze solid during the winter. Another benefit of waiting to emerge in the spring is that hatchlings enter an environment of increasing resources, such as heat, light, and food.


The yellow mud turtle can live for more than 40 years.


Chaetodon auriga is found in the Indo-Pacific region, from the Red Sea and eastern Africa (south to Mossel Bay, South Africa) to the Hawaiian, Marquesas and Ducie islands, north to southern Japan, south to Lord Howe Island and Rapa Iti, at depths of 1–35 metres (3–115 ft).


Chaetodon auriga is up to 23 centimetres (9 in) long. Its body is white with "chevron" markings on the side. Tear edge of the dorsal fin has a prominent black spot, and a prominent black vertical band runs through the eye. The rear of soft-dorsal fin has a trailing filament, and it has a belly patch of descending oblique dark lines as well as bright yellow fins. Two subspecies are sometimes recognised: Chaetodon auriga auriga occurs in the Red Sea population and lacks the dorsal eyespot; Chaetodon auriga setifer is the spotted population occurring outside the Red Sea.


The Caribbean hermit crab (Coenobita clypeatus), also known as the soldier crab,  West Atlantic crab,  tree crab, or purple pincher (due to the distinctive purple claw), is a species of land hermit crab native to the west Atlantic, Bahamas, Belize, southern Florida, Venezuela, the Virgin Islands, and the West Indies. Adults burrow and hide under the roots of large trees, and can be found a considerable distance inland. As with other terrestrial crabs, they use modified gills to breathe air. Their shells help maintain the humidity necessary for gas exchange to function.
Caribbean hermit crabs are both herbivorous and scavengers. In the wild, C. clypeatus feeds on animal and plant remains, overripe fruit, and faeces of other animals, including the Mona ground iguana, Cyclura stejnegeri. The West Indian top snail (Cittarium pica) shell is often used for its home, and the hermit crab can use its larger claw to cover the aperture of the shell for protection against predators. As with other species of hermit crabs, C. clypeatus may engage in "shell fights" and can emit a chirping noise when stressed. Typically, the Caribbean hermit crab's left claw is larger in size than its right claw and is purple in color. Female land hermit crabs release fertilized eggs into the ocean. The spawning (called "washing" in the English-speaking Caribbean) occurs on certain nights, usually around August.
This species is one of the two land hermit crabs commonly sold in the United States as pets, the other being the Ecuadorian hermit crab. C. clypeatus has been confirmed to live as long as 12 years, and some crab owners have claimed to have crabs live up to 40 years.


Ceratosoma amoenum is a common nudibranch found in the intertidal zones of temperate southern Australia and northern New Zealand. There have also been a few reported sightings off the coast of southern  Queensland.


Ceratosoma amoenum is known to feed on sponges. It has been seen feeding on sponges from the genus Semitaspongia and the species Dysidea fragilis. It sequesters metabolites from its prey as a defense mechanism.


This species has a white body which is elaborately patterned with orange and purple spots especially on the dorsum. The size of the spots varies according to range, with those individuals in New Zealand having the largest. There is some variation in the patterning of this species. The gills and rhinophores are crimson-white in color and both the rhinophores and the unbranched gills can be retracted into pockets. At the rear of the mantle there is a large concentration of mantle glands. This species reaches at least 60 mm in length.


Mexican Mud Turtles are omnivores. Some of the plants consumed include: Filamentous algae, grass seeds, guava seeds, etcetera. Some of the animals consumed include: Ants, wasps, bees, etcetera. It has been found that during the dry seasons, females tend to eat more plant matter than males.<ref>


Mexican mud turtle (Kinosternon integrum), is a species of mud turtle in the family Kinosternidae. Endemic to Mexico, it is found in Aguascalientes, Colima, Durango, Guanajuato, Guerrero, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Michoacán, México, Morelos, Nayarit, Oaxaca, Puebla, Queretaro, San Luis Potosí, Sinaloa, Sonora, Tamaulipas and Zacatecas, where they inhabit moist environments, such as shallow ponds, lakes, rivers or intermediate temp. tropical forest areas.


The Mexican mud turtle's nesting season lasts from early May to September, beginning just prior to the summer rainy season. A typical clutch size for each female is 2 to 4 eggs, but can range between 1 and 8. Another distinctive feature within the species is the nostrils on male and female turtles. The females have a more rounded nostril and the nostril is more brownish as to yellow like the male. The Mexican mud turtle is an organism that "bet hedges" meaning that its organism fitness varies depending on the condition it is in. When in a relaxed, every-day state, its fitness levels are low, however when stressed its fitness level increases. Bet hedging affects this organism's reproductive window as well, allowing it to only reproduce every two to three seasons.